CERAMICS

Introduction
Ceramics form an important part of materials group. Ceramics are compounds between
metallic and nonmetallic elements for which the inter-atomic bonds are either ionic or
predominantly covalent. The term ceramics comes from the Greek word koromikos which
means ‘burnt stuff’. Characteristic properties of ceramics are, in fact, optimized through
thermal treatments. They exhibit physical properties those are different from that of
metallic materials. Thus metallic materials, ceramics, and even polymers tend to
complement each other in service. An inorganic compound consisting of a metal (or semi-
metal) and one or more nonmetals
Important examples:
· Silica - silicon dioxide (SiO2), the main ingredient in most glass products
· Alumina - aluminum oxide (Al2O3), used in various applications from abrasives to
artificial bones
· More complex compounds such as hydrous aluminum silicate (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), the
main ingredient in most clay products.
Types and applications of ceramics

Ceramics greatly differ in their basic composition. The properties of ceramic materials
also vary greatly due to differences in bonding, and thus found a wide range of
engineering applications. Classification of ceramics based on their specific applications
and composition are two most important ways among many.
Based on their composition, ceramics are classified as:
· Oxides, Carbides, Nitrides, Sulfides, Fluorides, etc.
The other important classification of ceramics is based on their application, such as:
· Glasses,
· Clay products,
· Refractoriness,
· Abrasives,
· Cements,

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In general, ceramic materials used for engineering applications can be divided into two
groups: traditional ceramics, and the engineering ceramics. Typically, traditional ceramics
are made from three basic components: clay, silica (flint) and feldspar. For example bricks,
tiles and porcelain articles. However, engineering ceramics consist of highly pure
compounds of aluminum oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC) and silicon nitride (Si3N4).

Glasses: glasses are a familiar group of ceramics – containers, windows, mirrors, lenses,
etc. They are non-crystalline silicates containing other oxides, usually CaO, Na O, K O and
2 2

Al O which influence the glass properties and its color. Typical property of glasses that is
2 3

important in engineering applications is its response to heating. There is no definite

temperature at which the liquid transforms to a solid as with crystalline materials. A
specific temperature, known as glass transition temperature or fictive temperature is
defined based on viscosity above which material is named as super cooled liquid or liquid,
and below it is termed as glass.
Clay products: clay is the one of most widely used ceramic raw material. It is found in
great abundance and popular because of ease with which products are made. Clay products
are mainly two kinds – structural products (bricks, tiles, sewer pipes) and white-wares
(porcelain, chinaware, pottery, etc.).
Refractoriness: these are described by their capacity to withstand high temperatures
without melting or decomposing; and their inertness in severe environments. Thermal
insulation is also an important functionality of refractoriness.
Abrasive ceramics: these are used to grind, wear, or cut away other material. Thus the
prime requisite for this group of materials is hardness or wear resistance in addition to
high toughness. As they may also exposed to high temperatures, they need to exhibit some
refractoriness. Diamond, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide, silica sand, aluminum oxide /
corundum are some typical examples of abrasive ceramic materials.
Cements: cement, plaster of Paris and lime come under this group of ceramics. The
characteristic property of these materials is that when they are mixed with water, they
form slurry which sets subsequently and hardens finally. Thus it is possible to form
virtually any shape. They are also used as bonding phase, for example between
construction bricks.

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Advanced ceramics: these are newly developed and manufactured in limited range for
specific applications. Usually their electrical, magnetic and optical properties and
combination of properties are exploited. Typical applications: heat engines, ceramic
armors, electronic packaging, etc.

Characteristics of Ceramics

ØLow density compared to metals

ØHigh melting point or decomposition temperature

ØHigh hardness and very brittle

ØHigh elastic modulus and moderate strength

ØLow toughness

ØHigh electrical resistivity

ØLow thermal conductivity

ØHigh temperature wear resistance

ØThermal Shock resistance

ØHigh corrosion resistance

ØIn crystalline ceramics the crack propagation is usually through the grains (transgranular) and
along specific crystallographic (or cleavage) planes, which are planes of high atomic density
Applications

Aluminum oxide / Alumina (Al O ): it is one of most commonly used ceramic material. It
2 3

is used in many applications such as to contain molten metal, where material is operated at
very high temperatures under heavy loads, as insulators in spark plugs, and in some unique
applications such as dental and medical use. Chromium doped alumina is used for making
lasers.

