ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS amplifiers Number Systems Codes Boolean Algebra Logic Gates Karnaugh Map Quine MC— Cluskey’s' * Combinational Circuits Arithmetic Circuits Flip - Flop Register & Counter Program Logic Devices : Memory Device A/D & D/A Converter Logic Families 30 33 . 35 38 41 52 57 88 100 116 139 143 150 161POPULAR PUBLICATIONS AMPLIFIERS ~ Chapter at a Glance « Feedheck Feedback means transfer ofa fraction of a output quantity of a system to its input, Icen be of tao types 1¢ fecdbach: positive feedback enhances the output and is required for oscillation while negative feedback reduces the output. b. Negative feedback: Negative feedback cireuits are used for increasing stability, reducing distortion, increasing bandwidth and error correction. 4 Oscillators: any circuit which is used to generate a.c voltage without a.c input signal is called 2n oscillator. Oscillation means gain * feedback fraction = 1. For a positive feedback system the overall gain can be written as, Ar = A/ 1 — AB where, A is the gain of the intemal amplifier. B is the feedback ratio, and —AB is the loop gain. Phase shift: An exemple of an oscillator circuit that follows the basic development of a feedback circuit is the phase-shifi oscillator. The operational amplifier provides a phase shift - of 180° 2s it is used in the inverting mode and remaining 180° phase shift is produce by three RC network. This form of RC layout is usually referred to as ladder network. Thus the total phase shift around the loop is 360°(or 0°). If 4B is greater than unity at this particular frequency, oscillations can start. The transfer function of the RC network can be calculated as; pot : % 4 Secr ERO +2 RO sits 5 Let, s = jo; 1 1 where, /, 2aRC - - {6(4/)-(4/)} © Wein-Bridge oscillators: The circuit consists of two state RC coupled amplifier which provides the phase shift of 360° or 0°. A balanced bridge is used as the feedback network which has no need to provide any additional phase shift. oe Multivibrators are classified as: a. Astable multivibrators: Astable multivibrator is a multivibrator in which neither state is stable. These are two quasi-stable (temporary) states: b. Monostable multivibrators: It has one stable state and one quasi stable state. when a pulse is applied to the input circuit, the circuit state changes to unstable state for a predetermined time. +, Schmitt Trigger Circuits: The Schmitt trigger is a comparator application which switches the output negative when the input passes upward through a positive reference voltage. It then uses negative feedback to prevent switching back to the other state until the input passes through a lower threshold voltage, thus stabilizing the switching against rapid triggering by noise as it passes the trigger point. . 7 A&D-2DIGI Multiple Choice Ty} 4. a class 8 push-pull power amplifier has an a.c. output of 10 watts. The d.c. power drawn from the power supply under ideal condition is [veut 2007] a) 10 watts b) 12.75 watts c) 15 watts d) 20 watts Answer: (b) 2. Astablo multivibrator may be used as {WBUT 2010, 2014] a) frequency to voltage converter b) voltage to frequency converter c) squaring circuit d) comparator circuit Answer: (¢) 3. Schmitt trigger is also known as . (BUT 2010) a) squaring circuit b) blocking oscillator c) sweep circuit d) astable multivibrator Answer: (a) 4. For a wide range of oscillations in the audio range, the preferred oscillator is . [WBUT 2010] a)Hartley b) Phase shift c) Wien-bridge _d) Hartley and Colpitt Answer: (c) > 5, Ifthe input of a Schmitt trigger is a sawtooth wave, the output is [WBUT 2010) a) sine wave b) triangular wave c) pulse waveform 4) without any change but amplified © Answer: (b) « : 6. The net phase shift of Wien-bridge oscillator around the loop is : [WBUT 2010, 2017] a) 90° b) 180° ¢) zero ) 360° : Answer: (d) . . toes 7. Maximum efficiency of transformer coupled class A power amplifier is : a) 78.5% . b) 50% c) 25% d) 100% [WBUT 2011) Answer: (b) . ' . . 8. A 2-transistor class B power amplifier is commonly called [WBUT 2011, 2012] a) push-pull b) dual ) differential d) none of these Answer: (a) - 9. Class C amplifiers aré used as ~ “[WBUT 2011] a) AF amplifiers b) detectors c) RF amplifiers) none of these Answer: (c) * A&D-3UBL! 10. A bistable multivibrator cireult has wy two-tabiosteteg, BUT 2010 a) two unstable states d) none of these ¢) quasi-stable states Answer: (b) 14. A Wien-bridge oscillator has a frequency ne (BUT 2013, 2012,-2014) a) 1/22 JRC by WRC oe) 1/27 4) none of those Answer: (c) 42. Which of the following oscillators is used at audio tegueney? n i 20 a) Crystal Oscillators . » Wien bridge Oscillator °!"" 2012] ) RO Phase-shift Oscillator 4) Colpitt's Oscillator Answer: (c) a Senetiiae re ¢) two stable states Done of these Answer: (c) 14. Schmitt triggor circuit generates: by square wave VBUT 2012, 2014) 4 Teangular wave d) none of these . . Answer: (b) tel . * lifier is . ‘ 15, Negative feedback in an amplifier’ b) increased noise tweur 2012) Sse Fecqcys vase etna Answer: (c) ion at all times is . 16. An amplifier that operates In the linear reg} TWBUT 2043 a are ier at int Class B c) Class AB d) Class c 2] Auswer: (a) . . . ‘lass A power amplifier i; 17. The maximum theoretical efficiency of C! ' is WUT 204; 280 by 28% 7% aye) Answer: (a) mS . 18, blem for . 8, Grose-aver distortion is a pro} b) Class B amplifiers eur 2013) ©) Class amplifiers ain . Answer: (b) | oo . 1 is usually called 8. A2transistor class-B amplifar ie usual TT DWBUT 2014) 2) dual amplifier ¢) symmetrical amplifier nswer: (d) 4) push-pull amplifier ; A&D-4& L ELECTRONI {WBUT 2014} /-20, The gain of an amplifier in general Is e) real d) none of these 1 a) Imaginary b) complex Answer: (d) : 21, For erltleal modulation the value of modulation Indox is waurr 2018) 05. b)4 0 Answer: (d) middle of the active region it lected in the ge amplifier is se! [WBUT 2014) 22, The Q point in a volta because a) It gives better stability ' By the biasing circuit then ds less number of resistors c) the circuit needs a sma” 0. voltage @) it gives a distortion less output Answer: (a) 23. The output voltage of the trent : [BUT 201: 4] t Vo welv 10a aov Biv 2v dav Answer: (a) ‘ . 24. A 2-transistor class B a) push-pull ¢) differential Answer: (a) - . . lifier is commonly called power ample b) dual IWBUT 2015} z 4) none of these 28. Astable multivibrator has b) one stable state (WBUT 2015) a) no stable state ) two stable states 4) none of these «Answer: (a) . fe \ 26. Schmitt trigger circuit generates by square wave BUT 2015) a) triangular wave “*” @) none of the: ©) saw tooth wave : se Answer; (b) * ai frequency . 27, A Wien-bridge oscillator has 3 aq! 3 1 - DWeut 2015) A a) b= = 2adRC RC 2aRC 4) none of these Answer: (c) “ A&D-5RORULARPRUNLICATIONS 38. Which of tho following oscillators is used at audio frequency? = [WBUT 204 5) 2) Crystal oscillator b) Hartley oscillator c) RC phaso-shitt oscillator ¢) Colpitts oscillator Answers (e) 29, Negative feedback in an amplifier is : BUT 2016) a) reduced gain b) increased noise : . c) increased frequency and phase 4) reduced bandwidth ‘Answer: (c) ; 30. Cross-over distortion occurs In IWBUT 2016, 2048) a) Class A amplifier b) Class AB amplifier a ¢) Class C amplifier 4) Push pull amplifier Answer: (b) . 