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TYPES OF EQUIVALENCE USED IN TRANSLATING EDUCATIONAL

TERMINOLOGY

Conference Paper · November 2018

DOI: 10.21125/iceri.2018.1302

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 TYPES OF EQUIVALENCE USED IN TRANSLATING EDUCATIONAL
TERMINOLOGY
S. Șimon, A. Dejica-Carțiș, C.E. Stoian, A. Kriston
Politehnica University of Timișoara, Faculty of Communication Sciences (ROMANIA)

Abstract
The internationalisation of the educational system is a growing trend in the contemporary society,
offering mobility opportunities for both teaching staff and students. In this context, mastering the
educational terminology in several international languages has become a necessity for anyone active
in the field of education. Therefore, all the students, particularly those in translation, should be able to
use the educational terminology in the languages they study. The present article proposes a new
interdisciplinary method of teaching translation by equivalence, which consists of several activities and
focuses on four languages, i.e. Romanian as a source language, English, German and French as
target languages. The method was tested on the 2nd year students in Translation and Interpreting at
the Faculty of Communication Sciences, Politehnica University of Timișoara (Romania). The purpose
of the article is both to show a possible way to teach the concept of equivalence in an interdisciplinary
manner, applying it to the translation of educational terminology, and to reveal the linguistic
preferences for accommodating existing or new educational phrases, thus drawing the attention to the
existing similitudes and differences among languages.
Keywords: equivalence, teaching, terminology, translation.

1 INTRODUCTION
The internationalisation of education is a direct consequence of the globalisation process [1], which
started once people began to communicate, exchange goods, conquer other peoples and new
territories, increase their power by influencing and dominating politically, economically, religiously,
culturally, and ideologically [2]. Generally speaking, globalisation refers to “the flow of technology,
knowledge, people, values, ideas, capital, goods, and services across national borders” [2], and
th
cannot be done without human interaction. In the second half of the 20 century, the globalisation
process became particularly obvious with the development of the new transportation, communication
and information technologies which changed for good the way in which people interacted both for
personal and professional reasons. The new technologies made it possible for businesses to go global
and to facilitate the contact among people belonging to different cultures and having different
educational backgrounds. Doing businesses globally, people started moving around, changing living
and work places for a shorter or longer period of time. To smoothen this path and to increase the
individual productivity, the need was felt to create a common global educational framework that could
be beneficial to all parties, both employers and employees. Thus, started the integration of the national
educational system into the global one. This process is called the internationalisation of education [3],
and takes place at several levels:
• national: e.g. national educational policies on foreign relations;
• sectoral: e.g. sectoral educational policies on licensing, accreditation, curriculum, teaching,
research, regulations, quality assurance, funding from national, regional, and/or international
sources;
• institutional: e.g. programmes devised by educational institutions, observing the national and
sectoral policies, such as international teaching staff and student exchanges, various
educational programmes [4].
Today’s global educational system facilitates contacts that can be established among persons active
in the field of education, namely teaching and supporting staff, students, translators and interpreters,
to name but a few. Therefore, mastering the educational terminology in several languages of
international circulation, by anyone working in the field, but particularly by the future professional
translators and interpreters is a must.

Proceedings of ICERI2018 Conference ISBN: 978-84-09-05948-5

12th-14th November 2018, Seville, Spain 1324
Although people get into contact with the educational terminology at least in their mother tongue, it is
not always easy to translate it, and to find a proper equivalent in another language. This fact has
triggered the present study, which draws the attention to the way in which the languages considered –
Romanian as source language, English, German and French as target languages – accommodate
new or existing educational phrases. To attain this goal, the present paper presents a new
interdisciplinary method of teaching translation by equivalence which is made up of five macro-
activities that are done in class, and span over several days. The method was tested on the 2nd year
students in Translation and Interpreting at the Faculty of Communication Sciences, Politehnica
University of Timișoara (Romania). The students study English as their major, and German or French
as their minor. All the students taking part in the activities are native Romanians.

2 METHODOLOGY FOR TEACHING EQUIVALENCE

The proposed interdisciplinary method of teaching equivalence consists of five macro-activities:
− Macro-activity 1: Establishing the theoretical background
− Macro-activity 2: Establishing the corpus in Romanian
− Macro-activity 3: Translating the corpus into English, German and French
− Macro-activity 4: Establishing the type of equivalence used
− Macro-activity 5: Wrapping up the activities.
The learning objectives of the proposed sequence of activities are summarised below:
• students should know the most important theories on equivalence;
• students should be able to apply one theory to a selected corpus that is translated from
Romanian into English, German and French;
• students should be able to think critically, compare results, and draw final conclusions.