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Aluminum Nitride: because of its typical properties such as good electrical insulation but
high thermal conductivity, it is used in many electronic applications such as in electrical
circuits operating at a high frequency. It is also suitable for integrated circuits.
Diamond (C): it is the hardest material known to available in nature. It has many
applications such as industrial abrasives, cutting tools, abrasion resistant coatings, etc. it is,
of course, also used in jewelry.
Lead Zirconium Titanate (PZT): it is the most widely used piezoelectric material, and is
used as gas igniters, ultrasound imaging, in underwater detectors.
Silica (SiO ): is an essential ingredient in many engineering ceramics, thus is the most
2

widely used ceramic material. Silica-based materials are used in thermal insulation,
abrasives, laboratory glassware, etc. it also found application in communications media as
integral part of optical fibers. Fine particles of silica are used in tires, paints, etc.
Silicon Carbide (SiC): it is known as one of best ceramic material for very high
temperature applications. It is used as coatings on other material for protection from
extreme temperatures. It is also used as abrasive material. It is used as reinforcement in
many metallic and ceramic based composites. It is a semiconductor and often used in high
temperature electronics. Silicon nitride (Si N ) has properties similar to those of SiC but is
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somewhat lower, and found applications in such as automotive and gas turbine engines.
Titanium Oxide (TiO2): it is mostly found as pigment in paints. It also forms part of certain

glass ceramics. It is used to making other ceramics like BaTiO .

3

Titanium Boride (TiB ): it exhibits great toughness properties and hence found
2

applications in armor production. It is also a good conductor of both electricity and heat.
Uranium Oxide (UO2): it is mainly used as nuclear reactor fuel. Dimensional stability

because its crystal structure can accommodate the products of fission process.
Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG, Y Al O ): it has main application in lasers (Nd-YAG
3 5 12

lasers).
Zirconia (ZrO2): it is also used in producing many other ceramic materials. It is also used
in making oxygen gas sensors, as additive in many electronic ceramics. Its single crystals
are part of jewelry.

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Mechanical Properties of Ceramics

· Very brittle in tension (brittle fracture limited energy absorption).

· Limited load carrying capacity.
· The strength of ceramic materials is strongly dependent on the processing
· Ceramics are usually much stronger in compression than in tension.
· Generally strength and modulus go up and down together.
· Crystalline phases are stronger.
· Ceramics tend to be rigid and brittle.
· Ceramics are often semi-crystalline.

Electrical properties of ceramics: The following electrical properties are characteristic

for ceramic materials:

· Insulating Properties
· Electrical Conductivity
· Dielectric Strength
· Dielectric Constant
· Semi-Conducting Properties
· Superconducting Properties
· Piezoelectric Properties
· Magnetic Properties

Insulating properties: In contrast to Metals Ceramics have very low electrical

conductivity due to Ionic-Covalent Bonding which does not form free electrons.

Electrical conductivity is ability of material to conduct electric current. The electrical

conductivities differ by a factor as large as 1012…1021 between metallic and ceramic
materials. Most of ceramic materials are dielectric (materials, having very low electric
conductivity, but supporting electrostatic field). Electrical conductivity of ceramics varies
with the frequency of field applied and also with temperature. This is due to the fact that
charge transport mechanisms are frequency dependent.

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Further, the activation energy needed for charge migration is achieved through thermal
energy and immobile charge career becomes mobile. The activation energy can be
calculated very easily using the Arrhenius relation.

Dielectric Strength: One of most important dielectric properties is Dielectric Strength –

ability of a material to prevent electron conductivity at high voltage. Dielectric strength is
determined as value of electric field strength (expressed in v/m) at which electron
conductivity breakdown occurs.

Dielectric Constant: Other important property of dielectric materials is Dielectric

Constant - relative (to vacuum) ability of a material to carry alternating current (dielectric
constant of vacuum equals to 1). Capacitance of a capacitor is directly proportional to the
dielectric constant of the dielectric material used in the capacitor. Dielectric ceramics are
used for manufacturing capacitors, insulators and resistors.

Semi-conducting properties: Ceramics based on ZnO may possess semi-conducting

properties when they are appropriately doped. The semi-conducting ceramics are usually
prepared by liquid phase sintering with control of grain boundary structure. Semi-
conducting ceramics are used for manufacturing varistors (resistors with non-linear
current-voltage characteristic, which are used for over-voltage protection) and Positive
Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Resistors.

Superconducting properties: Despite of very low electrical conductivity of most of the

ceramic materials, there are ceramics, possessing superconductivity properties (near-to-
zero electric resistivity). Lanthanum (yttrium)-barium-copper oxide ceramic may be
superconducting at temperature as high as 138 K. This critical temperature is much higher,
than superconductivity critical temperature of other superconductors (up to 30 K).

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Piezoelectric effects:

· Generating piezoelectric effect: Mechanical stress, applied between two surfaces

of a solid dielectric part, generates voltage between the surfaces.

· Motor piezoelectric effect: Voltage, applied between two surfaces of a solid

dielectric part, results in contracting (expanding) of the part.

