Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Contributing Toward an Equitable, Safer, and Cleaner City

Mumbai is the financial capital of India and one of the world’s most densely populated cities. Its existing
public transport infrastructure is outdated, overutilized, and under tremendous stress. This book discusses
the paradigm shift and benefits that the Mumbai Metro can bring in the public transportation scenario
for millions of people in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. The metro will provide equal access for all to
a modern, comfortable, and high-quality daily commuting transport option. It will feature safety designs
(especially for the vulnerable sectors), ease traffic congestion, and reduce vehicular emissions, thereby
contributing toward making Mumbai a more equitable, safer, and cleaner city.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB is committed to achieving a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Asia and the Pacific,
while sustaining its efforts to eradicate extreme poverty. Established in 1966, it is owned by 68 members
—49 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue,
loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

MUMBAI METRO
TRANSFORMING TRANSPORT
CONTRIBUTING TOWARD AN EQUITABLE,
SAFER, AND CLEANER CITY
JUNE 2021

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
www.adb.org
 MUMBAI METRO
TRANSFORMING TRANSPORT
CONTRIBUTING TOWARD AN EQUITABLE,
SAFER, AND CLEANER CITY
JUNE 2021

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

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© 2021 Asian Development Bank

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Some rights reserved. Published in 2021.

ISBN 978-92-9262-849-9 (print); 978-92-9262-850-5 (electronic); 978-92-9262-851-2 (ebook)

Publication Stock No. SPR210179
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/SPR210179

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Bengaluru.

On the cover: The Mumbai Metro is an ambitious project that aims to provide residents in and around the Mumbai
Metropolitan Region a modern, fast, safe, and comfortable transport option that is accessible to all (photos from
Shutterstock.com).
Contents

Table, Figures, and Maps v

From the Commissioner’s Desk vii

Forewordix

Acknowledgmentsxi

Abbreviationsxii

Weights and Measures xiii

Executive Summary xv

Transporting through Mumbai’s History 1

A Brief History of Mumbai 1
Evolution of Public Transport 3
From an Island City to the Mumbai Metropolitan Area—The Journey of the Last 100 Years 4
Current Transportation Challenges in Mumbai 7

Breathing New Life into Mumbai 13

Mumbai Metro Master Plan 13
Project Progress 18

Contributing toward an Equitable City 21

Income Inequality in our Society—A Global and National Perspective 21
Existing Socioeconomic Profile of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region 23
Projected Changes in the Profile of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region 27
How the Mumbai Metro Can Empower through Equal Access for All 29

Contributing toward a Safer City 37

Passenger Safety—Life on the Lifeline 37
Mumbai Monsoons—A Transport Challenge 40
How the Mumbai Metro Can Provide a Safe Transport Option 41
iv Contents

Contributing toward a Cleaner City 45

Air Pollution in Mumbai—A Global Perspective 45
Major PM2.5 Red Zones within Mumbai 46
Biggest Contributor to PM2.5 in Mumbai 47
How the Mumbai Metro Can Reduce Air Pollution in Mumbai 49

Financial Sustainability 53
Financial Performance of Line 1 53
Financial Projections of Lines 2 and 7 54
Alternate Sources for Improving Financial Sustainability 56

Lessons from Other Metro Systems 59

Delhi Metro—Providing Equal Access to Everyone, Everywhere 59
Manila Metro Rail Transit System—Providing a Transport Alternative in  63
a Densely Populated and Highly Polluted City
Rail + Property Model—Providing Financial Sustainability for Hong Kong, China Metro 65

Public Transportation in the COVID-19 Era 69

Behavioral Shifts and Patterns Expected Due to COVID-19 69

Conclusion 73
A New Era for Public Transportation in Mumbai 73

Table, Figures, and Maps

Table
E1 Comparison of Metro Network Coverage across Indian Cities xvi

Figures
E1 Value for Money Framework for Assessing Urban Transport Infrastructure Projects xvii
1 Growing Population and Changing Population Distribution in Greater Mumbai, 1901–2011 5
2 Changes in the Population Distribution in Different Parts of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region,  6
1971–2011
3 Spatial Coverage (in Terms of Area) within the Mumbai Metropolitan Region 7
4 Current Modal Share of Public Transport in Mumbai 8
5 Global Comparison of Average Speeds and Congestion Levels in Mumbai 10
6 Decreasing Share of Overall Public Transport (All Forms) over the Years in Mumbai 10
7 Average Commuter Distance Using the Different Modes of Transport in Mumbai 14
8 Details of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan 16
9 Evolution of Lines 1, 2, 3 and 7 of the Mumbai Metro 17
10 Completion Timelines of the Various Mumbai Metro Lines 18
11 Scatter Plot of Gini Coefficients and Gross Domestic Products of Selected Countries 21
12 Key Socioeconomic Indicators of Vulnerable Groups in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region 23
13 Employment Contribution of Various Sectors in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region 26
14 Comparison of Land Use Patterns in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, 2016 and 2036 27
15 Bubble Chart of Gross Domestic Products, Population, and Business Employment in Key Cities  28
of the World in 2030
16 Bubble Chart of Gross Domestic Products, Population, and Secondary Employment in Key Cities  29
of the World in 2030
17 Results of Commuter Satisfaction Survey for Mumbai Metro Line 1, 2014 33
18 Time Benefit (from Better Accessibility) Due to Metro Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 and  34
Benefit Realization Time Frame, 2021–2051
19 Normal Curve Plot of Country-Wise Road Traffic Deaths per Annum 37
20 Scatter Plot of Risk Exposure on Indian Roads 38
21 Total Number of Railway Accident Deaths on the Mumbai Suburban Railway Network, 2010–2015 39
22 Safety Features Provided by the Mumbai Metro Trains 42
23 Benefit from Reduction in Road and Rail Accidents Due to Metro Lines 2A, 2B, and 7  43
and Benefit Realization Time Frame, 2021–2051
24 Normal Curve Plot of Mean Annual Exposure of PM2.5 of Selected Cities in the World 45
25 Contribution of Transport Emissions to PM2.5 Particles in Mumbai, 2018 and 2030 47
26 Increasing Trend of Cars per Capita in Mumbai, 2001–2017 48
27 Projected Mega-Cities (by Population) of India in 2030 49
vi Table, Figures, and Maps

28 Changes in Transportation Modal Shares After the Introduction of the Mumbai Metro 50
29 Environmental Benefits Due to Lines 2A, 2B, 7 and Benefit Realization Time Frame, 2021–2051 51
30 Annual Revenue and Operating Expenditure of Mumbai Metro Line 1, 2015–2019 53
31 Operating Expenditure Components of Mumbai Metro Line 1, 2015–2019 54
32 Capital Expenditure and Revenue Projections of Lines 2 and 7 Combined, 2018–2050 55
33 Distance-Wise Fare Comparison of Public Transport Modes with Proposed Fares of Metro Lines 2 and 7 55
34 Accessibility to All Due to the Delhi Metro, with the Key National Capital Region Industrial Centers 60
35 Accessibility to All Due to the Delhi Metro, with the Key National Capital Region Commercial Centers 61
36 Accessibility to All Due to the Delhi Metro, with the Key National Capital Region Health-Care 62
and Education Centers
37 Parametric Comparison of Manila with Mumbai 63
38 Data Analysis for PM2.5 Risk Exposure via Different Modes of Public Transport in Manila 65
39 Overall Revenue of Mass Transit Railway Corporation (Hong Kong, China) and Contribution 65
of Real Estate-Driven Revenue, 2010–2019
40 Key Stakeholders in the Rail + Property Model in Hong Kong, China 66
41 Key Success Factors for the Rail + Property Model in Hong Kong, China 67
42 Key Urban Mobility-Related COVID-19 Trends 70

Maps
E1 The Mumbai Metropolitan Region xvi
1 Cluster of Seven Islands in Erstwhile Bombay 1
2 Consolidation of the Seven Islands 2
3 Heat Map of Expansion of Mumbai to the Modern-Day Mumbai Metropolitan Area, 1973–2014 5
4 Area-Wise Employment per Working Population in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region by District 8
5 Comparison of Metro Rail Transit System Coverage around the World 11
6 Traffic Flow Pattern of the Two Zones of the Indian Railways 13
7 Mumbai Metro Master Plan 15
8 Normal Curve Plot of State-Wise Gini Coefficients in India 22
9 Slum Clusters in Greater Mumbai 25
10 Key Education Institutes Close to the Alignment of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan 31
11 Key Health-Care Facilities Close to the Alignment of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan 32
12 Heat Map of Major PM2.5 Red Zones in Mumbai 46
From the Commissioner’s Desk

T
he Mumbai Metro is a marquee project that will improve the overall
quality of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region transport based on the
Comprehensive Transport Study done by the Mumbai Metropolitan
Region Development Authority (MMRDA). We are focused on completing
337 kilometers of metro lines in Mumbai by year 2026 so that fellow
Mumbaikars can reach anywhere in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region from
any place within 60 minutes. We are proactively focused on meeting the
deadline while also trying to minimize the temporary inconvenience caused to
Mumbaikars due to such projects.

Presently, 11 million passengers use public transport in Mumbai daily. During

peak hours, the super-dense-crush-load conditions on the existing suburban
trains tend to be in the range of 12–16 persons per square meter. Our studies also suggest that road congestion
level is almost 97% in different parts and, thus, average vehicle speeds are not more than 10–12 km/hour in the
city. Such extreme conditions can lead to unsafe travel in the buses and on suburban trains in Mumbai. We are
sure that the metro will reduce congestion, not only on roads but also on the suburban trains. Once completed,
the 337-kilometer metro rail, will also create capacity for transporting more than 12 million passengers daily.
Hence, the metro will offer almost twice the capacity with double comfort (at 6 persons per square meter). It will
also provide faster transit speeds and better accessibility from work and residential spaces.

It gives me immense pride to say that we, at the MMRDA, are putting all efforts in long-term solutions that will
improve the quality of life of the people in Mumbai. It is important to mention that we have constantly received
a lot of support from the Government of Maharashtra and the Government of India, which has further helped
us to take faster decisions. We, in partnership with the Asian Development Bank (ADB), promise to continue
to offer a transparent and responsive organization to the people of Mumbai while continuing to remain in
constant contact with the citizens to provide better services to them. I would like to thank ADB and the other
development partners who have been helping us on this journey to transform the Mumbai Metropolitan Region.

I hope that this booklet will serve as a platform for strengthening and coordinating action in support of the
Mumbai Metro and help in realizing the vision of “Mumbai in Minutes.”

S.V.R. Srinivas, Indian Administrative Service

Metropolitan Commissioner
Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority
Foreword

T
he idea behind this book is to tell a story of the future of public
transport in Mumbai. Mumbai is the financial capital of India and one
of India’s largest metropolitan areas. However, it is also one of the most
densely populated cities in the world, having extreme pressure on its existing
infrastructure. To enable the city to develop to its full potential, it needs to add
capacity in its public transport infrastructure focusing on a safe and comfortable
transport option.

The Mumbai Metro is a large and ambitious project that will transform public
transportation in and around Mumbai. It will provide easy and equal access to
everyone across the city. Not only will it relieve the pressure on the overutilized
existing modes of transport, i.e., suburban railway and buses, but it also provide a
safer and cleaner transport alternative. The project is also expected to have wider
benefits such as facilitating comprehensive metropolitan development via the creation of multimodal urban
transport networks, promoting systematic urban land use planning, and attracting private sector investments. It
will incentivize transit-oriented development schemes and support financial sustainability through value-capture
financing initiatives.

The new metro lines will offer an opportunity to create a modern public transport system with innovative safety
and technology features for the people in Mumbai. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) takes pride in signing a
$926 million loan for the Mumbai Metro with the Government of India. ADB financing will ease travel for millions
of commuters across Mumbai and decongest heavily crowded suburban rail systems. But more than just a
solution to Mumbai’s transportation needs, this project is a means to reshape Mumbai City into a modern, clean,
and more livable city for all its inhabitants.

The metro will have various features that will benefit women, such as women-only carriages, mobile
applications for women’s security, and separate ticket counters. The connectivity and accessibility provided by
the metro will ensure that women and differently abled passengers have improved opportunities for employment.
There will also be station and carriage facilities for the elderly and differently abled passengers, including priority
e-ticket counters.

ADB is committed to achieve a prosperous, inclusive, and sustainable India and Asia by focusing on projects that
improve the quality of public transport while reducing the environmental impact. The Mumbai Metro will reduce
carbon dioxide emissions from vehicles by about 166,000 tons per annum because of the shift of passengers to
the metro.
x Foreword
x Foreword

I sincerely appreciate the officials of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority for being at the
helm I sincerely appreciate
to implement the officialsproject.
this challenging of the Mumbai
BesidesMetropolitan
the core teamRegion
led byDevelopment
Sharad Saxena,Authority fortransport
principal being at the
helm tothis
specialist, implement this benefited
publication challenging project.
from Besides the
contributions ofcore team
several led by Sharad
persons, Saxena,
including principal
project transport
officers of ADB and
specialist, this publication benefited from contributions of several persons, including project officers of ADB and
project beneficiaries. I thank all of them.
project beneficiaries. I thank all of them.
I hope this book will be read widely by those interested in Mumbai’s and India’s future, and in urban transport
I hope this book will be read widely by those interested in Mumbai’s and India’s future, and in urban transport
in general. I wish this book helps to generate further efforts in providing a world-class, well-integrated public
in general. I wish this book helps to generate further efforts in providing a world-class, well-integrated public
transport system to all people in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region.
transport system to all people in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region.

Kenichi
Kenichi Yokoyama
Yokoyama
Director
Director General
General
South
South Asia
Asia Department
Department
Asian
AsianDevelopment
Development Bank
Acknowledgments

T
he Transport and Communications Division of the South Asia Department (SARD), Asian Development
Bank (ADB), produced this publication.

Sharad Saxena, principal transport specialist, led the task team and steered the production of the
publication, assisted by Cheska Llamas and Cynthia Gutierrez. Abhishek Kaushal and Rajaji Meshram (staff
consultants) undertook research and initial write-up, and helped structure the report, including rounding up
of photos and graphics for illustration. James Leather and Kirsty Rowan Marcus provided valuable comments,
technical insights on content, and overall guidance.

ADB’s SARD Director General Kenichi Yokoyama, Director Ravi Peri of South Asia Transport and
Communications, and Country Director Takeo Konishi of the India Resident Mission provided constant guidance,
direction, and support.

This publication was possible with the participation and support of the Government of India’s Ministry of Finance,
Department of Economic Affairs, and the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority.

The Publishing team of ADB’s Department of Communications handled the production and coordination of this
publication, while the Printing Unit of the Corporate Services Department provided printing assistance.

Dedication
In memory of Bharat Modgil, senior director of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority.
B. Modgil retired as general manager of the Central Railway and was the chief executive officer of Mumbai Metro
Line 1, which is already operational.
Abbreviations

ADB Asian Development Bank

BDA Bangalore Development Authority

BEST Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport

BRICS Brazil, Russian Federation, India, People’s Republic of China,

and South Africa
COVID-19 coronavirus disease

FAR floor area ratio

GDP gross domestic product

MMOPL Mumbai Metro One Private Limited

MMR Mumbai Metropolitan Region

MMRDA Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority

MTR mass transit railway

MTRC Mass Transit Railway Corporation

NCR National Capital Region

PM particulate matter

PM2.5 particulate matter with 2.5 microns in diameter or smaller

WHO World Health Organization

Weights and Measures

μg microgram

km kilometer

km2 square kilometer

m³ cubic meter
Executive Summary

T
he purpose of this book is to highlight the crucial role the Mumbai Metro is expected to play in the overall
development of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR). This book explains how the development of
the metro rail transit system will enable Mumbai (and thus the MMR) to become a more equitable, safer,
and cleaner place. It also assesses how other global metro systems have significantly contributed to making their
respective cities more equitable, cleaner, and safer.

