QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

EXAMINATION

Dennis A. Tanggan RCrim. MSCrim.(PNP-SAF 09 & Scout Ranger 177-10)

DOCUMENT - Any material containing marks, symbols, or signs either visible, partially visible that may present
or ultimately convey a meaning to someone. Maybe in the form of pencil, ink writing, typewriting, or printing
on paper.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT - Document is questioned because its origins, its contents, or the circumstances
and story regarding its production arouse suspicion as to its genuineness or it may adversely scrutinized simply
because it displeases someone.
- Document is said to be questioned when it is disputed or attacked, either in whole or in part as to its
date or age, as to its source or origin, as to the material used in their production, and as to its relation in some
other document.

LEGAL BASIS OF DOCUMENTS:

1.In the case of People vs. Moreno, CA, 338 O.G. 119, a document is any written document by which a right
is established, or an obligation is extinguished.
2. In the case of People vs. Nillosquin, CA, 48 O.G. 4453, a document is every deed or instrument executed
by person by which some disposition or agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.

KINDS OF DOCUMENTS:(Under the Philippine law):

1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT - any instrument notarized by a notary public or competent public official with
solemnities required by law.
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENT – any instrument issued by the government or its agents or its officers having
the authority to do so and the offices, which in accordance with their creation, they are authorized to
issue and be issued in the performance of their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT – every deed or instrument executed by a private person without the intervention
of a notary public or of any person legally authorized, by which documents, some disposition or
agreement is proved, evidenced or set forth.
3. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT - any instrument executed in accordance with the Code of Commerce or
any Mercantile Law, containing disposition of commercial rights or obligations.

 N. B.
A private document may become a public or official document when it partakes the nature of a public
or official record. So if the falsifications committed on such document, that is, when it is already a part of the
public record, falsification of public document is committed.

CLASSESS OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS:

1. Documents with questioned signatures.
2. Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
3. Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator.
b. NOTARIAL WILL – signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary public with 3 witnesses.
4. Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. With view of ascertaining their source.
b. With view of ascertaining their date
c. With view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or substituted
pages.
5. Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
6. Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons through
handwriting.
a. Anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

SUBJECTS CONSIDERED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION:

PURPOSE:
A document may be examined for a number of purposes including:
1. Identify of the author.
2. True contents of the document.
3. Origin of the instrument or paper used in making the document.
4. Alterations or erasure, which have been made.
 5. Authenticity of the document.

Scientific Method in Questioned Document Examination:

1. Analysis - properties of characteristics, observed or measured.
2. Comparison – properties or characteristics of the unknown determined thought analysis are now compared
with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
3. Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in properties or characteristics will each have a certain value for
identification, determined by its likelihood of occurrences. The weight or significance of each must therefore
be considered.
Principal points for consideration in the PRELIMINARY EXAMINIATION of questioned documents.
Please note that these questions may not be applicable in every case.
1. Is the signature genuine?
2. Is the signature in a natural position?
3. Are the signatures of the witnesses genuine and were they written in the order as they appear?
4. Does the signature touch the other writings? Or was it written last?
5. Are there remains of pencil or carbon marks, which may have been an outline for the signature of other
writings?
6. Is the signature shown in an embossed form on the back of the sheet?
7. Is the writings written before the paper was folded?
8. Are the writings written before or after the paper was folded?
9. Is the signature than one kind of ink used in the preparation of the document?
10. Are the several sheets of the document exactly the same sizes, thickness and colors?
11. Is the paper torn, burned or mutilated in any way, and if what purpose?
12. Is the paper unnecessary soiled or crumpled?
13. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity when viewed by transmitted light?
15. Does the document show abrasion, erasure or lack of continuity when viewed by transmitted light?
16. Has the document been wet in any way and if so, for what purpose?
17. If typewritten, are the contents of the document all written on the same machine?
18. Was each sheet written continuously at one time without being removed from the typewriter?
19. Are there added figures, words, clauses, paragraphs or pages written on a different typewriter?
20. Are the perforations agreed with the stubs from which the alleged document came?
21. If the document is a carbon copy, does it conform in the size, position, and arrangement of matter with
original letterheads?
22. If the document is a letter, does postmark, postage stamps, manner of sealing and opening of
envelope have any significance?
23. Are there indentations in the paper from handwriting or typewriting on a sheet placed above the paper
examined?
24. Is the rubber stamp impression if any appears made from a genuine stamp?
25. Is the attaché seal of proper date or the seal impression made from a genuine seal and is it made in
proper sequence?

