Electrodynamics II

Wollega University
Teaching Module-II
Department of Physics
Academic Year:- 16 March, 2023,
Instructor: Asebe Oljira
email-assebegeleta@yahoo.com
1 Maxwell’s Equations
♣ Dear students, what is Maxwell’s Equations? Where we apply?

Do U know Maxwell Displacement Current?

The electric field produced by a changing magnetic field and the magnetic
field produced by a changing electric field. The first of these concepts re-
sulted from experimental research by Michael Faraday, and the second
from the theoretical efforts of James Clerk Maxwell. Maxwell actually
was inspired by Faraday’s experimental work and by the mental picture pro-
vided through the ”lines of force” that Faraday introduced in developing his
theory of electricity and magnetism. He was 40 years younger than Faraday,
but they knew each other during the 5 years Maxwell spent in London as
a young professor, a few years after Faraday had retired. Maxwell’s theory
was developed subsequent to his holding this university position, while he
was working alone at his home in Scotland. It occupied him for 5 years be-
tween the ages of 35 and 40.

Maxwell’s Equations are corner stone of electromagnetic field theory. It

can take several forms. Here it is presented as introduction (to introduce
you). We will learn in detail( at middle and end of this course ) the electro-
dynamic potentials and waves. We will also derive the dispersion relation in
vacuum, in matter(EM propagations in conductor and insulators).

• The propagation of an electromagnetic wave is governed by the well

known Maxwell’s equations. Maxwell’s Equations (ME) consist of two
inhomogeneous partial differential equations and two homogeneous par-
tial differential equations. These equations take several forms and here
they are presented as
ρ
∇.E = , (1)
ε0
∇.B = 0, (2)
∂B
∇×E=− , (3)
∂t
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 0 , (4)
∂t

1
where, E is electric field, B denotes magnetic field, 0 is permittivity
of free space and µ0 is permeability of free space and ∇ is vector dif-
ferential operator.
Exercise

1. Write the integral form of the above four Maxwell equations.

2. Describe the physical meaning of each equation.
3. Which equation is usually expressed as Maxwell-Ampere’s law?
Why?

– Upon combining the Maxwell,s equations, rearranging and using

some vector identities we can get wave equation.

∂ 2E
∇2 E = µ0 0 (5)
∂t2
– The solution of such deferential equation is.

Ey (x, t) = Emaxy cos(kx − ωt), (6)

Verify the above wave equation. Gauss’s law states that the total
electric flux φ through any closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by that surface.
The total of the electric flux out of a closed surface is equal to the
charge enclosed divided by the permittivity.

– The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field

multiplied by the area of the surface projected in a plane per-
pendicular to the field. Gauss’s Law is a general law applying
to any closed surface. It is an important tool since it permits
the assessment of the amount of enclosed charge by mapping the
field on a surface outside the charge distribution. For geometries
of sufficient symmetry, it simplifies the calculation of the electric
field.

2
 Figure 1: Gauss’s Law
I Z
1
E.ds = ρ(r)d3 r (7)
s ε0 v

– The above electric field distribution illustrates two important points(see:

Figure 1). Firstly, the electric field generated outside a spherically
symmetric charge distribution is the same that which would be
generated if all of the charge in the distribution were concentrated
at its center. Secondly, zero electric field is generated inside an
empty cavity surrounded by a spherically symmetric charge dis-
tribution.

3
Exercise

1. Write the integral form of electrostatics first Maxwell’s equation.

2. Show that the static electric field E (r) is a conservative field.

– The motion of charged particles is strongly influenced by the pres-

ence of the electromagnetic field, while at the same time it is also
the source of the fields. The relation between fields and particles
is described by Maxwell’s equations

∂E
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0 ε0 (8)
∂t
∂B
∇×E=− (9)
∂t
where J is the electric current density in the plasma, and ε0 and µ0 are
the vacuum permittivity and susceptibility, respectively. These equa-
tions show that the electric and magnetic fields are not independent,
but are coupled by their spatial and temporal variations. Moreover, the
electric current density turns out to be the source of the magnetic field

