Modular Arithmetic 1

CONTENT:

1. Revision of addition and subtraction of integers

2. Revision of multiplication and division of integers
3. Concept of modular arithmetic/Cyclic events

Revision of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of integers

Recall: Integers are counting whole numbers, either positive or negative. Examples 1, 5, 20, −1,
−5, etc.

These numbers can be added, subtracted, divided or multiplied.

(i) Addition of integers;

(a) 486 + 289 = 775

(b) −25 + (−78) = −103

(ii) Subtraction of integers;

(a) 582 − 328 = 254

(b) 902 − 437 = 465

(iii) Multiplication of integers;

(a) 181 × 42 = 7602

(b) 208 × 5 = 1040

(iv) Division of integers;

(a) 972 ÷ 27 = 97227=36

(b) 1008 ÷ 12 = 100812=84

Class Activity:

Solve the following:

1. 3092 + 216 + 1801 =

2. 2968 − 989 =

3. 318 × 2 =

4. 420 ÷ 12 =
The Concept of Modular Arithmetic

The word Modular implies consisting of separate parts or units which can be put together to form
something, often in different combinations.

Arithmetic the science of numbers involving adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing of
numbers

Modular Arithmetic is the type of arithmetic that is concerned with the remainder when an
integer is divided by a fixed non-zero integer. The word remainder as used in definition
practically refers to the excess in number, after full cycles have been completed.

Examples;

1. Reduce 65 to its simplest form in:

(a) modulo 3 (b) modulo 4 (c) modulo 5 (d) modulo 6

Solution

(a) 65 ÷ 3 = 21 remainder 2 ———- 65 = 2 (mod 3)

(b) 65 ÷ 4 = 16 remainder 1 ———- 65 = 1 (mod 4)

(c) 65 ÷ 5 = 13 remainder 0 ———- 65 = 0 (mod 5)

(d) 65 ÷ 6 = 10 remainder 5 ———- 65 = 5 (mod 6)

2. If 20 oranges are to be put into bags that can contain a maximum of eight oranges in each ,
calculate

(i) the number of bags that will be filled with the oranges.

(ii) the number of oranges in the bag with some space left.

Solution

20 = 2 × 8 + 4

(i) 2 bags will be filled with oranges

(ii) 4 oranges will be in the bag with space left

Class Activity:

1. Reduce 72 to its simplest form in

(a) Modulo 3

(b) Modulo 4
(c) Modulo 5

(d) Modulo 6

(e) Modulo 7

Cyclic Events: Cyclic means happening in cycles.

Just as you ride your bicycle, the wheel rotates from a point to another. There are events that
have constant ice day’s interval of three days, four, five or a week.

Examples: If ice cream is served every three days. If you are served on Thursday, the next
serving will be Thursday + 3 days = Sunday

Find the number which results from the following additions on the number cycle below of ice
cream

(a) 2 + 9 = 11

11 ÷ 3 = 3, remainder 2

∴2+9≡2

(b) Simply 3 + 4 in 4 cyclic events

17 ÷ 4 = 4, remainder 1

∴ 3 + 14 ≡ 1

Class Activity:

Use the number cycle 5 to simplify

(a) 1 + 6

(b) 2 + 32

(c) 3 + 35

PRACTICE EXERCISE

1. Thirty nine oranges are to be put into bags that have a capacity of 7 oranges. If the bags are to
be filled in turn, how many oranges would be required to fill the last bag. How many bags will
be needed to contain all the oranges?

2. State the quotient on division of

(i) 6 by 3

(ii) 15 by 7

3. Use the cyclic 4 to simplify the following

(i) 3 +13

(ii) 1 + 3

4. Reduce 35 to simplest form

(i) Module 3

(ii) Module 4

5. Arrange the days of the week, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and
Saturday on a circle using the number code 0 for Sunday, 1 for Monday, 2 for Tuesday , 3 for
Wednesday, 4 for Thursday, 5 for Friday and 6 for Saturday. If Thursday, which day will it to be
in,

(i) 5 day’s time

(ii) 10 day’s time

ASSIGNMENT

1. Arrange the days of the week, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and
Saturday on a circle using the number code 0 for Sunday, 1 for Monday, 2 for Tuesday , 3 for
Wednesday, 4 for Thursday, 5 for Friday and 6 for Saturday. If Thursday, which day will it to be
in,

(i) 7 day’s time

(ii) 39 day’s time

2. Use the cyclic 4 to simplify the following

(i) 0 + 12

(ii) 2 +32

3. State the quotient on division of

(i) 6 by 8

(ii) -13 by 5

(iii) 15 by -7

4. Reduce 35 to simplest form in

(i) Module 5

(ii) Module 6

5. Find the simplest form of the following in given moduli

(i) -5(mod 6)
(ii) -52(mod 11)

(iii) -75 (mod 7)

(iv) -50(mod 4)

KEYWORDS: Arithmetic, Modular ,cyclic, events e.t.c

Modular Arithmetic 2

CONTENT:

1. Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division operations in module arithmetic

2. Application to daily life

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION:

In modular arithmetic, addition and subtraction are symbolized by ⊕ and ⊖ respectively. In the
table we enter only the remainders when a pair of elements in the ⊕ on the set {0,1,2,3,4}
modulo 5

⊕01234
0 01234
1 12340
2 23401
3 34012
4 40123

Addition ⊕ in mod 5

1. Simplify Find 39 ⊕ 29(mod 6)

Solution: 39 ⊕ 29 = 68

= (6 × 11 + 2)

