IDEAL SOLUTION

CLASS-12 BOARDS Interaction of A-B are equal to interaction of A-A

and B-B

ingmen Nanoanim Di-

De
= DA + PB
-Pi AYmix

AUnix =
= 0

i
STREETEEM
eg n -
Nexane + n-Heptan

xA 1 =
more fraction xA 0
=

xB 0 =

xB 1
=

By-Bharat Panchal Sir.

NON-IDEAL SOLUTION

·Bharat Pantial Sir Chemistry Puruji2.0 Positive Deviation Negative Deviation

A-B interaction
A-B interaction are weaker are

To help in our Journey than A-A and B-B interaction stronger thanA-Aanda
&Umix = tre & Unix ve

YOU CAN DONATE

= -

DUmiX=tVe & Umix = -

ve

+ PB
DA Dis DA + PB
Dis
-

X
-
-

X
De
-
=
De
=

Di- Di-

SOLUTIONS a a
Mass Percentage w2x100
~

(W(w)!. =

W, t W2 xA=1 mole Fraction (A=0 xA=1 mole Fraction (A=0

xB 0
=

xB 1
=

xB 0 =

xB 1
=

Volume Percentage (V(% =

100
x form minimum boiling for Maximum boiling
A
zeotropes a zeotropes
Mass by Volume Percentage (w() =
w2
X 100
↓Cm mL)
e.g Acelone + Ethanol acelone
e.g
alorotom
Mass fraction

X1 =
100 Nz =
wz Colligative Properties depend on number of solute

+ wz W2 Relative lowering
is
wi wit
-> a or iCB
of X.P
as

Parts per million (ppm) 106

EwaX
->

levation
= in i Kxm
Point -> DTb =16M or

Boiling
Molarity (M) Unit
Xoom moblite
=

or Depression in
=
1 Kfm
->
* Tf: km or

freezing Point
Pressure-T=COT
Molality (m) =

BxZ(g) Unit =

moles/kg
Osmotic or
RT or
iNX*XT
↳molacity is inversely proportional unit of Kb and
Kf=Kkg mol
to temperature &To -
Elevation in B.Ot
&Tb Tx T
(X)
=

Mole Fraction
-

Alf- Depression in F.Ot

AT =
Tj -

TS ↑- S.Ot
of solution
tup
Us
XA =
XB=
MA +UB kb T - B.Ot
of pure solvent
Xwxg)
DTb =

xATXB=1 mole fraction is a unitless

#
-foot of pure solvent
Fpt of solution
q, uantity DT:
-
If
-bartial pressure of gas Kfxxs Ko a moral elevation
Henry Law e
constant
p =
kuYB " motal depression
Vault Hot factor (i) constant
a mole fraction of solute
Normal Molecular mass
RAOULT'S LAN Chemistry Purujia.0= observed Molecular Mass

PACYA PBCXB is solute undergoes dissociation

PA =
PAXXA PB=bsXYr i <1 solute undergoes association
i =
1 no association no dissociation
for Volatile solute For Non-Volatile solute
PT =
PA+PB Dy PA =

DEXTCA
=
X dissociation =

Cassociation =
 Electrochemistry Kohlrausch's Law
Cell-which convert one form of energy into

of
am Electrolyte =
SCation + An Anion
another form energy
degree of dissociation
Electrochemical Cell Eleckolytic cell
concentrations in
m[Molar conductivity
2- at
chemical - electrical electrical - chemical
2Molar conductivity at infinite dilution

Representation of cell Dissociation constant ((c)-

C
a ~

+ // on+1M
-
faraday's first law
Oxidation half cell Reduction half cell
MarMass
=
w zxIXt
=
IX
Two solution separation x

InC+//Cr<+ Faraday's second law

[where E equivaled
a
NERNST EQUATION wts weight]
Mnttheo Mist
->
Fuel Cell
Ecar: Ecu-591 lng nts At Anode- 2Hc+40U
-
-> 4H10 +400
At Cathode-OctCH0+feo -> HOU

Ecel =

Ecell-0531 lg ox
a at 298K Overall Reaction &He + Oz ->CH2O

Dry cell
At Equilibrium Eceu = 0
At Anode -
In ->In2t+2ee
Ecen =

0591 egg c at 298K Atcathode 2 MnOzt2NYu teO ->CMno(on) +INHs

Overalloyn In+&NUa +2MnOz ->>n2t+& MrO(OU) +CNHs

Gibbs Free Energy Chemistry Puruji2.0 Lead. Storage Battery-
Ac= -
nfFell
At Anode Pb+s0?-> PbS0+ +228
2.303RTIng
-

Ac = -
Kc
Cathode-PbOctsOp- > PbSor
At + CHLO

CONDUCTIVITY OF IONIC SOLUTIONS corrosion of iron...

