REVIEWER for SCIENCE

Second Quarter

MODULE 6
 The idea behind the concept that the Earth is billions of years old originated in the work
of James Hutton. Hutton is called the “Father of Modern Geology”. He concluded that
there are forces that change the landscape of the Earth in the past. This conclusion is
based on his observation in the geological processes that were taking place in his farm.
 His principle of Uniformitarianism states that the current geologic processes, such as
volcanism, erosion, and weathering, are the same processes that were at work in the past.
This idea was refined by other geologists that although the process of the past and the
present are the same, the rates of this process may vary over time. The Earth’s history
was studied using the different records of past events preserved in rocks. The layers or
rocks are like the pages in our history books.
 Catastrophism - A geological doctrine that changes in the earth's crust have in the past
been brought about suddenly by physical forces operating in ways that cannot be
observed today.
 Pangea - in early geologic time, a supercontinent that incorporated almost all the
landmasses on Earth. ... Over millions of years, the continents broke apart from a single
landmass called Pangea and moved to their present positions.

PALEONTOLOGY EVIDENCE
Paleontology - the branch of science concerned with fossil animals and plants.
 Fossils of two land-dwelling reptiles Lystrosaurus and Cynognathus that lived during
the Triassic Period have been unearthed in various continents and their fossils are so
numerous that they account for a major percentage of the bones recovered at some fossil
beds.
 Fossils of seed fern Glossopteris is too large to be dispersed across the ocean by the
winds, hence its metropolitan distribution can only be explained by continental drift.
EVIDENCE from GLACIATIONS
 Another evidences supporting the moving continents was the glacial till deposit in the
Southern Hemisphere.
 Considering the present positions of the continents, the till deposit indicate erratic glacier
motion, but when they were fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle, continents reveal a much
more streamlined motion, of the glacier from Southern Africa and Northern Australia
outward.
EVIDENCE from STRUCTURE and ROCK TYPE
 Geographers noticed that the coastlines of several of the present-day continents would
perfectly fit together, particularly Africa and South America.
 Geographers also noticed the presence of various geologic features which sharply
terminate at the coast of one continent and appear on the facing continents across the
Atlantic.
 Example for this is the folded mountain of South Africa, which appear to be a
continuation of the range north of Buenos Aires, Argentina.
HOW ARE ROCK LAYERS FORMED?
 Stratified rocks, also known as derivative rocks, may be fragmental or crystalline. These
rocks are products of sedimentary processes. These are made of visible layers of
sediments. The formation of rock layers depends on its stratigraphy and stratification.
 Stratigraphy – it is the branch of geology that deals with the description, correlation and
interpretation of stratified sediments and stratified rocks on and within the Earth. It is the
study of the rock layers (strata). Likewise, it will give you clues to the location of ancient
seas, mountains, plateaus and plains.
 As early as the mid 1600s, Danish scientist Nicholas Steno studied the relative position
of sedimentary rocks. These rock layers are also called strata.
 Stratigraphic Laws – are basic principles that all geologists use in decoding or
deciphering the spatial and temporal relationships of rock layers. These include the
following: Original Horizontality, Later Continuity, Superposition, Cross Cutting, Law of
Inclusions and the Law of Faunal Succession.
 Law of Original Horizontality – sediments are deposited in flat layers, if the rock
maintains in horizontal layers, it means it is not yet disturbed and still has its original
horizontality.
 Law of Continuity – rock layers that are formed without interruptions are conformable.
Describes a layer or rock that have been deformed or eroded before another layer is
deposited, resulting in rock layer mismatching.
 Law of Superposition – the largest and heaviest rock layer that settled first at the bottom
is the oldest rock layer. The lightest and smallest that settled is the youngest rock layer.
 Law of Cross Cutting Relationships - a fault or dike – a slab rock cuts through another
rock when magma intrudes to the rock, that fault or magma is younger than the rock.
 Law of Inclusions – a rock mass that contains pieces of rocks called inclusions are
younger that the other rock masses.
 Law of Faunal Succession – first recognized by William Smith; different strata contain
assemblage of fossils by which rocks may be identified and correlated over long
distances
 Stratification – it is also known as bedding, which is the layering that happens in
sedimentary and igneous rocks formed at the surface of the Earth that comes from lava
flows or other volcanic activity. It is expressed by rock layers (units) of a general tabular
or lenticular form that differ in rock type.
 Plate tectonics is the theory that Earth's outer shell is divided into several plates that
glide over the mantle, the rocky inner layer above the core. The plates act like a hard and
rigid shell compared to Earth's mantle. This strong outer layer is called the lithosphere.
 According to the theory, thermal convection currents in the mantle cause the deformable,
plastic asthenosphere to flow. As it flows horizontally, it carries along the overlying rigid
and brittle lithosphere causing it to break into several large plates. All major plates
consist of both continental and oceanic crust.
 In some places, plates pull away from each other (diverge), in other places they push each
other (converge), and elsewhere they slide alongside with each other (move laterally).
 In Wegener's theory of continental drift, plate tectonics has a convection in the mantle for
lithospheric plate movements. This means that hot mantle materials travel upwards
towards Earth's surface and cooler material moves downwards.
  Similarity of fossils found in different continents.
Ex: Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile found in Brazil and in Africa.
Ex: Glossopteris, a fern plant, which was found to have thrived in five different
continents (Africa, India, Australia, South America, and Antarctica) that are presently
separated by oceans and seas and are thus miles away from one another
 Presence of tillites in areas whose present climates do not suggest glacial formation
Tillites and glacial deposits from rock strata in areas that were once covered with snow.
(South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica, and Australia)
 Presence of coal seams in polar regions
Ex: Glossopteris, an ancient fern proliferated in certain areas of each continent. (North
Pole and Antarctica)
 Continuity of rock layers found in different continents
Ex: The Appalachian Mountains, the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland, the Scandes
Mountains of Norway, and the Atlas Mountains of Morocco
 Similarity of rock types in different continents
Ex: Brazil, India, South Africa and Antarctica
DIFFERENT PLATE MOVEMENT/BOUNDARIES
 Convergent Boundary
- also called destructive plate boundary and occurs when two plates are pushing toward each
other
THREE TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES.
- Oceanic-oceanic convergence : occurs when two oceanic plates meet and the oceanic
plate is pushed underneath the other. Example: Philippine islands
- Oceanic- continental convergence: occurs when an oceanic plate pushes into and moves
underneath a continental plate. Example: Andes Mountain
- Continental- continental convergence: occurs when two continents meet head on.
Neither plate is pushed underneath the other. Thus, this forms tall mountain ranges.
Example: Himalaya
- Divergent Boundary - also known as constructive boundary and zone where two
lithospheric plates move apart from each other
- Example: the volcanic country of Iceland..
- Transform Fault Boundary - also called as conservative boundary; zone where two
plates that slide horizontally past one another or neither creates nor destroy a crust.
- Example: San Andreas fault zone
MODULE 7

