Impact of Colors on The Psychology of Marketing –

A Comprehensive Over View

Nayanika Singh †
S. K. Srivastava ††

Colors have always played a significant role in impacting one’s moods,

emotions, feelings, sensations and perception and seem to offer
possibilities for multifaceted interpretation rather than leaving room for
only one way of looking at it. Different signs merge in a person’s experience
of a product as colors do not function separately and individually, but
from multi-layered references and can influence consumers’ purchase
decision, how they see things, their emotions, choices and thus are
integral to the realm of advertising and marketing. Furthermore the
perception and application of color is strongly influenced by ones innate
physiological and psychological predisposition, personal experiences,
age, gender, personality, income, ethnographic and demographic factors
that makes its application effective within the domain of marketing all
the more cumbersome and challenging. However, as a marketing tool,
color can be a sublimely persuasive force; and as a functional component
of human vision, color can capture attention, relax or irritate the eyes,
and affect the legibility of the text and - All things put together, the right
colors empower and contribute to the success of an advertising campaign,
a product, a service, or even an interior space and in contrast wrong
colors can be a costly mistake.
The present paper attempts to highlight and discuss the following
research questions:
1. What is the significance and importance of colors in daily life (with
special reference to marketing)?
2. How colors act as a medium in influencing the psychology of
customers, contributing towards their branding, advertising,
marketing and sale, based on a comprehensive review of literature
and some noted case studies?
Key Words: Colors, Marketing, Consumers

† Nayanika Singh is a Research Scholar, Dept. of Psychology, Punjabi University, Patiala.

Email: nanikasingh@gmail.com
†† S. K. Srivastava is Professor and Head, Dept. of Psychology, Gurukul Kingri University, Hardwar.
Email: sksrivastava1981@yahoo.com

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 199 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

 Impact of Colors on The Psychology of Marketing – A Comprehensive Over View

Colors have always played a significant information of color on them, they fail to
role in impacting one’s mood, emotions, be defensive on purchasing a product or
cognitions, sensations and perception service (Cited in Lee, 2002, Color as a tool
(building blocks of psychology) ever for e-branding, MA Design Futures, p.3-
since their applicability and usage was 18).
realized by the ancient Chinese,
“From the moment we know man
Egyptians and Indians as a therapeutic
experiences a message in color and how
raw material. Thereon color was found
he reacts on the base of these sensations
virtually everywhere and for sure the
it is possible to influence him in a buying
advertising and marketing arena was no
situation by selecting adequate colors”.
exception to it.
Uneasily however, color is a moving
Vihma (1995, p.90) asserts that color element. Each color has a specific
(sign) seems to offer possibilities for moving direction and their sensation of
multifaceted interpretation rather than movement contains a symbolic value or
leaving room for only one way of looking language. Indeed color has changed its
at it as, different signs merge in a symbolic meaning as time and space
person’s experience of a product. Colors according to efforts are made to define
do not function separately and color symbolic meaning for the consumer
individually, but from multi-layered (Favre, 1979, p.98). Furthermore the
references. The complexity of color is perception and application color is
increased because the references are not strongly influenced by ones innate
stable or fixed qualities of the product. physiological and psychological
Since references of the sign can be predisposition, personal experiences,
interpreted differently at different times age, gender, personality, income,
and in different situations, the analysis ethnographic and demographic factors
cannot be final and complete. However that makes its effective application
color can influence consumers, purchase within the domain of marketing all the
decision, how they see things, their more cumbersome and challenging.
emotions and thus it are an integral to Rossotti (1983) rightly stated that “We
marketing. Color photographs are must realize that color is a sensation,
commonly used in advertisements produced in the brain, by the light which
because they are thought to have enters the eye; and that while a sensation
superior attention getting properties of a particular color is usually triggered
(Meyer- Levy & Peracchio, 1995). off by our eye receiving light of a
Furthermore, color has been employed particular composition, many others as
as an effective communication tool in physiological and psychological
advertising and marketing as it has very factors”. Since colors are perceived,
clever and persuasive influence. Because interpreted and applied also on the basis
color exerts its effect on the subconscious of hue (character), value (brightness) and
level (Not all but in some cases) people, intensity (chromatic purity) the role and
do not realize that they transfer its effects contribution of experience cannot be
onto the contents of a package (or undermined. As experience teaches that
product) or onto an advertising message. certain combinations of different colors
Not being aware of the decisive are pleasing, others displeasing or