REASONS FOR UTILIZING A QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXPERT:

1. By utilizing the services of a questioned document expert who is able to develop facts and present
evidence based on modern scientific methods of examination, countless tragedies can be avoided.
2. Trial fiscal or judges are infrequently confronted with document cases. Consequently, they do not
possess the knowledge of the documents expert’s ability of the various methods that exist for
determining forgeries. Many lawyers are unaware of exactly what a document examiner is capable of
doing and what he is able to determine from his detailed examination.
3. A qualified and experienced document expert can render a great variety of services that are probably
entirely new and unknown to most practicing lawyers. The expert’s technical knowledge and its proper
application can provide the court with evidence that can change the outcome of the case.
4. If there is even the slightest doubt about the authenticity of a document and the lawyer does not know
how to establish the validity, an experienced document expert, with his unique qualification, can assist
the attorney in discovering, assembling, and preparing the facts and in presenting the proper evidence
in an effective and convincing manner.
5. There are numerous instances where it would be imperative for the lawyer to establish the validity of a
document in the early stage of the case even though there is no indication of any types of fraud. It is
most necessary to verify the genuineness of a document at the beginning of the case and to be
thoroughly and fully prepared for the trial well in advance instead of calling in the expert in the last
minute.
6. No matter what the document “LOOKS LIKE”, what the client “THINKS ABOUT IT”, the lawyer should
take precautionary steps to explore and discuss every angle of the disputed document with the
document expert.

THE DANGER OF OFF HAND OPINIONS:

1. A conscientious expert should not be influenced to form an offhand opinion, no matter how urgent a
case seems to be, no matter how a client may influence him, no matter how much money is being is
being, offered for the “ LATE HOURS OR WORKING DURING THE WEEKEND.”
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 2. An expert can never afford to “just take a look” and express an opinion, or opinion, or arrive at any
conclusion. This is permissible only for a layman.
3. An expert always needs time to make a painstaking and careful examination, needs enough time to use
the necessary instruments and optical tools; or time to make proper photo enlargements for the
examination and study of the case.
4. If has happened in some cases that an offhand opinion, has sent an innocent man to prison, while a
murderer was given a chance to escape.

THE CARE OF DISPUTED DOCUMENTS AND DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE:

1. It is a basic requirement, not only a commonsense principle, that when a document becomes disputed
and deposited in court or with the attorney, in order to maintain its original condition, it should be kept
UNFOLDED AND IN A SEPARATE, PROPER SIZE ENVELOPE OR FOLDER. This is true not only for the
disputed documents, but for many other important documentary evidence.
2. It is also advisable and preferable in all instances that right after the document becomes disputed,
questioned or important, to make not only the usual photostatic copy, but also a proper photograph or
photo – enlargement, done, if possible, by the document expert or under the supervision of the
document expert or under the supervision of the document expert.
3. When working in the preparation of case, it is often necessary for the lawyer or court to handle
repeatedly the disputed document. Should this be necessary, instead of handling and working with the
original document, the photograph should be used.
4. Every touching, folding, refolding or pointing to certain parts of a document can change the physical
condition of the case. For example, touching with wet hands or fingers can create smearing in the ink,
pointing with a pencil can leave marks that create a suspicion of previous pencil, or experiments as
proof of attempted forgery.
5. Pointing a document with any other instruments, such as sharp stick, can cause slight damage, which
although it cannot be seen by the naked eye, can show definite marks under the microscope or on the
enlarged photograph.
6. No test should be made to alter the conditions of the document; for example, the old-fashioned ink
test, which was used to determine the age of the ink writing.
7. Should any test be necessary, insist that it should be done in the presence of a chemist, or in court, or in
front of both parties involved in the case.

HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION:

HANDWRITING – it is the result of a very complicated series of facts, being used as a s whole, combination of
certain forms of visible mental and muscular habits acquired by long, continued painstaking effort.
NATURAL HANDWRITING – any writing executed normally without any attempt to control or alters its
identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.
DISGUISED WRITING – a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in hope of hiding his
identity, writing skill is poorer, change in slant, size, altered of capital letters.
STROKE - series of lines or curves written in a single letter.
- One of the lines of an alphabet or series of lines or curves within a single letter.
- The path is traced by the pen on the paper.
- A stroke is the path traced by the pen on the paper. It should be observed whether the course
of the strokes is continuous or broken. The pen stroke is the visual record of the writing
movement.
Qualities of the strokes:
. Motor Coordination:
The special way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to produce written forms,
generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those, which operate respectively the
joints of the finger, wrist, elbow, and shoulder.

Characteristics of Motor coordination:

1. Free, smelt rounded curves.
2. Gradual changes of direction.
3. Pressure is always in a state of change, moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.
4. Speed.
5. The shading impulse is distributed over a considerable length of the line whereas in writing produced
with a slow motion as in the finger movement, the shading often has a “bunchay” appearance, in which
the maximum width of the shaded line is attained abruptly.

Rhythm in Handwriting:
Rhythm is a succession of connected uniform strokes working in full coordination. Manifested by clear-
cut accentuated strokes, which increase and decrease in which like perfect cones. Pressure is always in a state
of change moving from light to heavy or from heavy to light.

Lack of Rhythm
Characterized by a succession of awkward, independent, poorly directed and disconnected motions.

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Importance of Rhythm:
By studying the rhythm of the succession of strokes, one can determine if the writer normally and
spontaneously or writes with hesitation as if he is attempting to for another signature.

Letter of Connections:
Determine the essential expression of the writing pattern. It is a mean indicator of neuromuscular
function. Words are formed by connection letters to one another. Even letters are formed by the joining of the
upward and downward strokes. These types of connections are:

STROKE STRUCTURE – Are series of lines or curves within the letters of the alphabet.

TERMINOLOGY CONCERNING STROKE CHARACTERISTICS:

INITITAL STROKE – This refers to the beginning of the letters.

Forms of Initial stroke
a. upward initial stroke
b. initial stroke with a beard stroke.
c. downward initials stroke.
d. initial stroke with a spur stroke
e. curved upward initial stroke.
f. initial stroke with flourishes

CONNECTING STROKE – Stroke that connects letters in cursive writing.

1. Arcade – rounded strokes to the upstroke with a flowing curve swinging from left right. It is easy.
Effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
2. Garland - links the downward stroke to the upstrokes with a flowing curve swinging from left to right.
It is an easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
3. Angular connective form – where the downward strokes and upward strokes meet directly, angular
connections are formed. This type of connection imposes a check on the continuity of movement
characterized by an abrupt stop and start at each turning point.
4. The threadlike connective form – the joining of downward and upward strokes is slurred to a threadlike
tracing or where rounded turns are used at both top and bottom produce a double curve. These forms
appear both in the shaping of letters within the word.