4
and of fast fluctuations of the electric field. Since ε0 µ0 = c2 is equal to
the inverse square of the light velocity, the latter will be negligible in
a plasma as long as we do not consider propagation of electromagnetic
waves. Hence, the second term on the right-hand side of equation 8,is
small as long as no fast oscillations appear in the electric field. Notice
that, the first term of right-hand side of equation 8 represent condu-
tion current and the second term represent the vacuum displacement
current.
In order to close the system, the first two equations have to be supple-
mented by two more equations, namely the conditions

∇·B=0 (10)
ρ
∇·E= (11)
ε0
Equation 10 indicates that there are no sources of the magnetic field
and thus the magnetic field lines are always closed. Equation 11 shows
that the source of the electric field is the electric space charge density
ρ = e(ni −ne ) which is the difference between the charge densities of the
ion and the electrons. Notice that the physics meaning behind Equ. 11
is that any charge density can create electric fields through Poisson’s
equation. Similarly, the electric current is defined as the difference
between the electron and ion fluxes as J = e(ni vi − ne ve ).

– Notice that again, tha charge conservation can be given by

∂ρ ∂ρ
∇·j=− ⇐⇒ ∇ · j + =0 (12)
∂t ∂t
where j is current density and ρ is charge density.

– For quasi-neutral plasma, ∇ · j = 0, which shows that if there is

no external current source, the current cannot flow outside the
ionosphere.

2 Electrostatic fields and Permitivity

Permitivity
– A dielectric can be modeled as an arrangement of atoms and
molecules in free space, which can be polarized by an electric field.

5
– The field forces positive and negative bound charges to separate
against their Coulomb attractive forces, thus producing an array
of microscopic dipoles. The molecules can be arranged in an
ordered and predictable manner (such as in a crystal) or may ex-
hibit random positioning and orientation, as would occur in an
amorphous material or a liquid. The molecules may or may not
exhibit permanent dipole moments (existing before the field is ap-
plied), and if they do, they will usually have random orientations
throughout the material volume.
– The displacement of charges in a regular manner, as induced by an
electric field, gives rise to a macroscopic polarization, P, defined
as the dipole moment per unit volume:
N ∆v
1 X
P = lim pi (13)
∆v i

the electric field and the polarization are related through

P = ε0 χe E (14)

where the electric susceptibility,χe , forms the more interesting part

of the dielectric constant:

r = 1 + χe (15)

– The dipoles respond to a time-harmonic field that propagates as a

wave through the material. The result of applying such a forcing
function is that oscillating dipole moments are set up, and these
in turn establish a polarization wave that propagates through the
material. The effect is to produce a polarization function, P(z, t),
having the same functional form as the driving field, E(z, t). The
molecules themselves do not move through the material, but their
oscillating dipole moments collectively exhibit wave motion, just
as waves in pools of water are formed by the up and down motion
of the water. From classical description of the process, which is
that the dipoles, once oscillating, behave as microscopic anten-
nas, re-radiating fields that in turn co-propagate with the applied
field. Depending on the frequency, there will be some phase dif-
ference between the incident field and the radiated field at a given
dipole location. This results in a net field (formed through the
superposition of the two) that now interacts with the next dipole.

6
 Radiation from this dipole adds to the previous field as before,
and the process repeats from dipole to dipole. The accumulated
phase shifts at each location are manifested as a net slowing down
of the phase velocity of the resultant wave. Attenuation of the field
may also occur which, in this classical model, can be accounted
for by partial phase cancellation between incident and radiated
fields.
– In the case of classical model, the medium is an ensemble of identi-
cal fixed electron oscillators, in which the Coulomb binding forces
on the electrons are modeled by springs that attach the electrons
to the positive nuclei. We consider electrons for simplicity, but
similar models can be used for any bound charged particle.
– Let’s consider a single oscillator, located at position z in the ma-
terial, and oriented along x. A uniform plane wave, assumed
linearly polarized along x, propagates through the material in the
z direction. The electric field in the wave displaces the electron of
the oscillator in the x direction through a distance represented by
the vector d; a dipole moment is thus established,

p(z, t) = −ed(z, t) (16)

where the electron charge, e, is treated as a positive quantity.The

applied force is
F(z, t) = −eE(z, t) (17)
where E(z, t) is the net oscillating electric field composed of the
original applied field plus the radiated fields from all other oscil-
lators.