31, The minimum distortion during amplification is obtained in IWBUT 2016) a) Class A amplifier b) Glass B amplifier : e) Class C amplifier 4) Class AB amplifier - Answer: (b) : 32. A class C amplifier conducts for DWBUT 2016) © a) b) 27 cex 4) 0-2 Answer: (d) 33. A pure sine wave output is possible with 7 [WBUT 2016) a) Hartley oscillators b) Wien bridge oscillators. ¢) RC phase shift oscillators a) Colpitt oscillators Answer: (b) + ? a 34. The Barkhausén criterion for sustained oscillation is [BUT 2016) a) 4f=1 b[4pz1 ¢) [4p|<1 a) NOT, 2+ Answer: (b) F 35. Multivibrators 0 : [WBUT 2016, 2018) a) Generate square wave - b) Convert sine to square wave. . . ¢) Convert triangular to sine wave d) Convert triangular to square wave « Answer: (a) 36. The output pulse width for a monostable rrultivibrator using IC 555 where external resistance and capacitance are 20 kQ and 0.1 uF is. [WBUT'2016, 2018] aj2is . b) 2ms ¢) 2.5ms ) 2.2 ps Answer: (d) 37. In order to generate a square wave form a sinusoidal input signal one can use ~. [WBUT 2016] a) monostable mul b) clipper and amplifiers", c) Schmitt trigger d) both (b) and (e) “a Answer: (d) : A&D-6ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 38. The efficiency of Class A amplifier is {WBUT 2017] a) 05 b)4 ©) 0.25 4) 04 Answer: (a) . 39. If the Q of a single stage single turned amplifier is doubled, then bandwidth will a) remain the same b) become half [WBUT 2017] c) become double d) become four times ‘Answer: (a) 40. Which of the following mode of BJT can be used as an amplifier? [WBUT 2018) a) CB b) Cc c) CE d) None of these ‘Answer: (c) 41. A pure sine wave output is possible with [WBUT 2018] ‘a) Hartley oscillators b) Wien-bridge oscillators ¢) RC phase shift oscillators d) Colpitt oscillators Answer: (b) 42, How is a conducting diode biased? [WBUT 2019] a) Forward b) Inverse * ¢) Poorly 4) Reverse Answer: (a) 43. The current gain of a p-n-p transistor is, [WBUT 2019) a) the negative of the n-p-n current gain b) the collector current divided by the emitter current ¢) near zero d) none of these Answer: (d) 44, The control terminal in a BJT transistor is . [WBUT 2019] a) The collector ) The base c) The emitter d) none of these Answer: (a) . 3 . 45. For the operation as an amplifier the base of an n-p-n transistor must be [WBUT 2019] a) +ve with respective to emitter b) -ve with respect to the emitter c)oV 4) +ve with respect to collector ‘Answer: (a) 46. The input resistance of a common base amplifier is [WBUT 2019] a) very low b) very high ¢) same as CE d) samo as CC Answer: (a) A&D-7POPULAR PI 47. A certain common-emitter amplifier has voltage gain 100. If the emitter bypass capacitor is removed, . [weUuT 2013] a) circuit will become unstable b) voltage gain will decroase c) voltage gain will increase d) q-point will shift Answer: (b) 48. A JFET differs from BUT mainly because of [WBUT 2019] a) power rate b) high frequency performance c) higher input impedance . _ d) higher speed Answer: (c) 49. BUT in CC mode can be used as [WBUT 2019) a) Amplifier b) Buffer c) Intermediate stage Answer: (b) Short Answer Type Questions 4. Draw and explain the operation of astable multivibrator using 555 Ti 20111 Answer: . The following figure shows the 555 timer IC that is operated in astable mode. The three internal resistances (R’) divide the voltage into three parts. Sol, =2V-¢/3; V¥,=Ver/3 while the capacitor is changing and capacitor voltage in between 2V,./3 and V,,./3, the output of resistor of the comparator undergoes a change in sign of their output, which is negative and therefore logic 0. If the capacitor is charging and its voltage tends to rise above 2M/,./3, comparator | output jump to positive Saturation value, i. is logic 1 at 2 input of Nip-flop. Similarly when capacitor is discharging and its voltage tends to fall below I,./3 and comparator 2 output jumps to positive saturation value or logic | at S input of Nip-flop. 2. Define upper threshold, lower threshold, hysteresis voltage and centre voltage related to a Schmitt triggor circult. [WBUT 2011] Answer: Upper threshold voltage: It is the voltage for low to high transition, Lower threshold voltage: Il is the voltage for high to low transition. Hysteresis voltage: It is the difference of two voltages, Centre voltage: It is the intermediate to V,,' and V,,~. 3. Draw and explain the operation of Monostable multivibrator using 555 Timer. [WBUT 2012, 2015, 2017, 2019] A&D-8ANALOG ¢< DIGITA Answer: The monostable multivibrator using 555 timer is shown in figure 1. When a negative- going pulse is connected to trigger input (pin no.2) the output goes high. The terminal 7 is shorted by capacitor C. When the voltage across the capacitor C comes 2 Vee, then the upper comparator in figure 1 changes the output from high voltage value to low voltage value. The three internal resistance in figure | act as voltage dividers and it provides the bias voltages of (2/3)Véc to the upper comparator and (1/3)Vcc to the lower comparator. Since these two voltages fix the necessary comparator threshold voltages, they also aids in deters: ‘nine the Liming interval. The input output voltage waveform is shown in figure 1. = [ t.. gy Nersme ede [48 triggers the timer q Fig: | Monostable Operation . 2 . The voltage across the external capacitor changes exponentially from 0 to (2 Vie is given by, “UR AC Vo = Vee(I-« eon 1) attime t= T. 2) rie Therefore, 2 =¥,(l . -T/R AC onde[i-e A ) 3 OFT = 1IR gC oneu(2) ‘Therefore, when the output is high, the time imerval becomes, thigh = 7 “rie -e7 ure 2 shows the wide range of output pulses that are obtained from the values of Rg . Sitice the changing rate and comparator thresholds are both proportional to the A&D-9 .POPULAR PUBLICATIONS supply voltage. the timing interval given by equation (2) is independent of the’ supply 0001 AOS 1004S 1OmS 1OmS 1OmE 10S 10S 1008 be g—<—> Fig: 2 Graph of RC Combinations for different time delay C. Copaetiar (Ff) —e 3 Symbol The Schmitt trigger is a comparator application which switches the output negative when the input passes upward through a positive reference voltage. It then uses negative feedback to prevent switching back to the other state until the input passes through a A&D-10INI NALS lower threshold voltage, thus stabilizing the switching against rapid triggering by noise as it passes the trigger point. Application: . Schimitt trigger devices are typically used in open loop configurations for noise immunity and closed loop negative feedback configurations to implement bistable regulators, triangle/square wave generators, etc. . 5. What Is the basic principle of oscillation? -_. [WBUT 2014] What is Barkhausen criterion? . [WBUT 2014, 2017] Answer: on Oscillation.means gain x feedback fraction = 1 A For a positive feedback system the overall gain can be written as, A, = | ; —AB Where, 4 is the gain of the internal amplifier, B is the feedback ratio, and. —AB is the loop gain. If AB = I, from this equation 4, tends to infinity. The amplifier then gives an output voltage without requiring any externally applied input voltage. In other words, the amplifier becomes an oscillator. This condition of unity loop gain, i.e. AB = 1 is called the Barkhausen Criterion. , This condition means that |42|=1, and the phase afgle of AB is zero or an integral multiple of 360°. Therefore, the basic conditions for oscillation in a feedback amplifier Fre (i) the feedback must be regenerative, and (ii) the loop gain must be unity. g. What are the advantages of push-pull amplifier? Why the push-pull circuit is called So? : : . _ DWBUT 2014] Answer: 4” Part: 7 ‘A push-pull amplifier possesses the following advantages: . There is no DC saturation of the core of the output transformer because th DC plate currents flow through the output transformer in opposite directions due to the two transistors. This reduces the size of the output tramsformer. As the AC signal frequency current does not pass through the common supply, the 2. A a push-pull amplifier has No regenerative effect on other stages. The common emitter resistor for the two transistors doies not require a bypass capacitor. 