2.1 Establishing the theoretical background

To present the theoretical background in a more creative and interactive way, the authors resorted to
three micro-activities:
− micro-activity 1: topic introduction;
− micro-activity 2: identification of the types of equivalence;
− micro-activity 3: choosing the model of analysis.

2.1.1 Topic introduction

The first micro-activity was teacher-centred, as she was the one that delivered a short presentation of
the topic. Thus, she underlined that the translation process is “a process of negotiation between texts
and between cultures, a process during which all kinds of transactions take place mediated by the
figure of the translator” [5]. It can be thus said that it is both a cultural and a linguistic mediation [6].
Jakobson [7] distinguishes between intralingual translation or rewording, interlingual translation or
translation proper, and intersemiotic translation or transmutation. The interlingual translation lies at the
foundation of the translation studies which emerged as a separate discipline in the second half of the
20th century [8].
One of the core issues in translation studies is that of equivalence, which has generated heated
debates in the course of time. The first ones who emphasise the importance of equivalence between
source and target texts were Jakobson [7], Vinay and Darbelnet [9]. Jakobson [7] stresses that there is
no full equivalence between code-units, and as such ‘equivalence in difference’ becomes the central
problem of languages, of linguistics, and, we might add, of translation studies. He shows that ‘cross-
linguistic differences’ appear at the level of grammatical gender, aspect, and semantic fields. In turn,
Vinay and Darbelnet [9] point to the fact that equivalence is just one of the seven translation
procedures (borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and
adaptation), employed while translating. They define equivalence as the translation procedure by
which one text is translated from the source language into the target language “using completely
different stylistic and structural methods” [9]. In Vinay and Darbelnet’s view, equivalence usually

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appears in the case of interjections, onomatopoeia, idioms, proverbs, nominal or adjectival phrases,
clichés, etc. [9].

2.1.2 Identification of the types of equivalence

While, the first micro-activity was teacher-centred, the second micro-activity was student-centred. The
teacher divided the class into six groups. Each group was named after one scholar that had identified
different types of equivalence: Nida [10], Newmark [11], Koller [12], Baker [13], Superceanu [14], and
Pym [15]. Each group had access to the cited bibliography. Their task was to identify and define the
types of equivalence discussed by each author. They wrote their findings in a word document, printed
it in as many copies as the number of students, and distributed the copies to the other groups. Then,
each group chose a speaker that came in front of the class to present the scholar’s opinions on the
topic.
Nida [10] distinguishes between formal and dynamic equivalence. In the first case, the focus is on
rendering the message as accurately as possible in terms of content and form, while in the second
case on recreating the same effect on the receptors of the target text as the one produced by the
source text on its receptors.
Similar to Nida’s formal and dynamic equivalence is Newmark’s semantic and communicative
translation [11]. The semantic translation renders the semantic, syntactical and contextual meaning of
the source text as closely as possible in the target text. The communicative translation creates the
same effect in the source- and target-text readers. However, he emphasises that the communicative
translation, or the dynamic equivalence in Nida’s terms, cannot always be obtained, for example when
there is a huge temporal gap between the source- and target-text readers respectively.
Koller [12] proposes a five-type classification of equivalence:
− denotative equivalence, i.e. equivalence of the extralinguistic realities;
− connotative equivalence, i.e. lexical equivalence;
− text-normative equivalence, i.e. text type equivalence;
− pragmatic equivalence or communicative equivalence, i.e. effect equivalence;
− formal equivalence, i.e. form and aesthetics equivalence.
Baker [13] discusses five cases of equivalence, too:
• equivalence at word level; i.e. the lexical equivalence;
• equivalence above word level, i.e. equivalence at the level of collocations, idioms, fixed
expressions, etc.;
• grammatical equivalence, i.e. equivalence of grammatical categories;
• textual equivalence, i.e. equivalence in terms of cohesion, thematic and information structure;
• pragmatic equivalence, i.e. equivalence of the pragmatic features of the communicative
situations in which the source text and the target text function.
Moreover, Baker also points to the fact that sometimes there is a lack of equivalence between the
source and the target language, in other words some concepts do not exist in the target language. In
such a situation, one speaks of non-equivalence.
A Romanian researcher, R. Superceanu [14], indicates that there are three types of equivalence:
• communicative equivalence, i.e. equivalence in terms of text function, communicative purpose
and effect;
• cognitive equivalence, i.e. equivalence in terms of content;
• linguistic equivalence, i.e. equivalence at word, phrase, clause, sentence and text level.
Finally, Pym [15] emphasises the existence of two types of equivalence:
• natural equivalence, i.e. equivalence that occurs naturally in both source language and target
language, exemplified in translation glossaries and term bases;
• directional equivalence, i.e. equivalence between source text and target text rendered in the
same form, as is the case of translation memories.