Figure 2: (Atomic dipole model, with Coulomb force between positive and
negative charge modeled by that of a spring having spring constant, ks .
An applied electric field displaces the electron through distance d, resulting
in dipole moment,p = −ed,v(z,t) is the electron velocity and γd damping
coefficient

7
 – A dielectric can respond to an electric field is through the orien-
tation of molecules that possess permanent dipole moments. In
such cases, the molecules must be free to move or rotate, and so
the material is typically a liquid or a gas.

Figure 3: (Idealized sketches of ensembles of polar molecules under conditions

of (a) random orientation of the dipole moments, and (b) dipole moments
aligned under the influence of an applied electric field.

8
3 Magnetostatics
– Steady current produce magnetic fields that are constant in time.
The theory of constant current is called magnetostatics.
♣ Steady currents ⇐⇒ Constant Magnetic field

In static electric fields the discussions were based on E and D.

In static magnetic fields the discussions will be based on H and
B. There are similarities and dissimilarities between electric and
magnetic fields.
– As E and D are related according to D = εE for linear material
space,H and B are related according to B = Hµ.
– A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was established
by Oersted in 1820. an electrostatic field is produced by static
or stationary charges. If the charges are moving with constant
velocity, a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced.
A magnetostatic field is produced by a constant current flow (or
direct current). This current flow may be due to magnetization
currents as in permanent magnets, electron-beam currents as in
vacuum tubes, or conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.
– The development of the motors, transformers, microphones, com-
passes, telephone bell ringers, television focusing controls, adver-
tising displays, magnetically levitated high- speed vehicles, mem-
ory stores, magnetic separators, and so on, involve magnetic phe-
nomena and play an important role in our everyday life.
– There are two major laws governing magneto-static fields:
1. Biot-Savart’s law

I×r
Z
µ0
B= dl (18)
4π r3
where dl is an element of length, r̄ vector from source to point
p

9
 2. Ampere’s circuit law ∇ × B = µ0 j

Magnetostatic Field in Matter

– Magnetic fields- due to electrical charges in motion.
– Examine a magnet on atomic scale we would find tinny currents.
– Two reasons for atomic currents.
1. Electrons orbiting around nuclei.
2. Electrons spinning on their axes.
– Current loops form magnetic dipoles - they cancel each other due
to random orientation of the atoms.
– Under an applied Magnetic field- a net alignment of - magnetic
dipole occurs- and medium becomes magnetically polarized or
magnetized.

Magnetization

– If m is the average magnetic dipole moment per unit atom and N

is the number of atoms per unit volume, the magnetization (M)
is define as
M = N m ⇐⇒ m = Ia = Am2 (19)
Am2 A
m = Mdτ ⇐⇒ M = 3
= (20)
m m

Magnetic Materials
Paramagnetic Materials The materials having magnetization par-
allel to B are called paramagnets.
Diamagnetic Materials The elementary moment are not permanent
but are induced according to Faraday’s law of induction. In these
materials magnetization is opposite to B.
Ferromagnetic Materials Have large magnetization due to electron
spin. Elementary moments are aligned in form of groups called
domain

10
4 Magnetic vector potential A
The basic differential law of magneto-static :

∇ × B = µ0 j, (21)

∇•B=0 (22)
This implies that magnetic filed can be expressed as curl of some vector
field called vector potential ( say A).

B = ∇ × A, (23)

where ∇ • A = 0

∇ × (∇ × A) = µ0 j (24)
∇(∇ • A) − ∇2 A = µ0 j (25)
but ∇ • A = 0
∇ × B = µ0 j ⇐⇒ ∇2 A = −µ0 j (26)
This equation is similar to Poisson’s equation for electrostatic field,
only difference is A is a vector field.

5 Magnetic Forces
In the presence of both magnetic and electric field, the net force exerted
on charge q can be given by Lorentz law.