ARC ARCH – a curve formed inside the top curve of loop, as in small letters “h”, “m”, “n”, “p”. any arcade form
in the body of a letter found in small letters which contain arches.
TERMINAL STROKE – Ending of a letter.
` Forms:
a. upward tapering terminal stroke
b. downward blunt terminal stroke
c. blunt horizontal terminal stroke
d. tapering curved downward terminal stroke
Kinds:
a. Flying or tapering terminal strokes – kinds of terminals stroke where the width of the stroke
diminishes in size as the momentum of writing ends.
b. Blunt terminal stokes - this terminal stoke diminishes abruptly.
ASCENDER – is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
BASELINE – maybe actually on a ruled paper, it might be imaginary alignment of writing.
- Is ruled or imaginary line upon which the writing rests.
BEADED – Prelim embellished initial stroke, which usually occurs in capital letters.
BEARD – is the rudimentary initial up stroke of a letter.
BLUNT - the beginning and ending stroke of a letter (without hesitation)
BODY – the main portion of the letter, minus the initial strokes. Terminal strokes and the diacritic, of
any. Ex. The oval of the letter “O” is the body minus the downward stroke and the loop.
BOWL – a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into “O”.
BUCKLE - / BUCKLEKNOT - a loop made as a flourished which is added to the letters, as in small letter “k & a”,
or in capital letters “A”, “K”, “P”.
- The horizontal end loop stroke that is often used to complete a letter.
CACOGRAPHY – bad writing.
CALLIGRAPY - the art of beautiful writing.
DESCENDER – opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.
DIACRITIC – “t” crossing and dots of the letter “i” and “j”. The matters of the Indian script are also known as
diacritic signs.
- An element added to complete a certain letter, either a cross bar or a dot.
ENDING / TERMINATE STROKE OF TOE – the end stroke of a letter.
EYE/ EYELIT/ EYELOOP – small loop or curved formed inside the letters. This may occur inside the oval letters
“a”, “d”, “o”.
- The small loop forms by stroke the extend in divergent direction as in small letters.
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FOOT – the lower part which rests on the base line. The small letter “n” has three feet, and the small letter “n”
has two feet.
HABITS - any repeated elements or details, which may serve to individualize writing.
HESITATION - the term applied to the irregular thickening of ink which is found when writing slows down or
stops while the pen takes a stock of the position.
HIATUS/ PEN JUMP - a gap occurring between continuous strokes without lifting the pen. Such as
occurrence usually occurs due to speed. The hiatus may also be stated as a pen jump.
- May be regarded also as a special form of pen lift.
- May be regarded as special forms of pen lift distinguish in a ball gap in that of perceptible gaps
and appear in the writing.
HOOK – it is minute curve or an ankle, which often occurs at the end of the terminal strikes. It also sometimes
occurred at the beginning of initial strokes. The terminal curves of the letters “a”, “d”, “n”,”m”,”p”. is the hook.
In small letters “w” the initial curve.
- The minute involuntary talon like formation found at the commencement of an initial up stroke
or the end terminal stroke.
HUMP – upper portion of its letter “m”, “m”, “h”, “k”, and the rounded outside of the top of the bend stroke or
curve in small letter.
KNOB- the extra deposit of ink in the initial and terminal stroke due to the slow withdrawal of the pen from the
paper (usually applicable to fountain pen.)
LIGATURE/ CONNECTION – the stroke that connects two strokes of letter.
- Characterized by connected stroke between letters.
LONG LETTER – those letters with both upper and lower loops.
LOOP – an oblong curve such as found on the small letter “f”,”g”,”l” and letters stroke “f” has two. A loop may
be blind or open. A blind loop is usually the result of the ink having filled the open space.
MAJUSCULE – a capital letter.
MINUSCULE – a small letter.
MOVEMENT IMPULSES - this refers to the continuity of stroke force writing is usually produced by
disconnected and broken movements more motion or movement impulses than genuine writing.
OVAL – the portion of the letter that is oval in shape. The small letter stroke.”a”,”d”, “g”, & ‘q” contain oval
letter “a”, “t”, while coming down.
PATCHING - retouching or going back over a defective potion of a written stroke. Careful patching is a
common defect on forgeries.
PEN LIFT – an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the paper.
RETRACE / RETRACING - any part of a stroke which is super imposed upon the original stroke. Ex. Vertical
strokes of the letter’s “d”, “t” while coming downward from the top to bottom will have retracing strokes.
-Any stroke that goes back over another writing stroke. In natural handwriting there may be
instances in which the pen doubled back over the course.
SHOULDER – outside portion of the top curve, small letter “m” has three shoulders, and the small letter “n” has
two, the small letter “h” has one shoulder.
SPUR – a short initial or terminal stroke.
STAFF – any major long downward stroke of a letter that is the long downward stroke of the letter “b”, “g”.
STEM OR SHANK - the upright long downward stroke that is the trunk or stalk, normally seen in capital letters.
TICK / HITCH - any short strokes, which usually occurs at the top of the letters.
TREMOR – a writing weakness portrayed by irregular shaky strokes is described as a writing tremor.

BASIS OF HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION:

HANDWRITING - in Wignore’s Principles of judicial Proof, handwriting is defined as a visible effect of bodily
movement which is an almost unconscious expression of fixed mental impression of certain ideas associated
with script form.
Environment, education and occupation affect individuals so variously in the formation of these
muscular habits that finally the act of writing becomes an almost automatic succession of acts stimulated by
these habits. Thus, a person’s style or writing in most details becomes as fixed as a habit and serves as a
continuous inseparable mark of that one person.
The imitation of the style of writing by another person becomes difficult because the other person
cannot by mere will power reproduce in himself all the muscular combination from the habit of the first writer.