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 200 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

indifferent. The question arises, what hand, as they grow older, both sexes lose
determines the effect? Those colors are interest in intensity of colors and gain
pleasing among which some regular i.e. interest in hue. Children are at their peak
orderly, relationship obtains. Groups of for color-dominance at age 4 and a half,
colors whose effect is pleasing, we call: they turn to form dominance by age 6
harmonious, so we can set up the (throughout adulthood) that is
postulate: Harmony = Order (Itten, 1970, accompanied by life-long interest in
p.20). Furthermore, Zettl (2005) argues color blue. An interesting corollary to
that, “color energy is principally this are the preferences by older adults
determined by saturation level: highly (over 65 years) for bright primary,
saturated warm colors carry more secondary and tertiary colors over pastel
aesthetic energy than do de-saturated shades which stands a sharp contrast to
cold colors”. All these being focal to the popular institutional opinion (Sharpe,
domain of the “psychology of effective 1981).
marketing”.
Here is a comprehensive overview with
Importance of Colors in Daily Life and regards to significance of various colors
with Special Reference to Marketing from the standpoint of both daily life and
with respect to marketing.
“Colors and light are major factors in man-
made environments; their impact influences • Red – Red is an intense color and
mans psychological reactions and has a vibrant and powerful impact
physiological well-being. It is no longer on ones personality and emotions.
valid to assume that the only role of light It is used to indicate celebration,
and color is to provide adequate purity, passion, strength, energy,
illumination and a pleasant visual fire, sex, love, excitement, speed,
environment”. (Mahnke & Mahnke, 1987). heat, arrogance, ambition,
leadership, masculinity, power,
As a marketing tool, color can be a
danger, blood, war, anger,
sublimely persuasive force. As a
revolution and communalism. Red
functional component of human vision,
tends to raise blood pressure, pulse
color can capture attention, relax or
rate, respiration, perspiration and
irritate the eyes, and affect the legibility
excites the brain waves that
of the text. All things considered, the
contribute in stimulating people to
right colors empower and contribute to
make quick decisions. It is
the success of an advertising campaign,
popularly used by product
a product, a service, or even an interior
designers and advertisers to
space. In contrast, using the wrong
highlight objects of importance,
colors can be a costly mistake
endorse brands and in foods and
(Colorcom.com).
flavors.
However, it has been observed that
• Blue - Blue is considered to be a
young people between the ages of 6 and
cool and non-threatening color
47, it is indicated that females prefer
which has a tranquilizing effect on
warm colors and males the cool
the mind. It is used to symbolize
evaluation of such colors. On the other
water bodies, depression,

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 201 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

 tranquility, trust, confidence, power, sophistication, formality,
conservatism, dependability, elegance, mystery, style, evil,
wisdom, wealth royalty, emptiness, darkness, seriousness,
truthfulness, creativity and plays a conventionality, unity, sorrow,
significant role in religious beliefs professionalism, sleekness and
and ceremonies. Furthermore, it mourning in the west.
tends to lower blood pressure, pulse
• Gray - Gray is a blaze color and is
rate and brain waves. It is also used
used to portray elegance, respect,
to symbolize berry and resin flavor.
reverence, wisdom, old-age,
• Green - Green signifies a balanced pessimism, boredom, decay,
and a rejuvenated mind. It dullness, urban sprawl, intense
symbolizes growth, rebirth, emotions, balance, mourning and
renewal, nature, fertility, youth, neutrality.
good luck, generosity, health,
• Orange - Orange color signifies a
abundance, stability and creative
happy, balanced and an
intelligence. It ais also used to
enthusiastic mind. It is used to
symbolize lemon flavor.
portray energy, heat, fire,
• Yellow - Yellow signifies a happy playfulness, gaudiness, arrogance,
and cheerful disposition of the warning, danger, desire, royalty
mind but, when confronted with too and religious ceremonies and
much it signifies anger. It is used to rituals. It is also used to signify
represent sunlight, joy, earth, orange and citrus flavor.
optimism, intelligence, hope,
• Brown - Brown color has an earthy
liberalism, wealth, dishonesty,
and environmental quality and is
weakness, greed, decay aging,
generally coupled with green. It is
feminity, gladness, sociability and
used to represent skin tones,
friendship. It is popularly used to
calmness, boldness, depth, natural
signify butterscotch, mango and
organisms, richness, tradition,
pineapple flavors.
heaviness, poverty, dullness,
• White - White represents purity, roughness, steadfastness,
peace, neutrality and tranquility of simplicity, dependability,
the mind and body. It is used as a friendliness and aids in
backdrop to give a neutral effect. stimulating appetite and is
Furthermore, it symbolizes the therefore popularly used for
portrayal of youth, sterility, light, advertising various bakery
reverence, truth, snow, air, products, chocolates, foods and
cleanliness, coldness, fearfulness flavors.
and humility. It is also used to
• Pink - Pink is considered to be a
symbolize vanilla flavor /essence.
sister color of red and has a
• Black - Black is a multi-dimensional tranquilizing effect on the mind. It
color and is used to symbolize is used to symbolize gratitude,
absence, rebellion, modernity, appreciation, admiration,