3. It has less amplitude distortion in the output due to cancellation of all even order (2, 4" etc.) harmonics. 4, Any AC hum or ripple currents from the DC power supply sources balance out in the circuit and there is no hum in the output, Loe 5, A Class B push-pull amplifier without input signal draws very little collector or plate current resulting in great economy in battery power. The system is, therefore, suitable for battery operated equipment including transistor radio receivers. A&D-11 *POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 2" Parts “on of tw r fics so once . iffer is a conibinntion of Wo Clnss A or Class ampli gative ha at So ai nh ss the input signal and the amplified replicn ofthe input vege Pa ‘sar sh it Freee ith fess tortion than single ered empl. amplifiers having complementary symmelty with one PNP and the other " are used which do nit need any transformers. 7.AWion bridge oseillator has a frequoney of 1000 Hz and a capacitance of 100 pF, Tianna recctnce tha amplfar gain 1 10, obtain the ratio of the eerie the other arms, Answer? S210 HC =(10? x10" 8. Draw and explain Schmitt trigger circuit using 555 timer. _[WBUT 2016, 2018) Vee (S 00 15) Answer: Reset Noe tox #4 +8 5 ouput —e 1 535 3) Sin OF i 2, | Fig.shows timer 1C555 as : a Schmitt Trigger WOK ge, - oxo] Le " : Old : Vow BNP Prnee | UL. ‘Input and output where forms WV A&D-12L ELECTRO! The input of two compilation threshold input (6) and trigger input (2) are connected together and externals biased at V,./2 therefore a voltage divider formed by R, and R,. ‘As upper comparator will trip at 1/3V,. and lower comparator (2) at //3¥,,, the bias provided by resistances R, and R, is cantered within there too thresholds. The circuit can convert wave form of shape. 9. Calculate the width of the generated pulse. [WeuT 2019] Answer: Following formula or equation ig used for Monostable multivibrator pulse width. Monostable multivibrator pulse width: Tp= 1.1 * RI* Cl Where Cl = Capacitance and RI = Resistance. Long Answer Ty] estions 4. a) Draw the clrcult diagram of a transformer coupled Class A power amplifiers and explain its operation. b) Calculate the total efficiency of this amplifier. . c) What is cross-over distortion found in Class B power amplifiers? How it can be eliminated? [WBUT 2014] Answer: a) Transformer coupling becomes necessary when the load impedance is smaller than the one needed in the collector for matching or, when'the load is to be isolated and cannot carry the dc collector current. Ve! ge wed Fig: 1. Transformer coupled class A amplifier _ : Fig, 1. shows a class A amplifier circuit with transformer coupling. Since it is a class A amplifier and same fixed biasing scheme is used, the operation is similar to the normal class A amplifier as described previously. The only difference is, here load is coupled with a transformer. b) Maximum conversion efficiency A&D-13 'POPULAR PUBLICATIONS class A amplifier are ¢) The advantages of class B amplifier over while for Class A-50%) © Higher Conversion efficiency (Class B -78.5% © Greater Power output . seal © No power loss in the absence of ac input signal. ; However, there are some disadvantage also, () self Bias cannot be used with class B configuration (ii) Amplifiers are Bulky & expensive. ; / Major draw a af css B operation is crossover distortion, For class B operation, the BE junction voltage must be greater than cut-in voltage (Vue 2 0.65 V).so that liner operation is guaranteed. Whenever there js.a zero crossing at the input, we get outpu (or, the transistor becomes ON) only after the input voltage reaches +V ne (or, Noe for the negative half-cycle). This phenomenon results in a distortion occurs which is known as crossover distortion. tnyut volage Crossover Saerton nditions necessary for the generation of oscillation? 2. a) What are the coi 1 - tion of a Wien Bridge oscillator using Opamp with a circuit b) Explain the operat diagram. ¢) Derive an expression for its frequency of oscillation. [WBUT 2011, 2013, 2017] Answer: A 4) Fora postive feedback system the overall gain can be writen as, A, = Where, 4 isthe gain of the internal amplifier. B is the feedback ratio, and -AB is the loop gain, If AB = |, from this equation A, tends to infinity. The amplifier then gives an output voltage without requiring any externally applied input voltage. In other words, the amplifier becomes an oscillator. This condition of unity loop gain, ie, AB = 1 is called the Barkhausen Criterion, = : This condition means that|4|=1, and the phase angle of AB is zero or an integral multiple of 360°. Therefore, the basic conditions for oscillation in a feedback amplifier are (i) the feedback must be regenerative, and (ii) the loop gain.must be unity, b) Figure shows the circuit of a Wien-bridge oscillator. The circuit consists of a two-state RC coupled amplifier which provides a phase shift of 360° or 0°, A balanced bridge is used as the feedback network which has no need to provide any additional phase shit. The feedback network consists of a lead-lag network (R-C and Ry-C2) and a volt A&D-14NALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS divider (R-R,). The lead-lag network provides'a positive feedback to the input of the first stage and the voltage divider provides a negative feedback to the emitter of O. Lendlag network Feibick sal Wicn Bridge oscillator c) If the bridge is balanced, R,/R, =(R, — jX){Ro(-iXez)/(Rz — iXea)} where Xer and-Xz are the reactances of the capacitors. Simplifying equation and equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get the frequency of oscillation as, 1 ; h= ° anf RRCC, 1 IfR,= R= Rand C\=C,=C, then f, =—— ‘ > Jo- Fare The ratio of R; to Ry greater than 2 will provide a sufficient gain for the circuit to oscillate at the desired frequency. This oscillator is used in commercial audio signal generators. 3. a) What are the advantages of negative feedback? [WBUT 2012] b) Explain the operation of a phase shift oscillator with circuit diagram. c) Derive an expression for its frequency of oscillation. Answer: a) Advantages of negative feedback: 1. Transfer Gain : . A hegative feedback system can be represented with the following block diagram shown in Fig.. From the diagram we can easily deduce the transfer gain of the system with feedback, ' Xaor X, X, + Input signal from source _& X Xe Difference signal fed to amplifier X,= Output signal : A= Transfer gain of amplifier or, Open loop gain B= Feedback ratio : With negative feedback, Xy=¥,-X,.But, X= BX, > yex-BN, Fig: Gain with Feedback A&D-15POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Also, from the transfer characteristics of the basic amplifier, ¥,= 4X, From above equatons , X,= 4 (X.