Mumbai has undergone several changes in the 20th

Map E1: The Mumbai Metropolitan Region and 21st centuries to become India’s financial capital.
As India’s most famous business hub, it has attracted
large volumes of people seeking employment and has
grown from the Island City of 157 square kilometers
(km2) to the modern-day sprawl of 6,355 km2 (Map
E1). The influx of people has increased the MMR
population to more than 12.5 million. This has created
a unique set of challenges for one of the world’s most
densely populated cities. Presently, while most of the
jobs are in central Mumbai, most of the population
resides in Mumbai Suburban and surrounding districts
within the MMR. Currently, people in the MMR
rely heavily on the Mumbai suburban railway for
commuting to work daily.

Mumbai suburban rail is the lifeline of Mumbai

City and has a modal share of 43%, followed by the
Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport
(BEST) buses at 20%. However, with the increasing
population in Mumbai, as well as the surrounding areas
within the MMR, the pressure on the existing transport
Source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development
infrastructure has also been increasing. The suburban
Authority.
trains transport close to 5,000 people per 9-coach
train against a design capacity of 1,750 people, making the Mumbai suburban railway one of most crowded public
transport systems in the world.

Meanwhile, the state-owned BEST bus system operates on roads with a congestion index of 34 (proximity to
zero indicates “no congestion”), which is significantly higher than that of leading cities in the world such as New
York, Tokyo, London, and Shanghai. Because of this, the overall share of public transport in Mumbai (covering all
modes) has been gradually decreasing over the last few decades, dropping from 88% in 1991 to 65% in 2020.
xvi Executive Summary

Table E1: Comparison of Metro Network Coverage across Indian Cities

City Operational kilometer per million people
Bangalore 3.0
Chennai 4.0
Delhi 12.0
Hyderabad 7.0
Kolkata 2.0
Lucknow 6.0
Mumbai 0.5
Pune 8.0

Source: Official websites of respective metro corporations.

Existing transport modes like the suburban rail system have been undertaking several capacity enhancements,
such as signaling improvement, introduction of 12-coach trains, extending the lengths of all platforms,
patch doubling and tripling, etc. However, due to limited additional availability of land, any further capacity
enhancement is restricted. Thus, there is a need for an alternative mode of mass public transportation
to encourage mode shift back from private vehicles. Several cities in India have already constructed and
operationalized metro systems to boost public transport and commuter convenience. However, the current
metro network coverage for Mumbai is extremely low (Table E1).

Currently, this index is very low for Mumbai since only one metro line is operational. However, the metro coverage
in Mumbai is expected to improve strongly with the realization of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan developed by
the Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (Map 7). At present, only Line 1 is operational, while
Lines 2A, 2B, 3, 4, 6, and 7 are at different stages of construction.

All lines of the Mumbai Metro are projected to be completed by 2026. The Mumbai Metro is expected to
greatly benefit the city of Mumbai as well as the MMR by improving urban transport safety and comfort for the
residents, especially for the poor and the vulnerable. It is also expected to provide enhanced access to economic
opportunities and social service facilities in Mumbai.

It is important to understand the benefits generated by the Mumbai Metro. Modern assessment of urban
transport infrastructure projects has shifted from a purely financial to a more holistic model of evaluation. The
core of this assessment framework considers that, since taxpayers’ money is mostly used in such projects, the
project should maximize the benefits generated for the public. These benefits cannot be just financial in nature,
and they need to have an overall improvement in the quality of life of the taxpayers. This assessment framework
is known as the value for money, which has become widely accepted for urban transportation infrastructure
projects. The value for money aims to understand how a variety of factors such as social, economic, and
environmental, in addition to financial, can make the quality of life of the public better, as shown in Figure E1.
 Executive Summary xvii

Figure E1: Value for Money Framework for Assessing Urban

Transport Infrastructure Projects

Safety Equality

Accessibility Connectivity

Social Economic

Public Environmental
Accounts
Sustainability Health

Self reliance Emissions

Source: Asian Development Bank.

From an equity point of view, strong measures need to be undertaken within India and Maharashtra to bridge the
socioeconomic gap between different social groups. Since the MMR is the biggest contributor to Maharashtra’s
gross domestic product, uplifting its vulnerable groups needs to be emphasized. The vulnerable groups in
Mumbai include the low-income workers, women, and the differently abled. Of the total population in the MMR,
28% lives in slum areas. Further, Mumbai has a female work participation percentage of only 18%, while 3% of the
population is differently abled. The Mumbai Metro can empower these groups with equal access to all parts of
the region. The provision of surveillance cameras inside trains and at every metro station, along with facilities and
services aimed at women (nursing and breastfeeding room facilities at each station, separate hygienic toilets at
each station, sanitary pad dispensing machines, separate ticket counters and vending machines, allocated spaces
in metro stations owned or operated by women, dedicated carriages for women passengers, dedicated seats for
women in each coach), and the differently abled (access ramps, escalators and elevators, dedicated seats for the
differently abled in each coach) are expected to support these groups. The Mumbai Metro is foreseen to further
support these groups by providing equitable access to important centers of socioeconomic development, such as
schools and colleges, hospitals, employment hubs, industrial areas, etc.

With more than 150,000 road-traffic deaths recorded per annum (i.e., the highest number per annum in the
world), understanding the safety conditions on the rail and road networks in India is important. Even the
number of road-traffic deaths relative to population is high in India compared with developed countries, as
well as the nations of Brazil, Russian Federation, India, People’s Repulic of China, and South Africa (BRICS). In
fact, Mumbai is in the top 10 of unsafe cities in India for road-based transportation, despite its relatively higher
patronage of public transportation. There is also a high number of railway fatalities per annum, even though
43% of commuters in Mumbai use public transit to travel. The 5-year period ending in 2015 resulted in more
xviii Executive Summary

than 11 deaths per day on the Mumbai suburban network. The biggest contributor to rail-related deaths is
trespassing (82%), followed by people falling from moving trains (18%). Trespassing incidents are high because of
unauthorized crossing of the suburban railway tracks, which are entirely at grade. The incidents of people falling
from moving trains are high since the suburban trains do not have doors (by design) and thus allow desperate
commuters to hang onto the already overcrowded trains in order to reach their destination.

The problem on safety while commuting is aggravated by the Mumbai monsoons. The heavy rains of more than
2,000 millimeters per annum inundate the railway tracks and roads, and lead to issues like train delays, train
derailments, and even cancellations of services, leaving thousands of commuters stranded frequently during
these months. The Mumbai Metro is expected to solve these problems in its very design. The metro tracks in
Mumbai will be either elevated or underground, thereby deterring trespassers from the tracks. Further, the metro
trains will have doors that close as soon as the train starts moving. This should deter people from hanging outside
the trains. Additional elements like platform screen doors should prevent people from accidentally being pushed
onto the tracks while waiting for the trains. Importantly, the elevated tracks of the metro rail transit system
can ensure that the metro is able to operate continuously even in the monsoons, despite the occurrence of
waterlogging at the ground level.

In addition to safety, the Mumbai Metro will also have several facilities for providing improved accessibility to the
vulnerable groups including the low income, women, and the differently abled. The metro lines will empower the
vulnerable groups in Mumbai with better accessibility to a number of socioeconomic centers of development,
such as education institutes and health-care facilities, in a comfortable manner. This accessibility will enable
the people of the MMR to easily use these facilities and eventually improve the key socioeconomic indexes like
literacy, health, and employment. This improved accessibility will be critical given the projected changes in land
use patterns of urban as well as industrial areas, where more and more areas outside the confines of Mumbai City
will undergo enhanced economic activity.

From an environmental point of view, Mumbai is in the top five most polluted cities in the world, having an annual
measure of 64 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³) in particulate matter with at most 2.5 microns in diameter
(PM2.5 ). This PM2.5 measure is more than three times the world average of 18 μg/m³ and more than 6 times the
safe limit prescribed by the World Health Organization at 10 μg/m³. The two biggest contributors toward PM2.5
in Mumbai are industrial emissions (42%) and transport emissions (26%). However, it is expected that transport
emissions will become the biggest contributor to PM2.5 by 2030, with a 35% share. The number of private vehicles
per 1,000 people has increased more than 3 times since 2001 in Mumbai. All these factors are contributing
toward higher PM2.5 levels; although, the introduction of the Mumbai Metro is expected to significantly change
this trend. Currently, 43% of people in Mumbai commute using the Mumbai suburban rail system, while 35% use
motorized vehicles. Only 2% of the population currently use the metro (and the monorail). However, the modal
share of the metro (and monorail) is expected to increase to 36% by 2031 and thus reduce the share of motorized
vehicles from 35% to 24%. This reduction in motorized vehicles is eventually expected to control the growing
PM2.5 emissions and make Mumbai a cleaner city for everyone.

Mumbai Metro is focusing on leveraging non-fare revenue sources for improving the financial sustainability of
the project. The Government of Maharashtra increased the stamp duty from 5% to 6% in 2018, applicable to
all property transactions in Mumbai. Proceeds from this would finance major transport infrastructure projects
currently being undertaken in the MMR. But in March 2020, because of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the
government announced a concession for 2 years in this stamp duty increase to boost the construction and realty
sectors in Mumbai. Other value-capture financing instruments considered include the increase in development
charges by 100% and a transit-oriented development policy that allows for additional purchasable floor area ratio
 Executive Summary xix

on payment of a premium, where 50% of this premium is proposed to be dedicated toward financing of the metro
rail transit system.

Overall, the realization of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan can herald a new era for public transportation in
Mumbai. The Mumbai Metro will provide easy and equal access to everyone across the city. It will not only reduce
the pressure on the existing suburban railway and buses, but also enhance safety. The metro system in Mumbai
can strongly contribute to a modern and safe rail-based urban transit system that will improve the overall quality
of the city’s transport system.

The subsequent chapters detail how the Mumbai Metro can make Mumbai a more equitable, safer, and cleaner
city.
The Gateway of India. The erstwhile Bombay was a critical
trading city in the British Empire
(photo by TRphotos/Shutterstock.com).
Transporting through Mumbai’s History

A Brief History of Mumbai

The former city of Bombay (present day Mumbai) was originally inhabited by the Kolis, a local fishing community.
It came under the control of the Portuguese during the 1500s, as they realized the potential of the city to be a
direct gateway to India due to its natural deep-water harbor. At that time, Bombay was an archipelago separated
by swampy lands and consisting of seven islands (Map 1): Bombay, Colaba, Mahim, Mazagaon, Little Colaba (also
known as Old Woman’s Island), Parel, and Worli.

Map 1: Cluster of Seven Islands in Erstwhile Bombay

Source: TIFR and Nichalp. 2008. The Seven Islands of Bombay. Wikimedia Commons.
2 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

In 1661, the seven islands were handed over to England by the Portuguese as a part of the dowry of Catherine
of Braganza when she married Charles II. At this point, the city was rechristened as the Island City and had an
approximate population of 10,000. Due to its natural advantage of a deep-water harbor, the Island City soon
became a center of trade in India. This led to the economic growth and industrialization of the Island City. The
city had an active shipbuilding business, enhancing its economy from export of cotton and import of textiles.
This provided a great opportunity for people from different trades and specialties, such as goldsmiths, weavers,
ironsmiths, planters, merchants, moneylenders, and servants, to come and work in the Island City.

In the early 1800s, significant engineering work was carried out in Bombay to support the increasing population.
Several construction projects were undertaken during this period, such as the introduction of railways in 1853, the
introduction of the Municipal Corporation of Bombay in 1872, etc. Several land reclamation projects were also
undertaken by authorities to fill the city swamps and combine the seven islands into one consolidated landmass.
By 1845, the seven small islands were merged to form one large island known as Bombay (Map 2).

Map 2: Consolidation of the Seven Islands

Source: Image credits to British Library Digitized Catalogue from R. E. Enthoven. 1896. General Index. In J. M. Campbell, ed. Gazetteer
of the Bombay Presidency. Bombay: Government Central Press. p. 16.
 Transporting through Mumbai’s History 3

During the civil war in America, India became the main supplier of raw cotton to England, with large volumes
exported from Bombay. Bombay witnessed an extraordinary increase in industrial and trade activities leading to
strong commercial growth during this period. Many industries, primarily textile mills, were set up in the city
during the 19th century, and Bombay became a textile hub. India’s first cotton mill, the Bombay Spinning Mill,
was also set up in the city in 1854. By 1864, more than 100 companies were registered in Bombay, operating as
banks, financial associations, land companies, press companies, shipping companies, insurance companies, and
joint stock companies. Businesses boomed as money flooded into the city during this period, and the population
of the city increased rapidly to around 0.8 million by 1864.

Evolution of Public Transport

Railways were introduced for the first time in Bombay in 1853, between Victoria Terminus and Thane. The
33-kilometer (km) long railway line was the first passenger railway in India. The city was later connected to other
major Indian cities. In 1870, railway lines from Bombay (present day Mumbai) to Madras (present day Chennai)
and from Bombay to Calcutta (present day Kolkata) were also built.

In 1872, the Municipal Corporation of Bombay was established to understand the problems and requirements of
the city. It added new modes of public transport to replace the existing methods, such as carts or carriages drawn
by animals.

Mula River in Dapoorie near Poona, circa 1858. A passenger train connecting Bombay to Thane traversed the
Dapoorie Viaduct (photo from the British Library online gallery).
4 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

The Bombay Tramway Company Limited began tramways operations in the city in 1873. Initially, these trams were
pulled by horses; however, horse-drawn trams were considered slow and expensive and failed to attract citizens.

After a few years, in 1907, electric tramways were introduced and were well received. These were operated by
the Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST), formerly known as the Bombay Electric Supply and
Tramways Company, which added new trams and also ran double-decker buses in the city. The BEST shut the
tramway system in 1964, but it still operates bus services in Mumbai.

Bus transportation in Mumbai. The Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) buses were an
important mode of urban transport in the city since the early 1960s (photo by Nichalp in Wikimedia Commons).