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In the end of the second micro-activity, a questions-and-answers session was organised with the aim
of clarifying unclear aspects. In the present case, the students understood their colleagues’
explanations, so there were only laudatory comments.

2.1.3 Choosing the model of analysis

During the third micro-activity, the six groups were asked to choose one of the classifications
presented before in order to use that model of analysis for the translation of a Romanian corpus into
English, German and French. This activity was designed to make the groups interact, to support their
ideas, to negotiate, and finally to make a choice. In our case, the students chose the model proposed
by the Romanian researcher, R. Superceanu [14], for clarity, and pride reasons, as she built her
career in the same university in which they are now students.

2.2 Establishing the corpus in Romanian

The second macro-activity aimed at establishing a corpus of 20 Romanian phrases used in the field of
education with the purpose of creating a micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases. As
Romanian is the mother tongue of the students, we considered it is easier for the students to think of
examples of educational phrases during a brainstorming session. The teacher described the activity
and its purpose to the class and asked a student to come in front and write all the educational phrases
that were uttered by her colleagues. When there were twenty phrases on the board, the activity was
stopped by the teacher. The Romanian phrases uttered during the brainstorming session were:
mobilitate academică; comisie de examinare; educație interculturală; proiectare curriculară; program
de educație și formare; metodă de cercetare în grup; legitimație de student; raport student-profesor;
abordare orientată spre acțiune; formular de solicitare; organism de acreditare; certificat de
participare; trunchi comun; Sistemul European de Credite Transferabile; Uniunea Europeană a
Studenţilor; învățământ gimnazial; ciclu liceal; învățământ postuniversitar; seminar repetitiv;
cunoaștere explicită.

2.3 Translating the corpus into English, German and French

The third macro-activity was simply a translation activity, in which isolated phrases (see the corpus
above), not texts, were translated. The activity was divided into four micro-activities:
− micro-activity 1: establishing the translation groups;
− micro-activity 2: documentation for translation;
− micro-activity 3: translating the corpus;
− micro-activity 4: choosing the best translation for each phrase.

2.3.1 Establishing the translation groups

The activity was a preparatory one, in which the translation groups were organised. The class was
divided into three groups:
• one group translated the corpus into English, and was supervised by Simona Șimon and
Claudia E. Stoian;
• one group translated the corpus into German, and was supervised by Anca Dejica-Carțiș;
• one group translated the corpus into French, and was supervised by Andrea Kriston.
The students decided in which group they wanted to work. As they usually tend to speak their major
language better than their minor language, the English group was larger than the other two, and hence
the need for two supervisors.

2.3.2 Documentation for translation

In order to provide a good translation, one has to resort to documentation tools such as: dictionaries,
parallel texts, Internet resources, machine translation and computer-aided translation [16]. The
students worked individually on the task. The purpose of the activity was to prepare the students for
the translation proper, and to make them aware once more that even the terminology that is familiar to
them in the mother tongue can pose difficulties during the translation process, and as such needs
investigation in both the source and the target language.

1327
2.3.3 Translating the corpus
This activity was done individually, by recourse to the documentation and translation tools mentioned
above.

2.3.4 Choosing the best translation for each phrase

In each group, students compared their translations, and discussed the choices they had made while
translating a certain phrase. They agreed on a final translation, which is illustrated in Table 1, Table 2,
Table 3.

2.4 Establishing the type of equivalence used

The fourth macro-activity aimed at making the students practise a model of analysis for the types of
equivalence used, while translating the Romanian corpus into English, German and French. The
model they chose distinguished between communicative, cognitive and linguistic equivalence, as
defined by Superceanu [14]. Each group discussed the type of equivalence used in order to perform
the task, and they included the results in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3.

Table 1. The work of the English group.