- BX) or, X,=AX,-A BX, ; oF, Xo= A(X - B Xo) 5 = “YX, 1+4B We define, transfer gain with feedback A, =o J+ AB For negative feedback, [I+ AB|>1 => |4,| <|4] and the transfer gain reduces. On the other hand, for positive feedback | A, |>|4]. Considering a special case when I + A B=0 or, 4.B=-1, we get 4y= © for positive feedback . The system produces output (Xp) in the absence of input . (X= 0). This is the basic principle of oscillator. © For negative feedback gain is reduced by a factor | + AB. This factor is called return difference (D). © The factor - AB is called the Joop gain. Feedback can be expressed in dB, F =201 A) - 20 ie ! ) See Te AB)” 2. Sensitivity dA, lA, aA where D = desensitivity factor. Rearranging above equation LG)? A, \D) A As, [D|>1 (for negative feedback) the percentage change in Ayis less than that in 4. From the above equation, it is clear that the effect of change is less pronounced in a negative feedback system compared with the system with no feedback. Hence, negative feedback increases stability of an amplifier. Sensitivity is the ratio of fractional change in close loop gain to the fractional change in open gain. It gives a measure of the improvement in stability. We define, Sensitivity, § = 3. Input Impedance Input impedance ofa negative feedback system depends on the type of mixing network. A&D-16|ALOG For Series Mixing, From the circuit in figure it is obvious that feedback voltage Vr opposes V,. So the input current I; is less than it would be if Vr was absent. 4 When feedback was absent, = In the presence of feedback, = V, - Vy =V,-ABY, = V,=(1+ AB, V, _ (1+ AByV, R, ets Hence, Ry 7, 7, Input impedance increase by a factor (1 + AB). This analysis is valid for voltage-series topology with voltage amplifier (A = A.) and for current-series topology. with trans- conductance Amplifier (A = G,,). “Vt Re =R,(144B) Fig. Input impedance with series mixing 4, Output Impedance Output impedance of a negative feedback circuit depends on the type of sampling network. 5. Band Width From the frequeney response of an amplifier in Fi A " 1-ih./P) and high frequency gain, 4, . We can write, low frequency gain, Ay I+i/ fi) = lower cut-off frequency; f,= higher cut-off frequency n= where, diy = mid band gain; —+¢- frequency Figure: Frequency Response of an Amplifier . b) & ©) An example of an oscillator circuit that follows the basic development of a feedback circuit is the phase-shift oscillator. Figure | shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator. The operational amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° as. it is used in the inverting mode and remaining 180° phase shilt is produce by three RC network.. This form of RC layout is usually referred to as ladder network. Thus the total phase shift around the loop is 360°(or 0°). If AB is greater than unity at this particular frequency, oscillations can start. The transfer function of the RC network can be calculated as: A&D-17POPULAR PUBLICATIONS tt 12S acs & OER! ss s y “PIN Ie N-UITY wee fel. 2aRC io Amplifier \ Feedback nevwork © Fig: | Phase shift Oscillator Circuit For 4,B =I, B should be real. So the imaginary term in the above equation must be equal to zero, that is, 44}- (4) =0;or, f V6 f t re 1 The frequency of oscillation fis given by, h-=—s— ° Y6ancr) Also, the loop gain 4, =1; or, atin, A, 2-29 I-31) From this expression, we observe that the 29 or feed back resistance, Ry = 29 R, The gain 4. is kept greater than 29 to ensure that variations in circuit parameters will not make |4, | < /,, otherwise oscillations will die out, gain of the inverting op-amp should be at least Since there are three stages, the total loss for the feedback network will be 0.125. ‘Therefore, the inverting amplifier needs a gain of 8 in order to set the Af product unity. Phase shift oscillator is particularly suited to the range of frequency from several hertz to several hundred kilohertz, A&D-18ANALO‘ IGITA\ 4. Explain the operation of a class-B push-pull power amplifier with a neat circuit diagram. Determine its collector circuit efficiency. Explain why even harmonics are not present in push-pull amplifier. (WBUT 2015} Answer: - ‘ Oo, TF vo Ri Fig: Push Pull configuration With only one class B amplifier, the output is not a faithful reproduction of input as only one half cycle is present, For both cycles, we go for push pull arrangement (figure) where two class B amplifiers are used for two half cycles. No even harmonics are present at the output due to push-pull configuration. This can be proved in the following way. Say collector current ic; is the current flowing through load which contains all the harmonics when 7; conducts, © fe, +g + @, COS MF + a, COS2GK + A, COS3@t similarly when 7; conducts:current i.2 flows through load which is 180° phase shifted with respect to fa, . tea i, (OT + 7)= 1, +) — a, COS@ +a, COS2@t- a,cos3 at Total current, i. aha . as i.1 and é.2 flows in opposite directions. So even‘order harm-onics get cancelled. * From the expressions above, we sce that dc components of the collector currents i,, and i. Oppose cach other magnetically in the transformer core. This eliminates any tendency toward core saturation and consequent nonlinear distortion that might arise from the curvature of the transformer magnetization curve. . * The eflects of ripple voltages that may be contained in the power supply because of inadequate filtering will be balanced out. it Vee Me Fig: Complementary symmetry push-pull configuration A&D-19POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Efficiency . 180° phase difference exists so harmonic produ . almost distortion free output is being obtained. L, iced by each transistor cancel out thereby 1g =(Ie, Je) $0, yale r . So, total J, current for two transistor Be 6 (de)=Teg Xa =e eB (te) Mer la AC power delivered to load, 2, (de) Total collector dissipation Under ideal condition, maximum P or in load=M- 5. What is the Barkhausen criterion for a feedback amplifier to function as an oscillator? Give a neat circuit diagram of Wien bridge oscillator and explain how it works. Find an expression for the frequency of oscillation of the astable multivibrator. : [WBUT 2015] Answer: ; 1 Part: For a positive feedback system the overall gain can be written as, A, = La Where, A is the gain of the internal amplifier, B is the feedback ratio, and -AB is the loop gain. If AB = 1, from this equation 4, tends to infinity. The amplifier then gives an output voltage without requiring any externally applied input voltage. In other words, the amplifier becomes an oscillator. This condition of unity loop gain, ie. AB = 1 is called the Barkhausen Criterion. This condition means that |48]=1, and the phase angle of AB is zero or an integral multiple of 360°. Therefore, the basic conditions for oscillation in a feedback amplifier are (i) the feedback must be regenerative, and (ji) the loop gain must be unity. A&D-20c iCTRONICS ANALO! I Part. ‘The circuit ists of a two-state Figure sliows the circuit of a Wicn-bridge oscillator. The ci co bridge is RC coupled amplifier which provides a phase shift of 360° oF Ys fe he used as the feedback network which has no need to provide any * (i) and a voltage ‘The feedback network consists of a lead-lag network (R-C and ec) and a wotage divider (Ry-Rj). The lead-lag network provides a positive feedback to the iu stage and the voltage divider provides a negative feedback to the emitter o Or. Leodslag, network, Feedback signal Fig: Wien Bridge oscillator. Ifthe bridge is balanced, R/R, = (R, - IX cia Xe2 (Re - Xea)} : where Yo and X-zare the reactanees of the capacitors. Simplifying equation and equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides, we get the frequency of oscillation as, 1 : = ares [R,RCyC> IER, = Ry= Rand C,=Cz=C, then fy = 1 2aRC The ratio of Rs to Ry greater than 2 will provide a sufficient gain for the circuit to oscillate at the desired frequency. This oscillator is used in commercial audio signal generators. 3 Part: aliviby Figure 1.(a) shows a basic symmetrical Bipolar Junction (BJT) astable multivibrator in which components in one half of the circuit are identical to the components in the other half. The square wave output can be taken from collector point of T, or Ts, The waveforms at base and collector of transistors T; and T, are shown in figure 1.