From an Island City to the Mumbai Metropolitan

Area—The Journey of the Last 100 Years
Mumbai has undergone several changes in the last century on its journey to becoming India’s current business
and financial hub. As illustrated in Map 3, it has spatially grown from the Island City of 157 square kilometers
(km2) to Greater Mumbai (437 km2, including the suburbs of Andheri, Bandra, and Borivali) to eventually
transform into the modern-day Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) (6,355 km2, including Thane, Navi
Mumbai, Vasai-Virar, Mira Bhayander, among others). Today, the MMR contributes 6% of India’s gross domestic
product (GDP).1

1
U. Adusumilli. 2016. Role of Regional Development Institutions in Creating an Enabling Environment towards Shared Prosperity: The Case of Mumbai
Metropolitan Region. Presentation for the International Conference on Sustainable Development through Quality Infrastructure Investment. Tokyo.
20–21 January.
 Transporting through Mumbai’s History 5

Map 3: Heat Map Expansion of Mumbai to the Modern-Day Metropolitan Area, 1973–2014

Source: S. Rawoot, J. L. Wescoat Jr., K. Noiva, and A. Marks. 2015. Mumbai Case Study. Product of research on Enhancing Blue-Green
Environmental and Social Performance in High Density Urban Environments (sponsored by the Ramboll Foundation). Cambridge, MA:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

A study of the historical population growth in various parts of the modern-day MMR reveals the key changes
that have given it its current shape. More than 100 years ago, Greater Mumbai, having a population of 0.9 million,
was one of most important trade centers in India. As depicted in Figure 1, in 1901, its population share (84%) was
heavily skewed toward the Island City. Only 16% of the population resided in the modern-day suburbs of Greater
Mumbai. Today, almost 75% of the current population of 12.5 million in Greater Mumbai live in the suburbs and
only 25% stay in the Island City.2

Figure 1: Growing Population and Changing Population Distribution in Greater Mumbai,

1901–2011

From 0.9 million people to 12.4 million people at 2% CAGR

25%
32%
16% 17% 22% 49%
1901 1931 1951 1971 1991 2011
84% 83% 78% 51%
68%
75%
Suburban Mumbai

Central Mumbai

CAGR = compound annual growth rate.

Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2016. Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Plan 2016-2036. Mumbai.

2
Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2016. Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Plan 2016-2036. Mumbai.
6 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 2:  Changes in the Population Distribution in Different Parts of the Mumbai
Metropolitan Region, 1971–2011

Greater Mumbai
90%
Thane
Kalyan Dombivali
80% 78% Vasai
77% Mira Bhayander
Bhiwandi
70% Ulhasnagar
64%
62%
60%
55%
50%
Growth spurt outside of Greater
Mumbai in Kalyan, Thane and Growth in Mira Bhayander
40% Navi Mumbai and Vasai
Coming up of Mira Growth in areas distant from
Bhayander Mumbai, such as Panvel and
30% Kulgaon-Badalpur

20%

10%

0%
1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2016. Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Plan 2016-2036. Mumbai.

Over the last century, the population of Greater Mumbai increased by almost 12 times and the distribution of
this population reversed, with a majority now residing in the suburbs of Greater Mumbai. This spurt of spatial growth
to accommodate the increasing population spilled outside the boundaries of Greater Mumbai. The expansion
started in the 1980s, with development in the surrounding areas of Thane and Kalyan-Dombivali (Figure 2). The
trend of outward expansion of Greater Mumbai has gathered momentum ever since and, hence, the population
share of Greater Mumbai in the modern-day MMR has fallen from 77% to 55% (footnote 2). This population shift
has been driven by an upsurge in new areas around Greater Mumbai, with recent growth spurts being witnessed in
distant areas like Panvel and Badalpur.

Today, all these areas combine to form the MMR, which consists of eight municipal corporations, nine municipal
councils, and several villages. The area-wise contribution of the major municipal corporations and municipal
councils that constitute the MMR is shown in Figure 3. In terms of area, the biggest part of the MMR is Greater
Mumbai, which is its core.
 Transporting through Mumbai’s History 7

Figure 3: Spatial Coverage (in Terms of Area) within the Mumbai Metropolitan Region

10% 8%

Thane Kalyan-Dombivali

34% 21% 3% 3%
Kulgaon-
Ambernath Badalpur
8% 7%
2%
Khopoli

Mira Bhiwandi-
Greater Mumbai Vasai-Virar Navi Mumbai Bhayander Nizampur

LEGEND: Ulhasnagar Karjat Matheran Pen Panvel Uran Alibag

Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2016. Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Plan 2016-2036. Mumbai.

Current Transportation Challenges in Mumbai

As observed previously, most of the population of Greater Mumbai (almost 75%) reside in the suburbs of Mumbai,
with just 25% living in Mumbai City. However, the suburbs of Mumbai accommodate just 30% of the Greater
Mumbai’s factories, leading to a mismatch between the location of jobs and the location of the working population.3
The metric of employment, with respect to the working population within each district, helps to identify the need
of the working population to commute out of their respective districts for their daily jobs. A value of “more than 1”
indicates that the people of the district will have a lesser probability of travelling outside their district for jobs. On the
other hand, a value of “less than 1” indicates that the people within the district do not have sufficient employment
opportunities within their respective districts.

Map 4 demonstrates how the metrics of employment per working population for areas surrounding Mumbai
City—e.g., Mumbai Suburbs (0.23), Thane (0.42), Navi Mumbai (0.35), Mira Bhayander (0.35), and Vasai
(0.34)—are significantly lesser than the metric of the city itself, which is relatively very high at a value of 1.62.
Hence, people from the areas surrounding Mumbai City (with low metric values) need to travel all the way to
Mumbai City for their daily jobs. These people need to cover longer distances to commute to work on a daily
basis and thus rely on good transport systems.

As seen in Figure 4, there is a heavy reliance on public transport. Mumbai suburban rail captures the highest
modal share at 43%, followed by the BEST buses at 20%.4

3
H. Indorewala et al. 2017. City Résumé—Mumbai. Building Inclusive Urban Communities. Mumbai: Kamla Raheja Vidyanidhi Institute of
Architecture and Environmental Studies.
4
Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. 2016. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai. Mumbai.
8 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Map 4: Area-Wise Employment per Working Population in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region
by District

0.34
Vasai
0.73
Mira Bhiwandi
0.35
Bhayander 0.25
Kalyan
0.42
Thane
Mumbai
0.23 Navi 0.45
Suburban 0.35 Ulhasnagar
Mumbai

0.92
Mumbai 1.62 Panvel
0.39
Karjat
0.54 0.32
Uran
Khalapur

0.56
0.99 Pen
Alibagh

Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2003. Population and Employment Profile of Mumbai
Metropolitan Region. Mumbai.

Figure 4: Current Modal Share of Public Transport in Mumbai

43 % 20 % 12 % 9% 9% 5% 2%

Rail Bus Two-wheeler Taxi Car Rickshaw Metro and

Monorail
Data source: Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. 2016. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai. Mumbai.
 Transporting through Mumbai’s History 9

Suburban rail is the lifeline of Mumbai and carries more than 7.5 million daily passengers on its almost 400 km
network. It utilizes 258 trains to run more than 3,000 train services daily.5 Passengers travel under extremely
overcrowded “super dense crush load” conditions. The trains have a design capacity of 1,750 people (per 9-coach
train), but are currently transporting roughly 5,000 people during periods of peak demand. This excessive
jam-packing of people in the rail coaches (at more than 3 times the design capacity) indicates that there are
14 passengers per square meter crowded into the suburban trains, making it one of most overcrowded public
transport systems in the world.

Highly crowded Mumbai suburban rail system. Overcrowding at suburban railway stations leads to unsafe conditions at the stations as
well as while boarding and de-boarding the trains (photo by Cool Runnings India in Flickr).

Meanwhile, the bus system operated by the state-owned BEST caters to more than 3.5 million passengers daily,
using its fleet of 4,336 buses. However, bus transportation in Mumbai occurs on highly congested roads. The
number of private vehicles has increased from 2.3 million in 2005 to 7.2 million in 2017. This increase in private
vehicles has further added to the already high congestion on the road network. As shown in Figure 5, the average
vehicle speed on the roads of Mumbai (8.1 km/hour) is significantly less than the average speed of leading cities
of the world. Further, the road congestion index for Mumbai is also significantly higher than the index of these
leading cities.6

5
Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Ltd. 2019. Corporate Plan 2034. Mumbai.

6
A. Bhide. 2019. Need of Metro for Sustainable Development. A PowerPoint presentation for Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Ltd. 20 September.
10 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 5: Global Comparison of Average Speeds and Congestion Levels in Mumbai

km/h = kilometer per hour.

Data source: A. Bhide. 2019. Need of Metro for Sustainable Development. A PowerPoint presentation for Mumbai Metro Rail
Corporation Ltd. 20 September.

Figure 6: Decreasing Share of Overall Public Transport (All Forms)

over the Years in Mumbai

88%

88%

78%
65%
78%
65%
1991 2005 2017

1991 2005 2017

Data source: A. Bhide. 2019. Need of Metro for Sustainable Development. A PowerPoint presentation for Mumbai Metro Rail
Corporation Ltd. 20 September.
 Transporting through Mumbai’s History 11

Due to the reasons outlined, the overall share of public transport has been gradually decreasing over the last few
decades in Mumbai. It has dropped from 88% in 1991 to 65% in 2017 (Figure 6).

The suburban rail system has already undertaken several capacity enhancements, such as reducing the headway
on all lines by respacing the signaling, converting the overhead power supply system from direct current to
alternating current, replacing 9-coach trains with 12-coach trains, extending the lengths of all platforms, etc.
Several lines have already been doubled, tripled, and, in some cases, the fifth and sixth lines have been added
(e.g., the Borivali–Virar section). The need for an extensive metro-based public transportation network in
Mumbai becomes even more stark when the current metro coverage in Mumbai is compared with other cities
across the world (Map 5).

Map 5: Comparison of Metro Rail Transit System Coverage around the World
(operational kilometer per million population)

43.0
46.0 34.0

35.0
19.0 29.0

Moscow 26.0
London 6.0
10.0 New York Paris 16.0
Beijing Tokyo
0.5 Shanghai
Mexico City Dubai Seoul
MUMBAI

9.0
18.0
Rio de Janeiro 7.0

Cape Town Sydney

Data source: Oxford Economics. 2016. Global Cities 2030. Oxford Global Headquarters.

As illustrated in Map 5, the operational metro length per million people in Mumbai is extremely low as compared
with other global cities. Not only is this true with respect to developed cities such as New York, London, Paris, Dubai,
and Sydney, but it is also significantly lower than developing cities such as Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, and Moscow
in the countries of Brazil, Russian Federation, India, People’s Republic of China, and South Africa (BRICS).

The Mumbai Metro coverage of 0.5 km of length per million people is primarily due to the currently operational
Line 1. This metric is expected to increase to 14.0 km of metro length per million people upon completion of
construction of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan of 277 km of metro network.

If the Mumbai Metro Master Plan was not to be realized, the share of public transport in Mumbai will continue
to fall. This would further lead to development challenges in the city as metro systems typically offer easier
accessibility, cleaner environment, safer transit, and comfortable journeys to a huge number of people and help in
inclusive socioeconomic development.
Train at a halt. Metro trains in Mumbai provide a safe, clean and
efficient mode of transport (photo by V_E/Shutterstock.com).
Breathing New Life into the City

Mumbai Metro Master Plan

Mumbai has greatly benefited from the mature and robust Mumbai suburban railway. The suburban rail network
is developed, operated, and maintained by Indian Railways and has transported the people of Mumbai for more
than 150 years. The first suburban train was started in 1867 between Virar and Back Bay (near current-day
Churchgate). Currently, the Mumbai region is served by two zones of the Indian Railways: Western Railway and
Central Railway. The Western Railway line, going northward from Churchgate, runs parallel to the west coast of
Mumbai; whereas, the Central Railway line, running from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, serves central and eastern
Mumbai (Map 6).

However, the rapid expansion and spatial growth of Mumbai has resulted in more and more people living further
away from central Mumbai (where most of the jobs are located). As is evident from the average commuter

Map 6: Traffic Flow Pattern of the Two Zones of the Indian Railways

Western Railway Central Railway

Note: Thickness of the flow pattern indicates number of services.
Data source: Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Ltd. 2016. Development and Expansion Plan. Mumbai.
14 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 7: Average Commuter Distance Using the Different Modes

of Transport in Mumbai
23.8 km
12.0 km

8.9 km

7.1 km

6.0 km

4.3 km

1.4 km

km = kilometer.
Data source: A. Bhide. 2019. Need of Metro for Sustainable Development. A PowerPoint presentation for Mumbai Metro Rail
Corporation Ltd. 20 September.

distance of various modes of transport in Mumbai, people living further away from central Mumbai prefer the
suburban railways to commute daily between home and work. The average distance travelled by commuters in
the suburban railways is highest at 23.8 km per trip (Figure 7).

As discussed previously, the current public transportation systems, including the suburban railway and the
Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) buses, are under extreme pressure in terms of capacity
and quality. To resolve the existing transport infrastructure challenges, as well as to improve the regional
connectivity to meet the city’s future needs, the Government of Maharashtra and the Mumbai Metropolitan
Region Development Authority (MMRDA) prepared the Master Plan for the Mumbai Metro in 2004. The original
Master Plan included nine corridors covering 146.5 km. The Master Plan has been updated to include a total of
12 lines covering a length of 277 km (Map 7).

The Mumbai Metro Master Plan is expected to not only increase public transport modal share in the Mumbai
Metropolitan Region (MMR), but also improve the quality of life, convenience of transportation, safety of
commuting, and accessibility for all socioeconomic groups (specifically the poor, women, and children).

The Mumbai Metro Master Plan will serve six business districts (Cuffe Parade, Fort, Lower Parel, Nariman Point,
Santacruz Electronics Export Processing Zone, and Worli), in addition to providing connectivity to Chhatrapati
Shivaji Maharaj International Airport and Navi Mumbai International Airport. Importantly, the Mumbai Metro
Master Plan will help in connecting areas that are not currently served by the suburban rail network.

Another key aspect of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan will be the additional mobility options for travelling along
the East–West corridors. Lines 1 and 6 will provide East–West connectivity in Greater Mumbai, while Line 8 will
 Breathing New Life into the City 15

Map 7: Mumbai Metro Master Plan

Note: Line 9 is being considered as extension of Line 7.

Source: Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. 2016. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai. Mumbai.

connect Mumbai with Navi Mumbai. Further, Line 12 will connect with the Navi Mumbai Metro lines. The key
characteristics of each metro line in the Master Plan have been summarized in Figure 8.

On 26 February 2019, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) approved a $926 million loan for the Mumbai Metro.7
The loan will support Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 (covering a total distance of about 58 km), where ADB will assist the
MMRDA in financing the procurement of rolling stock, signaling and train control systems, as well as station
access, platform systems, and multimodal integration. Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 are expected to cater to almost
2 million commuters per day, after the operations stabilize. The ADB loan can greatly benefit these metro lines,

7
ADB. 2019. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to India for the Mumbai Metro Rail Systems Project.
Manila.
16 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 8: Details of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan

Length (km) No. of stations Cost ( million) Owner Debt Funding Agency

Line 1 11 12 23,560

Line 2 42 38 173,960

Line 3 34 27 231,360

Line 4 35 34 145,490

Line 5 25 17 84,170

Line 6 15 13 65,160

Line 7 16 13 62,080

Line 8 35 To be finalized 150,000 To be finalized

Line 10 9 4 44,760 To be finalized

Line 11 12 10 87,390 To be finalized

Line 12 21 17 58,650 To be finalized

₹ = Indian rupee, ADB = Asian Development Bank, AIIB = Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, JICA = Japan International
Cooperation Agency, KfW = Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau (German development cooperation), km = kilometer,
MMRDA = Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority.
Note: Line 9 is being considered as extension of Line 7.
Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority.

which are expected to improve transport safety and comfort for the people, especially the poor and vulnerable.
These metro lines are also expected to provide enhanced access to economic opportunities and social services
for all socioeconomic groups in Mumbai

The ADB loan will be used for the following aspects:

• design, manufacture, testing, and maintenance of 378 energy-efficient rolling stock carriages;
• procurement, installation, and testing of an advanced signaling, train control, and platform access system for
58 km of metro lines; and
• establishment of a Mumbai Metro operations organization.