– For a moving charge Q in the presence of both electric and mag-

netic fields, the total force on the charge is given by F = Fe + Fm

Lorentz Force: F = q (E + v × B)

dv
F =m = q (E + v × B) (27)
dt
– The solution to this equation is important in determining the mo-
tion of charged particles in E and B fields. We should bear in
mind that in such fields, energy transfer can be only by means of
the electric field.

11
6 A Magnetic Dipole
A bar magnet or a small filamentary current loop is usually referred
to as a magnetic dipole. Let us determine the magnetic field B at
an observation pointP (r, θ, φ) due to a circular loop carrying current
I. The magnetic vector potential at P is given by
I
µ0 I dl
A= (28)
4π r

It can be shown that at far field (ra, so that the loop appears small at
the observation point), A has only φ component and it is given by

µ0 Iπa2 sin θaφ

A= (29)
4πr2

7 Magneto-statics in the presence of mat-

ter and Permeability
The derivation of ’magnetic boundary conditions’ in the presence of
materials with a finite permeability largely parallels the electric case:
the macroscopic equations of magnetostatics read as
4π
∇× H= j (30)
c
∇. B = 0 (31)

12
 H = µ−1 B (32)
Let’s explore the behavior of the fields in the vicinity of a boundary be-
tween two media with different permeabilities. Consisted an infinites-
imal variants of Gauss’s and Stokes law, respectively, we derive the
equations
[ B(x) − B(x’)] .n = 0 (33)
4π
[ H(x) − H(x’)] × n = J (34)
c

7.1 Paramagnetic sphere in a homogeneous mag-

netic field
Consider a sphere of radius R and permeability µ > 1 in the presence of
an external magnetic field H. let us compute the magnetic induction B
inside and outside the sphere. It can be done by Legendre polynomial
series expansion. The magnetic field outside the sphere is a superposi-
tion of the external field and a magnetic dipole field, where the dipole
3−µ
moment M = 4π+2 H is parallel to the external field.This magnetic mo-
ment is caused by the orientation of the intrinsic moments along the
external field axis; consequently, the actually felt magnetic field (the
magnetic induction). B = H + 4πM exceeds the external field.

Magnetization and Permeability

♣ Dear students, What is Magnetization and Permeability ?

Magnetization M can be defined in terms of the magnetic dipole mo-

ment m. The bound current Ib circulates about a path enclosing a
differential area dS, establishing a dipole moment (A.m2 ),

m = Ib dS (35)

Notice that magnetization M is defined as the magnetic dipole moment

per unit volume(V), M = m V
The relationship between B, H, and M for linear isotropic media can
be expressed by magnetic susceptibility χm and it can be defined as:

13
 M = χm H ⇔ B = µ0 (H + χm H) = µ0 µr H

where, µr is defined as the relative permeability,

µr = χm + 1 (36)

Exercise
1. Given a ferrite material which we shall specify to be operating in
a linear mode with B = 0.05T let us assume µr = 50 and calculate
values for χm ,M and H.
Notice that, Ohm’s law for the electric circuit has the point form

J = σE (37)

and the magnetic flux density will be the analog of the current density,

B = µH

♣ Dear students, can you tell the applications of the above formulas ?

B = µH

♣ Do you know Magnetic circuit and electric circuit ?

Notice that
– J = σE associated to electric circuit and B = µH associated
magnetic circuit

– Knowledge of magnetic circuit and electric circuit are very impor-

tant in practical science and technology.

We know the electrostatic potential and its relationship to electric field

intensity
E = −∇V (38)

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The scalar magnetic potential, analogous to electric potential can be
defined as
H = −∇Vm (39)
In dealing with magnetic circuits, it is convenient to call Vm the
magnetomotive force, or mmf, and we shall acknowledge the analogy
to the electromotive force.

– More interesting and more practical problems arise when ferro-

magnetic materials are present in the circuit. Let us begin by
considering the relationship between B and H in such a material.
We may assume that we are establishing a curve of B versus H
for a sample of ferromagnetic material which is completely demag-
netized; both B and H are zero. As we begin to apply an mmf,
the flux density also rises, but not linearly, as the experimental
data of next Fig. 4 shows show near the origin. After H reaches
a value of about 100 A.t/m, the flux density rises more slowly
and begins to saturate when H is several hundred A.t/m. Having
reached partial saturation, let us now turn to Fig. 5 where we
may continue our experiment at point x by reducing H.