(b). A&D-21POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Fig.1 (a) Astable miltivibrator (b) Waveforms at the Collector and base of transistors T, and Ty in astable multivibrator In figure M(a), R, and Rj, are the collector resistances for transistor Ti and T: respectively C, and C; are coupling capacitors, R,, and Ry, provide on state base current to the (wo transistors respectively during saturation region. In symmetrical multivibrator A&D-22ANALOG & DIGI iCTRONI R, = Rio Ry = Rv, and Cy = Cy icc, the components in one half of the circuit are considered to be equal to their components in the other half. Frequency of Oscillations The frequency of astable multivibrator or free running multivibrator is given by, . 1 1 o Total time period (T) 1.39RC RC 6. a) What are the advantages and disadvantagos of negative feedback? b) Anegative feedback amplifier has the following parameters: Open loop Gain 4 = 200; feedback ratio /4= 0.02 and input voltage ¥, =5mV Compute the following i) Gain with feedback Output voltage Feedback factor Feedkack voltage. [WBUT 2016] Ans’ a) Advantages 1. Gain sensitivity. Variations in the circuit transfer function (gain) as a result of changes in transistor parameters are reduced by feedback. This reduction in sensitivity is one of the most attractive features of negative feedback. 2. Bandwidth extension. The bandwidth of a circuit that incorporates negative feedback is larger than that of the basic amplifier. 3. Noise sensitivity. Negative feedback may increase the signal-t to-noise ratio if noise is generated within the feedback loop. 4 Reduction of nonlinear distortion. Since transistors have nonlinear characteristics, distortion may ap-pear in the output signals, cspecially at large levels, Negative feedback reduces this distortion. 5. Control of impedance levels. The input and output impedances can be increased or decreased with the proper type of negative feedback circuit. Disailvantages 1. Circuit gain. The overall amplifier gain, with negative feedback, is reduced compared to the basic amplifier used in the circuit. 2. Stability, There is a possibility that the feedback circuit may become unstable (oscillate) at high frequencies. b) 4=200, =.02, V,=5n¥ 200__ 200 _ 49 . A ) nT ¥200x.02 144 Vv whe 9992 AV, = 10° x10? = 1" ii) Gain Y, 200 3x10 u ii) Feedback factor= By =200%.02 = 4 A&D-23POPULAR PUBLICATIONS ower amplifier? How different types of classification te a in paver ampli ie explain the operation of Class B push-pull amplifier? b) What is crossover distortion? [WBUT 2016] Answe a) 1" Part: ; ; ; _ Power Amplifiers are large signal amplifiers, which are designed to give power gain with reasonable efficiency. This gain in output ac power is achieved by converting de power from supply to’ac power at the output. 2"™ Part: Different’ power amplifiers are- : a Class‘A, Class B,Class AB and Class C 3° part: Refer (0 Question No. 4 of Long Answer Type Questions. b) Refer to to Question No. 10(b) of Long Answer Type Questions. 8. a) What are the’ possible classification of power amplifiers depending on the position of their Operating point? b) For a Transformer coupled class A amplifiers draw the AC load line. Hence calculate the maximum value of efficiency. c) For class B push-pull amplifier calculate the maximum value of efficiency. : : [WBUT 2018} Answer: 7 a) On the basis of mode of operation i.e. the portion of the input cycle during which collector current flows, the power amplifiers may be classified as follows: Class A Power Amplifier: When the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of the signal, the powe* amplifier is known as class A Power Amplifier. Class B Power Amplifier: When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B Power Amplifier. Class C Power Amplifier: + When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, it i known as class C Power Amplifier, ‘There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A and class B amplifiers so as to utilize the advantages of both. Before going into the details of these amplifiers, ue s let us have a look at the important terms that have to be considered to determine the effici jency of an amplifier. b) Refer 0 Question No. I(a) & (b) of Long Answer Type Questions. c) Refer to Question No. 4(1" & 2"4 Part) of Long Answer Type Questions, A&D-24,ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS 9. Calculate duty Cycle. Draw H loop and find the oxprossion for Hysteresis voltago . [WBUT 2019] A Schmitt trigger is a circuit which generates an output waveform of a square wave of a particular duty cycle. It can be implemented on several devices, however most commonly on the operational amplifier, av When we give a positive feedback to the opamp, it no more behaves as a linear IC. If the input voltage difference (ic. Vp-Vn) is greater than 0, then it gives a +Vsat output and if the input voltage difference is lesser than OV, it gives a'-Vsat output... : This is the idea behind the Schmitt trigger. Now the output of the opamp is fed back to the non inverting terminal of the IC. This is used to control the upper and lower threshold voltages in the case of a Schmitt trigger. To vary the duty cycles, we usc diodes and more resistors. H loop: Circuits with hysteresis are based on the fundamental positive feedback idea: any active circuit can be made to behave as a Schmitt trigger by. applying a positive feedback so that the loop gain is more than one. ‘The positive feedback is introduced by adding a part of the output voltage to the input voltage. Expression for hysteresis Voltage: . | The difference between the two threshold voltage is known as the hysteresis, Because of two threshold voltages, the noise immunity of the circuit can be increased by using this Schmitt trigger. The Schmitt trigger circuit'is characterized by the hysteresis curve or the voltage transfer curve A&D-25POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Schmitt Trigger — Input Characteristics Hysteresis Voltage Plot “Ve 4 > > . Vut Y Vg + -v Y (Wey Vigd) — + wo + ANT = (Ves ~ Vipr- ) Volt = Hysterisis Voltage. 40. Write short notes on the following: . a) Voltage comparator using Op-Amp [WBUT 2014] b) Cross over distortion [WBUT 2015] c) 555 timer [WBUT 2015] 4) Phase shift oscillator [WBUT 2046, 2018] e) Current shunt feedback . [WBUT 2016, 2018] Answer: a) Voltage comparator using Op-Amp: A voltage comparator is an electronic circuit that compares two input voltages and lets you know which of the two is greater. It’s easy to create a voltage comparator from an op amp. because the polarity of the op-amp's output circuit depends on the polarity of the difference between the two input voltages. y Veer Vee x In the voltage-comparator circuit, first a reference voltage is Applied to the inverting inpul (V.); then the voltage to be compared with the reference voltage. is applied to the noninverting input. The output voltage depends on the valuc of the input voltage relative to the reference voltage, as follows: Input Voltage _— Output Voltage Less than reference voltage i al to reference volta Greater than reference voltage [Positive id AXD-26106 & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS over distortion: b) Cross ort voliage Vie Output voltage Crossover Fig: Crossover distortions on For class B operation, the BE junction voltage must be greater than cut-in voltage (Vac = 0.65 V) so that linear operation is guaranteed. Whenever there is a zero crossing at the input, we get output (or, the transistor becomes ON) only after the input voltage reaches +Vae (or, -Ve for the negative half-cycle). This phenomenon results in a distortion ‘occurs which is known as crossover distortion (see figure). ¢) 585 timer: The functional block diagram and 555 timer connection diagram are shown in,figure 1.