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 202 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

 sympathy, socialism, health, blue-grey are sophisticated and
feminity, love, marriage, joy, reserved.
innocence, flirtatiousness, child-
Ø Dark shades such as deep forest
like behavior and symbolizes sweet
green and navy blue are dignified
taste; therefore it is used for the
and professional.
coloring and packaging of sweets,
candies, bakery products and Ø Light shades of most colors such as
strawberry flavor. pink and light blue are delicate and
ethereal.
• Purple- Purple is considered to be
the color of royalty and wisdom in Role and Importance of Colors on the
the west and has a spiritual effect Psychology of Marketing
on the mind. It is used to portray
nobility, humility, spirituality, “Companies often become interested in the
ceremony, mystery, wisdom, color of the interior of their office because it
enlightenment, flamboyance, is believed its appropriate use will make
exaggeration, sensuality, pride and people work harder. Red, orange and yellow
lavender essence. may be the colors, they choose because they
may tend to stimulate and excite. Others may
• Indigo - Indigo is used to symbolize choose colors such as pale-greens, light –
spirituality and intuition. yellows and off-whites because these colors
• Violet - Violet is used to portray offer a more soothing environment, and allow
elegance, grace and artistic workers to focus on their work” (Wollard,
creativity. 2000).
• Magenta - Magenta is used to Review of literature indicates that colors
portray artistic creativity. have a profound effect on the efficacy of
the message being conveyed and
• Rose - Rose is used to represent
therefore plays an integral role in
optimism, hope and love and used
increasing the credibility, attractiveness
in advertising to signify rosy
of the product and the persuasibilty of
flavors.
the customer in the following ways:
Furthermore, Morton (2001) indicates
§ Colors can integrate, that is they
the following attributes of colors that
create a visual unity of the sentiments
come handy in packing, branding,
shown in an advertisement or poster.
labeling, advertising and marketing of
products; § Colors can make objects and scenes
resemble very closely what they
Ø Bright vivid colors such as pure red
look like in real life.
and blue are energizing and out-
ward focused. § Through symbolic interpretation,
colors add themselves to the
Ø Extremely bright, electrifying colors
imaginary and imply comparisons.
such as lime green and fuchsia are
Hence identity is transferred from
festive ‘hep’ and dynamic.
one object to another (Favre, 1979,
Ø Muted Gray-based colors such as p.100).

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 203 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

Furthermore, Meyers-Levy & Peracchio the products they buy. These groups
(1995) suggest that when consumers’ were :( Cooper, 1994)
processing motivation is low, products
v Color Forward Consumer- Color
attitude will tend to be based on simple
forward consumer group include
heuristics associated with superficial
consumers who like to be the first
cues such as the physical attractiveness
to try a “new” color and are willing
of the photo, the product and/or the
to spend more money for it. They
product user or spokesperson. Because
form the bulk of the market and tend
color is likely to enhance the perceived
to consist women under the age of
attractiveness of these objects,
30 years or over 50 years or men
consumers are likely to produce more
under 30 years; city dwellers,
favorable product attitudes when
impulse buyers and people who
advertisements contain certain color,
make less than 35,000/year.
rather than only black-and-white.
However, when consumers are v Color Prudent Group- Color prudent
motivated to process an advertisement group include consumers who will
critically and extensively with an eye buy a new color only after seeing a
towards substantiating the friend try it. They often put quality
advertisements’ assertions, it appears ahead of color. When choosing a
that the color may have one of the two product they tend to be men or
effects: women from the age group of 30-50
years, sub-urban, carefree
ü Firstly, color can consume
shoppers, and people who make
resources by stimulating inferential
more than 50,000 a year.
processing, that may benefit
advertisements’ claim v Color Loyal Group- Color loyal group
substantially, as colors and objects include consumers who stays with
that are agreeable with the message “safe” colors such as blue, gray and
advocacy are processed. black rather than fashionable
colors. They include men over 60
ü Secondly, color may undermine
years, sub-urban, or rural, and may
advertisements, claim substantially
fall anywhere in the income
by usurping resources that would
bracket. They form a small segment
otherwise have been devoted to
of the market but, a predictable
processing substantial information.
group as they buy the same color
Studies indicate that the color of each year (Cooper, 1994)
products, the income earned and the
characteristics of the consumer play an Review of Literature
important role in deciding preferences A substantial review of literature
for particular goods and commodities indicates that colors have a profound
that they would like to purchase. The role in both advertizing and successfully
Cooper Marketing Group developed marketing the products. Mehrabian &
“Color Lifestyle” groups that place Valdez (1994) studied the effects of color,
consumers in three different groups hue, brightness and saturation using
according to the effect that color has on