Some ceramics (lead zirconate titanate, barium titanrate, bismuth titanate, lead magnesium
niobate) possess piezoelectric properties. Piezoelectric ceramics are used for
manufacturing various transducers, actuators and sensors like hydrophones, sonar, strain
gauges, medical ultrasound equipment.

Magnetic properties

Magnetic Ceramics are prepared by sintering technology from iron oxide and
barium/strontium carbonate with small amounts of other metal oxides. Magnetic Ceramics
are called Ferrites. There are two types of Magnetic Ceramics (Ferrites):

· Isotropic ceramic magnet with equal magnetic properties in all directions;

· Anisotropic ceramic magnets with magnetic properties in the direction of pressing.

Ferrites combine good magnetic properties (high magnetization) with very low electrical
conductivity. Low conductivity of ferrites allows reducing energy loss, caused by eddy
currents, induced in the material when it works in high frequency magnetic fields.
Therefore the widest field of application of ferrites is high frequency appliances: ferritic
antennas, speaker magnets, TV deflection-yoke cores and convergence coil cores, Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (MRI), audio-visual recording heads.

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Processing of Ceramics: Ceramics melt at high temperatures and they exhibit a brittle
behavior under tension. As a result, the conventional melting, casting and thermo-
mechanical processing routes are not suitable to process the polycrystalline ceramics.
Inorganic glasses, though, make use of lower melting temperatures due to formation of
eutectics. Hence, most ceramic products are made from ceramic powders through powder
processing starting with ceramic powders. The powder processing of ceramics is very close
to that of metals, powder metallurgy. However there is an important consideration in
ceramic-forming that is more prominent than in metal forming: it is dimensional tolerance.
Post forming shrinkage is much higher in ceramics processing because of the large
differential between the final density and the as-formed density. Glasses, however, are
produced by heating the raw materials to an elevated temperature above which melting
occurs. Most commercial glasses are of the silica-soda-lime variety, where silica is supplied
in form of common quartz sand, soda (Na2O) in form of soda ash (Na2CO3) while the lime
(CaO) is supplied in form of limestone (CaCO3). Different forming methods- pressing,
blowing, drawing and fiber forming- are widely in practice to fabricate glass products.
Thick glass objects such as plates and dishes are produced by pressing, while the blowing is
used to produce objects like jars, bottles and light bulbs. Drawing is used to form long
objects like tubes, rods, fibers, whiskers etc.

Pressing & Blowing Processes

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Pressing & Blowing Processes: Ceramic powder processing consists of powder
production by milling/grinding, followed by fabrication of green product, which is then
consolidated to obtain the final product. A powder is a collection of fine particles. Synthesis
of powder involves getting it ready for shaping by crushing, grinding, separating
impurities, blending different powders, drying to form soft agglomerates. Different
techniques such as compaction, tape casting, slip casting, injection molding and extrusion
are then used to convert processed powders into a desired shape to form what is known as
green ceramic. The green ceramic is then consolidated further using a high-temperature
treatment known as sintering or firing. As-mined raw materials are put through a milling
or grinding operation in which particle size is reduced to and physically ‘liberate’ the
minerals of interest from the rest of the ‘gangue’ material. Wet milling is much more
common with ceramic materials than with metals. The combination of dry powders with a
dispersant such as water is called slurry. Ball- and vibratory- milling is employed to further
reduce the size of minerals and to blend different powders.

Tape Casting Process: Ceramic powders prepared are shaped using number of
techniques, such as casting, compaction, extrusion/hydro-plastic forming, injection
molding. Tape casting, also known as doctor blade process, is used for the production of
thin ceramic tapes. In this technique slurry containing ceramic particles, solvent,
plasticizers, and binders is then made to flow under a blade and onto a plastic substrate.
The shear thinning slurry spreads under the blade. The tape is then dried using clean hot
air. Later-on the tape is subjected to binder burnout and sintering operations. Tape
thickness normally range between 0.1 and 2 mm. commercially important electronic
packages based on alumina substrates and barium titanate capacitors are made.

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Slip Casting: It is another casting technique widely used. This technique uses aqueous
slurry, also known as slip, of ceramic powder. The slip is poured into a plaster of Paris
(CaSO :2H O) mold. As the water from slurry begins to move out by capillary action, a thick
4 2

mass builds along the mold wall. When sufficient product thickness is built, the rest of the
slurry is poured out (drain casting). It is also possible to continue to pour more slurry in to
form a solid piece (solid casting).

Slip Casting

Extrusion Process: Extrusion and injection molding techniques are used to make products like
tubes, bricks, tiles etc. The basis for extrusion process is a viscous mixture of ceramic particles,
binder and other additives, which is fed through an extruder where a continuous shape of green
ceramic is produced. The product is cut to required lengths and then dried and sintered. Injection
molding of ceramics is similar to that of polymers. Ceramic powder is mixed with a plasticizer, a
thermoplastic polymer, and additives. Then the mixture is injected into a die with use of an
extruder. The polymer is then burnt off and the rest of the ceramic shape is sintered at suitable high
temperatures. Ceramic injection molding is suitable for producing complex shapes.