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

The geologic timescale shows significant events in the history of Earth and of the evolution of
living things. Scientists were able to develop the geologic timescale by studying rock layer and
index fossils worldwide. The information obtained from these pieces of evidence made it
possible for them to identify the relative age of Earth.
TERMINOLOGY
• Fossils – remains of ancient life that have been turned to stone
• Body fossils – actual parts of plants and animals that have been turned to stone (i.e. bone,
shells, leaves)
• Coprolite – fossilized dinosaur dung (scat)
• Fossilization – process by which the remains of ancient living things are turned to rock
• Paleontologist – a scientist who studies fossils and ancient life
• Sedimentary rock – rock mad of layers of tightly packed sand and clay
• Sandstone – a type of sedimentary rock that is made of sand
• Trace fossil – a fossilized sign that a plant or animal once lived in an area (i.e. footprints,
coprolite)
• Mineralization – to convert into a mineral substance; to fill with a mineral substance

EONS
Eons are the largest divisions in the geologic timeline. They are composed of hundreds of
millions of years in duration. The recent one is the Phanerozoic eon, which began more than 500
million years ago. This eon is characterized by the existence of organisms that had skeletons or
hard shells. Other eons are the Proterozoic eon (from 2.5 billion years ago to 540 million years
ago), where the first multicellular organisms arose and where mass extinction occurred; the
Archaeozoic eon (from 3.9 to 2.5 billion years ago) where the first life-forms represented by
single-celled organisms appeared; and the Hadean eon (from 4.6 to 3.9 billion years ago), which
is characterized by Earth’s formation from dust and gases.