Physiological Basis of Handwriting:

The impulse to form a letter begins in the brain’s writing center in the cortex. This center is skin to brain
areas control visions, hearing, taking and walking, guides the muscle as they weave the complex movements
that make the words. Since writing in the mind, emotion and attitudes both path of the mind, influence how
we write just as they influence how we walk and talk.
In writing the pen functions as an extension of the hand. The fingers transmit to the paper, the directive
impulse and the variation in muscular tension that according to the nature of the writer’s nervous organization
occur during the act of writing.
Hence as each writer has his own way of holding his hand, manipulating the pen and exerting pressure,
the same pen in different hands will produce entirely different strokes.

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 This center near the motor area of the cortex is responsible for the finger movement involved in
handwriting. The importance of this center is that when it becomes described as in a graphic. One loses the
ability to write although he could still grasp a fountain pen, ball pen or pencil.
Thus, the ability or power to hold a fountain pen or pencil to form symbols and words can be said to
emanate from its cortical center.
The hands contain two kinds of muscles which function in the act of writing. A group of extensor
muscles push up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the tension produced as a result of flaxen by
group of muscle called the flexor and extensor muscles combined with numerical muscle to form lateral
strokes.
Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those which operate the joints of
the fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder. The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work
together to produce written form is known as motor coordination.
KINDS OF MOVEMENT:
1. Finger Movement – the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in actual motion.
Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement – produced by the movement or action of the whole hand and arm with the wrist as
the center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement – action of the entire arm without resting. I.e. blackboard writing.

KINDS OF WRITINGS:
1. Cursive – connected.
2. Script – separated.
3. Block – CAPITALIZED

DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING:
1. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
2. After acquiring some degree of skill, the children no longer follow the school model.
3. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
4. In the course of trial and error, modifications are made, simplification and elaboration, addition and
omissions occur.
 The writing pattern of each child embodies unique combinations of such deviation from the
standard letterforms or school model and becomes his personal habits.
 Although thousands learn the same system and that the natural result is identity, but facts show
that it is not because those who were taught the dame system or school copy a class of writes,
but such impairs does not by any means produce a slavish uniformity.
 Variation begins as soon as writing begins and continues till each writer in the way that seems
best and easiest to him. No two persons write exactly alike and no reproduction of a
handwritten document can duplicate completely all the detailed of the original writing.

HANDWRITING PROBLEMS:
1. A signature contested by its author, which in reality is genuine and corresponds perfectly to the ordinary,
and habitual signatures of that person.
2. A signature contested by its author which in reality was written by him but in a way which was different
from the ordinary manner and which is more or less different from the common genuine signature of that
person.
3. A signature contested by its author which in reality was written by a third person, and which is a forgery
written in an attempted imitation of a model.
4. A spurious signature written by somebody who did not attempt to imitate the signature of a person and
who uses a fictitious name and this to give his work the appearance of a signature.
5. An uncontested signature, in fact, genuine but written by an unknown person whose name must be
deciphered by the document examiner.

Writing Habits:
* Writing by all its thousands of peculiarities in combination is the most personal and individuals thing that
a man does that leaves a record which can be seen and studies. This is what constitutes individuality in
handwriting.
 Writing habits learned in the early years are those habits, which are part of a basic
system, or which are modifications of the system of writing found among so large group of writers that they
have only slight identification value. These might include an open top “O” and an “A” or a looped “T” which
occur in much rapid careless handwriting.
 A few of these early habits learned by the child are the slant of letter “1”, “d”,”g”, “t”
with small letters like letter “n”, “m”,”i”,”e”, “i” and also form and design of letters. This group of habits is also
called general or class characteristics.
 Another group of writing characteristics or habits are termed individuals habits. Any
writing habit or character in writing maybe modified and individualized by different writers in many different
ways in many varying degrees and the writing individuality of any particular writer is made up of all those
common and uncommon characteristics and habits.
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  An individual characteristic may be the survival of an error when writing was learned.
An individual characteristic may be caused by the conscious influence of the writing of others that we
frequently see.

* Various individual characteristics in writing also grow out of the purpose for which writing is used and the
amount of writing done. One who writes much will develop many individual qualities while the one who does
practically no writing will continue to write the general system acquired in school.