Injection Molding
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Most popular technique to produce relatively simple shapes of ceramic products in large
numbers is combination of compaction and sintering. For example: electronic ceramics,
magnetic ceramics, cutting tools, etc. Compaction process is used to make green ceramics
that have respectable strength and can be handled and machined. Time for compaction
process varies from within a minute to hours depending on the complexity and size of the
product. Basically compaction process involves applying equal pressure in all directions to
a mixture ceramic powder to increase its density. In some cases, compaction involves
application of pressure using oil/fluid at room temperatures, called cold iso-static pressing
(CIP). Then the green ceramic is sintered with or without pressure. CIP is used to achieve
higher ceramic density or where the compaction of more complex shapes is required. In
some instances, parts may be produced under conditions in which compaction and
sintering are conducted under pressure at elevated temperatures. This technique is known
as hot iso-static pressing (HIP), and is used for refractory and covalently bonded ceramics
that do not show good bonding characteristics under CIP. HIP is also used when close to
none porosity is the requirement. Another characteristic feature of HIP is high densities can
be achieved without appreciable grain growth.

Sintering is the firing process applied to green ceramics to increase its strength. Sintering is
carried out below the melting temperature thus no liquid phase presents during sintering.
However, for sintering to take place, the temperature must generally be maintained above
one-half the absolute melting point of the material. During sintering, the green ceramic
product shrinks and experiences a reduction in porosity. This leads to an improvement in
its mechanical integrity. These changes involve different mass transport mechanisms that
cause coalescence of powder particles into a more dense mass. With sintering, the grain
boundary and bulk atomic diffusion contribute to densification, surface diffusion and
evaporation condensation can cause grain growth, but do not cause densification. After
pressing, ceramic particles touch one another. During initial stages of sintering, necks form
along the contact regions between adjacent particles thus every interstice between
particles becomes a pore. The pore channels in the compact grow in size, resulting in a
significant increase in strength. With increase in sintering time, pores become smaller in
size.

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 PLASTICS

Plastics give us the possibility of manufacturing well-designed, beautiful products from the
very many different types of plastics materials that are commonly available today. Within
manufacturing technology there is a very high degree of technological understanding of
plastics and a range of sophisticated technological processes that enable us to make them
and shape them in numerous ways. The word plastic itself comes from the Greek word
plasticos, which means to be able to be shaped or molded by heat. As we will see, shaping
plastics by using heat is a basic part of nearly all plastics manufacturing processes. During
the 1920's plastics became an increasingly widespread material for use in the manufacture
of domestic products, including everything from manicure sets to ear trumpets and
fountain pens. In 1929 Raymond Loewy, the American industrial designer became famous
for using Bakelite to transform the old, mechanical looking Gestetner duplicator into a
sleek, streamlined product. Because of the way Bakelite was moulded, using compression
moulding techniques, the products made tended to have round or curved corners,
enhancing their streamlined effect. Loewy went on to use streamlining on many products –
from kitchen mixers to locomotives. Plastics can also be divided into categories:

Natural Plastics - these are naturally occurring materials that can be said to be plastics
because they can be shaped and molded by heat. An example of this is amber, which is a
form of fossilized pine tree resin and is often used in jeweler manufacture.

Semi synthetic plastics - these are made from naturally occurring materials that have
been modified or changed but mixing other materials with them. An example of this is
cellulose acetate, which is a reaction of cellulose fibre and acetic acid and is used to make
cinema film.

Synthetic Plastics - these are materials that are derived from breaking down, or ’cracking’
carbon based materials, usually crude oil, coal or gas, so that their molecular structure
changes. This is generally done in petrochemical refineries under heat and pressure, and is
the first of the manufacturing processes that is required to produce most of our present
day, commonly occurring plastics.

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Characteristics of Plastics/Polymers

Good combination of mechanical properties like Fatigue creep strength, stiffness,

toughness and resilience

Good abrasion resistance

Self lubricating characteristics

Suitable for prolonged, service temperature from - 400C to 1200C.

Good electrical insulator, but the electrical properties are influenced by moisture content

Resistance to fuels, oils, fats, most solvents and chemicals.

Low permeability to gas and vapors.

Non-toxic

Easy processable by conventional processing techniques like injection, extrusion, blow

and rotational moulding.