The ownership of the MMRDA and the Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited and the financial assistance
from agencies like ADB, Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank, Japan International Cooperation Agency, among
others, have helped in the evolution of the respective metro lines (Figure 9).
 Breathing New Life into the City 17

Figure 9: Evolution of Lines 1, 2, 3, and 7 of the Mumbai Metro

Foundation Construction First train 2 km trial run from Last of the Safety clearance from Start
stone laid by work started for set received Versova to Azad 16 rakes the Commissioner of of
the Prime Minister the project Nagar successful received Metro Railway Safety operations

Mar 2007 Jul 2008 Oct 2012 Jun 2013 Feb 2014 Jun 2014 Feb 2017

Jun 2006 Feb 2008 Mar 2010 May 2013 Feb 2014 May 2014 Jun 2014

Concession Power supply MMRDA obtained 7 km trial run from Construction Final approval 250 million passenger
Agreement signed contract awarded 100% right of way Versova to Airport work completed from the Railway ridership crossed
with MMOPL station by Reliance Infra Board
successful

Project Proposed start of Feasibility report Construction Construction Estimated date of

launched by the construction work submitted by RITES works started on works started on opening of Line
RITES appointed for
President Line 2A Line 2B 2A
feasibility study

Jan 2010 Dec 2012 Nov 2013 Oct 2015 Sep 2016 Mar 2019 Oct 2022

Aug 2009 Aug 2010 Sep 2013 May 2014 June 2016 Apr 2018 Dec 2020

Consortium of Problems in Agreement with the Line 2A approved by Line 2B approved by $926 million loan Estimated date of
Reliance Infra, SNC land acquisition consortium the State the State agreement signed opening of Line 2B
Lavalin inc Canada terminated government government between GOI and
appointed on BOT ADB
basis

Government of Proposal submitted Cabin Loan State Pre- General-

Maharashtra for project approval agreement Cabinet qualification Consultant
approval for Project implementation via received signed by approval of civil appointed
implementation JICA funding JICA issued contractors

Oct 2010 Sep 2012 Jul 2013 Sep 2013 Aug 2014 May 2015 Jul 2016

Jun 2010 Dec 2011 Jun 2013 Sep 2013 Mar 2014 Sep 2014 May 2015

GOI rejects MOUD GOI Project Foundation Receiving all LOA issued
LOA issued
implementation on recommends
MOUD approval notified stone laid civil tenders to all civil
PPP basis project DEA received under Metro contractors
Act

Foundation stone laid Construction Feasibility study for Extension alignment Extension (7A) Construction Estimated date of
by work initiated extension conducted approved by State approved by works on Line 7A opening of Line
the Prime Minister by DMRC Government Maharashtra started 7A
Cabinet

Apr 2016 Nov 2016 Apr 2017 May 2017 Mar 2019 Dec 2020

Oct 2015 Aug 2016 Mar 2017 Apr 2017 Sep 2018 Mar 2020 Oct 2024

Bids for design and DMRC appointed to Viaducts U-girder $926 million loan Estimated date of
construction commission rolling construction works work begins agreement signed opening of Line 7
awarded stock, S&T work begin between GOI and ADB

$ = United States dollar, ADB = Asian Development Bank, BOT = build–operate–transfer, DEA = Department of Economic Affairs,
DMRC = Delhi Metro Rail Corporation, GOI = Government of India, JICA = Japan International Cooperation Agency,
km = kilometer; MMOPL = Mumbai Metro One Private Limited, MMRDA = Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority,
MOUD = Ministry of Urban Development, PPP = public–private partnership, RITES = Rail India Technical and Economic Service,
S&T = signaling and telecommunication.
Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority.
18 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Project Progress
The realization of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan is a complex task that is being managed by the MMRDA and by
Mumbai Metro Rail Corporation Limited for Line 3. It consists of constructing several lines, which in turn include
several packages and phases. The foundation stone for the first phase of the Mumbai Metro project was laid in
2006, and the construction work began in 2008.

All lines of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan are expected to be completed by the year 2026 (Figure 10).

Figure 10: Completion Timelines of the Various Mumbai Metro Lines

2008 2014 2016 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2024 2026
Line 1

Line 2A

Line 2B

Line 3

Line 4

Line 5

Line 6

Line 7

Line 8*
Operations started
Under construction Line 10
Preliminary stage
Line 11
DPR preparation
Formal approvals received Line 12

DPR = detailed project report.

Note: Line 9 is being considered as an extension of Line 7.
Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority.

As seen in Figure 10, Line 1 has been operational since June 2014, and Lines 2A, 2B, 3, 4, 6, and 7 are currently
at different stages of construction. Line 8 is in the detailed project report preparation stage, while Line 5 is at the
preliminary stage (alignment finalization). Lines 10, 11, and 12 have all received formal approvals for proceeding
as well. Meanwhile, Line 9 is not shown separately in illustrations of the Mumbai Metro Lines as it is being
considered as an extension of Line 7.

The key to unlock the total value from the Mumbai Metro Master Plan will be its on-time construction
completion in the short to medium term. Lines 2A and 7 are expected to be operational by 2021, and the
construction works have reached their last stages.
 Breathing New Life into the City 19

Construction works for Line 2A (top photo) and Line 7 (bottom photo). Lines 2A and 7 are targeted to start operations by 2021
(photos by Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority).
Income inequality in Mumbai. Slums of Mumbai against
the backdrop of Mumbai’s skyscrapers highlight the income
inequality in the city (photo by M. H. Ameeq in Pixabay).
Contributing toward an Equitable City

Income Inequality in our Society—A Global and

National Perspective
The Gini coefficient is a well-established statistical index to measure the disparity of income between the rich
and the poor. It is used for determining the income inequality within nations as well as within states. Its value
ranges between 0 and 1, with 0 indicating perfect equality and 1 indicating perfect inequality. Thus, a high Gini
coefficient indicates high socioeconomic disparity in the society due to high differences in income distribution.

To understand the extent of income inequality in India on a global level, datasets from the World Bank and
Central Intelligence Agency factbook (having data pertaining to more than 150 countries) were analyzed. As can
be seen in Figure 11, the majority of countries fall within the small economies segment (with a GDP of less than

Figure 11: Scatter Plot of Gini Coefficients and Gross Domestic Products of Selected Countries

20,000.0 Large economies with United States Large economies

13,000.0
6,000.0 relatively lower with relatively
income inequality People’s Republic of China higher inequality

5,000.0 Japan

4,000.0 Germany
GDP ($ billion)

3,000.0 United Kingdom

France India

Italy
2,000.0
Medium economies Canada Russian Medium economies
with relatively lower Federation Brazil with relatively
income inequality Australia Mexico higher inequality
1,000.0 Netherlands

South Africa
-
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
Small economies GINI coefficient (out of 100) Small economies
with relatively lower with relatively
income inequality higher inequality

$ = United States dollar, GDP = gross domestic product.

Data source: World Bank. World Development Indicators (accessed 20 June 2020).
22 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

$0.5 trillion). These smaller economies have an almost even split on either side, with a Gini coefficient of 0.40
(which is the mean of the Gini coefficients of all countries). India lies in the segment that can be classified as a large
economy (having a GDP of more than $2 trillion), with a relatively lower Gini coefficient (0.37). However, most
of the developed countries like Germany, Japan, France, and the United Kingdom have Gini coefficients less than
India, while still generating similar or higher economic output. Further, the Gini coefficients of the highest GDP
countries in the world, i.e., the United States and the People’s Republic of China, are only marginally higher than
that of India.8 Hence, India needs to further bridge its socioeconomic gap to be at par with the leading countries of
the world.

A deeper understanding of income inequality in India can be gathered by assessing the state-wise Gini
coefficients (Map 8). An analysis of the Planning Commission of India’s dataset of state-wise Gini coefficients
indicates the major states where income inequality is higher. Maharashtra’s Gini coefficient (0.38) is the fourth
highest among all states and Union Territories in India. Further, its Gini coefficient is higher than the overall Gini
coefficient of India (0.37).9 Thus, there is considerable opportunity for interventions that can bridge income
inequality and the subsequent socioeconomic disparity in Maharashtra.

Map 8: Normal Curve Plot of State-Wise Gini Coefficients in India

0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45

Gini coefficient (out of 1)
Data source: Government of India, Planning Commission. 2014. State-Wise Gini Coefficient of Distribution of Consumption:
1973–1974 to 2009–2010. Databook for Use of Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission. 10 March. p. 100.

8
World Bank. World Development Indicators (accessed 20 June 2020).

9
Government of India, Planning Commission. 2014. State-Wise Gini Coefficient of Distribution of Consumption: 1973–1974 to 2009–2010.
Databook for Use of Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission. 10 March. p. 100.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 23

Since the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR) is the biggest contributor to the GDP of Maharashtra,
interventions in the MMR can have substantial impact on improving the socioeconomic disparity in Maharashtra
and, hence, in India.

Existing Socioeconomic Profile of the Mumbai

Metropolitan Region
The MMR is the second largest metropolitan city in India (after Delhi), and the 11th largest metropolitan
city in the world. To make the MMR more equitable, it is crucial to identify the vulnerable groups that need
socioeconomic upliftment. The target groups that need specific attention, due to limited availability as well as
accessibility to opportunities, are low-income workers, women, and the differently abled. Figure 12 presents some
important socioeconomic indexes for these groups.

Figure 12: Key Socioeconomic Indicators of

Vulnerable Groups in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region

Women Differently Abled Low -Income

18 % 3% 28%

Female work Special Slum

participation needs population
ratio

Data source: Government of Maharashtra, Directorate of Economics and Statistics. 2017. Handbook of Basic Statistics of
Maharashtra 2017. Mumbai.

From a gender point of view, the MMR’s sex ratio (859 females per 1,000 males) is skewed toward males.
This is lower than the sex ratios of India (906 females per 1,000 males) and Maharashtra (896 females per
1,000 males). This gender imbalance is further apparent at the work participation level (female work participation
percentage of 18%, against a male work participation of almost 40%). Lack of comfortable transport options is
a constant limitation to women’s employment, education, and other activities. Ensuring an accessible public
transport system for women can help to increase their participation in the work force.
24 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Commuting in Mumbai’s overcrowded trains. Women in saris commute with their children in overcrowded ladies’ compartments of
the Mumbai suburban trains (photo by Erin in Flickr).

From a special needs point of view, 3% of the MMR population is differently abled.10 The lack of escalators,
elevators, accessibility ramps, and platform-level boarding makes commuting difficult for this group and, hence,
limits their development and opportunities. From an income point of view, 28% of the population in the MMR
lives in slum areas. These people living on extremely low incomes cannot afford to dedicate income to safe and
high-quality daily commuting and, hence, have limited access to growth opportunities. Thus, there is a need to
empower the people in the low-income areas with high-quality and affordable commuting options.

Map 9 shows the major slum clusters where 28% of Mumbai’s population lives. Dharavi, one of Asia’s largest
slums, is currently not served by the Mumbai suburban rail. However, Line 3 of the Mumbai Metro will have a
dedicated station at Dharavi. This direct connectivity will enable easy accessibility to schools, hospitals, offices,
etc., for the people in Dharavi.

10
Government of Maharashtra, Directorate of Economics and Statistics. 2017. Handbook of Basic Statistics of Maharashtra 2017. Mumbai.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 25

A slum neighborhood in Dharavi, Mumbai. Slum clusters are common in Mumbai, and such slums
form the livelihood of several people in the city (photo by Kounosu in Wikimedia Commons).

Map 9: Slum Clusters in Greater Mumbai

Data source: Government of India, Slum Rehabilitation Authority. 2016. Ward and Village-Wise Slum Cluster Map of Greater Mumbai
showing Area Boundaries of Competent Authority—GPS Survey 2015–2016. Mumbai.
26 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

It is important here to also understand the existing profile of employment-generating sectors in the MMR.
Figure 13 highlights the major sectors that provide employment. Providing better connectivity to these centers of
employment can improve the quality of life of the people in the MMR.

As can be noted, the majority (71%) of employment in the MMR is generated by the tertiary sector, with most of
this employment located within Mumbai City. Sectors like retail, hotels and restaurants, public administration,
real estate, health, and education provide most of this employment, with the retail sector being the biggest
provider. The secondary sector contributes 28% to the total MMR employment, almost all of which comes from
manufacturing. Finally, the primary sector (comprising agriculture, mining, and fishing) accounts for
only 1% of total employment. Hence, almost the entire population of Mumbai depends on business or
manufacturing jobs.

To make the MMR truly equitable, more steps need to be taken to facilitate accessibility of the vulnerable groups
to education, health care, housing, and employment. This is expected to result in an overall improvement in the
socioeconomic indicators of the MMR.

Figure 13: Employment Contribution of Various Sectors

in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region

Construction Agriculture

g
rin
ctu
n ufa
Ma
Secondary Retail
28% Primary
1%

Transport

Others
Education Tertiary
71%
Health Hotels and
Real Restaurants
Estate Public
Admin

Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2016. Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Plan 2016-2036. Mumbai.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 27

Projected Changes in the Profile of the

Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Infrastructure in the MMR has always been under pressure due to the continuous influx of people. This influx has
resulted in a gradual outward shift of the population away from the core of Mumbai. Since 1971, the population
distribution in the Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai has decreased from 78% to 49%. This population
distribution is further expected to decrease to 31% by 2041. Consequently, the population in surrounding areas
(like Thane) is expected to increase to 49% by 2041 (up from 12% in 1971) (footnote 2). These changes in the land
utilization have been captured in Figure 14 and will continue to shape the socioeconomic profile of the MMR.

The mushrooming of new urban areas (in orange) as well as new industrial areas (in red) on the right side of
Figure 14 indicates the new centers for housing, as well as employment, that will be created outside the confines
of Greater Mumbai. These will occur in addition to the increased usage intensity of the existing urban and
industrial centers.

The major categories for employment in Mumbai are the business sector followed by the secondary sector.
Hence, the above projected changes in land use patterns of urban and industrial areas, along with the projected
changes in employment opportunities in the business and secondary sector, will play an important role in the
future state of income equality in the MMR.

Figure 14: Comparison of Land Use Patterns

in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region, 2016 and 2036

2016 2036

Urban Industrial Green Agriculture Others

Data source: Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority. 2016. Mumbai Metropolitan Regional Plan 2016-2036. Mumbai.
28 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 15: Bubble Chart of Gross Domestic Product, Population,

and Business Employment in Key Cities of the World in 2030
8 Medium Highly Extremely
populated populated populated
cities cities Beijing cities
7 generating generating generating
medium high very high
business business business
Business Employment (million)

6
employment employment employment

4 Chongqing
New York
London
3 Mumbai Tokyo
Paris
2 Singapore
Shanghai Jakarta
1
Sydney
Tianjin

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Population (million)

Note: Bubble size indicates gross domestic product in billions of United States dollars ($ billion).
Data source: Oxford Economics. 2016. Global Cities 2030. Oxford Global Headquarters.