STANDARDS OF EXEMPLARS:
They are known writings which indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests fixed habits in writings
that identifies him. This fact provides the basis for an opinion of conclusion regarding any writing identification
problem.

USEFUL SUGGESTION REGARDING HANDWRITING STANDARDS FOR COMPARISON.

1. Types of handwriting “Standards”
There are three general classes of handwriting standards:
A. Collected Standards are KNOWN (genuine) handwriting of an individual such as signature and
endorsements on canceled checks, legal papers letters, commercial, official, public and private document
and other hand writing such as letters, memoranda, etc. Written in the course of daily life, both business
and socials.
B. Request standards are signature or other handwritings (or hand printings) written by an individual
upon request for the purpose of comparison with other handwritings or for specimen purposes.
C. Post Liten Motan Exemplars – writings produced by the subject after evidential writings have come
into dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.
In most instances, collected standards are preferable to request standards, though both types should be
submitted if available. Standards should be collected from a period dated within a year of the date questioned
document, with some written within weeks or days of the questioned writing.

Suggested procedure for taking request handwriting standards in all types of questioned – document
problems:
1.Have subject seated in a natural position a table of desk having smooth writing surface.
2.Furnish subject with paper and writing instrument similar to those used questioned writings; lie; paper should
be same size, and ruled or unruled; as questioned document: if questioned document is in written furnish
subject with pen and ink, etc.
3.Never permit the subject to see any writing on the questioned document.
4.Dictate material to be written (or printed, if questioned material is hand printed): give no assistance in
spelling or arrangement on page. Dictate at a rate of speed, which will produce the subject natural writing
habits. Too slow dictation will enable subject to attempt disguise, to rapid dictation will not produce normal
writing.
5.Remove each specimen upon completion by subject number is consequence, date, time and identity by
initiating each, and request subjects to sign specimen.
6.Observe all writing done by subjects and indicate any attempt of disguise, as well as whether subjects
appears to be normally right or left handed, etc.

Special procedure for taking request handwriting standards where checks forgery is CHANGED OR
SUSPECTED.
1.Furnish subjects with check blanks similar to the questioned check/s.
2.Dictate the entries to be made on specimen checks as follows:
b.1. Date – same as shown on questioned check.
b.2. Payee – do
b.3. Amount – do
b.4. Signature – do
b.5. any other handwriting shown on questioned check.
3.Give subjects to help or suggestions in completing specimen checks.

SOURCES OF SIGNATURES WRITTEN IN THE COURSE OF DAILY AFFAIRS:

1.Canceled checks
2.Signature cards for saving, checking and charge accounts and safe deposit boxes.
3.Signed receipts for telegrams, special delivery or registered letters, express and store packages, etc.
4.Business and personal letters.
5.Credit applications and cards.
6.Signature on sales slips, on job orders slips, requisition slips and purchase slip, Leases, mortgages,
agreements, bills of sale, contracts, deeds, notes stock certificates and transfers and other legal or business
documents.
7.Court records and affidavits, such as naturalization papers, bankruptcy proceedings, divorce papers, probated wills and
estate files, powers of attorney, etc.
8.Passports, marriage application, license and affidavits.
9.Driver automobile chauffeur, and other types of licensee applications,

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10.Application for gas, electricity, water and telephone services.
11.Loan application and receipts.
12.Tax returns or affidavits.
13.Insurances and employment applications.
14.Records from currency exchanges, check – cashing agencies and pawnshop.
15.Time sheets, payroll, par receipts and personal forma.
16.Barangay registration, petitions, ETC.

Factors to Consider in the selection of Standards.