Applications

· Radiator grill, Instrument housings, Speedometer gears,

· Fuel, oil filter housing
· Electrical junction box, Head/Tail lamp housing ,
· Front fork bush, Steering column bush

Mechanical Properties of Polymers/Plastics

· Tensile
· Hardness
· Impact
· Creep

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 POLYMERS

‘Polymers’ is a general term for all plastic materials and means that they are organic,
carbon based compounds whose molecules are linked together in long chain patterns. Later
on in this book we will look more closely at the molecular structure of plastics so that we
can understand how we can make this work to our advantage when designing and making
things. When we talk about plastics in general we will call them polymers, and when we
talk about specific plastic materials we will give them their real names, such as nylon or
polythene.

History of Polymers: The three-part classification of polymers that we have just looked at
gives us an insight into the history of their use. Naturally occurring plastic materials can be
found in the forms of animal bones, horns, tortoise shells, the fossilized resin from pine
trees (amber), the albumen in egg, the sap from various tropical trees, and the wax from
bees, and many of these natural polymers are still in use today. Casein, derived from milk,
is still used to manufacture buttons. Bitumen is still used in surfacing roads and shellac,
which was used for early gramophone records, is still used in the production of wood
varnish. Shellac, which is produced by the lac beetle, was used by early Chinese cultures as
a varnish and as such is still in use. In the nineteenth century it was mixed with fillers and
moulded into brush backs, mirrors and picture frames.

Synthetic and semi synthetic plastics can be further divided into two other categories.
These two categories are defined by the ways in which different plastics react when heated.

Thermoplastics - these are plastics that can be softened and formed using heat, and when
cool, will take up the shape that they have been formed into. But if heat is reapplied they
will soften again. Examples of thermoplastics are acrylic and styrene, probably the most
common plastics found in school workshops.

Thermoplastics

•Thermoplastics have the simplest molecular structure, with chemically independent

macromolecules

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• By heating, they are softened or melted, then shaped, formed, welded, and solidified when
cooled.

• Multiple cycles of heating and cooling can be repeated without severe damage, allowing
reprocessing and recycling.

•Often some additives or fillers are added to the thermoplastic to improve specific
properties such as thermal or chemical stability, UV resistance, etc.

•Composites are obtained by using short, long or continuous fibres.

•Alloys of compatible thermoplastics allow applications to benefit from the attractive

properties of each polymer while masking their defects.

•Some thermoplastics are crosslinkable and are used industrially in their two forms,
thermoplastic and thermoset; for example, the polyethylenes or the vinylacetate-ethylene
copolymers (VAE) (the links created between the chains limit their mobility and
possibilities of relative displacement).

Advantages

•The softening or melting by heating allows welding and thermoforming.

• The processing cycles are very short because of the absence of the chemical reaction of
crosslinking.

• Processing is easier to monitor, because there is only a physical transformation.

• Thermoplastics don’t release gases or water vapor if they are correctly dried before
processing.

• The wastes are partially reusable as virgin matter because of the reversibility of the
physical softening or melting.

Disadvantages

• When the temperature rises, the modulus retention decreases, due to the absence of
chemical links between macromolecules.

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• For the same reason, the creep and relaxation behaviors are not as good as for the
thermosets.

• During a fire, fusibility favors dripping and annihilates final residual physical cohesion.

Thermosetting Plastics - these are plastics that soften when heated, and can be moulded
when soft, and when cool they will set into the moulded shape. But if heat is reapplied they
will not soften again, they are permanently in the shape that they have been moulded into.
Why this happens we will look at later. Examples of thermosetting plastics are polyester
resins used in glass reinforced plastics work, and melamine formaldehyde used in the
manufacture of Formica for kitchen work surfaces. Thermosets before hardening, like
thermoplastics, are independent macromolecules. But in their final state, after hardening,
they have a three-dimensional structure obtained by chemical crosslinking produced after
(spray-up moulding or filament winding) or during the processing (compression or
injection moulding, for example).

Advantages

• Infusibility: thermosets are degraded by heat without passing through the liquid state.
This improves some aspects of fire behaviour: except for particular cases, they do not drip
during a fire

• When the temperature increases the modulus retention is better,

• Better general creep behaviour,

Disadvantages

• The chemical reaction of crosslinking takes a considerable time that lengthens the
production cycles and, often, requires heating

• The processing is often more difficult to monitor,

• Certain polymers release gases, in particular water vapor.

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• The wastes are not reusable as virgin matter because of the irreversibility of the
hardening reaction. At best, they can be used like fillers after grinding.

• The infusibility prevents assembly by welding.

Plastics Usage

Packaging, Wrapping, bags, bottles, foams, shrink wrap, Textiles, Clothing, carpets, fabrics,
diapers, netting for sports, Furniture, Appliances, House wares, Telephones and other
communication equipment, computer housings and cabinets, luggage, seating, components
for washers, dryers, etc. Musical instruments, CDs, VCRs, TVs, cases. Construction:
Moldings, counter tops, sinks, flooring, cups, paints, etc.