= 2(mod 6)

N.B 68 ÷ 6 = 11, remainder 2

= 2(mod 6)

2. Calculate the following in the given moduli

(a) 12 Θ 5(mod 4)
(b) 38 Θ 42(mod 7)

Solution:

(a) 12 Θ 5 = 7

7=4+3

= 3(mod 4)

(b) 38 Θ 42 = −4

−4 = −7 + 3

= 3(mod 7)

Class Activity:

1. Find the following additions modulo 5

(a) 3 ⊕ 9

(b) 65 ⊕ 32

(c) 41 ⊕ 52

(d) 8 ⊕ 17

2. Find the simplest positive form of each of the following numbers modulo 5

(a) −9

(b) −32

(c) −75

(d) −256

Multiplication of modulo

Examples: Evaluate the following modulo 4

(a) 2 ⊕ 2

(b) 5 ⊕ 7

(c) 6 ⊕ 73

Solution:

(a)2 ⊕ 2 = 4

= 4 + 0(mod 4)
= 0(mod 4)

(b) 5 ⊕ 7 = 35

=4×8+3

= 3(mod 4)

(c) 6⊕ 73 = 438

= 4 × 109 + 2

= 2(mod 4)

Class Activity:

Find the values in the moduli written beside them

(a) 16 ⊕ 7(mod 5)

(b) 21 ⊕ 18(mod 10)

(c) 8 ⊕ 25(mod 3)

(d) 27 ⊕ 4(mod 7)

(e) 80 ⊕ 29(mod 7)

DIVISION OF MODULO

Examples: Find the values of the following;

(a) 2 (÷) 3(mod 4)

(b) 7 (÷) 2(mod 5)

(c) 2 (÷) 2(mod 4)

Solution:

(a) If 2 (÷) 3 = x

⇒ \frac{2}{3} = \frac{x}{1}

Cross-multiply, 3x = 2

Add 4 to RHS

3x = 2 + 4(mod 4)

3x = 6(mod 4)

Divide both sides by 3

x = 2(mod 4)

(b) 7 (÷) 2 = x

\frac{7}{2} = \frac{x}{1}

2x = 7(mod 5)

2x = (5 × 1) + 2(mod 5)

2x = 2

x=1

(c) 2 (÷) 2 = x

\frac{2}{2} = \frac{x}{1}

2x = 2(mod 4)

Divide both sides by 2

x=1

Or

2x = 2 + 4(mod 4)

2x = 6(mod 4)

x = 3(mod 4)

N.B If 3 (÷) 2 = x, then 2x = 3

No multiple of 4 can be added to 3 to make it exactly divisible by 2. There are no values of 3 (÷)
2 in modulo 4.

Class Activity:

Calculate the following division in modulo 5

(a) 28 (÷) 7

(b) 29 (÷) 2

(c) 58 (÷) 4

(d) 74 (÷) 7

N.B: Educators should also solve various examples.

PRACTICE EXERCISES:
1. Copy and complete the table for addition (mod 5)

⊕01234
0 4
1
2 3
3
4 4

2. Copy and complete the table for subtraction (modulo 6)

⊖012345
0
1
2
3
4

3. Complete the multiplication modulo 5 in the table below

⊗012345
0 0000
1 0
2 0
3 0 1
4 1
5 0 0

4. Simplify the following

(i) 8 − 5 + 2 in mod 6

(ii) 5 × 4 ÷ 3 in mod 11

(iii) 6 × 13−1 + 5 × 7 in mod 12

(iv) 9 × (3 + 6) in mod 8

5. Evaluate 4 ÷ 3 in (mod 5)
APPLICATION OF MODULAR ARITHMETIC TO DAILY LIFE

Time plays crucial role in indicating how often events occur or qualities vary. Whenever the time
rate of occurrence of events is constant, the order of occurrence is repeated.

Lets consider these basic facts:

1. 1 rotation of hour of hand of the clock or record 12hrs (half day)

2. 1 rotation of the minute hand of the clock or watch record 60mins or 1hr
3. 1 rotation of the second hand of the clock or watch records 60 secs or 1 minute.
4. 1 rotation of 7days record 1 week
5. 1 rotation of 24 hours record is 1 day, etc.

Examples

1. If the hour hand of a clock is at 2:00 a.m. What time of the day will it indicate after 20
rotations

Solution

We apply mod 12 since the movement is that of the hour hand

We then have

0 hr ≡ the time at midnight

20 rotations ≡ 20 hours

but 20 ≡ 1 × 12 + 8

20 ≡ 8

Therefore the day is 8hrs from 2’0 clock into its second phase

The require time 2 + 8 = 10pm

2. The market in a village holds every 6days. If the current market is on Wednesday when will
the next market held?

Solution

We operate in mod 7

If 0 ≡ Sunday

The Wednesday ≡ day 3

Next market holds 6 days after

Total number of days from Sunday ≡ 9

9≡1×7+2
i.e 9 ≡ 2

the next market is 2 days after Sunday

therefore the expected market day is Tuesday

ASSIGNMENT:

1. Construct an addition table in mod 5. Use it to evaluate:

(i) 4 × 3 Hint: 3 × 2 = 3 × 3

(ii) 3 + 2

(iii) 4 + 3 + 3

2. The minute of a stop watch is 3. Where will it be if it were round

(i) 3 1/2 rotations clockwise?

(ii) 1/2 rotation anti-clockwise?

(iii) 2 1/2 rotations anti-clockwise?