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 204 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

PAD (Pleasure- Arousal-Dominance) Studies indicate that packaging has a
emotion model (stresses on the fact that significant impact of consumers’
emotional states of persons change perception and choice; as packages are
continuously throughout the day as it used as a means of attracting attention
progresses) and standard chips. their attention, communicating brand
Saturation and brightness correlated and product meanings for which colors
strongly with effects on emotions. are a handy tool. Furthermore, according
Brightness effects were nearly the same to Schmitt & Pan (1994), “Colors have
for all chromatic and achromatic colors. meanings and, as such they are fundamental
Blue, blue-green, green, red-purple, tool in corporate marketing strategies and
purple and purple-blue were found to communications. These underlying
be the most pleasant hues; while yellow meanings are often used for the purpose of
and green-yellow were the least product and brand differentiation.”(Schmitt
pleasant. Green-yellow, blue-green and & Pan, 1994).
green was the most arousing and purple-
Gordon, et.al (1994) focused their
blue and yellow-red were the least
research on the colors of packages. Their
arousing. Green-yellow induced greater
results support the suggestion that colors
dominance than red-purple; that is it
do communicate. Colors were found to
made subjects feel a higher degree of
be related to the brand as they were
control in the environment. Furthermore,
found to communicate the quality of the
Osgood, et.al (1957) showed empirically
brand. Furthermore, colors were implied
that there was a strong association
to be related to the core product as the
between color and objects; at-least on the
study found that colors communicate
basis of an evaluative scale of
e.g. such as feature of the product as
preferences. On an activity scale of
taste. Their study also implies that
preferences , the ordering of colors
colors have an impact on the behavior of
generally followed the hue dimension
consumers e.g. they discovered that
“hot” colors such as red and yellow, lean
colors have an impact on brand
towards activity, black and white were
evaluations and on brand choices.
by and large neutral and “cold” colors
such as green and blue were closer to Furthermore, colors play a dominant role
the passive end of the spectrum. Colors in advertising through yellow pages and
could also be ordered along the via the internet (through web-pages).
saturation dimension on the potency of Lohse & Rosen (2001) suggest that the
scales; the more saturated the color, the use of color in the yellow pages
more potent the object being judged is advertisements and use of photographic
perceived. It appears that the evaluative quality increases the perception of
effect of the color interacts with the quality of the products/services and the
nature of an object, where as the effect of credibility of the claims made about
color upon judged activity and the products or services for a particular
potency of objects with which they are business when compared with non-
associated are systematic and consistent colored advertisements. Other than this,
with the hue and saturation dimensions, use of color in yellow pages
respectively. advertisements creates a more favorable