Processing of Plastics

Polymeric materials are formed by quite many different techniques depending on (a)
whether the material is thermoplast or thermoset, (b) melting/degradation temperature,
(c) atmospheric stability, and (d) shape and intricacy of the product. Polymers are often
formed at elevated temperatures under pressure. Thermoplasts are formed above their
glass transition temperatures while applied pressure ensures that the product retain its
shape. Thermosets are formed in two stages – making liquid polymer, then molding it.
Because of the properties of polymers it is possible to mould them and change their shape
using a number of different repetitious manufacturing processes. The most important of
these are extrusion, injection moulding, blow moulding, vacuum forming, extrusion blow
moulding, rotational moulding, calendaring, foaming and compression moulding.

Extrusion: Extrusion is a process that can be compared to squeezing toothpaste out of a

tube. Thermoplastic granules are forced through a heated barrel and the fused polymer is
then squeezed through a die that is the profile of the extruded component. The extrusion is
cooled by water or air as it leaves the die and is finally cut to the required length. The shape
of the die can be varied from a simple hole with a centrally supported core to produce
tubes such as pipes, to very complex sections for curtain tracks or hollow window frames.

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Blow moulding: Blow moulding is a simple process where compressed air is introduced
underneath a warmed sheet of thermoplastic material forcing the material into a mould
cavity, or allowing it to expand freely into the shape of a hemisphere. It is a good way of
forming large domes, which when made out of clear acrylic sheet is often used in shop
displays.

Vacuum forming: This is a very common manufacturing process used, for example, to
make a range of plastics packaging. Think of the boxes sandwiches come in, or the inner in
a chocolate box, or your acrylic bath. It is really the opposite of blow moulding. Instead of
the warmed plastic sheet being forced into a mould by air pressure, in vacuum forming the

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air is drawn out from under the softened plastic sheet, so it is forced over or into a mould
by atmospheric pressure. Vacuum forming is a very common and effective way of
producing complex shapes in thermoplastic sheeting.

Extrusion Blow Moulding: This is a combination of extrusion and blow moulding and is
often used where the article to be made has a narrow neck, such as a bottle. The plastic
material is first extruded as a tube shape into an open die. The die is then closed to seal the
ends of the tube and air is blown in forcing the plastic tube to take up the shape of the die
cavity. As the material is extruded first and then blow moulded, the process is known as
extrusion blow moulding.

Injection Moulding: This process is one of the most common of all plastics manufacturing
processes. The polymer, in granule form, is heated until fused and forced into a closed
mould. Because of the viscous (thick, syrupy) nature of the fused polymer, very high

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pressures are needed to make it flow, which means that the machine and mould have to be
very strong to withstand the forces involved.

Calendering: Calendering is used to produce plastic sheeting and products such as floor
tiles, coated fabrics and coverings for car interiors. Fused thermoplastic is extruded on to
heated rotating rollers that squeeze the material into a continuous sheet or film. The film is
cooled by jets of air or water, before being cut to suitable lengths or loaded onto rolls.

Compression moulding: Compression moulding is one of the oldest manufacturing

technologies associated with plastics and was used in 1854, for example, by Samuel Peck to
make picture frames from shellac mixed with wood flour. The process is almost always
used with thermosetting plastics. A carefully weighed amount of thermosetting polymer is
placed into a preheated lower mould cavity. The mould is then closed by the placing of the
upper half and subjected to further heat, and pressure provided by a press, often of several

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hundred tons capacity. The pressure and heat causes polymerization and the flow of the
plasticized material within the mould. Raw thermoplastic materials containing fillers may
be compressed whilst cold into small blocks of predetermined weight called preforms.
Using preforms in compression moulds saves having to weigh out powdered material each
time the mould is filled and decreases the cycle time, as the preforms may be preheated.
A development of compression moulding is transfer moulding. In this process the
thermosetting polymer is first loaded into a heating chamber above the mould cavity and
allowed to polymerise. It is then squeezed through channels into the mould cavity by the
action of a powerful press.
Transfer moulding is used when complex mouldings are required and the polymer needs to
flow quickly around the mould cavity.
Many plastic articles have metal parts included within them during the moulding process.
These metal parts are called inserts, and may, for example, be in the form of captive nuts
used in conjunction with bolts to hold other parts of the final product assembly. The inserts
are placed in recesses in the lower mould either by hand or by using loading jigs before the
polymer is introduced into the mould. Compression and transfer moulding are
manufacturing techniques that lend themselves to the inclusion of moulded inserts. When
inserts are used the technique is often termed insert moulding.