Unit = ohm-
conductance (4) =

= 5 =
k* or n At Anode- 2Fe->2Fe2++ 4ee
or siemens
~increases dilution larger nog ions At Cathode
on as
O2+4n+ + 400 -> <H0
are produced
Specific Conductance [CONDUCTIVITYS 8 verall reaction
CFe +Oz+4H+ -> CECt+CH20
Unit: ohm-1
1.or9X 9XG*
k = cm-
or
I or 5cm 1
Formula of rust fezos.C+cO
-
-

-> decrease on dilution as number of long bee cm3 decrease

MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY
Unit-1cm motor
CHEMICAL KINETICS
1300
am =
15XY or
or s m2mol- R - 0

-Increase with dilution due to large innease in U. Rate of Reaction

AtR] tSEEI
-

Conductivity cam an
Limiting Molar or
UNIT OF RATE MolL sect or mol (min-
when concentration of electrolyte abbroaches zero
rate Instantaneous rate
Average
Go variation of molar conductivity with concentration change in concentration at change in concentration at
instant of time
large time interval any
R- O
dTR) +dTp]

:I
-

-
ATR] + DTD] At
=
At
=

DE It

# strong electrolyte
likekcl
am weak electrolyte
like
chycoon
NE ⑭

↳
Debye-Huckel Equation
Am dm =
- ANC

Am Molar
=
conductivity at x dilution
c =
concentration
A =
constant which depends upon

is Rate rate constant or speakin

Plot of am and against NE a straight line with
(aN-aA+bB-> Product
*
rate

intercept aim slope equal KTA)<Ty

to to -A.
equal
">"
and
Rate of Reaction =

actual used
for weak electrolyte, on dilution very large increasecondy order = c+B

or dilution only a small increaseconducthe

strong electrolyte, on
 Half life
the
ah; where is order of a COLLISION THEORY
Zero Order collision blue the molecules
The number of
reading ·
k[A]*
rate=
taking place per second per unit volume a

known as collision
[A]t 1t [A].
frequency
=
+
-

t GR
=

PEAR eEalR>
K
rate =

tz
=
Unit ofK MdL (15-1
p-p called the probability stric factor
=

or

firstOrder
tyz 0.693/K
=
IAD + Collision frequency fr reactantA &B.
Rate k [AJ1 =

The d-andf-Block Elements

Unit of K sec -
ln[A]t
=

=
-
kt + 1uTA].
(n-1d'-10
2o3lg.
ngo-2
t
Chemistry Puruji General Electronic Confi.
=

M.Pt<Bt-High due to
strong metallic bond. Strength of metallic
hond due to unpaired to
Enthalpies of Atomisation
High due to
strong interatomic interaction.
oxidation state variable oxidation state due to
participation of
st
-

Ma
us and (n-1) delectrons [Highest in 3d series
Atomic Radi Decreases from left to
right, in midway size remains
same and in the end of series
size increases.
COMPLEX FORMATION form complex due to nuclear charge, small
high
size metal ions and availability of empty d-orbital
to accept one pair of so donated by ligands
coloured compounds form coloured compounds due to did transition, due
to unpaired to.
Alloy formation Due to small similar alomic radi, atom of one metal

can
easily replace the atom of other metal.
Interstitial compound Due to empty space in their lattices, small atoms

PSEUDO FIRST ORDER-

can be easily accommodated.compounds are paramagnetic
and their
Those reaction which magnetic Properties Transition metal ions
in (n-1d orbitals and
due to presence of
unpaired to
are not truely of first order but under is calculated by
it formula u 12) =

using where a number of

unpaired co
certain conditions becomes offirst order oxides in oxidation state are
higher
oxidation state are acidic, lower