Figure 4: (Magnetization curve of a sample of silicon sheet steel).

As we do so, the effects of hysteresis begin to show, and we do not

retrace our original curve. Even after H is zero, B = Br , the remnant
flux density. As H is reversed, then brought back to zero, and the
complete cycle traced several times, the hysteresis loop of Fig. 5
is obtained. The mmf required to reduce the flux density to zero is
identified as Hc , the coercive ”force.” For smaller maximum values

15
 of H smaller hysteresis loops are obtained and the locus of the tips is
about the same as the virgin magnetization curve of Fig. 4.

Figure 5: (A hysteresis loop for silicon steel. The coercive force Hc and
remnant flux density Br are indicated).

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8 Electromagnetic Potentials and waves

♣ What is the most physical manifestation of Maxwell’s equations ?

Let us now generalize the static analysis above to the electrodynamic

case, i.e., the case with temporal and spatial dependent sources ρ(t, x)
and j(t, x) corresponding fields E(t, x) and B(t, x) as described by
Maxwell’s equations.

– The most important physical manifestation oMaxwell’s equation

is the EM wave. The wave equations, can be drive from the
Maxwelle’s equations and it can be reduced to algebraic equations
via the Fourier transform and the physics contained in so-called
dispersion relations which set the kinematic restrictions on the
fields.

Let us consider the vector A and scalar potential ψ , (i.e the electro-
dynamic potentials). and the concept of gauge transformation. The
vector potential can generate the magnetic field. The equation con-
necting the potentials with fields as
∂A
E = −∇ψ − (40)
∂t
B = −∇ × A (41)

– The divergence free nature of the time- and space-dependent mag-

netic field ∇B = 0. This can expressed as the curl of an electro-
magnetic vector potential B(t, x) = ∇ × A(t, x)

Inserting this expression into the other homogeneous Maxwell equation

∂ ∂
∇ × E(t, x) = [∇ × A(t, x)] = −∇ × A(t, x) (42)
∂t ∂t
 
∂
=⇒ ∇ × E(t, x) + A(t, x) = 0 (43)
∂t
The vanishing curl of a vector expression to write this vector expression
as the gradient of a scalar function
∂
E(t, x) + A(t, x) = −∇ψ(t, x) (44)
∂t

17
where ψ(t, x) electromagnetic scalar potential function. This means
that in electrodynamics, E(t, x) is calculated from the potentials ac-
cording to the formula
∂
E(t, x) = −∇ψ(t, x) − A(t, x) (45)
∂t
– The laws of electrodynamics can be expressed in terms of the po-
tentials ψ(t, x) and A(t, x), or in terms of the fields E(t, x) and
B(t, x). However, there exists an important difference between
the two approaches: in classical electrodynamics the only directly
observable quantities are the fields themselves (and quantities de-
rived from them) and not the potentials. On the other hand, the
treatment becomes significantly simpler if we use the potentials in
our calculations.
Using the homogeneous Maxwell’s equations, (∇.B = 0 and ∇ × E +
∂B
∂t
= 0) which donot contain source terms one can describe the electric
field using the vector A and the scalar potentials ψ, and it can be
expressed through the relations
B=∇×A (46)
∂A
E = −∇ψ − (47)
∂t
– One can also express fields using vector potentials in terms of
non-homogeneous Maxwell’s equations,(∇ × B = µJ + µε ∂E ∂t
and
∇.E = ρε )
∂A ρ
∇2 ψ + ∇. =− (48)
∂t ε
∂ 2A ∂ψ
∇2 A − µε 2 − ∇(∇.A + µε ) = −jµ (49)
∂t ∂t
If one is given A and ψ, one can determine B and E fields easily. But if
one is given B and E, there are many ways of choosing A and ψ. Thus,
it may needs transformation, which do not change the fields, transform
the potentials.
– One can transform the A and ψ. as
A0 = A + ∇ψ (50)
∂ψ
ψ0 = ψ − (51)
∂t
such transformation is called gauge transformation(gauge invariance).
Note that transformation do not affect the physical observable.