An analysis of the Oxford Economics data shows that, in 2030, Mumbai will continue its trajectory of growth
in population, as well as in business-related employment (Figure 15). In fact, the MMR will be ranked fifth in
the world in terms of business employment (2.5 million jobs) by 2030. With its increasing population that will
contribute to the economic output of the city, the MMR will need a future-ready public transport system that
empowers its citizens with access to existing and new centers of jobs.

Data also indicate that the MMR will be ranked 10th in the world in terms of secondary employment (2.9 million
jobs) by 2030 (Figure 16).11 This population will also need a future-ready public transport system that provides
accessibility to the centers of secondary jobs.

11
Oxford Economics. 2016. Global Cities 2030. Oxford Global Headquarters.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 29

Figure 16: Bubble Chart of Gross Domestic Product, Population,

and Secondary Employment in Key Cities of the World in 2030
10 Medium Highly Extremely
populated populated populated
9 cities cities cities
generating generating generating
8 medium high very high
Secondary Employment (million)

secondary secondary secondary

7 employment employment Chongqing employment

6
Jakarta
5
Shenzen
4 Beijing
Mumbai
3 Tokyo
Istanbul
2
Moscow Shanghai
Sao Paolo
1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Population (million)
Note: Bubble size indicates gross domestic product in billions of United States dollars ($ billion).
Data source: Oxford Economics. 2016. Global Cities 2030. Oxford Global Headquarters.

How the Mumbai Metro Can Empower

through Equal Access for All
The Mumbai Metro will have several facilities for women commuters to make their travel safe:
• provision of surveillance cameras installed inside trains;
• nursing and breastfeeding room facilities at each station;
• separate hygienic toilets for women at each station;
• installation of sanitary pad dispensing machines;
• separate ticket counters and vending machines for women;
• use of mobile apps to disseminate information related to women’s safety;
• 15% allocated spaces in metro stations owned (or operated) by women, in addition to dedicated carriages for
women passengers;
• dedicated seats for women in each coach;
• installation of closed circuit TV cameras at every metro station;
• day care centers at selected stations; and
• pilot station having all-women staff.
30 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Women-only areas on the platform for Women-only coaches in the train

comfortable train waiting and boarding for convenient travel

Reserved seats for women, the differently abled, Escalators and ramps to facilitate easier station
and the elderly in each coach access and movement for the differently abled

Friendly features of the Mumbai Metro for the vulnerable groups. The Mumbai Metro offers some safety and accessibility features
and facilities to assist women, the elderly, and other vulnerable groups (images are illustrative taken from photos by Peretz Partensky,
as posted in Flickr; Mario Roberto Durán Ortiz, as posted in Wikimedia Commons; Prinz.W, as posted in Wikimedia Commons; and Bill
William Compton, as posted in Wikimedia Commons).

The Mumbai Metro will also provide several facilities to the differently abled and improve accessibility for them.
It is planned to have allocated space for wheelchairs in trains, platform-level boarding, elevators, escalators,
accessibility ramps, allocated waiting areas at each station, dedicated seats for the physically disabled passengers
in each coach, and priority e-ticketing counters, among other facilities.

The Mumbai Metro lines can provide the vulnerable groups in Mumbai with easy accessibility to a number of
socioeconomic centers of development like education institutes, health-care facilities, etc. This accessibility, as
shown in Maps 10 and 11, can provide the people of the MMR to easily use these facilities and eventually improve
the key socioeconomic indexes like literacy, health, and employment.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 31

Map 10: Key Education Institutes Close to the Alignment

of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan

Source: Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. 2016. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai. Mumbai.

A survey for assessing the passenger satisfaction on the Mumbai Metro Line 1, undertaken by a special-purpose
vehicle called the Mumbai Metro One Private Limited (MMOPL), indicates the positive impact of the metro
rail system. The survey consisted of more than 2,000 commuters from various ages, genders, socioeconomic
profiles, times of day, stations, etc. Of the respondents, 85% rated the overall experience highly (with a mean
score of almost 89%, exceeding the set norm of 84%). Further, 91% of the respondents gave positive ratings for
cleanliness at the metro stations and trains. The same group gave very low cleanliness ratings to other modes of
public transport, such as only 17% for the Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) buses and only
9% for the Mumbai suburban trains. In fact, 95% of the respondents were willing to recommend the metro train
service to other commuters.12 Not surprisingly, the passenger groups that had the greatest satisfaction levels were
women, as well as commuters aged 60 years and above (Figure 17). Thus, the Mumbai Metro has already started
providing better accessibility options to the vulnerable groups, and this benefit is expected to increase multifold
as more metro lines get operationalized.

12
Kadence International. 2015. Mumbai Metro Line 1 Survey. Mumbai.
32 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Map 11: Key Health-Care Facilities Close to the Alignment

of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan

and

Source: Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. 2016. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai. Mumbai.

To further provide a modern and high-quality commuter experience to everyone, Mumbai Metro Line 1 has
already released the Mumbai Metro I app. The app can help in recharging travel cards and can also function as a
travel planner.

The economic benefits of Mumbai Metro Lines 2A, 2B, and 7, quantified in terms of savings in time (due to better
accessibility), are expected to be twofold: (i) the time savings for people who will shift from road to the metro rail
system; and (ii) the time savings for people who will continue to use the road network, but with less congestion.

The first benefit is expected to come from reduced travel time of the metro journeys as compared to the
road-based journeys. The second benefit is expected to come from the reduced travel time for road traffic. The
introduction of the metro rail transit system in Mumbai is expected to reduce road congestion, which in turn
will increase the average speed on the road network. Thus, people travelling on the roads in Mumbai (after the
introduction of the metro) will be able to reach their respective destinations faster, as quantified in Figure 18.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 33

Figure 17: Results of Commuter Satisfaction Survey for Mumbai Metro Line 1, 2014

85% high overall experience

91% positive ratings for cleanliness

95% will recommend metro to other commuters

groups with the highest satisfaction scores

Data source: TNN. 2014. 85% Passengers Satisfied with Metro. The Times of India. 29 July.

Mumbai Metro I app. The mobile application features a travel planner and provides information on the bus and local train
networks in Mumbai, fares, travel history, smart card balance, and latest offerings and promotions (photos by Mumbai Metro One
Private Limited).
34 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 18: Time Benefit (from Better Accessibility) Due to Metro Lines 2A, 2B, and 7
and Benefit Realization Time Frame, 2021–2051
(₹ million)

1,870,000
210,000

1,660,000

Due to time savings for Due to time savings for Total

Metro users road users

18% 34% 48%

14% 35% 51%

2021 2031 2041 2051
Benefit Realization Time Frame
₹ = Indian rupee.
Data source: Asian Development Bank. 2019. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to
India for the Mumbai Metro Rail Systems Project. Economic Analysis (accessible from the list of linked documents in Appendix 2).
Manila.
 Contributing toward an Equitable City 35

The accessibility benefits of the Mumbai Metro (derived from the savings in travel time) are expected to be
sustained into the future (benefits up to 2051 have been shown in Figure 18). Importantly, they are expected to
increase strongly with each passing decade, and the time and accessibility benefits in 2041–2051 are expected to
be more than 2.5 times those in 2021–2031.

The benefits shown in Figure 18 are for only two Metro lines (i.e., Lines 2 and 7) in the overall master plan. The
realization of the entire Mumbai Metro Master Plan, therefore, is expected to generate multifold benefits for the
city of Mumbai.
Suburban train in Mumbai. Overcrowding leads to unsafe
conditions, such as passengers hanging outside the trains (photo
by Stefan in Flickr).
Contributing toward a Safer City

Passenger Safety—Life on the Lifeline

The most important aspect of any transportation network is the safety of its passengers. Networks that offer safer
modes of transportation are strongly favored by passengers. Since commuters in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region
(MMR) use both road-based and suburban rail-based modes of transport, it is important to understand the level
of safety offered by both of these modes. Safety is measured and compared in terms of fatalities per annum, which
establishes a baseline.

More than 50% of the modal share of commuter trips in Mumbai is derived from road-based modes of
transportation, such as the Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) buses, taxis, auto-rickshaws,
private cars, and two-wheelers. Thus, it is important to understand the safety offered on the road networks in India
as well as Mumbai on both global and national levels. An analysis of the World Health Organization (WHO) dataset
(covering more than 175 countries) on the number of road-traffic deaths per annum indicates that India has more
than 150,000 deaths. As seen in Figure 19, this is the highest number in the world and is worse by 2.5 times than that
of the second-ranked country.13

Figure 19: Normal Curve Plot of Country-Wise Road Traffic Deaths per Annum
Top 32%
Top 5%
Top 1%

South Africa

Russian
Federation

United People’s
States Republic of
Brazil China India

0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 100,000 120,000 140,000 160,000

Data source: World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Road Traffic Deaths by Country
(accessed 20 June 2020).

13
World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Road Traffic Deaths by Country (accessed 20 June 2020).
38 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Further, the same dataset indicates that the number of Indian road-traffic deaths is also high, at 226 per million
population. This metric for India is not only worse when compared to developed countries like the United States,
the United Kingdom, Germany, France, and Japan, where the metrics range from 31 to 124 road-traffic deaths per
million population, but it is also worse than the metrics for BRICS nations, which range from 180 to 196 road-
traffic deaths per million population.

A deeper, city-level analysis of road networks in India provides key insights on their relative safety. As can be
seen in Figure 20, Mumbai is in the top 10 most unsafe cities in India for road-based transportation, despite its
relatively higher patronage of public transportation.14 The risk exposure on the roads in Mumbai, measured in
terms of number of accidents and fatalities from these accidents per annum, is relatively high; hence, passengers
on the road network are constantly seeking safer options for transportation.

An analysis of the safety on the suburban railway network also merits consideration since it has the highest
individual modal share (more than 40%) of all commuter journeys in Mumbai. Suburban railway is the lifeline
of the people of Mumbai, but it has a high number of railway fatalities per annum (Figure 21). During the 5-year
period ending in 2015, more than 11 deaths per day were reported on the Mumbai suburban network.15

Figure 20:  Scatter Plot of Risk Exposure on Indian Roads

8,000
Delhi
7,000

Chennai
6,000
No. of Road Accidents

5,000
Indore

4,000
Jabalpur

3,000
Mumbai
Jaipur
Bengaluru
2,000
Lucknow
Kanpur
1,000

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800
No. of Road Accident Fatalities

Data source: Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. 2018. Road Accidents in India (2018). New Delhi.

14
Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. 2018. Road Accidents in India (2018). New Delhi.

15
Government of India, Comptroller and Auditor General. 2016. Report 14 of 2016 - Union Railways Performance Audit Suburban Train Services in
Indian Railways. New Delhi.
 Contributing toward a Safer City 39

Figure 21: Total Number of Railway Accident Deaths

on the Mumbai Suburban Railway Network, 2010–2015

18% 82%
21,640 Trespassing
Falling from Railway Deaths
moving train

Data source: Government of India, Comptroller and Auditor General. 2016. Report 14 of 2016 - Union Railways Performance
Audit Suburban Train Services in Indian Railways. New Delhi.

Out of a total of 33,445 deaths on the suburban Indian Railways network (Central Zone, Eastern Zone, South
Eastern Zone, South Central Zone, Southern Zone, Western Zone, Mumbai, and Kolkata), 17,638 occurred on
the Mumbai suburban network due to trespassing and 4,002 due to falling from moving trains. These data for the
5-year period indicate that trespassing is the single biggest cause (82%) of rail-related accidents on the Mumbai
suburban network, followed by people falling from moving trains (18%).

The hazards of train commuting in Mumbai. Passengers are susceptible to falling for
hanging outside a moving and overcrowded train (photo by Rishabh Mathur in Flickr).
40 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Suburban railway station in Mumbai. Overcrowding in the suburban railway stations and trains is among the
major transport-related issues in Mumbai (photo by Rajarshi Mitra in Flickr).

As detailed previously, the suburban rail network is under tremendous demand pressure. There is extreme
crowding within the trains and on the railway stations. A horrendous stampede happened at the Elphinstone
railway station that killed 23 people and injured several others in 2017.

It should be noted that road and rail authorities in Mumbai are constantly undertaking improvements to
enhance the safety of their respective transport networks. Measures and proposals like the introduction of the
communication-based train control system on the suburban network, removal of 24 seats from some coaches
so that additional 224 standing commuters can be accommodated (instead of commuters hanging by the train),
construction and strengthening of footbridges, and safety audits of 445 road overpasses and footbridges have
improved the safety of the networks—but more steps are needed. These measures have resulted in decreasing
the number of railway fatalities to almost seven per day (2018–2019).16 However, this number still needs to be
decreased significantly and eventually brought down to zero on a sustainable basis.

Mumbai Monsoons—A Transport Challenge

Mumbai faces heavy rains of more than 2,000 millimeters per annum, out of which more than 1,600 millimeters
occur during the annual monsoons from June to August.17 Monsoon rains inundate the roads and the railway
tracks in Mumbai because of a choking drainage system, rising sea levels, and extensive land reclamation.

This inundation and waterlogging bring transport in the city to a grinding halt every year. Mumbai suburban rail
passengers face issues like train delays, train derailments, and even cancellations of services, leaving thousands
of commuters stranded frequently during these months. Similarly, travelers using the BEST buses also face
breakdowns and severe traffic jams.

16
S. Sen. 2019. Mumbai: Suburban Railway Deaths Drop by 10%. The Times of India. 4 January.

17
Government of India, Ministry of Earth Sciences, India Meteorological Department. 2017. Rainfall Statistics of India - 2016. New Delhi.
 Contributing toward a Safer City 41

Operating conditions of flooded roads in Mumbai. Surface-based modes of transport come to a halt during the heavy Mumbai
monsoons because of excessive rainfall and waterlogging (photo by Inexplicable in Flickr).

Other modes of transport such as autos, taxis, and private vehicles also get stuck in long jams on the congested
roads, while the surge pricing levied by cab aggregators makes on-demand cabs unviable for many commuters.
Thus, heavy monsoon rains severely impact the transportation options for the people in Mumbai. Passengers
have to surmount the risk and fear of accidents on the road and suburban railway networks in Mumbai during the
monsoons in order to get normal day-to-day things done. Thus, there is a need for a safe and reliable mode of
public transport that can help transport the people of Mumbai even during the monsoon period.

How the Mumbai Metro Can Provide

a Safe Transport Option
The biggest reason for fatalities on the existing modes of public transport in Mumbai is trespassing on the railway
tracks. Trespassing occurs when people do not wait for the incoming train to pass and risk crossing the tracks
from unauthorized points. Since the existing suburban network is almost entirely at grade, the incidences of
railway track trespassing are high. The second most important reason for fatalities is people falling from moving
trains or getting struck by objects like poles, while hanging onto the trains. These incidents occur because the
extremely overcrowded coaches of the Mumbai suburban trains do not have doors. The coaches are open by
design and leave an option for desperate commuters on the already overcrowded trains to hang by and reach
their destination, albeit risking their lives. The extreme overcrowding at the suburban stations also leads to a lot of
unavoidable commotion at the platform queues. This sometimes results in accidents like pushing and falling on
the track of the incoming train.
42 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

The Mumbai Metro trains will eliminate the root causes of the above fatalities by their very design (Figure 22).
Since the metro trains will be either elevated or underground, there will be no possibility for anyone crossing
over the tracks. Further, the metro train sets have doors that close as soon as the train starts moving. This should
prevent the occurrence of people hanging outside the trains. Another key design element of metro trains, i.e., the
platform screen doors, should protect people from accidentally being pushed onto the tracks while waiting for the
trains. This physical barrier between the passenger waiting on the platform and the tracks for the incoming train
only opens when the train has arrived.