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 205 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

attitude towards the advertisement and peoples’ perception of relative sweetness
the advertiser. Gorn, et.al (2004) in case of a candy. The brown and pink
demonstrated that the color of a webpage candies were judged quite sweet, while
background can affect the perceived blue and green candies were thought to
loading time of the page. The researchers be without any sugar at all. This also
used sliding scale between 1 and 9 and explains the relative success of pink on
tested for feelings of relaxation, bakery boxes. Coupled with adrenalin
calmness, peacefulness, uneasiness, produced by yellow, saturated re-yellow
tension and anxiousness of the combinations in light and paint are ideal
background colors changed, so do the for fast food places. Red is used in places
participants feelings of relaxation and that serve alcohol, although the tendency
perceived quickness. The authors for this color to increase aggression may
studied the impact of blue and yellow be less than desirable (Sharpe, 1981).
background webpage colors on users’
Furthermore, color consultant, Leslie
time perceptions while browsing the
Harrington evaluated pill colors for a
web. They investigated the time between
pharmaceutical company, and surveyed
the color of a web page’s background
several thousand people in 12 countries.
screen while the page was downloading
As expected Harrington found that hues
and the perceived quickness of the
were received differently across the
download. The authors predicted that
globe. Interestingly, lighter value blue
the background screen color influences
was considered calming across all
how quickly a page is perceived to
cultures, but responses to other colors
download and that the feelings of
varied. Other high calm colors were dark
relaxation moderate the influence. The
green in the U.S., Great Britain and
results show that participants who
Korea; medium green in Italy and
viewed the color blue perceived the page
Germany and brown in Japan
as downloading faster. These browsers
(Konigsberg, 2007).
had a greater feeling of relaxation and
positive attitude towards the website. Case Studies
One limitation of the study was that it
only tested blue and yellow, and • The Proctor and Gamble Case
findings were confined to the effects of It was way back in the 1950’s
time perception. Also, yellow might be a Proctor & Gamble the manufacturer
weak comparison to blue because there of “Cheer” detergent was deciding
are stronger colors that can be used. A on the colors of the “flecks” in the
good option is red because red has more detergent. P& G tested three
consistently been found to be different different color flecks red, blue and
from cool colors (blue & green) than yellow. They produced many boxes
yellow. of this detergent with the three
Colors have been central to the endorsing colors. Consumer reports stated
food brands and flavors across different that people complained that
cultures, age-groups and gender the detergent with yellow flecks didn’t
world over. A study carried out at clean clothes, enough; red flecks
O’Hare found that color influenced actually damaged their clothes and

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 206 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

 blue flecks were singled out for their color in advertisements can act as
ability to get clothes cleaner and it a powerful way of attracting and
was these blue flecks that helped luring the psyche of customers
making “Cheer” detergent one of towards brand selection and
the longest lived brands in the purchase. Meyers- Levy & Tybout
market ( Piirto, & Claudia,1997). (1989) claim that a moderate
amount of using incongruity
• Brotherm Skin Product Company Case
between a schema and an object
Brotherm a French skin product may be beneficial provided the
company used white, blue and incongruity is perceived as
silver with various tones of blue in interesting and positive. However,
all their color schemes for whole an incongruous color might also
design product line stretching from have adverse effects, shocking the
using the same color palette consumer and so engendering a
throughout their uniforms, shop positive attitude towards the
outfitting and site design; thereby advertisement. It is important then
giving the iconic symbol value; i.e. from a managerial standpoint to
the website and the real world store know what might be the positive/
and all consumer communications negative effect of color incongruity
share the same identity so that in marketing.
messages to the customers are
unequivocally from the brand. In this Heinz had great success with the
case white symbolizes purity, unexpected color change ( based on
honesty and clarity; blue symbolizes the incongruity principle) when it
the product component concentrate launched the green ketchup variety
and spar water (Cited in Lee, R.N. in 2000; in consequence to which
(2002). Color as a tool for e-branding, more than 10 million bottles were
MA Design Futures, p.3-18). sold in the first seven months, with
a turnover of $ 23 million in sale-
• IMac Case simply just attributable to a mere
Perhaps there is no better example color change from red to green.
of color impact on sales than the
• Comet Superstore Case
August, 1998 launch of teal IMac.
Consumers bought up more than Angela Wright (1995) a color
800,000 machines in less than five expert, selected blue and light
months by January, 1999. Apple orange for the signage’s which
had launched five more fruity indicated “white goods” and
colors in blueberry, grape, brown goods (white goods being
tangerine, lime and strawberry trade name for domestic appliances
(Parmer, 2004). such as fridges, cookers, washing
• The Heinz Case- An Example of Color machines etc). Brown goods being
Incongruity in Marketing the more leisure oriented items
such as T.V. and videos, music
Review of literature indicates that systems, camcorders and other
sometimes use of an incongruous gadgetry. For the flooring on