Basic whereas the intermediate oxi. state are amphoteric

inversion of sugar in
7

MnOn
+
8/3
+
2
MN
+

C2H2201LTHD CcHpOs + CsM120s MonOf tidic

Rate k [CiH22811]
Potassium Dichromate [KzCr201]
=

Arrhenius Equation -
0

1
-

K Ac -EalRT
=
[ OESMO-- · 1 -0
C
c08-
Dichromate
ion chromate ion
log K lg A
RT
-
=

Preparation
H2S04
NanCrOAH KeCO
where K Rate =

constant FeCusOn aCOs, NACOs

Chromate
->

sod. Dichromate pot. Dichromate

Ferrochromate sod.
A Pre-exponential factor
=

Ea=Activation Energy Teteup CONCORor KICU nkK,(87 I

x
-

-
12
5
log Yellow orange
= a [In
re
⑩operry
sn2 + s4+
oxidising
->

oxidising action in acidic medium A4 - fe3+

+

X Xz
-

(V2072+ 144+ + 620 2(53+ + 7120

Role Catalyst:a
-
of chemical substance which
alters the ofreaction Potassium
without
rate
chemical
Permanganate (KMu0a)
undergoing any change crystalline solid, oxidising agent, having hishe

Deep
purple mopt
pathcatalyst
Rx
without MnOz Revolusite
Reactionpatoatalyst
A

↓1-e KOn tOn

:
-

th
catalyst
HKMnOq KMnO
:
>
MnOn[Permanganate 50] MnOu+KMnOy
Ea without
* Pot. pot. Permanganate
Manganate
Oxidising Action in Acidic Medium -

Oxidising Reactions in NeutralMedium .

>
Reactant MnDu + 8H + + 5e0 -> Mu+ + 4H0 Mn0F 2Hy0 +

3e0
+
->
MnX 90H-
+

* It oxidise
product #+-festoxalic acid -CO2+Hat I
-

+
10-
④
Has -> S

Reaction co-ordinate 125 -

5 SO2 ->
H.SUp
MUSO -> MnOc S202-- SOR-
MuR+- MUDz
I.-I
120
-
> 0 NaSOs -> NaSO+
(thiosulphateto sulphate
 INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS [F-BlOCK) CO.ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Actinoid (57) Addition Compounds formed by combination of
Lanthanoids (47)
-

in
last to enters in t lastto enters two or more
simple compounds

obital orbital
If
Double Salt coordination compound
General electronic confit (u-a)f'(n-1)do-use which
into
dissociate
its ions
completely retain
in
its identity
solid state and in solution
both

28 1308Alz(SOals
LANTHANOID CONTRACTION
decrease in atomic and 2uHoalam e.g [CoCNAis]
3+

ionic radio from lanthanum to lutitium. gradual

The
INERNER THEORY explain the nature of

bonding in complexes, metal show two kind of

and steady decrease across the period is called
valencies
lanthanoid contraction. Chemistry Purujic. 0 Primary valency secondary valency
Non-directional and ionisable Directional and non-ionisable
cause of
orbitals have very poor
-

shielding effect and equal to oxi. state of It equal

is to the coordin
left to right nuclear charge increases and radius metal ion of metal
decree central number

LIGANDS These are alom, ion on molecule which donate

consequences
·
separation of of elements becomes difficult lone pair of 20 to central metal alom.

because there is small difference in their properties.

ON THE BASIS OF CHARGE
·

Id and 5 transition series have same alonic radi

-

veligand the
ligands Neustal ligands
Basic character
of hydroxides of Lanthanoides deceases
·

CN, F, C; N8zNOst, NOT, H0:, wHs, CO:

from left to
rightlacon), most Basic
NOT, OH,0- NHx CHNTL
LUCON), leastbasic
BASIS OF NUMBER OF DONOR SITES
Difference blue lanthanoids and Actinoids
Monodental Bidentate polydentale
lanthanoids Actinoids only one donor Two donor more than two