(c), 1. (a) and 1.(b). ts! se : 7 Vee i os 7 —| 355 [9] Trsaer (a) Fig: 1. 555 timer connection dia; 7 gram (Top Vi (b) Metal Can package (Top en iew) A&D-27POPULAR PUBLICATIONS The IC 555 timer is av ev ' 7 Como ft ER Voltage_gt Comparator | > Buffer} Oher-riding = Reset R 1 Oupu ‘Threshold Duchar Internal Ret ‘Comparator 2 Ground Fig.: 1(c) Functional block diagram of 555 timer lable in two package styles, 8-pin circular style, TO-99 can or 8- pin mini DIP or as 14-pin DIP. The important features of the 555 timer are given below: ay Q) GB) (4) (3) (6) 7) (8) (9) (10) Operating voltage => +5 V to +18V Capacitor to source or sink current of 200mA. Ithas in both free-running (astable) and one short (monostable) modes. Ithas an adjustable duty cycle and timing is from microseconds through hours. The operating temperature of SE $55 is designed for the range from -55° to +125°C while the NE 555 operates over a temperature range of 0° to 470°C. The IC 555 timer is a very reliable. low cost and easy to use Turn off time less than 2 psec. Compatible with both CMOS and TTL circuits. Maximum operating frequency greater than 500 KHz Nommally on and normally off output. Application of timer IC SEINE 555 - Application of IC 555 are given below: SPA AWA wN 10. i. Monostable, astable multivibrator. Digital logic probes, In precision timing instruments/applications. DC to DC converters. Pulse generation. Tachometers. Analog frequency meters. Waveform generator. Palse width modulation, Pulse position modulation, Infrared ans A&D-28LOG & DIGI d) Phase shift oscillator: Refer to Question No. 3(b) of Long Answer Type Questions. ©) current shunt feedback: ah Amplifier A B i The above figure is called current shunt feedback. In this connection, a fraction of output currents covered into a proportional voltage by the feedback network and this applied in purpled with input voltage: R 1+ BA, output resistance R, = A&D-29POPULAR PUBLICATIONS NUMBER SYSTEMS EE = Chapter at a Glance a framework where a sel of numbers are represented by nunierats ine A number system f » Decimal Number Syste, inary Number System, ‘Consistent manner, © Compliments of a nw Completn ved in dighal computers for elinplifying toe subtraction operation and for logical manipulation, ‘There are two typen of complements Sur cach base-r-system: 1. rs complement 2. (= 1)'s complement \1 's Complement of Binary Number [t The 1's complement of binary number can be found by changing all 1 (one) to 0 (zero) and all {zero) to 1 (one). 'S Complement of Binary Number 2's complement of a binary number can'be found by sdding 1 to 1"s complement of bins number © Example: Find 1's and 2s complement of (1011010); 10.0 sind Oto | 1 0 1 ! 0 1 0 1 1 4 4 1 1 L 0 1-0 0 1 0 ! I'scomplement = 0100101 Adding | td 2'scomplement 0100110 *__Signed binary number representation with I's and 2's complement method: 1. First, we conyert 5 and | to binary. 101 (5) 1 (1) 2. Now we add a sign bit to cach one. Notice that we have padded 'I' with zeros soit O101 (5) ‘ill have four bits. . 0001 (1)} B. To make our binary numbers negative, we simply change ou sign bit from ‘O't0'l'. 1101 (-5) 1001 (-1) Here is a quick summary of how to find the 1's complement representation of any decimal number x. 1. Ifxis positive, simply convent x to binary. 2. If xis negative, write the positive value of x in binary 3. Reverse cach bit. First, we write the Positive value of the number in binary. ‘O1O1 (+5) Next, we reverse cach bit of the number so I's become O's and 0's become I's 1010 (-5) A&D-30ANALOG & DIGI \I 11 FCTRONICS Here Is a quick summary of how to find the 2's complement representation of any decimal number x. Notice the first three steps are the same as }'s complement. Ifx is positive, simply convert x to binary. ive, write the positive value of x in binary Reverse each bit, 4. Add 1 to the complemented number. 1. First, we write the positive value of the number in binary. 0101 (45) 2, Next, we reverse cach bit to get the I's complement. 1010 3._Last, we add | to the number. 1011-5) Multiple Choice Type Questions 1, Hoy many 1's are present in the binary representation of decimal number (3 x512+7 x 644+5 x 8+ 3)? - [WBUT 2007, 2018) d) 14 a) 8 b)9 c) 10 - Answer: (b) 2. If (212) , = (23) 19 Where x is base (+ ve integer), then the value of xis [WBUT 2007, 2008] a)2 b)3 ©)5 a4 Answer: (b) 3. If, (128)10 = (1003),, the possible base bis [WBUT 2010] a3 * b) 4 . ©)5 Answer: (c) 4. The decimal equivalent of (1111100100), is [WBUT 2011] a) 998 b) 568 c) 996 d) none of these Answer: (c) . . . 5. The decimal equivalent of (AOF9.0EB)i is [WBUT 2011] a) 44297.0967 —_b) 67902.8796 c) 41209.0572 d) none of these Answer: (d) 6. Hexadecimal equivalent of the binary no. torssotoott4 is [WBUT 2013) a) 2E8F b) 1E7A . 0) ar ) 1E9D Answer: (a) 7. Two 4-bit 2's complements of binary numbers 1011 and 0110 are added. Then the result will bo [WBUT 2013} a) 4114 b) 0010, ©) 1101 d) 0004 Answer: (d) . . 8. Tho valuo of base X for which (211)X = (0.62)8 Is. [WBUT 2014] a) 08 b) 10 c) 16 4) 07 Answer: (d) , A&D-31POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 9.1F (54), =(,V),, thon tho valuo of X Is [WBUT 2017) a) 123 b) 342 c) 213, d) 132 Answer: (b) Short Answer Type Questions 1. Find out the 7's complemont of (- 756). (WBUT 2007) Answer: | . For base R system, with word length = a bits, for a positive number N then R's Nand (R=1)'s complement is (R" -I)-N. complement is V Here R=S(octal),2=3,then the 8's complement of 756, is 1000, -756, = 22,and the 7's complement is (1000, -1)- 756, = 777-756 =2ly. 2, Subtract 144004, from (101011), using 2's complement method. [WBUT 2013) Answer: : . 111001, =000110+1= 000111 101011, =010100+1= 010101 011000 3. Cary out the following operation in binary using 1's complement arithmetic: 8-9-4 [WBUT 2019) Answer: (8)io= (1000); ()io= (1001) —(9)o in 2's complement = (0110) + 1 = 0111 (8)i0 ~ (9)to = (1000) — (O111)2 1000 on 0001 [0-1=1* (* + borrow)] 2 (0001)2=(-1) Proved A&D-32ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS CODES @ Chapter at a Glance ¢ BCD (Binary Coded Decimal): Binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a digital encoding method for decimal numbers in which each digit is represented by its own binary sequence. In BCD, a numeral is usually represented by four bits which, in general, represent the decimal range 0 through 9. ‘ " , Boo Decimal 2 2 penveneene 9 ASCII (American Standard code for information interchange): ASCII is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange, also known as ANSI X3.4. It is quite elegant in the way it represents characters and it is very easy to write code to manipulate upper/lowercase and check for valid data ranges. It is essentially a 7-bit code which allows the 8th most significant bit (MSB) to be used for error checking, however most modern computer systems tend to use ASCII values of 128 and above for extended character sets. » EBDIC code: EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code) is a character encoding’set used by IBM mainframes. It uses the full 8 bits available to it, so parity checking cannot be used on an 8 bit system. It has a wider range of control characters than ASCII. Gray Code: The reflected binary code is known as gray code.POPULAR PUBLICATIONS In this code, a decimal number is represent in binary form in such a way such that each grey code number differs from the preceding and succeeding number by a single bit Then itis called refleetd code. Long Answer Type Questions 1. Write short note on Gray code. [WBUT 2016, 2018]. Answer: . It is 2 non-weighted code. In this code a decimal number is represented in Binary form in such a way such that each gray code number differs from the preceding and succeeding number by a single bit. This code is a reflected code. A&D-34 1. An example of weighted code Is [WBUT 2009, 2049) . a) Excess-3 b) ASCII ¢) Hamming code d) 8424 ae, Answer: (d) : . 