3. Find the complete set of solutions to the following

(i) 4x ≡ 3 mod 7

(ii) x + 1 ≡ 3 mod 7

4. Dayo attends a sports club as a member every five days. If he made his fifteenth attendance on
a Thursday, when did he first attend the club as a member.

5. Construct an operation table for multiplication and another for addition in module 7

KEYWORDS: arithmetic, modular, cyclic, events, e.t.c

Quadratic Equation 1

CONTENT:

1. Revision of linear and quadratic expressions

2. Solution of quadratic expression of the form ab = 0, a = 0 or b = 0
3. Formation of quadratic equation with given roots

REVISION OF LINEAR AND QUADRATIC EXPRESSIONS

Any expression in which highest power of the unknown is 1 is called a linear expression. Some
examples of linear expressions are: (a) x + 1 (b) 2y + 3 (c) p = −1/2

In general, linear expressions are expressions of the form ax + b, where a & b are constants and x
is a variable.
A quadratic expression is that whose highest power of the unknown is 2. Examples are:

(a) x2 + 3x

(b) 2x2 − 6x + 10

Factorization of quadratic expressions:

Examples: (i) Factorize the following quadratic expressions

(a) x2 + 4x

(b) 2x2 − 8x

Solution:

(a) x2 + 4x

x is a common factor of the terms x2 and 4x. Hence x2 + 4x can be written as x. x2 + 4x. Isolating
common factors, we have, x(x2 + 4)

(b) 2x2 − 8x

The common factor of the terms 2x2 and 6x is 2x

∴ 2x2 − 8x can be written as 2x. x − 2x. 4, hence we obtain 2x(x − 4)

(ii) Factorize the following:

(a) x2 + 8x − 20

(b) 6a2 + 15a + 9

(c) 7 − 22x + 3x2

Solution:

(a) x2 + 8x − 20

Find the product of the first and last terms

x2 × (−20) = −20x2

Find two terms such that their product is −20x2 and their sum is +8x

Factors of −20x2 Sum of factors

(a) −20x and +x −19x
(b) +20x and −x +19x
(c) −10x and +2x −8x
(d) +10x and −2x +8x
(e) −5x and +4x −x
 Factors of −20x2 Sum of factors
(f) +5x and −4x +x

Of these, only (d) gives the required result. Replace +8x with +10x and −2x in the given
expression. Then factorize by grouping the terms.

x2 + 8x − 20

= x2 + 10x − 2x − 20

= x(x + 10) − 2(x + 10)

= (x + 10)(x − 2)

(b) 6a2 + 15a + 9, 3 is common factor, first take out the common factor.

3(2a2 + 5a + 3)

2a2 × 3 = 6a2

Factors of +6a2 Sum of factors

(a) +6a and +a +2a
(b) +3a and +2a +5a

6a2 + 15a + 9

= 3(2a2 + 5a + 3)

= 3(2a2 + 3a + 2a + 3)

= 3[a(2a + 3) + 1(2a + 3)]

= 3(2a + 3)(a + 1)

(c) 7 − 22x + 3x2 Find the product of the first and last terms i.e 7 × (+3x2 ) = +21x2

Find two terms such that their sum is −22x and their product is +21x2. Since the middle term is
negative, consider negative factors only. The terms are −21x and −x. Replace −22x with −21x
−x in the given expression.

7 − 22x + 3x2

= 7 − 21x − x + 3x2

= 7(1 − 3x) −x(1 − 3x)

= (1 − 3x)(7 − x)

Class Activity:
Factorize the following quadratic expressions

(i) 6a2 − 18a

(ii) 3x2y − xy2

(iii) x2 − 4x + 3

(iv) 1 − 3x + 2x2

(v) 3m2 + 5mn − 2n2

(vi) p2 − p + 1/4

(vii) x2 − 16

(viii) 25x2 − 1

SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC EXPRESSION OF THE FORM ab = 0, a = 0 OR b = 0

If the product of two numbers is 0, then one of the numbers (or possibly both of them) must be
zero. For example,

3 × 0 = 0, 0 × 5 = 0 and 0 × 0 = 0

In general, if a × b = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0 or both a and b are zero.

Examples 1. Solve the equation (x − 2)(x + 7) = 0

If (x − 2)(x + 7) = 0, the either (x − 2) = 0 or (x + 7) = 0

⇒ x = 2 or x = −7

2. Solve the equation a(a + 3) = 0

If a(a + 3) = 0, then either a = 0 or a + 3 = 0

⇒ a = 0 or a = −3

3. Solve the equations (i) (2m − 5)2 = 0 (ii) d(d − 4 )(d + 6)2 = 0

Solution:

(i) If (2m − 5)2 = 0

Then, (2m − 5)(2m − 5) = 0

(2m − 5) = 0 twice

⇒ m = 5/2 twice

(ii) If d(d − 4 )(d + 6)2 = 0, then any one of the four factors of LHS may be 0
i.e. d = 0, d − 4 = 0, (d + 6)2 = 0

⇒ d = 0, d = 4, or d = −6 twice

Class Activity:

Solve the following equations:

(i) (a – 3)(a + 5) = 0

(ii) 2y (y – \frac{1}{3}) = 0

(iii) (m – \frac{2}{3})^2 (m -1) = 0

(iv) x^2 (x + 5)(x – 5) = 0

(v) (8 -v)(8 -v)

FORMATION OF QUADRATIC EQUATION WITH GIVEN ROOTS

The roots of a quadratic equation are the solutions of that equation. Suppose the roots of a
quadratic equation in x are a and b, then we can write; x = a and x = b