ERAS
An eon can be divided into smaller time intervals known as eras. The Phanerozoic eon is divided
into three eras, namely, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic eras. The boundaries of the era have
been determined based on the different organisms that were present during a certain period of
time in the geological timescale.

PALEOZOIC ERA
It began about 540 million years ago and lasted for about 300 million years. Many kinds of
organisms lived during this era. This is when fossil records became rich with evidence of many
marine organisms.
MESOZOIC ERA
It began about 200 million years ago and lasted for about 180 million years. This era is also
called the Age of dinosaurs and, sometimes, the Age of Reptiles because this is when many kinds
of dinosaurs existed. The Mesozoic era is also marked by the appearance of flowering plants.

CENOZOIC ERA
It is considered to be the latest era in the geologic timeline, which began from 65 million years
ago up to present. It is composed of the Quaternary and Tertiary periods, which are characterized
by the presence of primitive mammals and modern human civilization. During the Cenozoic era,
mammals have evolved and adapted to live in various environments, including land, water and
even air. This is why the Cenozoic era is sometimes called the Age of mammals.

PERIODS
They are further subdivisions of eras. The Proterozoic eon is composed of the Vendian or
Ediacaran period. Prokaryotic organisms began to appear during this period, first with the
anaerobic life-forms, and then followed by the photosynthetic organisms, which added oxygen to
the atmosphere. However, life in this period only thrived underwater, and only a few fossils
existed because the animals were all soft-bodied.

CAMBRIAN PERIOD
Organisms were noted to have hard body parts such as shells and outer skeletons. The first
known representatives of most animal phyla evolved during this period, which include
jellyfishes, worms and sponges. Also common during this period were the brachiopods, which
were small animals with two shells. These organisms resembled modern clams however, they are
not related to one another. Hard-shelled, segmented creatures called trilobites were the most
dominant macroscopic life-forms in this period.

ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN PERIODS

During this period, early forms of cephalopods appeared. The first vertebrates, animals with
backbones, to appear in this period were jawless fishes which had sucker-like mouths. They
became common in the seas. Among the invertebrates, animals without backbones, that first
appeared in this period were insects. The first forms of land plants also appeared during these
periods.

DEVONIAN PERIOD
During this period, many plants, including ferns, adapted to drier areas, which allowed them to
invade other kinds of habitats. Aquatic areas, on the other hand, were mostly populated with both
invertebrates and vertebrates. This period is referred to as the Age of Fishes because many
groups of fishes have evolved during this period. Most of the fishes in this period had jaws, bony
skeletons, and scales. Sharks appeared in later parts of the period.
Life continued to expand on earth’s surface during the Carboniferous and Permian periods. The
Reptiles- animals with scaly skins that lay eggs with tough leathery shells evolved from
amphibians. Winged insects evolved into many forms, such as dragonflies and cockroaches.
Giant ferns and other plant formed vast swampy forests. The remains of the ancient plants
formed thick deposits of sediments that changed into coal over millions of years, especially
during the Carboniferous period.
At the end of the Paleozoic era, many organisms became extinct, including trilobites and many
amphibians. The mass extinction at the end of the Paleozoic era affected both plants and animals
on land and even in the seas. As much as 95% of complex life-forms in the oceans disappeared.
However, those which survived the mass extinction included reptiles and groups of fishes.
The Mesozoic era was divided into the Cretaceous, Jurassic and Triassic periods. These periods
represent the age when many forms of dinosaurs are believed to have existed on Earth.
Many organisms at the onset of the Triassic period survived the mass extinction during the
Permian period, including fishes, insects, reptiles and cone-bearing plants.
Then, about 225 million years ago, the first dinosaurs appeared. One of the earliest dinosaur
species belonged to the genus Coelophysis, which were meat-eaters that had light, hollow bones
to help them run swiftly on their hind legs. Mammals also appeared during the latter part of this
period, which probably evolved from mammal-like reptiles. Mammals during the Triassic period
were very small.