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8.1 Gauge conditions
The ambguity in the definitions of A and ψ can be used to introduce
a gauge conditions.

Coulomb gauge ↔ ∇.A = 0 (52)

∂ψ
Lorentz gauge ↔ ∇.A + µε =0 (53)
∂t
temporal gauge ←→ ψ = 0 (54)

– The Coulomb gauge is most useful when dealing with static fields,
Using ∇.A = 0,
∂A ρ ρ
∇2 ψ + ∇. = − ←→ ∇2 ψ = − (poisson’s equ.) (55)
∂t ε ε
2
∂ A ∂ψ
∇2 A − µε 2 − ∇(∇.A + µε ) = −jµ ←→ ∇2 A = −jµ (56)
∂t ∂t
– The Lorentz gauge is commonly used gauge for time-varying fields.
∂ ρ
(∇2 − µε )ψ = − (57)
∂t ε
∂
(∇2 − µε )A = −µJ (58)
∂t
The potential ψevaluated at distance r can be expressed
ρ(r0 , t) 3 0
Z
1
ψ(r, t) = dr (59)
4πε0 | r − r0 |

where r0 is location of charge densityρ.

9 Wave propagation in media

What happens if an electromagnetic wave impinges upon a medium
characterized by a non-trivial dielectric function ? And how does
the propagation behavior of waves relate to actual physical processes
inside the medium ? To prepare the discussion of these questions, we
will first introduce a physically motivated model for the dependence of
the dielectric function on its arguments. This modeling will establish a
concrete link between the amplitude of the electromagnetic waves and
the dynamics of the charge carriers inside the medium.

19
9.1 Model dielectric function
In Fourier space, the dielectric function (q, ω)is a function of both
wave vector and frequency. It owes its frequency dependence to the
fact that a wave in matter may prompt the creation of excitations of
the molecular degrees of freedom. The feedback of these excitations to
the electromagnetic wave is described by the frequency dependence of
the function . To get an idea of the relevant frequency scales, notice
that typical excitation energies in solids are of the order h̄ω < 1 ev.

20
10 Electrodynamics and Application of
Vector and Scalar Potentials

10.1 Scattering in the ionosphere

Thomson Scattering
The knowledge of electrodynamics have immense application in terste-
rial ionosphere. For instance, the Thomson scattering is important
in understanding the basic mechanize of incoherent scattering phenom-
ena. It is a process by which an electromagnetic waves incident on free
electrons in ionosphere and scattered partially. That means the electric
field of incident waves induce oscillating motion of electrons,and as a
result a dipole radiation can be produced by each oscillating electrons.
We can express the scattering of electromagnetic waves from ions in the
same fashion, but being an ion is massive compared to the electron, the
induced dipole radiation is very small and it can be neglected.

♣ How can we describe the radiation pattern of oscillating electron ?

We can describe the radiation of oscillating electron or the induced

dipole radiation pattern using momentum equation. That means we
can analyze the motion of an electron in the oscillating electric field.
The momentum equation of an electron in oscillating electric field can
be given by

d2 r
me = −eEi (60)
dt2
where Ei is electric field of incident electromagnetic wave me is mass
2
of electron and dr
dt2
is the corresponding acceleration. This can be also
written as
d dr −eEi
( )= . (61)
dt dt me
Up on integrating both side we can get electron velocity. That means
−eEi
Z Z
d dr
( )= dt, (62)
dt dt me

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 Z
dr e
=− Ei dt (63)
dt me
Z
e
v=− Ei dt, (64)
me
where Ei = E0 eω0 t .
Z
e
v=− E0 eω0 t dt, (65)
me
eE0 iω0 t
v=i e .
me ω0
This implies that the velocity of electron in an oscillating electric field is
proportional to amplitude of incident signal and inversely proportional
to its angular frequency.