Examples; (1) Find the quadratic equation whose roots are −2 and +2

Solution:

Let x = −2 or x = 2, then

x + 2 = 0 or x − 2 = 0

(x + 2)(x − 2) = 0

On careful expansion, we obtain x2 − 4 = 0

Find the quadratic equation whose roots are 2 \frac{1}{2} \text{ and } -1

Solution: If the roots are 2 \frac{1}{2} \text{ and } -1

Let x = 2\frac{1}{2} \text{ and } x = -1 \\ x = \frac{5}{2} \text{ and } x = -1 \\ 2x = 5 \text{

and } x = -1 2x - 5 = 0 \text{ or } x + 1 = 0

⇒ (2x - 5)(x + 1) = 0 \\ 2x^2 + 2x - 5x -5 = 0 \\ 2x^2 - 3x -5 = 0

Factorization of Quadratic Equations
Factorization of quadratic equations is the part of finding the roots of a quadratic equation.
Factoring quadratic equations means converting the given quadratic expression into the product
of two linear factors. Before understanding the factorization of quadratic equations, let’s recall
what is a quadratic equation and its standard form. When a quadratic polynomial equates to 0, we
get the quadratic equation. If ax2 + bx + c is the quadratic polynomial, ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the
quadratic equation, where a, b, c are real numbers such that a ≠ 0. As the degree of quadratic
equation 2, it contains two roots. In this article, you will learn the methods of solving quadratic
equations by factoring, as well as examples with solutions.

Factorization Method of Quadratic Equations

Factorization of quadratic equations can be done in different methods. They are:

 Splitting the middle term

 Using formula
 Using Quadratic formula
 Using algebraic identities
Let’s understand how to factor the given quadratic equation using all these methods.

Factorization of Quadratic Equation by Splitting the Middle term

Step 1: Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Step 2: Now, find two numbers such that their product is equal to ac and sum equals to b.
(number 1)(number 2) = ac
(number 1) + (number 2) = b
Step 3: Now, split the middle term using these two numbers,
ax2 + (number 1)x + (number 2)x + c = 0
Step 4: Take the common factors out and simplify.
Let’s have a look at the example problem given below:

Question: Solve the quadratic equation x2 + 7x + 10 = 0 by splitting the middle term.

Solution:
Given,
x2 + 7x + 10 = 0
Here, a = 1, b = 7, c = 10
ac = (1)(10) = 10
Factors of 10: 1, 2, 5, 10
Let’s identify two factors such that their sum is 7 and the product is 10.
Sum of two factors = 7 = 2 + 5
Product of these two factors = (2)(5) = 10
Now, split the middle term.
x2 + 2x + 5x + 10 = 0
Take the common terms and simplify.
x(x + 2) + 5(x + 2) = 0
(x + 5)(x + 2) = 0
Thus, (x + 2) and (x + 5) are the factors of the given quadratic equation.
Solving these two linear factors, we get x = -2, -5 as roots.
Factoring Quadratic Equation using Formula
This method is almost similar to the method of splitting the middle term.
Step 1: Consider the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0
Step 2: Now, find two numbers such that their product is equal to ac and sum equals to b.
(number 1)(number 2) = ac
(number 1) + (number 2) = b
Step 3: Substitute these two numbers in the formula given below:
(1/a) [ax + (number 1)] [ax + (number 2)] = 0
Step 4: Finally simplify the above equation.
Go through the example given below to understand the above method in a better way.

Question: Factorize 3x2 + 7x + 4 = 0

Solution:
3x2 + 7x + 4 = 0
Here, a = 3, b = 7, c = 4
ac = (3)(4) = 12
Let’s identify two numbers such that their sum is 7 and the product is 12.
Factors of 12: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
Sum of two factors = 7
Product of those two factors = 12
Number 1 = 3 and number 2 = 4
Now, substitute these two numbers in the formula (1/a) [ax + (number 1)] [ax + (number 2)] = 0.
(⅓) (3x + 3)(3x + 4) = 0
(3x + 3)(3x + 4) = 0
3(x + 1)(3x + 4) = 0
(x + 1)(3x + 4) = 0
Thus, (x + 1) and (3x + 4) are the factors of the given quadratic equation.
By solving these, we get x = -1, -4/3 as roots.

Factoring Quadratic Equation using Quadratic Formula

Suppose p and q are the factors of a quadratic equation in x, then (x – p) and (x – q) will be the
factors of it. Keeping this in mind, we can factorize the quadratic equation using the quadratic
formula. Using the quadratic formula, we can get the roots of a quadratic equation, and using
these roots we can write the factors.
Quadratic formula to get the roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is given by:
x = [-b ± √(b2 – 4ac)]/ 2a
Substituting the values of a, b, c and simplifying the expression, we get the values of roots.
This can be better understood with the help of an example given below:

Question: Factorize x2 + 4x – 21 = 0 using quadratic formula.

Solution:
Given,
x2 + 4x – 21 = 0
Here, a = 1, b = 4, c = -21
b2 – 4ac = (4)2 – 4(1)(-21) = 16 + 84 = 100
Substituting these values in the quadratic formula, we get;
x = [-4 ± √100]/ 2(1)
= (-4 ± 10)/2
x = (-4 + 10)/2, x = (-4 – 10)/2
x = 6/2, x = -14/2
x = 3, x = -7
Therefore, the factors of the given quadratic equation are (x – 3) and (x + 7).