2. Which of the following is reflected code? [WBUT 2009, 2014) , 2) 8424 d) Excess-3 ¢) Gray 4) ASCIL Answer: (c) 3. Which of the following codes is not a BCD code? [WBUT 2010) a) Gry 0) X83 ) 8421 d)all of thoso Answer: (a) 4. (14014); in BCD B421,code is [WBUT 201 3) 00014044 b) 00100144 ¢) 11044001 4) 01101400 Answer: (a) : 5. 1n which code do the successive code characters differ in only one position? DWBUT 2010) - 2) Gray b)Xs3 ) 8424 d) Hamming code * Answer: (a) : . 6.8621 isa [WBUT 2012, 2015) a) Weighted code : b) non- weighted code ; ‘¢) complementary code d) none of these Answer: (a) 7. What is Gray equivalent of the binary 1101? “ WBUT 2014) a) 1104 b) 1014 ) 0114 d)none ofthese. Answer: (d) e ve 5 Short Answer Type Questions . 41. Why gray code is called reflected code? [WBUT 2016) Answer: ;ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS BOOLEAN ALGEBRA re @ Chapter ataGlance «Boolean Algebra: Boolean algebra is an algebraic logic which deals with logic variable. This logic variable having only two values 1 and 0 alternatively “TRUE” or FALSE”. ; «Boolean Theorem and Identification: . 1. Commutative law A+B = B+A Z _ AB= BA binary operation is commutative if changing the order of ‘A@B=B@A -_ fhe operands does not change the end result. . AQB=BOA A binary operation is associative if the order in whi he operations are performed does not matter as fong he sequence of the operands is not changed. That i arranging the parentheses in such an expression wil hnot change its value. 2, Associative law . “At (BEC) = (ABC A(B.C) = (A.B).C A® (BOC }= (A®B) @C Note: NAND & NOR function are not associative. a (b+c)= ab + ac This is called the Distributive Law. Distributivity is a property ofbinary operations thay igeneralizes the distributive law. 3. Distributive law (B+C)= A.BFA.C AX(B.C) = (A4B). (A¥C) 4 Double Negation law: A= A $. Identity law A double negative occurs when two forms of negation a d in the same value! * ; 6. Redundancy law AtAB=A A(ASB) = A whee x Venn diagram: Graphical rey i gi io iagram. nn presentation of logical function is called Venn di: . 1) A+B: First take B completely. . = “POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 2) A-B: Firstinclude A completely and then take the common part of B with universal se, U AB * Representation of SOP (Sum of Product) form: £(A,B,= A.B C+AC# B Cisknown to be in sum of product form. For am variable function, if cach product term contains all the 1 variables (complemented er ‘uncomplemented), the function is said to be in Standard Sum of Product Form and cach such product is known asa “minterm” (denoted by m), eg. f(A, B,C)= ABC+ABC+AEC . ‘This function isin standard SOP form and it consists of 3 minterms ABC, A BCand A BC, Ina standard SOP form, for each minterm an un-complemented variable or literal is treated as “1° and.a complemented literal is treated as ‘0°. It is denoted by I « Representation of POS (Product of sum) form: F(A, B, C)=(A +B +C)(A4C).B +C ) is known to be in product of sum form. For a n variable function, if éach sum term contains all the n variables (complemented or un- complemented), the function is said to be in Standard product of sum form and each such sum isknown as 2 “maxterm” (denoted by M), : eg. F(A, B, C)=(A+B4C) (A +B +C).(A +B+C) ‘This function is in standard POS form and it consists of 3 maxterms (A#B#C), (A+B+C) and (A+B+C). ‘ Ina standard POS form, for each maxterm an un-complemented variable or literal is treated as ‘0’ and a complemented literal is treated as ‘I’. It is denoted by TT. . 1.A+A'B + B'Is equal to : IweUT 2012, 201 a)A be ot do " Answer: (c) 2. A+AB+ABIC'+ ABCD. Answer: (2) equals, BUT 2017 a) A+B+C+D b)A4B'4C'HD! ot" i Answer: (c) 3. [AB'(C+ BD)+A'B'1C Is . - WBUT 2017] a) ABT . 6) BC ‘op BY Answer: (c) ae 8 4, Simplify A'B + A+ BC (BUT 2018) a) A+BC bAtB oa+ac 4) ne oritase A&D-36Short Answer ype Questions 4, Simplify the following Boolean function into [WBUT 2011] 1) Sum of product form ° IN) Product of form: F(4,2,C,D) =)(0,1,2,5,8,9,10). Answer: BD+BC+ACD. i) £(4,8,C,D)=Fm(9,42,5,89,10) . “So TT t Dn oO ol Ll WA B,C, D)=(8+C)(B+D)(4+C+B) ‘ A&D-37POPULAR PUBLICATIONS LOGIC GATES © Chapter at a Glance © De Morgan's Theorem: Statement 1: Wis state that complement complements of the variable. ofthe sum of variable is equal to the product of the’ A B [MB | aa | AG : 1 1 0 I I 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 o [o From the tuthtable we seetat, A¥B=A.B ‘Statement 2+ i states thatthe complement ofthe product of variable is equal to the sum of the complements of the variable, , Prooft ie. AB = A+B : A | B A B AtB | AB A+B . ofelti | 7 | 1 7 : o | 1 0 0 i 1 (1 [oe fo i 0 1 i Cet 0 0 1 a 0 From the truth table we see that, AB By this gate all the Boolean fanetion can be implemented i.e. all the © Universal logic gates: digital system can be implemented. NAND and NOR gate are two universal gates. © NAND Gate as a universal logic gate: - 7 NOT Gate using NAND Gate - Sint at rA AND gate using NAND Gale i . : B Y=AB OR Gate using NAND Gate A Using Demorgan’s theorem Y= A.]EXOR Gate using NAND Gate . Using Demorgan’s 2 theorem, or, Y=A.AB+B.AB (A+B)+B(A+B) =AA+AB4BA4BB + =AB+AB =A@B Multiple Choice Type lons 4. The minimum number of NAND gates required to design one XOR gate is [WBUT 2007, 2010] a)4 bs 6 43 : Answer: (a) : 2. The operation which is commutative but not associative is : [WBUT 2007, 2008, 2009, 2013] a) AND b) XOR c) NAND/NOR @) NOT Answer: (c) ~ 3. The number of XOR gates required for conversion-of 11011 to its equivalent grey code is *: [WBUT 2009, 2018} a)2 - b)4 3. . ays Answer: (b) ‘ 4, The output of a logic gate is ‘1’ when all its i/p are at logic ‘0", The gate is either (WBUT 2009, 2019] “a) NAND or XOR gate b) NOR or XOR gate | . ©) AND or XNOR gate d) NOR or XNOR gate Answer: (d) . : 5. How many minimum NOR gates is required to implement NAND gate? “[WBUT 2042, 2015] a)3 bo ©)5 me 2 Answer: (b) . A&D-39POPULAR PUBLICATIONS: 6. Minimum number of NAND gates required to Implement the XOR gate of two variables is [WBUT 2013) ays 7 <4 d)3 . Answer: (c) 7, Exclusive-OR (XOR) logic gates can be constructed from what other logic gates? UT 2017) a) OR gates only b) AND gates, OR gates and NOT gates © c) OR gates and NOT gates 4d) none of these Answer: (b) 8. The minimum number of NAND gates required to implement an EX-OR gate is [WBUT 2017] a2 b)3 4 as Answer: (c) 9. A 32:1 MUX can be designed using [WBUT 2018] a) two 16:1 MUXs and one two input OR gate b) two 16:1 MUXs and one two input AND gate cc) two 16:1 MUXs and 2 two input OR gate ) two 16:1 MUXs only Answer; (a) 4. Implement 2- input XOR function using minimum number of 2-input NAND gates. [WweUT 2008) Answer: : EX- OR Gate using NAND Gate * A Y= A.AB.B.AB . Using Demorgan’s 2” theorem . ; Y=A4.4B+B.AB ‘ =A(A+B)+B(A+B) =AA+ AB+ BA+ BB =AB+ AB =4@B ASD-40ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS KARNAUGH MAP @ Chapter ata Glance. «© K-map: The Kamaugh map is a tool to facilitate management of Boolean algebraic expressions. A Kamaugh map is unique in that only one variable changes value between sauaes, in ther words, the rows and columnis are ordered according to the principles of Gray © Functions of K-map: : (i) Minimization of Boolean expression. To obtaining the minimal expression of a Boolean function require extensive calculations. Kamaugh map reduce the complexity. (ii) K-maps permit the rapid identification and elimination of potential race hazards, something that Boolean equations alone cannot do. «Two variable k map: 00 ol 10 CD o1| ABCD | ABCD A BCD | aBcp | ABCD | ABCD 10} ascD | aBcD | ABCD | ABCD Minterms A&D-41Multiple Cholce Tyy estlon: 4. The maxterm corresponding to decimal 15 Is [WBUT 2008) a) ABCD b) A'*B'C'40" c)At Bt C+D a A'B'C'D Answer: (b) DA+AB+ABC+ABCDS.. (WBUT 2010). 