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Failures in Plastics/Polymers
Mechanical Failure: If strong force (more than the yield strength of the material) is applied
to the plastic structure, it can lead to deformation of the structure.
Thermal Failure: Failure of plastic in extremely hot or cold environments is a common
phenomenon. Melting, twisting, or burning of plastic under high temperature causes the
material to deform. On the other hand, extreme cold temperature can cause the plastic to
get brittle.
Chemical Failure: Excessive exposure to any chemical can lead to plastic failure.
Environmental Failure: Unfriendly environmental factors such as heat, microbes, pollution,
UV rays, etc. can cause the plastic to deteriorate.
SMART MATERIALS
Smart material can exist in two phases at different temperatures: Austenite, which exists in
high temperature, and Martensite, which exists in low temperature. When the external
temperature or stress condition changes, these two phases will transform to the other
phase, depending on what change appears. Smart material exhibits many special
properties during the transformations between these two phases, such as shape memory
effect, superelasticity effect, and two way memory effects, etc.

The field of smart materials and structures is emerging rapidly with technological
innovations in engineering materials, sensors, actuators and image processing. Smartness
describes self-adaptability, self-sensing, memory, and multiple functionalities of the
materials or structures. These characteristics provide numerous possible applications for
these materials and structures in aerospace, manufacturing, civil infrastructure systems,
and biomechanics. Self-adaptation characteristics of smart structures are a great benefit
that utilizes the embedded adaptation of smart materials like shape memory alloys. By
changing their properties, smart materials can detect faults and cracks and therefore are
useful as a diagnostic tool. This characteristic can be utilized to activate the smart material
embedded in the host material in a proper way to compensate for t he fault. This
phenomenon is called self- repairing effect.

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Shape-changing smart materials include materials and products that are able to reversibly
change their shape and/or dimensions in response to one or more stimuli through external
influences, the effect of light, temperature, pressure, an electric or magnetic field, or a
chemical stimulus. Among these, there are materials and products that are able to change
their shape without changing their dimensions, and other materials and products that
retain their shape but change their dimensions. Some are also able to change both
parameters at the same time. The inherent properties of these smart materials depend on
the different principles behind their deformation. Depending on the distribution and
arrangement of the sensitive components and a basic geometric shape, changes may take
place in all dimensions to equal or unequal extents.
Smart materials that have a single active sensitive component generally expand or contract
evenly; the same applies to smart materials that are composed of a passive component, e.g.
the carrier material (matrix), and an evenly distributed active component. If on the other
hand the passive and active components are unevenly distributed, for example if two
differently sensitive components are arranged in layers one on top of the other, then the
material or product will deform on one side only The currently available shape-changing
materials can be differentiated according to their triggering stimuli as follows

· PHOTOSTRICTIVE SMART MATERIALS

Excited by the effect of light (electromagnetic energy).
· THERMOSTRICTIVE SMART MATERIALS
Excited by the effect of temperature (thermal energy).
· PIEZOELECTRIC SMART MATERIALS
Excited by the effect of pressure or tension (mechanical energy).
· ELECTROACTIVE SMART MATERIALS
Excited by the effect of an electric field (electrical energy).
· MAGNETOSTRICTIVE SMART MATERIALS
Excited by the effect of a magnetic field (magnetic energy).
· CHEMOSTRICTIVE SMART MATERIALS
Excited by the effect of a chemical environment (chemical energy).

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General Applications of Smart Materials:
· Aerospace
· Mass transit
· Marine
· Automotive
· Computers and other electronic devices
· Consumer goods applications
· Civil engineering
· Medical equipment applications
More Specific Applications

· Sensors built into aircraft will let maintenance people know when repairs or more
sophisticated inspections are required.

· Smart materials are beginning to play an important role in civil engineering designs
for dams, bridges, highways, and buildings. Are useful also to remove corrosion of a
Navy Pier and also engineers are introducing sheets of composites materials
containing sensors that will alert maintenance engineers to the need for repairs.

· Other important industry that are including Smart Materials they are working in a
project to develop smart car seats that can identify primary occupants and adapt to
their preferences for height, leg-room, back support, and so forth.

· Technology also exists to enable cars to tell owners how much air pressure tires
have, when oil changes are needed, and other maintenance information. Developing
solid state and smart materials technologies will bring costs down.

· Another important application is using the MR fluid .The MR damper developed at

the Intelligent Structures and Systems Lab uses the mixed mode configuration. The
MR damper has a built-in MR valve across which the MR fluid is forced.

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SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
Introduction: Overview of Active Materials

For centuries, metals have played an important role as structural materials. Techniques of
alloying, smelting, and forging have been evolving since the bronze and iron ages. With
advancements in science and technology, and a deeper understanding of the effects of
microstructure and processing techniques on the material behavior, the field of material
science has radically improved through the past decades. The capability to engineer
different material properties (mechanical, thermal, electrical, etc.) for a variety of
applications has enabled the development of new alloys and composites. The demand or
lighter, stronger materials with tailored properties that address both stringent structural
requirements and provide additional engineering functionality (e.g., sensing, actuation,
electromagnetic shielding) has spawned a new branch of materials called multifunctional
materials. A specialized subgroup of multifunctional materials exhibiting sensing and
actuation capabilities is known as active materials. In sensing, a mechanical signal is
converted into a non-mechanical output (e.g., voltage), while an actuator converts a non-
mechanical input (e.g., electrical power) into a mechanical output. Active materials in
general exhibit a mechanical response when subjected to a non-mechanical field (thermal,
electrical, magnetic, and optical, etc.).