The elevated tracks of the metro rail transit system will also ensure avoidance of waterlogging that happens at
the ground level. This is expected to provide safe, reliable, and continuous operations even during heavy rains in
Mumbai. The Mumbai Metro trains will also have GoA4 automation, where trains will be capable of automatic
operations, including door closing and obstacle detection.

Figure 22: Safety Features Provided by the Mumbai Metro Trains

N o t re s p a s s i n g No hanging o ut s ide

N o f a l l i n g f ro m t h e p l a t f o r m No o bs t ruc t io n in mo ns o o ns

Sources: Vector graphics and photo resources from Freepik Company and Eezy Inc.
 Contributing toward a Safer City 43

The safety benefits of Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 have been quantified in terms of reduced rail and road accidents (due
to the modal shift to metro). The benefits shown in Figure 23 are for only two Metro lines (i.e., Lines 2 and 7) in
the Mumbai Metro Master Plan, the full realization of which will generate numerous benefits for Mumbai City.

Figure 23: Benefit from Reduction in Road and Rail Accidents Due to Metro Lines 2A, 2B, and 7
and Benefit Realization Time Frame, 2021–2051
(₹ million)

181,000

Total Benefit from Reduction in Accidents

22% 33% 45%

2021 2031 2041 2051

Benefit Realization Time Frame

₹ = Indian rupee.
Source: Asian Development Bank. 2019. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to India
for the Mumbai Metro Rail Systems Project. Economic Analysis (accessible from the list of linked documents in Appendix 2). Manila.
Pollution in Mumbai. The city wears a hazy look due to
pollution at specific times of the year (photo by Honza Soukup
in Flickr).
Contributing toward a Cleaner City

Air Pollution in Mumbai—A Global Perspective

According to WHO, air pollution is a major cause of death, from stroke to lung cancer and heart diseases.
It has severe negative effects on human health, especially that of children and senior citizens. One of the
biggest reasons for this adverse health impact is the presence of a mix of organic and chemical particulate
matter (PM) suspended in the air. PM particles are extremely small (often measured in microns) and, hence,
are easily breathable. This makes PM extremely dangerous as it can penetrate deep into the respiratory tract
and cause severe health damages. PM2.5 is the breathable particulate matter that is 2.5 microns in diameter or
smaller. Individuals, families, and businesses are increasingly preferring to locate to cities where the PM is within
acceptable limits.

An analysis of WHO’s air quality database, which measures the mean annual exposure to PM2.5 particles in
micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³), indicates the position of Mumbai with respect to 3,000 cities in the world.
This data, plotted on a normal curve, shows that Mumbai is in the top 5% most polluted cities in the world
(Figure 24). Based on the data, the annual PM2.5 measure in Mumbai (64 μg/m³) is 3-5 times when compared

Figure 24: Normal Curve Plot of Mean Annual Exposure

of PM2.5 of Selected Cities in the World
Top 32%
Top 5%
Top 1%
.

Rio De
. Janeiro Paris

London
. Moscow

Sydney
.
New York

.

.

Mumbai
Beijing New Delhi
 200
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
PM Exposure ( g

μg/m³ = microgram per cubic meter, PM2.5 = particulate matter with less than or equal to 2.5 microns in diameter.
Data source: World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Ambient Air Pollution 2016
(accessed 20 June 2020).
46 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

with global cities around the world—e.g., New York (7 μg/m³), London (12 μg/m³), and Paris (16 μg/m³). Further, the
PM2.5 measure in Mumbai is more than 3 times the world average of 18 μg/m³ and more than 6 times the safe limit
prescribed by WHO at 10 μg/m³.18

Major PM2.5 Red Zones within Mumbai

A deeper understanding of the PM2.5 emissions scenario in Mumbai can improve sustainability. The PM2.5
measure in key areas within Mumbai highlights the specific red zones, as graphically represented in Map 12.
For 2019, the highest PM2.5 measure in Mumbai was observed in Bandra Kurla Complex (86 μg/m³), followed by
Andheri (79 μg/m³). Both areas have a PM2.5 measure that is 25% higher than the average of Mumbai.19

Map 12: Heat Map of Major PM2.5 Red Zones in Mumbai

PM2.5 = particulate matter with less than or equal to 2.5 microns in diameter.
Data source: Urban Emissions. 2019. Air Pollution Knowledge Assessment (accessed 20 June 2020).

18
World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository: Ambient Air Pollution 2016 (accessed 20 June 2020).

19
Urban Emissions. 2019. Air Pollution Knowledge Assessment (accessed 20 June 2020).
 Contributing toward a Cleaner City 47

In order for Mumbai to position itself as a sustainable city of the future, it must reduce its pollution level, with
specific focus on the above red zones. Lower air pollution can enable Mumbai to further attract world-class talent
and compete with other major cities of the world.

Biggest Contributor to PM2.5 Emissions in Mumbai

In 2018, the two biggest contributors toward the overall PM2.5 emissions in Mumbai are industrial emissions
(42%) and transport (26%), as shown in Figure 25. It is projected that, given the status quo in 2030, transport
emissions will become the biggest contributor to PM2.5 emissions in Mumbai, with a 35% contribution, followed
by industrial emissions. Further, other pollutant emissions like carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds
from transportation are also observed to be 10 and 3 times higher, respectively, than industrial emissions. Thus,
the most significant contributor for controlling PM2.5 emissions in Mumbai, and reducing the air pollution, will be
controlling the transport-related emissions.

Figure 25: Contribution of Transport Emissions to PM2.5 Particles in Mumbai, 2018 and 2030

26% (2018) 35% (2030)

PM2.5 = particulate matter with less than or equal to 2.5 microns in diameter.
Data source: Urban Emissions. 2019. Air Pollution Knowledge Assessment (accessed 20 June 2020).
48 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Since emissions per passenger from private modes of transport (like cars) are substantially higher than emissions
from public modes of transport, it is important to understand the historical and projected growth of personal
vehicles. An increase in the number of personal vehicles on the roads of Mumbai will substantially increase the
city’s PM2.5 levels.

An analysis of the number of private vehicles in Mumbai relative to its population indicates a strong upward
curve. In just 16 years (from 2001 to 2017), the number of private vehicles per 1,000 population has increased
more than 3 times (Figure 26).

Figure 26: Increasing Trend of Cars per Capita in Mumbai, 2001–2017

3X in 16 years at 7% CAGR

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

CAGR = compound annual growth rate.

Data source: Government of India, Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Transport Research Wing. 2019. Road Transport
Yearbook (2016–2017). New Delhi.
 Contributing toward a Cleaner City 49

This increase is expected to continue in the future because cars per capita are anticipated to increase, coupled
with the sustained growth in the total population of the city. According to the United Nations’ World’s Cities
report (2018), and as depicted in Figure 27, Mumbai will be the second most populous city in India by 2030 and
will be home to 28 million people, which is the current population of Australia.20

Figure 27: Projected Mega-Cities (by Population) of India in 2030

Ahmedabad
Kolkata

Hyderabad

Chennai

Bangalore

Data source: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2018. The World’s Cities in
2018—Data Booklet. New York.

How the Mumbai Metro Can Reduce

Air Pollution in Mumbai
The introduction of a metro rail transit system in Mumbai is expected to significantly change the way the people
of Mumbai travel on a daily basis. As shown in Figure 28, majority of the people of Mumbai travel using the
suburban rail system (43%), followed by motorized vehicles such as cars, two-wheelers, and auto-rickshaws
(35%). The Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) buses carry close to 20% of the Mumbaikars,
while the existing mass transit systems like monorail and metro carry only 2% (footnote 4).

A significant reduction in PM2.5 emissions is possible by encouraging modal shift away from motorized vehicles.
As seen in Figure 28, the modal share of monorail and metro transport is projected to increase to 36% in 2031
and 42% in 2041. Specifically, Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 alone are estimated to carry close to 2 million passengers a day.
This increase in modal share is expected to primarily come from the decrease in the share of motorized vehicles.
The increase in modal share of the metro rail system is also expected to come from a substantial decrease in

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 2018. The World’s Cities in 2018—Data Booklet. New York.
20
50 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

modal shares of the suburban rail and the BEST bus transportation systems. Thus, the Mumbai Metro is foreseen
to control the growth of motorized vehicle trips and the consequent PM2.5 emissions that are polluting the air in
Mumbai.

Figure 28: Changes in Transportation Modal Shares

After the Introduction of the Mumbai Metro
50% 50% 50%

40% 40% 40%

30% 30% 30%

20% 20% 20%

10% 10% 10%

0% 0% 0%

2017 2031 2041

Data source: Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai. 2016. Comprehensive Mobility Plan for Greater Mumbai. Mumbai.

Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 are reckoned to have twofold environmental benefits for the city of Mumbai. These benefits
will come from the reduction in congestion on the existing modes of transport. A reduced number of trips on
these existing modes will translate into less burning of fossil fuels, as well as fewer vehicular emissions. The
reduction in fuel consumption (measured in unit vehicle operating costs for different vehicle categories on the
road) is deemed to be the major contributor toward generating environmental benefits. Reduction in harmful
emissions is also expected to contribute toward these environmental benefits. It is estimated that the metro
system will reduce carbon monoxide emissions by 4,400 tons per annum and carbon dioxide emissions by
166,000 tons per annum.

Figure 29 captures the environmental benefits of Metro Lines 2A, 2B, and 7 (measured in terms of savings in
volatile organic compounds as well as emissions) up to 2051.21 These benefits are projected to be sustained into
the future. Importantly, they are expected to increase strongly with each passing decade—i.e., the environmental
benefits in 2041–2051 are estimated to be almost twice as much as the benefits in 2021–2031.

The benefits shown in Figure 29 are for only two metro lines in the Mumbai Metro Master Plan, which, as
mentioned earlier, are projected to generate multifold benefits for the city upon accomplishment of the
entire plan.

21
ADB. 2019. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to India for the Mumbai Metro Rail Systems
Project. Economic Analysis (accessible from the list of linked documents in Appendix 2). Manila.
 Contributing toward a Cleaner City 51

Figure 29: Environmental Benefits Due to Lines 2A, 2B, 7 and

Benefit Realization Time Frame, 2021–2051
(₹ million)

362,000
27,000

334,000

VOC Emissions Total

22% 36% 42%

21% 35% 44%

2021 2031 2041 2051
Benefit Realization Time Frame

₹ = Indian rupee, VOC = volatile organic compounds.

Source: Asian Development Bank. 2019. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to India
for the Mumbai Metro Rail Systems Project. Economic Analysis (accessible from the list of linked documents in Appendix 2). Manila.

Private transport in Mumbai. The high number of cars in Mumbai is leading to further pressure on the city’s limited road
infrastructure, resulting in swelling traffic jam (photo by Aleksandr Zykov in Flickr).
Inside the metro trains. ​Metro trains provide a clean and comfortable
mode of urban transport (photo by Placeontop in Pixabay).
Financial Sustainability

Financial Performance of Line 1

Public transport projects, such as the Mumbai Metro, are capital- and maintenance-intensive. The capital cost for
such projects is typically funded by taxpayers’ money, and some proportion comes from private players (in cases
where the project has been considered on a public–private partnership basis). From the financiers’ point of view,
it becomes critical that the project is able to meet and exceed its investment objectives on a sustainable basis.

Currently, Line 1 is the only operational metro line in Mumbai. It is the first metro corridor in India to be
constructed on public–private partnership basis. The Mumbai Metro One Private Limited (MMOPL) was formed
wherein Reliance Infrastructure had a 69% stake, followed by a 26% stake of the Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Development Authority (MMRDA) and a 5% stake of Veolia Transport (an international transport services
company). Since the commencement of operations on Line 1 in 2014, the MMOPL has earned a cumulative
revenue of ₹11.83 billion, while its cumulative operational expenditure has been ₹8.09 billion. As observed in
Figure 30, the revenue of the MMOPL has grown at a compound annual growth rate of almost 18% since its
inception.

Figure 30:  Annual Revenue and Operating Expenditure of Mumbai Metro Line 1, 2015–2019
(₹10 million)

105 136 152 210 161 237 1 94 291 1 97 314

FY2015 FY2016 FY2017 FY2018 FY2019

Operational expenditure Revenue

₹ = Indian rupee, FY = fiscal year.

Data sources: Mumbai Metro One Private Limited. Annual Report. Mumbai (Various years).

Within the operational expenditure incurred by the MMOPL, manpower expenses account for the highest
proportion, followed by repair and maintenance expenses (Figure 31).
54 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 31: Operating Expenditure Components of Mumbai Metro Line 1, 2015–2019

31% 28% 31%

37%
46%

15% 29% 35% 30%

16%

48%
38% 40% 37% 39%

FY 2015 FY 2016 FY 2017 FY 2018 FY 2019

Others Repair and Maintenance Manpower

FY = fiscal year.
Data sources: Mumbai Metro One Private Limited. Annual Report. Mumbai (Various years).

Financial Projections of Lines 2 and 7

Lines 2 and 7 are expected to be the next operational lines on the Mumbai Metro network. Their financial
sustainability analysis, undertaken by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), factors in the capital costs, operating
costs, and revenues to arrive at the financial feasibility of the lines (Figure 32). The capital costs include all costs
financed by the MMRDA for civil construction (i.e., stations, tracks, and depots), rolling stock procurement,
and supply and installation of signaling components. The operation and maintenance costs include staff,
maintenance, overhead, and energy. The revenues are generated mainly from ticket sales and from non-farebox
sources, such as advertising and leasing.

An important driver for the financial sustainability of the project will be fare-based revenues. Figure 33 compares
the distance-wise fares of different modes of public transport in Mumbai with the proposed fares of Metro
Lines 2 and 7. As illustrated, when compared over the average daily distance travelled by commuters on the
Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport (BEST) buses (8.9 km), the proposed fares for Lines 2 and 7
of the Mumbai Metro are comparable with the BEST air-conditioned, as well as non-air-conditioned, buses. In
terms of the average daily distance travelled by commuters on the Mumbai suburban trains (23.8 km), while
the proposed fares for Metro Lines 2 and 7 are more than the fares for second-class suburban train travel, they
are significantly lesser than the fares of first-class suburban train travel. Since the metro is expected to provide
a journey that will be more comfortable, safer, and reliable than the air-conditioned BEST buses and first-class
suburban train travel, the fare-based revenue is expected to grow under normal operating circumstances and
help the financial sustainability of the project.
 Financial Sustainability 55

Figure 32: Capital Expenditure and Revenue Projections

of Lines 2 and 7 Combined, 2018–2050
($ million)
900

800

700

600

500

400

300

200
Capital expenditure (million USD)
100
Revenue (million USD)

0
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
2041
2042
2043
2044
2045
2046
2047
2048
2049
2050
2040
2020

2050
2030

2044

2048
2046

2049
2024

2042
2028
2026

2029
2022

2045
2034

2043
2038
2036

2039

2047
2025
2023

2032
2027

2035
2033

2037

2041
2018
2019

2021

2031

$ = United States dollar.

Source: Asian Development Bank. 2019. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to India
for the Mumbai Metro Rail Systems Project. Financial Analysis (accessible from the list of linked documents in Appendix 2). Manila.