Factoring Quadratic Equations using Algebraic Identities

Two algebraic identities can be applied to factor the given quadratic equation. This method can
be applied only when the LHS of the given quadratic equation is in the form a2 + 2ab + b2 or a2 –
2ab + b2.
We know that:

 a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b)

 a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2 = (a – b)(a – b)
 a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)
Below are the solved examples of factoring the quadratic equation using identities.

Factorize: x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 Factorize: x2 – 10x + 25 = 0 Factorize: 9x2 – 16 = 0

x2 + 6x + 9 = 0 x2 – 10x + 25 = 0 9x2 – 16 = 0
This can be written as: This can be written as: This can be written as:
(1x)2 + 2(1)(3)x + (3)2 = 0 (1x)2 – 2(1)(5)x + (5)2 = 0 (3x)2 – (4)2 = 0
LHS is of the form a2 + 2ab + b2, LHS is of the form a2 – 2ab + b2, LHS is of the form a2 – b2,
⇒ (x + 3)2 = 0 ⇒ (x – 5)2 = 0 ⇒ (3x + 4)(3x – 4) = 0
Or Or Factors are (3x + 4) and (3x – 4).
(x + 3)(x + 3) = 0 (x – 5)(x – 5) = 0
Factors are (x + 3) and (x + 3). Factors are (x – 5) and (x – 5).

KEYWORDS: EXPRESSION, EQUATION, QUADRATIC, LINEAR, ROOTS

 

Quadratic Equation 2

CONTENT:

1. Revision of linear graph and drawing quadratic graph

2. Obtaining roots from a quadratic graph
3. Finding an equation from a given graph
4. Application of quadratic equation to real life situations

LINEAR GRAPHS

Recall that any equation whose highest power of the unknown is 1 is a linear equation. To draw
the graph of a linear equation, we need to

1. Make a table of value for the equation

2. Plot the graph of the linear equation

Example: Draw the graph of y=x−1

Solution: y=x−1

x −2 0 2
−1 −1 −1 −1
y −3 −1 1

Scale: 2cm to 1unit on both axes

Graph of y=x−1

DRAWING QUADRATIC GRAPH: To draw a quadratic graph, we need to also follow the
same process of drawing linear graph

Example: Draw the graph of y=x2+2x+1

Solution:

Since y=x2+2x+1, we shall now make a table for the values of x & y.

x −3 −2 −1 0 2 3
x2 9 4 1 0 4 9
2x −6 −4 −2 0 4 6
1 1 1 1 111
y 4 1 0 1 9 16

Note: when plotting the graph,

1. we choose a scale such that our graph is as large as possible and also occupies the centre
of the graph sheet. This will enable us to obtain the point where the graph cuts the x-axis
more easily.
2. we join the points in the graph by a smooth curve

Class Activity:

Draw the graph of y=2x2−5x+3

OBTAINING ROOTS FROM A QUADRATIC GRAPH

To obtain the roots of a quadratic equation form a quadratic graph, we need to first plot the graph
of the expression and then obtain the roots by reading the two values of x where the graph cuts or
touches the x-axis, i.e where y=0

Example: Draw a graph to find the roots of the equation y=4x2−20x+25

Solution:

y=4x2−20x+25

x 0 1 2 3 4 5
2
4x 0 4 16 36 64 100
−20x 0 −20 −40 −60 −80 −100
25 25 25 25 25 25 25
y 25 9 1 1 9 25

From the graph it is clear that the curve does not cut the x-axis. It appears to touch the x-axis
where x=2.5. this result can be checked by factorisation I.e

4x2−20x+25=0(2x−5)(2x−5)=0(2x−5)2=0∴x=2.5 twice

Note: when the curve touches the x-axis, the roots are said to be coincident

Class Activity:

Use the table of values below to solve the equation y=x2+x–8 graphically for −4≤ x ≤ 3

x −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
y −8 4

FINDING AN EQUATION FROM A GIVEN GRAPH

It is possible to find the equation of a curve from its graph. The graph of y=x2−2x–3 cuts the x-
axis (i.e the line y=0) at the points x=-1 and x=3. This implies that -1 and 3 are the roots of the
equation y=x2−2x–3=0. Therefore in general if a graph cuts the x-axis at points a & b, it satisfies
the equation (x−a)(x−b)=0
Example 1: Obtain the equation of the graph below

Solution; From the graph when y=0, x=1 and x=2,

(x−1)(x−2)=0x2−3x+2=0, at point P, y=2 when x=0

∴ the equation of the curve is y=x2−3x+2

Example 2: obtain the equation of the graph below (WAEC SSCE)

Solution: In the graph above, where

y=0, x=−12 and x=2(x–−12)(x−2)=0(x+12)(x−2)=0x2–112x–1=0…….(i)

Second, in the curve above, at point P, y = −2 when x = 0. However the constant term in
equation (i) is only −1. So we multiply both sides of the equation (i) by 2

2x2−3x−2=0…….(ii)

Equation (ii) satisfies (x–−12)(x−2)=0 and the requirement that the constant term should be -2

∴ The equation of the curve is y=2x2−3x−2

Class Activity:

Find the equation of the graphs below

APPLICATION OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS TO REAL LIFE SITUATIONS

Example 1: The area of a rectangle is 60cm2. The length is 11cm more than the width. Find the
width.

Solution:

Let the width be xcm, length =areawidth

∴ Length will be =60xcm

The length is 11cm more than the width which gives =60x=x+11

Simplifying, we have 60=x2+11x

i.e. x2+11x–60=0

Factorizing completely we have, x=−15 or x=4

∴ the width is 4cm since it cannot be negative.