– The magnetic induction of scattered wave can be given by

B=∇×A (66)

µ0 e2 (k × E0 ) ei(ω0 t−k.r)
=⇒ B ≈ −i . (67)
4πmω0 |r|

– The corresponding electric field can be given by

|E| = c|B|

– The pointing vector of scattered radiation can be expressed as

1
Sav = |E||B| (68)
2
Energy can be transported from one point (where a transmitted is
located) to another (with receiver) by means of EM waves. The rate of
such energy transportation can be obtained from Maxwell’s equation
∂H
∇ × E = −µ (69)
∂t
∂E
∇ × H = σE + ε (70)
∂t
By dotting both side,
∂E
E.(∇ × H) = σE2 + E.ε (71)
∂t

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For any vector fields A and B , ∇.(A × B) = B.(∇ × A) − A.(∇ × B)
∂E
H.(∇ × E) + ∇.(H × E) = σE2 + E.ε (72)
∂t
∂H
∇ × E = −µ (73)
∂t

∂H
H.(∇ × E) = H.(−µ ) (74)
∂t
µ ∂(H.H)
⇒ H.(∇ × E) = − ) (75)
2 ∂t
µ ∂H2 1 ∂E2
− − ∇.(E × H) = σE2 + ε (76)
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
1 ∂E2 µ ∂H2
⇒ −∇.(E × H) = ε + + σE2 (77)
2 ∂t 2 ∂t
Z Z   Z
∂ 1 2 µ 2
⇒ −∇.(E × H)dv = − εE + H dv − σE2 dv (78)
v ∂t v 2 2 v
I Z   Z
∂ 1 2 µ 2
⇒ (E × H).ds = − εE + H dv − σE2 dv (79)
v ∂t v 2 2 v
Notice that:-
I
c
⇒ (E×H).ds ⇐⇒ Total Power= poynting vector, P = (E×B)
s 4π
Z   (80)
∂ 1 2 µ 2
⇒− εE + H dv ⇐⇒ Rate of decrease in energy- stored in B and E
∂t v 2 2
Z (81)
⇒ − σE2 dv ⇐⇒ Ohmic power dissipated (82)
v

11 Radiation
Up to now we have learned about how to describe waves propagating
through ”free” space, dielectric media, possibly bounded by a conduct-
ing surface. However, how did they get there? They were radiated
there by accelerating, time dependent charge-current distributions.
Suppose we are given a system of classical charges that oscillate har-
monically with time. The spatial distribution is
ρ(x, t) = ρ(x, t)0 e−iωt (83)

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 j(x, t) = j(x, t)0 e−iωt (84)
Following of Maxwell’s equations and electrodynamics principles, spa-
tial and temporal dependent the sources can be expressed in terms of
potentials by means of the homogeneous equations.

The electromagnetic fields induced by spatially extended, time varying

sources can be obtained from potenials. For truly extended bodies with
non-monochromatic times dependence, we use general expressions for
the retarded potentials. General expressions for retarded potentials

j(x0 , t0 ) 3 0
Z
µ0
A(x, t) = d x,
4π x − x0

ρ(x0 , t0 ) 3 0
Z
1
ψ(x, t) = d x,
4πε0 x − x0

– What is a current density produced due to the electron motions

in the oscillating electric field? The current density is given by

j(r, t) = ρ(r, t)v(t) (85)

– The corresponding retarded potential of current density j can be

given by

j(r0 , t0 ) 3 0
Z
µ0
A(r, t) = d r,
4π r − r0
0
where t0 = t − r−r
c
After some mathematical steps we can get the vector potential that
represent expression of spherical wave, that is

µ0 e2 E0 ei(ω0 t−k.r)
A(r, t) = −i . (86)
4πmω0 |r|

Point charges
Acording to law of classical electrodynamics, an accelerating charge
radiates. This radiation carries off energy, which must come as expense
of particle’s kinetic energy.