Figure 33: Distance-Wise Fare Comparison of Public Transport Modes

with Proposed Fares of Metro Lines 2 and 7
(₹)
125

110 Mumbai suburban train (1st class)

100 104

75 78
Average daily distance
travelled on Mumbai
suburban trains 50
50 52 Metro (Line 2, Line 7)
40
Average daily
distance travelled 30
41 on the BEST buses
25 20 25 25
19 BEST bus (air-conditioned)
13 20 20 BEST bus (non-air-conditioned)
10 15
6 12
4 6 7 9 10
0 4 Mumbai suburban train (2nd class)
4 km 12 km 21 km 31 km 42 km

₹ = Indian rupee, BEST = Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport, km = kilometer.

Data sources: Fare charts of Mumbai Central Suburban trains and BEST buses.
56 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Alternate Sources for Improving Financial Sustainability

Innovative sources are increasingly being considered to support capital-intensive transportation projects to
improve their financial sustainability. Such sources help the authority hedge against uncertainty in the market
projections as well as reduce the funding gap of the project.

Multiple urban transportation projects in India are already exploring these alternative sources of financing.
For instance, the Government of Karnataka has recommended to raise ₹6.5 billion for the Bangalore Metro
via sources like a metro levy and a levy on the additional floor area ratio (FAR). It has been prescribed that a
metro levy of 5% of the value of the land shall be applied within the jurisdiction of the Bangalore Development
Authority (BDA). Further, in the draft Master Plan for Bengaluru 2031, the BDA has proposed to increase the
FAR up to 4.0 for properties lying within the 250-meter radius of the metro station. Charges of 10% for residential
properties and 20% for commercial properties have also been proposed to be levied on the premium paid.22 The
funds accruing from this are to be credited to a Metro Infrastructure Fund, which will be managed by the BDA. It
is likewise recommended that the Bangalore Metro Rail Corporation Limited will be entitled to up to 65% of these
proceeds, and the rest will be shared between other related government institutions, such as the BDA and the
Municipal Corporation. Similarly, the Government of Maharashtra has passed executive orders to increase the
MMRDA’s revenues, including (i) an increase in the stamp duty (from 5% to 6%) for property transactions,
(ii) an increase in the development charge (from 4% to 6%) for new property, and (iii) a premium on additional
floor space index (60% of the ready reckoner rate).

Specific to metro projects, the Government of Maharashtra has utilized an additional stamp duty and additional
purchasable FAR for capturing land value for the Nagpur Metro project. The Government of Maharashtra
amended the Maharashtra Municipal Corporations Act 1949 and the Maharashtra Region and Town Planning
Act 1961 in 2017 to include the Nagpur Metro as a “Notified Vital Urban Transport Project.” It implemented an
additional 1% transaction value to the stamp duty upon the base rate of 5% in the jurisdiction of Nagpur. The
full proceeds get credited to the Consolidated Fund of the State of Maharashtra and are used for financing the
project. Further, it amended the Nagpur master plan to operationalize the transit-oriented development policy.
This policy allowed a FAR of up to 4.0 along the 500-meter corridor on either side of the metro alignment,
with 50% of the proceeds to be used for project financing. The Nagpur Metro has received ₹1.49 million from
additional stamp duty (from 2017 to 2019), and proceeds from additional purchasable FAR for the same period
reached ₹110 million (footnote 22). A key enabler in the Nagpur Metro case has been the appointment of the
project special-purpose vehicle (Maha Metro) as the Special Planning Authority for designated areas along
its alignment. Thus, the Maha Metro has been made responsible for granting development permissions and
collecting the charges.

The MMRDA, being both the development authority as well as the developer and operator of the Mumbai
Metro project, is exploring innovative sources for improving the sustainability of the project. The Government
of Maharashtra increased the stamp duty from 5% to 6% in 2018. This would be applicable on all property
transactions in Mumbai, and the proceeds would finance major transport infrastructure projects currently
being undertaken by the Mumbai Metropolitan Region (MMR). However, in March 2020, the Government of
Maharashtra announced a concession for 2 years in this stamp duty increase. This move is expected to boost
the construction and realty sectors in Mumbai, which is especially needed during the coronavirus disease
(COVID-19) pandemic times. Other value-capture financing instruments proposed by the MMRDA include the

National Institute of Urban Affairs. 2020. Land Value Capture for Transit Oriented Development: A Demonstration. Knowledge Product 2. New
22

Delhi.
 Financial Sustainability 57

increase in development charges by 100% and a transit-oriented development policy that allows for additional
purchasable FAR on payment of a premium—50% of this premium is proposed to be dedicated toward financing
of the metro.

It should be noted that the MMOPL is already implementing ideas, such as the station branding rights, as an
alternative source of revenue. Station branding of Ghatkopar, Andheri, and Western Express Highway stations
are a few successful examples. The MMOPL has also given retail space in its stations to several large retailers
to generate additional revenue. This is being done in addition to revenue generated from activities such as train
wrapping on Line 1.
Mass Transit Railway (MTR), Hong Kong, China. Passengers
wait for the metro train to arrive at one of the MTR stations in
Hong Kong, China (photo by Wilfredor in Wikimedia Commons).
Lessons from Other Metro Systems

Delhi Metro—Providing Equal Access

to Everyone, Everywhere
Global metro systems provide strong evidence on how they have helped cities become safer, more equitable,
and more sustainable. The metros considered for reference herein (starting with Delhi) are similar to Mumbai on
parameters, such as socioeconomic environment, population density, pollution levels, real estate prices, etc.

Delhi is the national capital of India and is the center of the National Capital Region (NCR). It has experienced
rapid growth over the last few decades and attracted people from all over the country. This increasing population
placed excessive pressure on Delhi’s existing public transportation infrastructure, which required upgrading.
The Delhi Metro, which was the first in India, revolutionized public transportation in the country. Starting
operations in 2002, it presently has a massive 389 km network with 285 stations, and is still expanding. The Delhi
Metro’s daily passenger journey, pre-COVID-19, is about 6 million; also, it provides accessibility to the people of
surrounding areas, such as Noida, Gurugram, Ghaziabad, Faridabad, Ballabhgarh, and Bahadurgarh.

In a study to measure Delhi’s economic and equity implications, it was found that its Gini coefficient decreased
from 0.399 to 0.221 after the introduction of the metro.23 This was possible because of the increased mobility
and accessibility provided to the NCR citizens. The Delhi Metro has been successful in providing easy and
equitable mobility to the NCR citizens and enabled them to access the major centers of education, health, and
employment. This has helped people from all groups and communities to connect with the best available schools,
hospitals, and industries. This equitable connectivity has, in turn, empowered the population to utilize the best
available facilities.

A mapping of the Delhi Metro’s network, shown in Figures 34, 35, and 36, highlights how it enables improved
transport accessibility across all parts of the NCR, provides connectivity to these important centers of
socioeconomic development and, thus, plays a key role in the uplift of the NCR. With improved access for
everyone, the Delhi Metro is empowering the whole population. The Delhi Metro has put Delhi on the world map
and has become a symbol of the city worldwide.

K. Bhandari, H. Kato, and H. Yoshitsugu. 2009. Economic and Equity Evaluation of Delhi Metro. International Journal of Urban Sciences. 13 (2).
23

pp. 187–203.
60 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 34: Accessibility to All Due to the Delhi Metro,

with the Key National Capital Region Industrial Centers

2
5 9

4
6
8
1

1 Okhala Industrial Area

2 Wazirpur Industrial Area
3 Samaipur–Badli Industrial Area
4 Kirtinagar Industrial Area
5 Mangolpuri Industrial Area
6 Patparganj Industrial Area
7 Shahzada Bagh Industrial Area
8 Naraina Industrial Area
9 Jhilmil Industrial Area
Source: Base image from Delhi Metro Rail Corp. Ltd.

The construction and operationalization of the Mumbai Metro are expected to have similar impacts on the
MMR. The direct connectivity and easy accessibility provided by the Mumbai Metro should enable the people
to comfortably reach the centers of socioeconomic development (such as schools, hospitals, offices, etc.). This
will, in turn, help the people in Mumbai improve key metrics such as literacy rate, employment rate, hospital
accessibility, workforce participation (especially for women and the differently abled), among others. This will
eventually reduce the income inequality and the Gini coefficient in Mumbai, as already witnessed in the case
of Delhi.
 Lessons from Other Metro Systems 61

Figure 35: Accessibility to All Due to the Delhi Metro,

with the Key National Capital Region Commercial Centers

3
1

9
4 7
5
2 6
8 1 Connaught Place
2 Hauz Khas
3 Chandni Chowk
4 Sarojini Market
5 Aerocity
6 Greater Kailash
7 South Extension
8 Cybercity
9 Khan Market
Source: Base image from Delhi Metro Rail Corp. Ltd.
62 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 36: Accessibility to All Due to the Delhi Metro,

with the Key National Capital Region Health-Care and Education Centers

10
9
8
7

6 3
1 5

4 2

1 All India Institute of Medical Sciences

2 Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
3 University of Delhi
4 Jawaharlal Nehru University
5 Jamia Millia Islamia University
6 National Law University
7 Sir Ganga Ram Hospital
8 Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital
9 Lok Nayak Jai Prakash Narayan Hospital
Source: Base image from Delhi Metro Rail Corp. Ltd. 10 Delhi University, North Campus
 Lessons from Other Metro Systems 63

Manila Metro Rail Transit System—Providing

a Transport Alternative in a Densely Populated
and Highly Polluted City
Since the world has been battling the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, there has been a sharp focus
on personal health improvement and the role of governments to create systems that promote healthier lives. As
COVID-19 severely impacts our respiratory systems, governments around the world (especially in developing
countries) will have to turn their attention toward the growing hazard of air pollution. An improvement in the
quality of air, as well as a reduction in the exposure to harmful air pollutants, may reduce the risk-exposure of the
population. The metro rail transit in Manila, Philippines offers a healthier transportation option, as compared with
other modes.

Manila is relevant for Mumbai because of similarities in their socioeconomic profiles, transport challenges, and
geographical location (Figure 37).

Figure 37:  Parametric Comparison of Manila with Mumbai

46 Manila 1.5 Manila 20 Manila 36% Manila  Manila

33 1.2 40 15%


Mumbai Mumbai Mumbai Mumbai Mumbai

Population density Congestion index Pollution index Socioeconomic importance Geographic location of coast
(‘000 per km2) (higher means more congested) (lower means more polluted) (% contribution to GDP) (Uni-directional growth)

GDP = gross domestic product, km2 = square kilometer.

Data sources: City of Manila, Local Government Services; Asian Development Bank. 2019. Asian Development Outlook 2019 Update:
Fostering Growth and Inclusion in Asia’s Cities. Manila; and World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory Data Repository:
Ambient Air Pollution 2016 (accessed 20 June 2020).

Manila is one of the most crowded cities in the world and outranks Mumbai in terms of its population density,
with 46,000 people per km2, as compared with 33,000 per km2 in Mumbai. Manila’s existing, overutilized
transport infrastructure is responsible for its high congestion index, compared with Mumbai. On average, it takes
50% more time to travel in peak hours compared with off-peak hours in Manila, while the equivalent number
is at 20% for Mumbai.24 Owing to the high population density and the transport congestion, Manila is ranked
20th in the most polluted cities in the world, while Mumbai is ranked 40th (footnote 18). Manila contributes
strongly to the country’s economic output, much like Mumbai. In terms of geographic location, Manila is located
on the coastline, just like Mumbai. This limits the ability of the city to spatially expand, and the consequent
unidirectional growth puts excessive pressure on the existing infrastructure.

ADB. 2019. Asian Development Outlook 2019 Update: Fostering Growth and Inclusion in Asia’s Cities. Manila.
24
64 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

As captured in the research paper, “An Analysis of Metro Manila MRT-3 (2016),” the Manila Metro Rail Transit
Line 3 (MRT-3) has benefited the population by reducing exposure to harmful PM2.5 particles. A comparison of
exposure to PM2.5 particles when passengers are travelling via buses or jeepneys (which are the main mode of
transport in Manila) with exposure when travelling via the metro line reveals the stark difference between these
modes. Intermodal comparison between the PM2.5 exposure while travelling via the MRT-3 system and bus
has been plotted in Figure 38. As observed, people travelling via buses in Manila were, on average, exposed to
more than 1.5 times PM2.5 emissions (60 μg/m³) as compared with the MRT-3 system (38 μg/m³). The highest
exposure to PM2.5 of people travelling via buses was found to be at 125 μg/m³, while those travelling via the metro
line had approximately 25% lesser exposure at 90 μg/m³. Further, almost 65% of the passengers travelling via
buses were exposed to PM2.5 emissions that were in a broad and higher range of 20–100 μg/m³, while 65% of the
passengers travelling via the metro line were exposed to PM2.5 emissions that were in a narrow and lower range of
28-55 μg/m³.25 This data analysis indicates the relative health benefit for passengers who choose to travel via the
metro systems in densely populated and highly polluted cities like Manila.

Figure 38: Data Analysis for PM2.5 Risk Exposure via Different Modes
of Public Transport in Manila
(μg/m³)

125

90 100

60
55
38
28 20
15
10

μg/m3 = microgram per cubic meter, PM2.5 = particulate matter with less than 2.5 micrometers in diameter.
Data source: A. Mijares, M. Suzuki, and T. Yai. 2016. Passenger Satisfaction and Mental Adaptation under Adverse Conditions: Case
Study in Manila. Journal of Public Transportation. 19 (4). pp. 144–160.

Thus, travelling via the metro, as compared with conventional road-based public transport systems, reduces the
risk exposure of people to harmful PM2.5 particles. This fact becomes even more critical in the COVID-19 period
and points to the long-term environmental and health benefits of using metro rail transit systems over other
modes of transport. Stronger patronage of the Mumbai Metro is, thus, expected to contribute toward healthier
lungs for the people of Mumbai.

A. Mijares, M. Suzuki, and T. Yai. 2016. Passenger Satisfaction and Mental Adaptation under Adverse Conditions: Case Study in Manila. Journal
25

of Public Transportation. 19 (4). pp. 144–160.

 Lessons from Other Metro Systems 65

Rail + Property Model—Providing Financial

Sustainability for Hong Kong, China Metro
Hong Kong, China is one of the most densely populated cities in Asia, with more than 6,000 people per km2.
It is one of Asia’s biggest financial centers, and its public transportation system caters to more than 11 million
passenger journeys daily. The most important mode of public transport in Hong Kong, China is the Mass Transit
Railway (MTR), which is constructed and operated by the Mass Transit Railway Corporation (MTRC). The MTRC
was established in 1975 and currently has a network of more than 220 km and 90 stations.

The MTRC is globally renowned for its exceptional operational and financial performance. In 2019, it reported a
near-perfect adherence to time-tabled operations (99.9% on-time passenger journeys) and carried more than
1.9 billion passengers. Further, while most metro systems in the world rely on public financial support, the MTRC
operates without government subsidy. Yet, it still manages to be profitable, primarily because of the revenues it
makes from its real estate business.