The mechanical response of these materials is typically one or more orders of magnitude
greater than the response resulting from conventional material behavior such as thermal
expansion. Some examples of active materials include piezoelectric and electrostrictives
(coupling of mechanical with electric fields), piezomagnetics and magnetostrictives. The
unique characteristic behaviors of shape memory alloys such as the shape memory effect and
pseudo elasticity and discussed the underlying microstructures changes associated with such
behaviors.

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Shape Memory Alloys - A Brief History

The discovery of martensite in steels in the 1890s by Adolf Martens was a major step toward the
eventual discovery of shape memory alloys. The martensitic transformation was perhaps the
most widely studied metallurgical phenomenon during the early 1900s. The martensitic
transformation, as observed in the Fe-C system, was established as an irreversible process. The
concept of thermo elastic martensitic transformation, which explained the reversible
transformation of martensite, was introduced in 1949 by Kurdjumovand Khandros, based on
experimental observations of the thermally reversible martensitic structure in CuZn and CuAl
alloys. By 1953, the occurrence of thermo elastic martensitic transformation was demonstrated in
other alloys such as InTl and CuZn.

The reversible martensitic transformation and the alloys that exhibited them remained unutilized
until 1963. The breakthrough for engineering applications occurred with the discovery of NiTi
by Buehler and coworkers while investigating materials useful for heat shielding. It was noticed
that in addition to its good mechanical properties, comparable to some common engineering
metals, the material also possessed a shape recovery capability. Following this observation, the
term “NiTiNOL” was coined for this NiTi material in honor of its discovery at the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). The term Shape Memory Effect (SME) was given to the associated
shape recovery behavior. The discovery of Nitinol spearheaded active research interest into
SMAs. The effects of heat treatment, composition and microstructure were widely investigated
and began to be understood during this period. In 1965, studies showed that the addition of a
third alloying element such as Co or Fe to the existing NiTi system caused a dramatic
decrease in the SMA transformation temperatures. The new alloys inspired the first
commercial SMA application, known as Cryofit, where SMA material was used for pipe
couplings in F-14 fighter aircraft. The transformation temperatures for Cryofit were so low
that, to prevent actuation from occurring before the assembly, the pipe couplings were
transported in liquid nitrogen. The Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) represent a unique
material class exhibiting peculiar properties like the shape memory effect, the super
elasticity associated with damping capabilities, high corrosion and extraordinary fatigue
resistance.

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Shape Memory Effect

An SMA exhibits the shape memory effect (SME) when it is deformed while in the twinned
martensitic phase and then unloaded while at a temperature below As. When it is subsequently
heated above Af , the SMA will regain its original shape by transforming back into the parent
austenitic phase. The stress σ is the uniaxial stress on the specimen due to an applied load. The
corresponding strain ε is the change in the length of the specimen along the direction of applied
load, normalized by the original length.

Advantages:

1. Biocompatibility.
2. Diverse Fields of Application.
3. Good Mechanical Properties (strong, corrosion resistant)
4. Noiseless
5. Reliable
6. Durable
7. Corrosion Resistant
8. Space Saving
9. Weight Saving
10. Smooth, Life-Like Movement

Disadvantages:

1. Relatively expensive to manufacture

2. Have poor fatigue problem
3. Cannot survive for more cycles unlike a steel component manufacture and machine.
4. Poor fatigue properties compared to steel.
5. Weak when compared to Steel

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Applications

Active materials are quickly gaining the attention of engineers and scientists worldwide as more
emphasis is placed on both reliability and multi functionality. For the past several decades,
engineers and other designers in many fields have been developing ways to convert thermal
energy into mechanical work through the use of SMAs and apply these solutions to real-world
applications. One of the most well-known examples was the hydraulic tube coupling used on the
F-14 in 1971. Since then engineers in various industries have continued to use the unique
properties of SMAs in solving engineering problems. SMAs have attracted a great deal of
interest in various fields of application ranging from aerospace and naval to surgical instruments
[80], medical implants and fixtures. This section reviews some of the applications of SMAs in
these different fields.

1. Miniature Actuators
2. Medical
3. Steam Valves
4. Flap Adjusters for Airplanes
5. Root Canal Drills
6. Satellites
7. Piping
8. Automotive
9. Telecommunication
10. Robotics

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