Romanian English Type of Equivalence

mobilitate academică academic mobility linguistic equivalence
comisie de examinare examination board linguistic equivalence
educație interculturală intercultural education linguistic equivalence
proiectare curriculară curriculum development linguistic equivalence
program de educație și formare education and training programme linguistic equivalence
metodă de cercetare în grup group research method linguistic equivalence
legitimație de student student card linguistic equivalence
raport student-profesor student-teacher ratio linguistic equivalence
abordare orientată spre acțiune action-oriented approach linguistic equivalence
formular de solicitare application form linguistic equivalence
organism de acreditare accreditation body linguistic equivalence
certificat de participare certificate of participation linguistic equivalence
trunchi comun common core cognitive equivalence
Sistemul European de Credite Transferabile European Credit Transfer System linguistic equivalence
Uniunea Europeană a Studenţilor European Students` Union linguistic equivalence
învățământ gimnazial lower secondary education cognitive equivalence
ciclu liceal upper secondary school cycle cognitive equivalence
învățământ postuniversitar postgraduate education linguistic equivalence
seminar repetitiv drill seminar cognitive equivalence
cunoaștere explicită explicit knowledge linguistic equivalence

1328
 Table 2. The work of the German group.

Romanian German Type of Equivalence

mobilitate academică akademische Mobilität linguistic equivalence
comisie de examinare Prüfungskommision linguistic equivalence
educație interculturală interkulturelle Bildung linguistic equivalence
proiectare curriculară Curriculumsentwicklung cognitive equivalence
program de educație și formare Bildungs-und Ausbildungsprogramm linguistic equivalence
metodă de cercetare în grup Gruppenforschungsmethode linguistic equivalence
legitimație de student Studentenausweis linguistic equivalence
raport student-profesor Professor-Student Verhältnis cognitive equivalence
abordare orientată spre acțiune handlungsorientierter Ansatz linguistic equivalence
formular de solicitare Anmeldeformular linguistic equivalence
organism de acreditare Akkreditierungsbehörde cognitive equivalence
certificat de participare Teilnahmebestätigung cognitive equivalence
trunchi comun Pflichtfächer cognitive equivalence
Sistemul European de Credite Transferabile Europäisches System zur Übertragung von cognitive equivalence
Leistungspunkte
Uniunea Europeană a Studenţilor European Students` Union Studentenschaft cognitive equivalence
învățământ gimnazial Sekundarstufe I cognitive equivalence
ciclu liceal gymnasiale Oberstufe II cognitive equivalence
învățământ postuniversitar Aufbaustudium cognitive equivalence
seminar repetitiv Drill-Seminar cognitive equivalence
cunoaștere explicită deklaratives Wissen cognitive equivalence

Table 3. The work of the French group.

Romanian French Type of Equivalence

mobilitate academică mobilité académique linguistic equivalence
comisie de examinare comité d’ étude cognitive equivalence
educație interculturală éducation interculturelle linguistic equivalence
proiectare curriculară projection curriculaire linguistic equivalence
program de educație și formare programme d’éducation et de formation linguistic equivalence
metodă de cercetare în grup méthode de recherche en groupe linguistic equivalence
legitimație de student carte d’étudiant linguistic equivalence
raport student-profesor rapport étudiant-professeur linguistic equivalence
abordare orientată spre acțiune approche actionnelle linguistic equivalence
formular de solicitare formulaire de demande linguistic equivalence
organism de acreditare organisme d’accréditation linguistic equivalence
certificat de participare attestation de participation linguistic equivalence
trunchi comun socle commun cognitive equivalence
Sistemul European de Credite Transferabile Système européen de crédits transférables linguistic equivalence
Uniunea Europeană a Studenţilor Union Européenne des étudiants linguistic equivalence
învățământ gimnazial enseignement secondaire cognitive equivalence
ciclu liceal enseignement secondaire deuxième cycle cognitive equivalence
învățământ postuniversitar enseignement post-universitaire linguistic equivalence
seminar repetitiv séminaire repetitif linguistic equivalence
cunoaștere explicită connaissance explicite linguistic equivalence

1329
2.5 Wrapping up the activities
The last macro-activity was designed to consist of two micro-activities:
− micro-activity 1: analysing the types of equivalence identified;
− micro-activity 2: creating the micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases.