Check: length =604cm=15=4+11 and 15×4=60

Class Activity:

1. When 11 times a certain integer is subtracted from twice the square of the integer, the
result is 21. What is the integer?
2. A rectangular lawn is 4cm longer than its width. If its area is 165cm2, calculate its width.
3. Musa is 60years old and Joy is 25years old. How many years from now will the product
of their ages be 2244years?

PRACTICE EXERCISES:

1. Solve the following equations graphically and obtain the least value of y

(a) y=x2–4x+3=0

(b) y=2x2–3x+1

(c) y=3x2–4x+1

2. The sum of the ages of a mother and her child is 63. If the product of their ages four years ago
was 484. What are their ages now?

3. Find the equations of the graphs below

ASSIGNMENT

1. Draw the graph of y=4x2+25 and y=3x+2 for −3≤ x ≤ 3

Use the graph(s) to:

(i) find the roots of the equation y=4x2+25 and y=3x+2

(ii) determine the line of symmetry of the curve y=4x2+25

2. (a) Copy and complete the table of values for the relation y=−x2+x+2 for −3≤ x ≤ 3

x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y -4 2 -4

(b)Using scales of 2cm to 1 unit on the x-axis and 2cm to 2 units on the y-axis, draw a graph of
the relation

y=−x2+x+2

(c) From the graph find the:

(i) minimum value of y

(ii) roots of the equation x2–x–2=0

(iii) gradient of the curve at x=0.5

[SSCE 2010]

Keywords: expression, equation, quadratic, linear, roots, minimum value, maximum,

intercept etc

Constructions 1

Content:

1. Guidelines for constructions

2. Constructions of basic angles
3. Construction of triangles with given sides and angle.
4. Bisection of basic angles

GUIDELINES FOR CONSTRUCTIONS

When making constructions, the following guidelines should be followed.

1. A short pencil of about 3 inches should be fixed on the pair of compasses when
constructing to avoid any obstruction when turning your compass round to draw arcs.
2. Ensure that the pivot of your pair of compasses is tight to avoid unwanted shift when
carrying out your constructions.
 3. To ensure that your lines and points are as fine and accurate as possible make use of a
hard pencil with a sharp point.
4. Before making the actual construction, make a rough sketch of the problem under
consideration. This will make the construction of the actual problem easy.
5. Leave all your arcs and construction lines visible. Do not clean any arc that leads you to
your final result.
6. Double lines and arcs in constructions are not allowed, hence clean up all double arcs and
lines neatly and re-draw.

Bisecting Of Angles

To bisect the angle ABC,

Step 1: –Measure a length of about 2.5cm with your pair of compasses. Fix pin at B and draw an
arc to cut the two line AB and BC that formed the angle. Cut the arc at x and y.

Step 2: – Fix pin at x and draw an arc and at y and draw another arc both to meet at z.

Step 3: – Join the point zB. ∴ABz = zBC

Constructions of angles

CHAPTER 8: CONSTRUCTIONS

The ancient Greek mathematicians were the first people to do constructions in Mathematics. A
construction in Mathematics is an accurate drawing of angles and lines. You are only allowed to
use a straightedge and a pair of compasses with a pencil in it when you do a construction.

A straightedge

A straightedge is an instrument with a straight edge, so we use it to draw straight lines. It is a ruler
without any markings on it, because when you do constructions you are not allowed to take any
measurements.

Most of the time you will use your ruler when you do constructions and have to draw straight lines.
The important thing to remember is that although there are markings on the ruler, you should not
use them to do your constructions. You may only use the ruler to draw a straight line. You may
use it to check your constructions once you have finished them.

A pair of compasses (or a compass) is an instrument to draw circles.

It has two legs:

One leg has a sharp point so that you can put it firmly into position on a page. When you draw a
circle the sharp point will stay on the dot where you positioned it. The sharp point will not move.

The other leg has space to insert a pencil. You move the leg with the pencil to and draw the circle
on the page.
The two legs of the compass are joined at the hinge. Make sure that the metal screw at the hinge
is fitted tightly so that the two legs of the compass will not open too easily. Also make sure that
your pencil is sharpened. A blunt pencil will lead to diagrams that are not accurate.

8.1 Construction of angles

Here is a fun activity for you to do: use your compass to draw a circle. Keep the the position of the
legs of the compass exactly the same throughout the activity. Make a dot anywhere on the
circumference of the circle.

Put the compass on the dot and start to make little arcs on the circumference of the circle, each one
made from the one before, as shown in the diagram.

You will find that you can fit in exactly six of these little arcs:

You know that a full turn (or revolution) is equal to , so if we join the centre of the circle to each
one of the six small arcs on the circumference, we form six angles of each.
If you are asked to construct an angle of , you simply do a part of the activity that you have done
above.

Construct an angle of 30 degrees

If you are asked to construct an angle of , you construct an angle of and then bisect it.

In a previous year, you learned how to construct an angle of 60 degrees, and how to bisect an
angle. You will use these two skills to construct an angle of 30 degrees.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.1: CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE OF 30 DEGREES

You are given a line segment as shown below. Construct so that is a point on and = .

Step 1: Draw a large arc.

Firstly, construct an angle of (Step 1 to Step 3).

Copy the given line segment into your workbook and make a dot at point .

Put the point of the compass at (on the blue dot) and draw a large arc as shown. Label point where
the arc intersects the line segment. Keep the compass legs open in exactly the same position for
the next step.