·
They exhibit mainly
+30.They exhibit + 30xi state
site site donor site

CH2200
18:, rily 100
oxalato
-NT(H200-
addition they show to and in addition they show 600-
to oxidation stat + 4, +5 + 6, +7 oxi. State.
CHzNTHz Ethylene
diamine
st -

n XCH,00-
C-NH. CH2C00-
EDTA
show Lanthanoid they show Actinoid
·
They CHELATING LIGAND a bidentate or polydentate ligand
contraction contraction which form more than in one coordinate bond
is formed
Actinoids
such way thata ring
a
·
Mostions lanthanoids most ions
of
of AMDIDENTATE LIGAND Monodentate ligand which
-

are colourless are coloured. contain more than one

Greater
Co-ordinating aloms.
lesser fendency to form tendency to MF- NOL
·

M<-SCN MECN
MFONO
complex from complex MENCS MENC

They do not give 0xo

They give oxocations ISOMERISM:Two or more substance have same
molecular formula but differentstructure
egUOst, PuD+el.
or
calions
spatial arrangement are called isomers
·
their compounds are their compounds Structural Isomerism
are more Basic
less Basic · Tonisation -
Hydrate
·

they are non-radioactive. They are radioactive [Co BU(NH3)5] SO4 [Cu(H20),THy
SO+(NH35] BU
920 [Cv (2054]4s HzD
(exceptPromethinm)
-Linkage co-ordination
Chemistry
->

Purujic.0 [Co(NH3)6] [(V(N)6]

[COCNOG(NH3)5]<e
[CoC(Ny] [ <u (NH336]
[Co CONO) (NH375J2
 STEREO ISOMERISM
-
CRYSTAL FIELD THEORY:
-
Geometrical optical
-

Metal-ligand bond is ionic in nature. So, there

isomerism is electrostatic force of attraction blw metal and
This arises
S- same ligands occupy due to non-super imposable eigands
adjacent Position
mirror images I
for Octahedral
Trans-same ligands occuby
only in octahedral complexes
Conexfor Tetrahedral complex
opposite Position
with 2 or 3 bidentate ligands.
1

in Square Planar In Octahedral

cis
Trans
(optically
MAzXz 1 coblically Active) inactives
MABXZ MAXX2 MAyXs e.g [CoU-Cen),]+

inte uxtetet
MA2XY A
Cis Trans
MAXY

SPECTROCHEMICAL SERIES shape of d-orbitals

3
Arrangement ofligands
in the
At
10
=

order of increasing field strength

field
field
sing orre
weak strong
-

ligands ligands

I (BU's SCNO CC-< S2-F < ON OX <H20 <

NCs-<edta"- [NAs <en <NO2 <CNO <10

If Do<P, a high spin complex is formed.
VALENCE BOND THEORY-
low spin complex is tonned.
If Do)P, a
INNER ORBITAL OUTER ORBITAL
COMPLEX COMPLEX

involve inner d-orbital involve outer d-orbital CLASS-12 BOARDS

i.e (n-1) d-orbital is no-orbitals
skin complex

m
Low High Spin Complex
Have less or no
unpaired Have
unpaired
large number

ea
of

e.g [Co(NHs),]3+
I

ICOCCNs?4-eeMeuseo
Valence Bond

Acc. to this
due to the donation
to central metal atom
Theory:
theory, metal-ligand
election
of pair
bond arises
from ligands
"S
influence
the metal atom orion under the By-Bharat Panchal Sir...
of ligands can use (n-1)d, us, up, and
orbitals
for hybridisation FreeBharat Panchal Sir
Chemistry Gurujia.O
Hybridisation (N Geometry Example
To help in our Journey
Sp 2 linear
[Ag((N), 3
562 3 Trigonal blanar [H9137-
YOU CAN DONATE
Sb3 4 Tetrahedral [Ni[20C u] 2
square planar >Ni(CN)-]
dSp2 4
square pyramidal Fe((0)5
dSb3 5

dsp36 Octahedral(inner) [Cr (NH3),73+

Spid 6 Octahedral (outer) (fej73-
Paramagnetism - No.
o unpaired to

magnetic moment =

yn+2)
↳ " is no.
I unpaired to
like
strong field ligands field ligands
weak

CNO, NOL, CN, NH, came like C; Br H,0:are

unable to cause pairing
pairing of co
820