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 207 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

 domestic appliances side aqua blue Conclusion
and for those on brown goods,
“Color has the ability to increase credibility
violet was adopted. Spring green
of the advertiser and believability of ad
was selected for cash desk. Violet
claims, particularly if the ad claims are color
shade was associated with future
related” (Lohse & Rosen, 2001).
modern technology and green
However, more research and review of
symbolizing money. Yellow was
supporting literature is required with the
added for the central aisle flooring
collaborative efforts of advertising and
which divided the two sections.
marketing experts, psychologists and
Spring color group such as light
color specialists, keeping in mind the
orange, blue, spring green, yellow
changing perception and mind-sets of
were appropriate for the brand
people centering around the factors
concept, cheap and cheerful and for
influencing their choice and decision for
the target, young peoples’
the purchase of products/ brands where
sensibilities (Wright, 1995).
colors play an essential; if not the only
role, around which revolves the essence
of effective marketing.

REFERENCES Konigsberg, E. (Jan, 2007). Made in the

Shade. New Yorker, Vol. 82, 42-49.
Color Consultation: We create colors of
success. Retrieved, August, 3, 2011 from Lee, R.N. (2002). Color as a tool for e-branding,
www.colorcom.com. MA Design Futures, 3-18
Cooper, Mimi (May, 1994). The Color of Lohse, G.L. & Rosen, D.L. (2001). Signaling
Money May Actually Be Fuchsia. Discount Quality and Credibility in Yellow Pages
Merchandiser. Retrieved, August, 2, 2011 Advertising : The Influence of Color and
from New York Public Library Online. Graphics on Choice. Journal of Advertising,
Vol. 30(2), 73-85.
Favre, J.P. (1979). Color and Communication,
Zurich: ABC Edition. Mahnke, H.F., & Mahnke, H.R. (1987).
Color and Light in man-made Environments,
Gordon, A., Finlay, K., & Watts, T. (1994).
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
The Psychological Effects of Color in
Company.
Consumer Product Packaging. Canadian
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 13, 3-11. Meyer-Levy, J., & Peracchio, L.A. (1995).
Understanding the Effects of Colors: How
Gorn, G.J., Chattopadhyay, A., Sengupta,
the Correspondence between Available
J, & Tripathi, S. (2004). Waiting for the web.
and Required Resources Affects Attitudes.
How Screen color affects time perception.
Journal of Consumer Research, Vol.22, 121-
Journal of Marketing Research, XLI, 215-225.
138.
Itten, J. (1970). Te Elements of Colored Faber
Meyer-Levy, J. & Tybout, A.M.(1989).
Buren, New York: Van Nostrand
Schema Congruity as a basis for product
Richmond Company.
evaluation. Journal of Consumer Research,

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 208 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015

Vol. 16, 39-54. Sharpe, T.D. (1981). The Psychology of Color
Morton, J. (2001). Color, Voodoo for E- and Design, Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield,
Commerce, Honolulu: COLORCOM. Adams & Co.

Osgood, C.E., Suci, G.J., & Tannenbaum, Valdez, P., & Mehrabian, A. (1994). Effects
P.H. (1957). The Measurement of Meaning, of Color on Emotion. Journal of Experimental
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. Psychology, Vol. 123 (4), 394-409.

Parmer, A. (Feb, 15, 2004). Marketers ask: Vihma, S. (1995). Products As Representation-
Hues on first. Marketing News. A Semiotic and aesthetic study of design
products, Finland: University of Art and
Piirto, R., & Claudia, M. (1997). The Design, Helsinki: UIAH.
Wonderful World of Color. Marketing
Tools. Retrieved, August, 2, 2011 from New Wollard, K. (2000). Orange You Glad You
York Public Library Online. Aren’t Blue? Newsday. Retrieved, August,
2, 2011 from New York Public Library
Rossotti, H. (1983). Color: Why the World Online.
Isn’t Grey, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
University Press. Wright, A. (1995). The beginners guide to color
psychology, London: Kyle Cathie.
Schimitt, B.H., & Pan, Y. (1994). Managing
Corporate and brand identities in the Asia- Zettl, H. (2005). Sight, Sound, Motion: Basic
Pacific Region, California. Management Media Aesthetics, Belmont, CA: Thomson
Review, Vol. 36(4), 32-48. Wadsworth.

MANAGEMENT AND LABOUR STUDIES 209 Vol. 36 No. 2, May 2011

Downloaded from mls.sagepub.com at NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY on June 8, 2015