Not only has the MTR’s revenue seen a strong year-on-year annual growth of almost 7% in 2010–2019, but it has
also seen a strong and continuous contribution from its real estate business, which contributed 48% to the MTR’s
overall revenue of HK$54.5 billion in 2019 (Figure 39). The MTR generated an overall profit of HK$10 billion
during this time.26

Figure 39: Overall Revenue of Mass Transit Railway Corporation (Hong Kong, China)
and Contribution of Real Estate-Driven Revenue, 2010–2019
55.4 54.5
53.9

45.1
40.1 41.7
38.7
35.7
33.4
29.5
48% 48%
40%
41% 41%
46% 45% 44% 42%
44%

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Overall revenue in HK$ Contribution of real-estate driven revenue

HK$ = Hong Kong dollar.
Data sources: Mass Transit Railway Corporation. Financials and Reports.

Mass Transit Railway Corporation. Financials and Reports.

26
66 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

The real estate business of the MTR is centered around capturing the increased value of land due to the
construction and operation of its metro lines. Land value capture follows the rationale that increased accessibility
to an efficient transport system adds value to the real estate in its vicinity. Research indicates that land premiums
in Hong Kong, China are in the range of 5%-17% for housing units in proximity to railways (which can further
increase if the design incorporates transit-oriented structures, such as footbridges and skywalks, for seamless
connectivity). Since this value increase is derived from public investments, the public authorities should capture
the increment in the land and/or real estate value, which can then be used to repay part of the costs associated
with the transport infrastructure.

Thus, the MTRC has adopted a “Rail + Property” model that enables it to capture the increase in land value as a
result of the constructed transport infrastructure. This model has empowered the MTRC to become financially
self-reliant.

At the project planning stage itself, the MTRC prepares the master plan and identifies property development
sites along the railway. It obtains all necessary approvals and purchases the development rights (for a period of
50 years) from the government to develop the properties above the railway stations, depots, and on the land
adjacent to the railway. These development rights are purchased at a land premium paid to the government
known as the “before rail” land premium, which does not factor in the expected increase in value resulting
from the transport connectivity. The MTRC then undertakes the tendering process to allocate these property
development rights to private developers on the “after rail” increased land premium. The private developers bear
the costs and risks associated with the construction and commercialization of the residential and commercial
properties and enter into profit-sharing agreements with the MTRC (Figure 40).

The above arrangements between the key stakeholders highlight how the MTRC manages to capture the
differential in the “before rail” and “after rail” premiums that forms the basis of the Rail + Property model and
enables the MTRC to become financially sustainable. It is important to note that the MTRC is responsible for
master planning and designing, obtaining and facilitating approvals related to real estate development, tendering

Figure 40: Key Stakeholders in the Rail + Property Model in Hong Kong, China

Giving Taking
before rail after rail
premium for premium
purchase of from private
development developers
rights

Profit
sharing
mechanism
with private
developers

Source: Asian Development Bank.

 Lessons from Other Metro Systems 67

land parcel development rights to private developers, liaising between the government and private developers,
and monitoring the real estate development. The private developers are responsible for all construction risks
and associated costs; all commercialization risks and associated costs; and enabling expenses related to sales,
marketing, financing, etc. The government is only involved in selling the land development rights to the MTRC
and providing all necessary approvals.

Figure 41 summarizes the key factors that have made the Rail + Property model successful for the MTRC. One
of the model’s biggest success factors is the scarcity of land in Hong Kong, China. Since private developers have
limited options for developing properties, they are attracted to developing properties above railway stations,
despite the extra costs and efforts involved. Further, since the real estate prices in Hong Kong, China have been
skyrocketing over the last 4 decades (house prices have grown 15 times since 1980), private developers have
optimistic expectations from the property market and are keen to participate in the Rail + Property model.27
Another important success factor is the high volume of traffic (11 million daily passenger journeys) that creates
a huge commercial potential for properties connected to the railway. Finally, the close relationship between the
MTRC and the government also plays a critical role in making this model successful. As the government is the
majority shareholder in the MTRC with 77% ownership, it benefits indirectly from the profits made by the MTRC.
The Rail + Property model also aligns with the government’s intention to drive growth at the local level.

Figure 41: Key Success Factors for the Rail + Property Model in Hong Kong, China

Scarcity of land

Optimism on future property market

High passenger volumes

MTR, Hong Kong, China

Relation between the MTRC and Government
of Hong Kong, China

MTR = Mass Transit Railway, MTRC = Mass Transit Railway Corporation.

Source: Asian Development Bank.

27
M. Verougstraete and H. Zeng. 2014. Land Value Capture Mechanism: The Case of the Hong Kong Mass Transit Railway. Public–private
partnerships case study prepared for the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. July.
Inside a metro train. As metro operations gradually
restart, passengers can be seen wearing masks inside the
metro trains (photo by Richard Atrero de Guzman/Asian
Development Bank).
Public Transportation in the COVID-19 Era

Behavioral Shifts and Patterns

Expected Due to COVID-19
The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) is one of the most severe public health and economic crises that the
modern-day world has faced. It will have lingering medium- and long-term impacts on businesses and lifestyles.
With several national and regional borders being closed to contain the spread of the virus, public transport
systems have been severely hit. The journey back to a normal operating environment will be long and uphill. The
lockdowns imposed in several countries, states, and cities across the world have been implemented to reduce
the risk of virus transmission. However, this has resulted in significant losses on the public transport networks.
Metro operators in India, as well as across the world, are facing heavy losses and several challenges because of
COVID-19.

Some of the major challenges being faced by mass transit systems include low fare-related revenues; higher
operating expenses as a result of additional measures undertaken to enhance passenger safety; and uncertainty in
the short-, medium-, and long-term financial and operational planning.

A survey conducted by the Cities Forum et al. (2020) on the expected impact of COVID-19 on cities and
mobility highlights some expected future trends.28 The survey covered the points of view of more than 550 urban
mobility practitioners and experts from more than 45 countries. As shown in Figure 42, 89% of respondents
consider work-from-home arrangement to become an acceptable norm in businesses. This is expected to reduce
the demand for office buildings, decrease the sizes of offices, and reduce the overall demand for commercial
real estate (specifically outside the inner city). All these factors will impact the demand for mobility as more
people will be able to opt for working from home rather than commuting daily to work. Approximately 47% of
respondents believe that the overall demand for mobility (covering all modes of transport) will at least remain
subdued till 2022. However, the respondents have expressed strong confidence in public health interventions
as an enabler to drive people back to public modes of transport, with 92% expecting that measures like enforced
social distancing, penalties for noncompliance of face mask protocol, and proactive public health messaging can
drive people back to the public modes of transport.

Cities Forum et al. 2020. Impact of COVID-19 on Cities and Mobility. White Paper on Global Cities and Mobility Survey. A Project Impact report.
28

June.
70 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

Figure 42: Key Urban Mobility-Related COVID-19 Trends

89% Working from home

62% Reduced demand for office buildings

81% Reduced physical sizes of offices

41% Reduced demand for commercial real estate

outside the inner city
47% Reduced overall demand for mobility utill
at least 2022
92% Public health interventions can pull travel
demand back to public modes

COVID-19 = coronavirus disease.

Source: Cities Forum et al. 2020. Impact of COVID-19 on Cities and Mobility. White Paper on Global Cities and Mobility Survey.
A Project Impact report. June.

Importantly, delay in the development of a vaccine will increase the hesitance of people to venture into public
spaces, and this is likely to sustain the reduced demand for public transportation. Such aspects are expected
to reduce passenger ridership in the medium to long term, if sufficient interventions are not taken. Countries
around the world are exploring options for gradually and safely relaxing the lockdown conditions; thus, a
calibrated reopening of the public transport networks is also foreseen. The metro systems have already started
exploring ways to mitigate the impact of the above risks and challenges. Measures are being planned (or already
implemented) to improve the financial and operational conditions of the metro systems, as well as enhance the
safety and health of the commuters.

Some commuter-oriented measures being adopted globally include the 100% monitoring and screening of
passengers using thermometers, advanced image recognition algorithms to capture non-adherence to the
wearing of face mask protocol, installation of mobile applications for health monitoring, regular sanitization of
stations and coaches, innovative passenger entrance mechanisms to avoid passenger queueing, installation of
hand sanitizers, mandatory usage of masks, social distancing norms inside stations and coaches, and compulsory
use of digital payments and smartcards.

Taipei,China’s metro rail transit system agency has installed infrared cameras to measure the body temperature of
passengers before allowing them entry into the metro stations. This enables the agency to monitor and prevent
passengers with temperatures above 38 degrees Celsius from boarding the train. A vast majority of metros in the
Republic of Korea, London, and New York, as well as in India, have already started regular intensive sanitization of
the trains and the metro stations. The metro agencies in Beijing and Germany are exploring data analytics-based
options for passenger density management at the stations. Data drawn from various sensor technologies and
security cameras (along with advanced machine learning and intelligent automation tools) help to understand
and track movements of passengers in and out of stations, determine average waiting times, identify areas with
high crowd density (such as concourses, stairwells, platforms), etc. When the crowd threshold limits in certain
areas are reached, alarms are triggered, which guide actions to be taken, such as redirecting passenger flows or
temporarily closing certain areas. Further, the operators can also improve their sanitation responsiveness and
guide teams to areas that need the most cleaning, based on the crowd density handled. The development and
 Public Transportation in the COVID-19 Era 71

adoption of mobile phone apps for passengers’ safety and self-checking are also expected to increase passenger
confidence. Such apps are providing inputs to authorities needed in deciding whether to allow or disallow access
to people, based on those they have interacted with in the recent past, while also giving confidence to people
about those allowed to enter the facilities.

Business-oriented measures, such as identifying ways to reduce the operating expenses, rationalizing routes,
planning for maximizing non-fare revenues, revising timetables, giving high priority to transit-oriented
development, and focusing on freight services, are helping set up barriers to safeguard owners and operating
organizations.

In the long term, a gradual shift away from public transport modes is not a sustainable solution as it will lead to a
further increase in the number of private vehicles on the roads. This will have multiple negative impacts including
increased harmful emissions and limiting transport connectivity options for the low-income population, women,
and the differently abled. Strategic interventions from the respective governments, such as changes in relevant
policies and financial support, are expected to support the sector in the long term.

The time-bound construction of the Mumbai Metro (especially Lines 2, 3, and 7, which are estimated to be
operational by 2021) is expected to help the city. Currently, more than 40% of commuter journeys in Mumbai
happen in densely overcrowded (almost 14 passengers per square meter) suburban trains. The additional transport
capacity created by Lines 2, 3, and 7 and other planned metro lines in Mumbai will facilitate in reducing the
congestion levels in the suburban trains, where currently social distancing norms are extremely difficult to achieve.

Regular sanitization of trains

and stations

Thermal cameras for Data analytics tools for crowd

temperature checks flow management

Mobile apps for personal

health checks

Health and safety protocols in the Metro. Global Metro organizations have been adopting several COVID-19-focused safety
interventions (images are illustrative taken from photos by H. Cowper in Flickr, M. A. Hermann in Wikimedia Commons, M. Smith in
Flickr, and M. Verch in Flickr).
Traffic along a street in Mumbai. Vehicles plying the busy
streets of Mumbai include auto-rickshaws, buses, private
cars, taxis, and two-wheelers (photo by Neeraj Pattath in
Wikimedia Commons).
Conclusion

A New Era for Public Transportation in Mumbai

The realization of the Mumbai Metro Master Plan can herald a new era for public transportation in Mumbai. The
completion of all 12 lines will provide easy access to everyone across Mumbai. The metro will not only reduce
pressure on the existing suburban railway and buses, but also provide enhanced safety. It will create a modern
transport system for the growth of India’s financial capital, while also providing the much-needed East–West
connectivity.

The Mumbai Metro is projected to drive a modal shift while also improving the travel conditions for all
commuters. It will provide a modern and high-quality transport option for people in the low-income groups,
women, and the differently abled through an air-conditioned, noise-free, dust-free, and comfortable mode of
transport. It will connect many pockets in Mumbai that are currently not connected.

The Mumbai Metro will improve transport accessibility for everyone to the important centers of socioeconomic
development, such as schools, hospitals, and business centers. It is also anticipated to reduce the number of
private vehicles in use and thus reduce carbon dioxide emissions, as well as the associated environmental,
business, and social costs of traffic congestion. This, in turn, is expected to improve the air quality in Mumbai.
The metro lines are further expected to provide improved safety to the people of Mumbai as the metro tracks will
be elevated and not constructed at the ground level. For example, residents living alongside the tracks will have
reduced risk exposure to passing trains. The elevated tracks will also eliminate the risk of trespassing as well as
flooding, which is a recurring problem for suburban trains in Mumbai, especially in the monsoon season.

By its design, the Mumbai Metro commuters will not be able to cross the metro lines between platforms nor
can they be accidentally pushed onto the lines due to the platform screen doors that will open only when the
train has arrived at the platform. Overall, the Mumbai Metro will help improve the quality of life of the people in
Mumbai. Overall, the Mumbai Metro will help improve the quality of life of the people in Mumbai.
74 Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport

“Changing buses and literally chasing after autos to get to school

has been a problem I’ve had to face for the last two years. But now
with the metro taking me from my house at Marol to school in
Andheri West, travelling has been largely a trouble-free affair.”

“From my house at Versova, every day I had to spend 120

rupees and waste an hour to get to JB Nagar. Now I reach in
10 minutes by metro.”

“I would call the metro a huge blessing as it is super fast, convenient

and a great means of travel for me from home to work and back.”

Commuting via the Mumbai Metro. Happy Mumbaikar commuters shared their testimonials on how the Metro has
changed their lives (images are illustrative taken from photos by Bernard Gagnon in Wikimedia Commons, PlaneMad
in Wikimedia Commons, and Nooranadu mohan in Wikimedia Commons).

The metro system in Mumbai can strongly contribute toward developing a modern and safe rail-based urban
transit system that can reduce pollution, reduce traffic congestion, increase the modal share of public transport,
and improve the overall quality of the city’s transport system.

The Mumbai Metro can truly make the city more equitable, safer, and cleaner.
 Conclusion 75

Commuters waiting for a metro train in India. Metros have become the lifeline of cities in India (photo from Shady59 in
Wikimedia Commons).

Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA). The MMRDA staff are all smiles as they shoot their “Mumbai in
Minutes” campaign video (photo by MMRDA).
Mumbai Metro Transforming Transport
Contributing Toward an Equitable, Safer, and Cleaner City

Mumbai is the financial capital of India and one of the world’s most densely populated cities. Its existing
public transport infrastructure is outdated, overutilized, and under tremendous stress. This book discusses
the paradigm shift and benefits that the Mumbai Metro can bring in the public transportation scenario
for millions of people in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. The metro will provide equal access for all to
a modern, comfortable, and high-quality daily commuting transport option. It will feature safety designs
(especially for the vulnerable sectors), ease traffic congestion, and reduce vehicular emissions, thereby
contributing toward making Mumbai a more equitable, safer, and cleaner city.

About the Asian Development Bank

ADB is committed to achieving a prosperous, inclusive, resilient, and sustainable Asia and the Pacific,
while sustaining its efforts to eradicate extreme poverty. Established in 1966, it is owned by 68 members
—49 from the region. Its main instruments for helping its developing member countries are policy dialogue,
loans, equity investments, guarantees, grants, and technical assistance.

MUMBAI METRO
TRANSFORMING TRANSPORT
CONTRIBUTING TOWARD AN EQUITABLE,
SAFER, AND CLEANER CITY
MARCH 2021

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK

6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City
1550 Metro Manila, Philippines ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK
www.adb.org