Step 2: Draw a second, small arc.

Put the point of the compass onto (on the orange dot) and draw a small arc to intersect with the
first large arc.

Label the point of intersection as point .

Step 3: Complete the angle of .

Use a ruler and draw a line segment from point and through point .
Step 4: Draw the first arc to bisect the angle of .

Put the compass on point and draw an arc as shown.

Step 5: Draw the second arc to bisect the angle of .

Keep the compass open at exactly the same width as for Step 4. Put the compass on point and draw
an arc as shown.

Label the point of intersection as .

Step 6: Complete the construction.

Draw a line segment from point through point .

Step 7: Check your work.

Use a protractor to measure . The angle should be equal to .

It is a good idea to rotate your workbook If you have to do a construction involving a line that is
not horizontal on the page in front of you. Never erase the construction lines after you have
completed a construction.
EXERCISE 8.1: CONSTRUCT AN ANGLE OF 30 DEGREES

Construct an angle of . Label the angle as .

Bisect of question 1 so that = .

Construct an angle of . Label the angle as .

Construct an angle of 45 degrees

If you are asked to construct an angle of , you construct an angle of and then bisect it.

To construct an angle of 90 degrees, you will use of the fun activity we did earlier, where you
made six small arcs on the circumference of a circle.

In this construction, you will make only two arcs: you will make the first arc to form an angle
of and the second arc to form an angle of .

An angle of is exactly halfway between and , so you will construct the one arm of the right angle
exactly halfway between the arcs for and .

You have learned how to construct an angle of 90 degrees, and to bisect an angle. You will use
these skills to construct an angle of 45 degrees.

There is more than one way to do this construction, and two different methods are shown below.

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.2: CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE OF 45 DEGREES (METHOD 1)

Construct an angle of 45 degrees.

Method: Construct an angle of 90 degrees and bisect the angle.

Step 1: Construct a line segment, make a dot at point and draw the first large arc.

Start by constructing an angle of (Step 1 to Step 6).

Put the compass at point (on the blue dot) and draw a large arc. Label point where the arc intersects
the line segment. Keep the compass legs in exactly the same position for the next two steps.
Step 2: Draw the first small arc.

Put the compass on point and make an arc on the large arc that was drawn in Step 1.

Label this as point . (Point shows the mark for an angle of .)

Step 3: Draw the second small arc.

The compass should still be open at exactly the same width as for the first large arc.

Put the compass on point and make another arc on the large arc that was drawn in Step 2.

Label this as point . (Point shows the mark for an angle of .)

Step 4: Draw the first arc to construct the right angle.

We want to find the line for an angle of . We know that this line should be exactly halfway between
the arcs for the angles of and .

The compass should stay in the same position for these two arcs (Step 4 and Step 5).

Put the compass on point and make an arc outside of the large arc, as shown below.

Step 5: Draw the second arc to construct the right angle.

Keep the compass fixed at the same width as for Step 4.

Put the compass on point and make another arc outside of the large arc to intersect the arc already
drawn there. Label the point of intersection of the two arcs as .
Step 6: Complete the angle of .

Use a ruler to draw a line segment from point through point .

Step 7: To bisect the angle of , draw a new arc.

Put the point of the compass where the big arc (from Step 1) crosses and draw an arc outside of
the large arc, and towards , as shown.

Step 8: Draw the second arc to bisect the angle of .

Keep the compass open the same width as for Step 7.

Put the compass on point and draw an arc as shown.

Label the point of intersection as point .

Step 9: Complete the construction.

Draw a line segment from point through point .

Step 10: Check your work.

Use a protractor to measure . The angle should be equal to .

WORKED EXAMPLE 8.3: CONSTRUCTING AN ANGLE OF 45 DEGREES (METHOD 2)

Construct an angle of 45 degrees. You are given line with a point on the line.
Method: Construct a perpendicular line from a point on a line segment and then bisect the right
angle.

Step 1: On line , make arcs equal distances from on both sides.

Put the compass on point (where the blue dot is shown).

Draw an arc to the left of point . Keep the compass open at the same width, and draw another arc
to the right of point . These arcs should intersect with line .

Step 2: Draw an arc from the left.

You can change the position of the compass legs, to open them wider. Put the compass on the left
arc from Step 1 (where the orange dot is shown).

Draw an arc so that it is above point .

Step 3: Draw an arc from the right.

Keep the compass open at the same width as for Step 2. Put the compass on the right arc from Step
1 (where the purple dot is shown).

Draw an arc so that it crosses the arc from Step 2.

Step 4: Draw the perpendicular line.

Point is where the two arcs from Step 2 and Step 3 intersect.

Use a ruler and draw a line from point and through point . This gives you your right angle.

Step 5: Draw the first big arc to bisect the right angle.

Put the compass on point . Keep the compass fixed at that width and draw a big arc that
intersects and .

Step 6: Draw the smaller arcs to bisect the right angle

Keep the compass at the same width for the next two arcs. From the intersection of the big arc
from Step 5 with the line segments, draw two arcs that intersect each other. Label the point of
intersection as point .

Step 7: Complete the construction.

Draw a line segment from point through point .

Step 8: Check your construction.

Use a protractor and measure and .

If each of them is equal to you have made an accurate construction.

For the exercise below, remember not to erase the construction lines after you have completed a
construction.

EXERCISE 8.2: CONSTRUCT AN ANGLE OF 45 DEGREES

Use the method shown in Worked example 8.2 to construct an angle of .