2 a)A+B+Ce b)A’+ Bee D't... ot do ‘ Answer: (c) . 3. A code used for labeling the cells of aK-map is [WBUT 2010) ; a) 8-4-2-1 binary _b) Hexadecimal ¢) Gray d) Octal . Answer: (2) 4. The minimized expression for the K-map is shown below [WBUT 2010) 4 {ait Ytt _ a) ABCD4ACD b) ABCD+ACD+ABC ¢) BC D+C D+4BC 4) BCD+CD+ABC Answer: (b) . 4. Minimize the following expression using K-¢map and realize the simplified expression using NAND gates only. [WBUT 2006, 2014) G(A,B,C,D) =X (1,2,3,5,6,11,12) + D(7,8,10,14) Answer: G(A.BC.D) = 5 (1,2,3,5,6,11,12)+D(7,8,10,14) ee aD A&D-426, A B & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS be =CD+AD+AD +Bc=C(5+B)+(A@D) B c 2. Simplify the Boolean function using K-map FO,X,Y,Z)= Ym(0,4,5,6, 89)+ 2 dC, | 11, 12, 13, 14, 15)... Answer: Given Boolean function is . F(W,X,¥,Z) =D m( (0.4568.9)+S.4(10,1, 12,13;14,15) - The function is defined in terms of minterms and don't care conditions. K — map representation of the given function is fig. below. wx A&D-43 (530) (657-4 (A+b)+(B+d)-¢ [WeuT 2007]DOSE AR ISUCATIOSS 3. Semptity the following function a ez[pmanas ie iol a FeT H(A oressye Laan using KAP. TUT atop, dQ 1) ry Atswer: a F-T]marasiwus)[ [M0 uae) f= ACD+ACD+BCD =2(AD+AD)+BCD =C(A@D)+BCD 4. Simplify the following expression using Kenap Y= =(0,1,4,5,6,8,9,12,13,14). [WBUT 2008} A&D-44Answer: 5. Simplify the following functions by mea f K-map: F=2m(0.4,7,9,13,15)+d5G,5) et [WBUT 2008] Answer: cD . F " ABC + BD+ ABC 6. Minimize the following expression using Karnaugh Map. (WBUT 2013] ) F(A,ByC,D) =11.M(0,1,3,8,10,15)+T14(11,13,14) | M) FCA,B,C,D)= Ym(0,1,2,5,8,14) + d(4,10,13) : a5 Answer: i) Refer to Question No. I Short Answer Type Questions, . . Cl . . ii) Poo ol Snin = AC +B + ACB " A&D-45POPULAR PUBLICATIONS 7. Simplify the following functions using K-map: [WEUT 2017, a) F(A, B,C, D) = 0(7,9,10, 11, 12,13, 14,15) b) F(A, B,C, D) =z, (0,2,3, 6, 7) + 2, (8,10, 11,15). Answer: (@) F(A, B,C, D)= (7, 9,10, 11, 12,13, 14,15) cD _ AB cD tp cp CD f= AB+AD+AC+BCD (6) F(A, B,C, D) =x, (0,2,3, 6, 7) +2, (8, 10, 11,15) 1b cp. cd AB f=(B+B}(4+0). , 8, Obtain the minimal POS expression of the following function and implement the same using only NOR gates. F(A, B, C, D) = Im(1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 14) + £d(0,3,5) [WBUT 2018] Answer: F(A, B, C, D) = Zm(1, 4, 7, 8, 9, 11) + ¥d(0,3,5) Realize the following expression using k map and implement the simplified expression using NOR gates only. A&D-46: 1. Realize the following expression using K- map and implsment the ‘simplified expression using NOR gates only: . . 2 F(A,B,C.D)= ¥(041,4,6,7,10,11,12,13,15) +4(2,5,9,14) IWBUT 2008, 2018] Answer: ~ Realize the following expression using K map and implement tte simplified expression using NOR gates only, : F(A.BCD) =" (0,1,4,6;7,10,11,12,13,15) + d(2,5,9,14) A&D-47OPULAR PUBLICATIONS =B+ADFACHCD ¥ ao >= —_ TI cD (ADs ACs C+ 8) 2. Minimize the following expression using Karnaugh-map: [WBUT 2010] i) F(A,B,C.D)=1M (0,1,3,8,10,15)+11d(11,13,14) 9,13,15)+ °d(10,14) A&D-48ANALOG & DIGITAL FLECTRONICS ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS swer! : pe=[1(0.438310,15) TT a(1,13,14) i : cD AB a ol Wn 10 0 0 0 00 0 t 3 2 ol 4 5 7 6 0 x x " 12 3 1s 4 D 0 i) u a of a 10 Sain =(A+E)(A4B+D)(B+C +D) ii) F= Y'm(0,4,7,9,13,15)+ 4(10,14) cD . AB 00 ol W to 1 00 oO I 3 2 1]. 1 o1 4 5 7 6 1]: 1 x iu 12, 13, IS cy ° 1 . x 10 8 9 Ww 10 Son = ACD + ACD + BCD C(AD+AD)+BCD =C(A@D)+BCD 3. a) Determine minterm and maxterm. What is canonical form? [WBUT 2016) b) Minimize the following expression using k-map : J(A, B,C, D)=Em(3, 4,5, 6.7,12,13, 14,15). Answer: : . al" Part: 7 A sum term contains all the K variables of the functions in either complemented or not is ‘alled Max term & complement of max terms called Min term, ' Fach individual term in a standard (canonical) SOP form is called minterm and‘ each individual term in a standard (canonical) POS form is called maxterm, Representing the Boolean expression in terms on minterms allows us to introduce a very convenient _ Shorthand notation: . A&D-49POPULAR PUBLICATIONS Let us consider the minterm and maxterm representation of three variables A,Bandc, Vable: Mintenn and maxterm representation of three variables, A, B and C, No. Variables Mintenns, Maxterms B ¢ M, 0 0 A+B+C=M, 0 V A+B+C=M, 1 0 A+B+C=M, ' ' A+B+C=M, a 0 o A+B+C=M, $ 1 0 | A+B+C=M, 6 it ' 8 A+B+C=M, 7 |! ' ' 4+B+C=M, 2" Part: Cannonical Form: In Boolean algebra, any Boolean function can be expressed in a canonical form using the dual concepts of minterms and maxterms.Minterms are called products because they ure the logical AND of a set of variables, and maxterms are called sums because they are thelogical OR of a set of variables. b) cp : AK ol 10 1 00 al 1 al_2| 1 1) 1 oll, { il 6 wy 1 My 13 hs ir 10 1 8 9 ru 10) £(A.B,C,B) =F m(3,4,5,6,7.12,13,14,15) = 84 1CD 4, Write short note on SOP and POS canonical forms of binary subtraction. [WBUT 2010] Answe! Standard Sum of Product Form ¢ £(A,B,C)2 AB C+AC + B Cis knownto be in sum of product form. ¢ For an variable function, if each product term contains all the n variable» (complemented or uncomplemented), the function is said to be in Standard Su! A&D-50ANALOG & DIGITAL ELECTRONICS * “minterm” (denoted by of Product Form and each such product is known as a “mi ( m), eg. f(A, B,C)= ABC + ABC+ABC . i ABc, ABC «This function is in standard SOP form and it consists of 3 minterms nn bic or literal i ¢ Inastandard SOP form, for cach minterm an un-' -complemented variable or is treated as *1” and a complemented literal is treated as *O". Thus for function f(AB.C)= ABC + ABC + ABC we have the values as : ABC = 111 =m; (7, decimal equivalent of 111) ABC =010=m; ABC =001 =m, The above equation can be written as £(A,B,C) =m, +m; + my or, £(A,B,C)= Dom(1, 2,7). Standard Product of Sum Form * F(A, B, C) = (A +B +C)(A#C)(B+C ) is known to be in product of sum form. , : * For a n_ variable function , if cach sum term contains all the n variables (complemented or un-complemented ) , the function is said to be-in Standard product of sum form and .each such sum is known as a “maxterm” (denoted by by M), e.g. F(A’B, C)=(A+B#C) (A +B+C)(A+B+C). © This function is in standard POS form and it consists of 3. maxterms (A+B+C), (A+ B+C) and (A+B+C). * Ina standard POS form, for each maxterm an un-complemented variable or literal is treated as ‘0’ and a complemented literal is treated as ‘1’. Thus for function . -F(A,B,C) = (A+B+C). (A+ B+C.y. (RaBec ) we have the values as: A+B+C=000= 7 G decimal equivalent of 000). A+B+C=l01= A+B+C= iW0=M, The above equation can be written as . F (A, B, C) = Mo. Ms. Mg : . ~ or, F(A,B,C)= [[M(0,5, 6). A&D-51