Jurassic Period
-About 150 million years, dinosaurs became the dominant animals on land.
-Dicraeosaurus was one of the largest dinosaurs in this period.
-Archeopteryx, one of the earliest known birds, also appeared in this period.
CRETACEOUS PERIOD
-Reptiles were the dominant vertebrates on Earth.
-Several kinds of birds began to exist alongside Pterosaurs (flying reptiles).
-new kinds of dinosaurs evolved.
-Iguanodon and Triceratops species emerged as common herbivores
-Tyrannasaurus rex and Spinosaurus were some of the dominant carnivores.
-Other aquatic organisms as well as marine reptiles such as mosasaurs and plesiosaurs dominated
different bodies of water.
-The angiosperms, the flowering plants, also arose during this period.
-The cretaceous period ended with a meteorite-caused mass extinction.

TERTIARY PERIOD
-From 65 to 1.8 million years ago
-Started with emergence of primitive mammals
-During this period, Earth’s climate was generally warm and mild.
-Marine mammals such as whales and dolphins thrived.
-Flowering plants and insects flourished on land.
-Grasses also emerged, providing a vital food source that encouraged the evolution of today’s
grass-eating mammals such as cattle, deer and sheep.
QUATERNARY PERIOD
-Coined as the “Age of Man”
-1.8 million years ago up to present
-At the start, thick continental glaciers advanced and retreated over parts of Europe and North
America.
-A large portion of the bodies of water was frozen in continental glaciers, causing the sea level to
fall by more than 100 meters (m).
-About 20,000 years ago, Earth’s climate began to warm causing the continental glaciers to melt
which resulted in the increase in sea level.
-Different marine organisms thrived. Flying insects shared the skies with birds. On land,
mammals such as bats, cats, dogs and mammoths became common.
-Fossil records suggest that the earliest ancestors of our species, called hominids, appeared about
4.5 million years ago.
-Modern humans called Homo sapiens may have evolved as early as 100,000 years ago in
Africa.
-From there, they began a series of migrations. Which resulted in the human colonization of the
world.

EPOCHS
are finer subdivision shown in the Cenozoic era and parts of the Mesozoic era.
They are only done for the most recent portion of the geologic timescale because old
rocks in the late portion of the timescale have been buried deeply, causing them to be intensely
deformed and severely modified by long-term Earth processes.
MODULE 8

HOW DO GEOLOGICAL PROCESS OCCURS?

• Occurring events that directly or indirectly impact the geology of the earth.
• Such as tectonic plates, weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain formation,
deposition, erosion, droughts, flooding, and landslides.

HOW ABOUT GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS?

• Is an extreme natural event in the crust of the earth that poses a threat to life and property,
example: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis (tidal waves), and landslides.
• Can play a significant role when infrastructure is constructed in their presence.

EARTHQUAKE
• Is one of the most violent natural phenomena. According to the number of victims and
destructive force, it exceeds all other natural disasters.

HAZARDS CAUSED BY AN EARTHQUAKE

• Ground shaking – is one of the hazards resulting from earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
and landslides. It is both a hazard created by earthquakes and the trigger for other hazards
such as liquefaction and landslides. It also describes the vibration of the ground during an
earthquake.
• Surface faulting is displacement that reaches the Earth’s surface during slip along a
fault. It commonly occurs with shallow earthquakes; those with an epicenter less than
20km. surface faulting also may accompany aseismic creep or natural or man-induced
subsidence.
• Landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope.
Landslides are a type of “mass wasting,” which denotes any down-slope movement of
soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity. The term “landslide” encompasses
five modes of slope movement: falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows.
• Liquefaction describes the way in which soil liquefies during ground shaking.
Liquefaction can undermine the foundations and supports of buildings, bridges, pipelines,
and roads, causing them to sink into the ground, collapse, or dissolve.
• Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruption under the sea. It
can injure or kill many people and cause significant damage to buildings and other
structures. The speed of tsunami waves depends on ocean depth rather than the distance
from the source of the wave. Tsunami waves may travel as fast as jet planes over deep
waters, only slowing down when reaching shallow waters.
VOLCANOES
- is a vent or fissure in the planet’s crust through which lava, ash, rock, and gases erupt.
Volcanoes can be exciting and fascinating but are also very dangerous. Any kind of
volcano can create harmful or deadly phenomena, whether during an eruption or a period
of dormancy. Volcanoes are natural systems and always have some element or
unpredictability.

Tephra consists of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin. It is a synonym for
“pyroclastic material”. Tephra ranges in size from ash (<2 mm) to lapilli (2-64 mm) to blocks
and bombs (>64 mm).