Label the angle as .

Use your construction for question 1. Use the method shown in Worked example 8.2 to construct
an angle of . Label the angle as .

Draw a line segment and mark point on the line segment.

Construct a line from point that is perpendicular to .

Use your construction for question 3. Use the method shown in Worked example 8.3 to construct
an angle of . Label the angle as .

Construct an angle of . Use the method that you prefer.

Amaka has to construct two angles of each. She says she will construct an isosceles right-angled
triangle, then there will be two angles of each.
Is Amaka correct?

Copy a given angle

The size of an angle does not depend on the length of the arms. In the diagram, below both angles
are the same size.

The size of an angle depends on how far the one arm of the angle has turned (or rotated) away
from the other arm of the angle. We use this fact when we want to construct an exact copy of a
given angle.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8.4: COPYING A GIVEN ANGLE

is an acute angle.

Use a compass and ruler to construct a copy of . Label the new angle as .

Step 1: Construct the first arm of the angle by drawing a horizontal line. Use the labels and .

In each of the steps below, the first diagram is the given diagram, and the second diagram is the
new construction. This worked example assumes that you have the original angle on paper, and
can draw on it.

Step 2: Draw an arc on the given angle and on the new angle.

On the given diagram, put the compass on point and draw a large arc, as shown.

Keep the compass open at exactly the same width. On your copy of the diagram, put the compass
on point and draw a copy of the first arc.

Step 3: Measure the distance between the two arms of the given angle.

On the given diagram, use your compass to measure the distance between the two points where
the arc (of Step 2) intersects with and .

You do not draw line segment between the two points, you only measure the distance between
them by opening your compass to the correct width.
Step 4: Mark the same distance on the new angle.

Keep the compass open at the same width as in Step 3. Put the compass on the point where the arc
intersects with and draw a small arc that intersects the large arc.

Step 5: Complete the construction.

Draw a line segment from point through the point where the two arcs intersect.

Mark that line .

Step 6: Remember to check your work.

Use a protractor to measure and .

The two angles should have the same size.

EXERCISE 8.3: COPY A GIVEN ANGLE

Construct copies of the angles provided below, and use a protractor to check that your constructed
angles are the correct size.

is an acute angle.
Use a compass and ruler to construct a copy of . Label the new angle as .

is an obtuse angle.

Use a compass and ruler to construct a copy of . Label the new angle as .

is a right angle.

Use a compass and ruler to construct a copy of . Label the new angle as .

is a reflex angle.

Use a compass and ruler to construct a copy of . Label the new angle as .

8.2 Constructions of plane shapes

A closed, two-dimensional or flat figure is called a plane shape. A plane shape has length and
breadth, but no thickness.

In this section you will construct simple plane shapes, for example, parallelograms and triangles.

You may use a compass, ruler and also a protractor to do the constructions.

plane shapeA plane shape is a flat figure with closed sides. It has length and breadth, but no
thickness.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8.5: CONSTRUCTING A PARALLELOGRAM

Make an accurate construction of parallelogram . = 5 cm, = and = 9 cm.

You may use a protractor.

Step 1: Make a rough sketch of the given information.

You know that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal, so = 5 cm and = 9 cm.

Step 2: Plan the order in which you will do the construction.

It is a good idea to start with , then construct , and then .

Point will be the point of intersection between an arc of 9 cm from point and an arc of 5 cm from
point .

Step 3: Construct .

Draw a line segment (longer than 9 cm) and mark point .

Use a compass to measure a length of 9 cm on your ruler.

Keep the compass open at that width. Put the compass on point and draw an arc to find point .

Step 4: Construct .

Use a protractor to measure and mark an angle of at point , then use a ruler to draw in the line.

Step 5: Construct .

Use a compass to measure a length of 5 cm on your ruler.

Keep the compass fixed at that width, put the compass point on , and draw an arc to find point .
Step 6: Construct .

Use a compass to measure a length of 9 cm on your ruler.

Keep the compass open at that width. Put the compass on point and draw an arc in the position
shown below.

Step 7: Construct .

Use a compass to measure a length of 5 cm on your ruler.

Keep the compass fixed at that width. Put the compass on point and draw an arc to intersect the
previous arc.
Label the point of intersection between the two arcs (Step 6 and Step 7) as point .

Step 8: Complete the construction.

Use a ruler to draw line segments and , which meet at the point at which the two arcs intersect.

Step 9: Remember to check your work.

Use a ruler to check that = = 9 cm and = = 5 cm.

Use a protractor to check that = .

For the exercise below, remember not to erase the construction lines after you have completed a
construction.

EXERCISE 8.4: CONSTRUCT SIMPLE PLANE SHAPES

Construct parallelogram .
= 7 cm, = and = 10 cm.

Construct square . The length of is 10 cm.

Construct as shown below. Do not use a protractor in this construction. Only use a compass, ruler
and pencil.

Measure the size of and .

Construct as shown below. Do not use a protractor in this construction. Only use a compass, ruler
and pencil.

Measure the size of and .

8.3 Summary

A construction in Mathematics is an accurate drawing of angles and lines.

We use arcs in all the constructions. An arc is part of the circumference of a circle.

There are methods for carrying out the following constructions, using only use a compass, ruler
and pencil:

an angle of 30 degrees

an angle of 45 degrees
copy a given angle

simple plane shapes (for example, a parallelogram, square and triangle).

To construct simple plane shapes, a protractor may be used if instructed.

Never erase the construction lines after you have completed a construction.