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11.1 The Lienard -Wiechert potentials
Assume that a point charge is moving on a specific trajectory.
w(t) ≡ position of q at time t. (87)
The retarded time is determined implicitly by equation
| r − w(tr ) |= c(t − tr ), (88)
for the left side is distance the ” the new ” must travel, and t − tr is the
time it take to make a the trip, see ( Fig.6), where tr retarded time.
Let us call w(t) the retarded position of the charge; γ is the vector

Figure 6: (retarded position and particles trajectory).

from the retarded position to the field point r,

γ = r − w(tr ) (89)
The potentials for retarded point charge that contributes due to one
retarded point can be given by
ρ(r0 , tr )
Z
1
V (r, t) = ψ(r, t) = dτ
4πε0 r
The vector potential is given by
ρ(r0 , tr )v(tr )
Z
µ0
A(r, t) = dτ
4π r
where v(tr ) velocity of charge at retarded time.

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Dispersion relation
If a prograssive wave is travelling in a linear, isotropic, homogeneous,
nonconducting medium with dielectricity parameter , and permeabil-
ity µ, what is the dispersion relation? What is the group velocity in
this case? What is the dispersion relation in conducting medium? The
answer for this questions are explained as follows:
A dispersion relation is the a relation between ω and k. A disper-
sion relation determine what mode (what combination of ω and k) are
possible. The dispersion relation is derivable in principale once one
has explicit knowlege of the dielectricity function(or response function)
for midum in question. Let us consider the two vector equations in
Maxwell’s equation;
∂B
∇×E=− , (90)
∂t
∂D
∇×H=J+ , (91)
∂t
For a prograssive wave characterized by ω and k in linear, isotropic,
homogeneous medium with σ = 0(J = σE = 0) then this equation
gives
k × E = ωB, (92)
B
k× = −ωεE,
µ
Now let’s take k× of 92,

k × (k × E) = ωk × B (93)

(k • E)k − k2 E) = −ω 2 µεE (94)

but for progressive wave k • E = 0

=⇒ (k 2 − ω 2 µε)E = 0 (95)

Since E is not assumed to be zero, then k 2 − ω 2 = 0

k2
=⇒ ω 2 = (96)
µε
k
=⇒ ω = ± √ = ±ku (97)
µε

26
where we have identified the phase velocity u = √1 .
µε
The group velocity in this case is
∂ω ∂
vg = = (ku) = u
∂k ∂k
so in this simple case, the group velocity is the same as phase velocity.
For the case of conducting medium, in which J = σE, we can have

k × E = ωB, (98)
B
k× = −iσE − ωεE, (99)
µ
Combining this two equations( equ. 98 and 99) we can have

− k 2 E = −iσµωE − ω 2 εµE (100)

σ
=⇒ (ω 2 + i ω − u2 k 2 )E = 0 (101)
ε
r
iσ 1 σ2
ω= ± 4u2 k 2 − 2 (102)
2ε 2 ε
and the group velocity is
∂ω 2u2 k
= ±q (103)
∂k 4u2 k 2 − σ2
ε2

Notice that if σ = 0 then we are back again to the previous problem as

can be verified.

Problems
1. We know that all information in Maxwell’s equation is given by
∂ 1
∇2 ψ + (∇ • A) = − ρ,
∂t ε0
∂ 2A ∂ψ
(∇2 A − µ0 ε0 2
) − ∇(∇ • A) + µ0 ε0 = −µ0 J
∂t ∂t
Show the above differential equations for A and ψ can be written
in more symmetrical form as
∂L 1
Γ2 ψ + = − ρ0 (104)
∂t ε0

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 Γ2 A − ∇L = −µ0 J (105)
∂2
where Γ2 = ∇2 − µ0 ε0 ∂t2 is d’Alembertian operator, and L ≡
∇ • A + µ0 ε0 ∂∂tv
2. In a medium characterized by σ = 0, µ = µ0 , ε0 and E =
20 sin(108 t − kz)ay , calculate H and k.
3. The magnetic vector potential A of a magnetic dipole-moment(p)
is given by
µ0 r
A(r) = (p × 3 ) (106)
π r
Show that the magnetic induction B is given by

3µ0 r(r.p) − p
B= (107)
4π r3
4. The electric field in free space is given by

E = 50 cos(108 t + kx)ay V /m (108)

a Find the direction of the wave propagation

λ
b Calculate k and the time it takes to travel a distance of 2

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