2.5.1 Analysing the types of equivalence identified

The activity was meant to make the students think critically, to compare the results of the group work
in terms of the most frequently encountered type of equivalence used for rendering the meanings from
Romanian into English, German and French respectively. From this perspective, the following results
were highlighted:
• in the translation from Romanian into English, the cognitive equivalence is encountered in 20 %
of the cases, and the linguistic one in 80 % of the cases;
• in the translation from Romanian into German, the cognitive equivalence is encountered in 60 %
of the cases, and the linguistic one in 40 % of the cases;
• in the translation from Romanian into French, the cognitive equivalence is encountered in 20 %
of the cases, and the linguistic one in 80 % of the cases;
• the communicative equivalence could not be identified in any translation, no matter of the pair of
languages employed, because there was no communicative situation as the students did not
translate a text, but isolated phrases.
In other words, the most frequent type of equivalence identified in the translation of the before-
mentioned corpus from Romanian into English and French is the linguistic one, while from Romanian
into German is the cognitive one.

2.5.2 Creating the micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases

The construction of a micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases was the pretext for teaching a
much-debated concept in translation studies, namely that of equivalence. In the end of the proposed
method of teaching equivalence, the English, German and French group wrote their translations in a
table designed by the teachers. Table 4 illustrates the micro-multilingual glossary of educational
phrases worked in the class.

Table 4. A micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases.

Romanian English German French

mobilitate academică academic mobility akademische Mobilität mobilité académique
comisie de examinare examination board Prüfungskommision comité d’ étude
educație interculturală intercultural education interkulturelle Bildung éducation interculturelle
proiectare curriculară curriculum development Curriculumsentwicklung projection curriculaire
program de educație și education and training Bildungs-und programme d’éducation
formare programme Ausbildungsprogramm et de formation

metodă de cercetare în group research method Gruppenforschungsmethode méthode de recherche en

grup groupe
legitimație de student student card Studentenausweis carte d’étudiant
raport student-profesor student-teacher ratio Professor-Student Verhältnis rapport étudiant-
professeur
abordare orientată spre action-oriented handlungsorientierter Ansatz approche actionnelle
acțiune approach
formular de solicitare application form Anmeldeformular formulaire de demande
organism de acreditare accreditation body Akkreditierungsbehörde organisme d’accréditation
certificat de participare certificate of participation Teilnahmebestätigung attestation de participation
trunchi comun common core Pflichtfächer socle commun

1330
Sistemul European de European Credit Europäisches System zur Système européen de
Credite Transferabile Transfer System Übertragung von Leistungspunkte crédits transférables
Uniunea Europeană a European Students` European Students` Union Union Européenne des
Studenţilor Union Studentenschaft étudiants
învățământ gimnazial lower secondary Sekundarstufe I enseignement secondaire
education
ciclu liceal upper secondary school gymnasiale Oberstufe II enseignement secondaire
cycle deuxième cycle
învățământ postgraduate education Aufbaustudium enseignement post-
postuniversitar universitaire
seminar repetitiv drill seminar Drill-Seminar séminaire repetitif
cunoaștere explicită explicit knowledge deklaratives Wissen connaissance explicite

3 CONCLUSIONS
Globalisation and internationalisation of education play a central role in the present society. In this
context, mastering the terminology of education is a must for most of us, but particularly for those
active in the field of education.
Under the pretext of creating a micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases, the present paper
proposed a new interactive and interdisciplinary method of teaching equivalence, made up of five
macro-activities and several micro-activities:
• Macro-activity 1: Establishing the theoretical background
o micro-activity 1: topic introduction;
o micro-activity 2: identification of the types of equivalence;
o micro-activity 3: choosing the model of analysis.
• Macro-activity 2: Establishing the corpus in Romanian
• Macro-activity 3: Translating the corpus into English, German and French
o micro-activity 1: establishing the translation groups;
o micro-activity 2: documentation for translation;
o micro-activity 3: translating the corpus;
o micro-activity 4: choosing the best translation for each phrase.
• Macro-activity 4: Establishing the type of equivalence used
• Macro-activity 5: Wrapping up the activities
o micro-activity 1: analysing the types of equivalence identified;
o micro-activity 2: creating the micro-multilingual glossary of educational phrases.
The proposed sequence of activities had the learning objectives summarised below:
• students should know the most important theories on equivalence;
• students should be able to apply one theory to a selected corpus that is translated from
Romanian into English, German and French;
• students should be able to think critically, compare results, and draw final conclusions.
The method was used during the classes in translation held for the 2nd year students in Translation
and Interpreting at the Faculty of Communication Sciences, Politehnica University of Timișoara
(Romania).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Politehnica University of Timişoara for supporting our work by the research
grant PCD-TC-2017 (16183/21.11.2017, code 30 Competition 2017 PCD-TC).

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