Pyroclastic flow is a dense, fast-moving flow of solidified lava pieces, volcanic ash, and hot
gases. Pyroclastic flows form in various ways. A common cause is when the column of lava, ash,
and gases expelled from a volcano during an eruption loses its upward momentum and falls back
to the ground. Another cause is when volcanic material expelled during an eruption immediately
begins moving down the sides of the volcano. Pyroclastic flow can also form when a lava dome
or lava flow becomes too steep and collapses.

Lahar is an Indonesian term that describes a hot or cold mixture of water and river valley.
Lahars are extremely dangerous especially to those living in valley areas near a volcano. Lahars
can bury and destroy manmade structures including roads and bridges.

Lava domes are formed by viscous magma being erupted effusively onto the surface and then
piling up around the vent. Like lava flows, they typically do not have enough gas or pressure to
erupt explosively, although they may sometimes be preceded or followed by explosive activity.
The shape and size of lava domes varies greatly, but they are typically steep-sided and thick.

Poisonous gas, the gases that are released during a volcanic eruption, come from deep within
the Earth. The largest portion of gases released into the atmosphere is water vapor.

GEOPHYSICAL MAP
Surigao Del Sur and Davao Oriental are at risk to hazard due to Philippine Trench and nearby
active faults, while La Union and Pangasinan are due to Manila Trench. Moreover, Benguet, La
Union, Nueva Vizcaya, Eastern Pangasinan and Nueva Ecija is due to location along the
Philippine fault Zone. (Center for Environmental Geomatics- Manila Observatory, 2005)
Over the past decades, the PHIVOLCS has recorded twelve (12) destructive earthquakes in the
Philippines that caused unimaginable effects, such as loss of properties, injuries, and thousands
of deaths.
TOP 10 PROVINCES THAT ARE AT RISK TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:
1. Camiguin 2. Sulu 3. Biliran 4. Albay 5. Bataan 6. Sorsogon 7. South Cotabato 8. Laguna
9. Camarines Sur 10. Batanes 
First on the rank with the highest risk is Camiguin because the land area was so small. If
volcanic eruption may occur, the whole province can be affected. Sulu ranks second because it
has the greatest number of active and dangerous volcanoes. (Center for Environmental
Geomatics – Manila Observatory, 2009).

Top 10 Most Landslide Prone Provinces of the Philippines

• 1. Marinduque 2. Rizal 3. Cebu 4. La Union 5. Southern Leyte 6. Benguet 7. Nueva
Vizcaya 8. Batangas 9. Mountain Provinces 10. Romblon 
• Most of the provinces in the Cordillera Administrative Region are included in the list of
top 10 landslide-prone areas in the Philippines. Because the entire region is situated in
and around Cordillera Mountain ranges. So, after massive and continuous rain or
earthquakes, certain areas on the hills and mountains become delicate and weak which
makes the region exposed to landslides as well as to other provinces that is why their
area is classified as rugged and mountainous with prominent flat lands.

Landslide is the movement of rock down a slope where human activities play an important
role in speeding up or triggering its occurrences. It is an occurrence in which soil, rocks and
vegetal debris are transported suddenly or slowly down a slope due to insufficient stability. It
may happen when there is continuous rainfall, earthquakes and/or volcanic eruption
accompanied by a very loud noise.

Listed below are some of the human activities that speed up or trigger
landslide:
• Overloading slopes
• Mining which uses explosives underground
• Excavation or displacement of rocks
• Land use such as modification of slopes by construction of roads, railways, buildings,
houses, etc.
• Quarrying which includes excavation or pit, open to the air, from which building stone,
slate, or the like is obtained by cutting, blasting, etc.
• Land pollution which is the degradation of Earth’s land surface, exploitation of minerals
and improper use of soil by inadequate agricultural practices.
• Excavation which pertains to exposure, processing, and recording of archaeological
remains
• Cutting trees that can lead to deforestation and may encourage landslide

ARE WE PREPARED IN CASE OF LANDSLIDES?

• Stay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping.
• If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider leaving if it is safe
to do so.
• Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees cracking
or boulders knocking together.
• If you are near a stream or channel, be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water
flow and for a change from clear to muddy water.
• Be especially alert when driving. Bridges may be washed out, and culverts overtop.
• Be aware that strong shaking from earthquakes can induce or intensify the effects of
landslides.