1. Good writing standards should be sufficient to define accurately the identifying habits as well as the kind and
extent of variation typical of the writer’s handwriting under any specific writing condition.
2. If questioned handwriting was executed under abnormal conditions it is necessary to look for standards prepared
under comparable circumstances.
3. The style of writing contained in the standard or exemplars should be similar to the style of the questioned
writings. If the questioned writings are hand printed, then get hand printed standard or exemplar.
4. Same instrument used in the preparation of the questioned document must be obtained in the standards. In the
signature was written by ball pen in ruled paper and above a typewritten name, standards a pencil, then standards
written should be contemporaneous with the standards exemplars. The ideal standards are those before, on and
after the date of the questioned writing. The interval of years between the questioned and standards should not
exceed more then five years.
According to Ordway Hilton, and authority on the subject of standards, selection of standard must be very
carefully controlled if the standards describe accurately and completely how a person writes.
Admissibility of Standard Writings:
Standard used by the document examiner in an identification writings on which the document examiner bases his
conclusion cannot be introduced, then the document examiner may not be able to provide convincing or his testimony
maybe weakened.
The following are Classes of standard writings, which are admissible for comparison.
1. Standard writings witnessed
 The courts accept as sufficient proof that evidence in the form of uncontradicted testimony of a
eyewitness to the execution of a writing is sufficient to permit the use of such writings as standard to test
to other writing.
 Included in this class of admissible standards are writings voluntarily prepared by a party in the presence
of an investigator these generally are known as requested writings.
2. Standards writings admitted
 It the party whom a handwriting standard is to be admits the genuity of the standard, t he could hold that
further proof of genuineness is unnecessary.
3. Record Maintained in Regular Course of Business as Standard Writings.
4. Government Document as standard writings
 Signatures of government officials on document treated as authentic and produced from official archives
maybe admitted in evidence as standard of comparison whether being as issue as to the forgery of the
signature of the same persons on other documents.
5. Ancient writings
6. Other Writings Standards
 Among writings admissible as standard are signature: on spelling motion or other instruments, such as an
appearance bond, which may without further proof of genuineness be used as a standard.
7. Familiarity Sometimes establish standard writings
 Testimony to the genuineness of a collection of standard of writing by witness who are familiar with a
person’s handwriting.
8. Opinion Evidence
 The court seem to be in general agreement that proof of the genuineness of a standard cannot be
established by the opinion of experts testifying from a comparison of the writing sought to be used as
standard with anther writing.
9. Genuineness of standard decided by court
 Sufficient of the proof of the genuineness of a standard of writing is a matter to be decided by the court.
How to prepare and collect handwriting Standards:
Principal Points to Consider Regarding Collected Standards:
1. The amount of standard written
a. At least ten to twenty five signatures.
b. Writing – usually four or five pages of natural writing.
2. Similarity of subject matter.
a. Compare conventional copy book from with conventional to the copybook form standard and
compare highly individualized signatures.
b. Extended writing – determine whether the questioned writing is purely cursive, or script, or block, or
combination of the three or two styles of writing.
3. Relative dates of the questioned and the standard signatures or writing must be those written five (5) years before
of five (5) after the date of the questioned signature or writing.
4. Condition under which both the questioned and the standard are prepared.
a. Paper rested on the knee
b. Standing
c. Sitting
d. Lying down
e. Moving vehicle
The document examiner must make a brief investigation into the condition under which a document was written.
5. Writing Instrument and paper
a. Paper – determine whether the questioned writing was written in the ruled pad paper or plain paper.
8
 b. Writing Instrument – determine whether the questioned writing was written in ballpoint pen, fountain
pen, etc.
For Requested and Dictated Standards:
1. Material must be dictated to the suspect or suspects.
2. Carefully selects the dictated that. Do not dictate the entire content of the anonymous letter.
3. Adequate amount of writing must be included.
4. Some portion of the dictation should be repeated at least three times.
5. Writing instrument and paper should be similar to those used preparing the questioned document.
6. The dictation should be interrupted at intervals.
7. Normal writing conditions should be arranged.
As much as possible the combination of the collected and requested standards must be used in the comparison in
order to obtain an adequate and accuracy of the opinion.
What are the indications of disguise in writing?
1. Abnormally large writing.
2. Abnormally small writing.
3. Alteration in slant (usually backhand).
4. Usually variation in slant within a single unit of writing (with in a single signature).
5. Printed forms instead of cursive writing.
6. Diminution in the usual speed of writing.
7. Unusual widening or restriction of lateral spacing.
Kinds of Disguises:
1. Change of slant – from right to left or vice versa.
2. Change of letter, either from cursive to block style or vice-versa.
3. Change from cursive (conventional style) to block form or vice versa.
4. Change of style from small to big or vice versa.
5. Deteriorating one’s handwriting.
6. Using the wrong hand (MABIDEXTOUS)
Evidence of Alcoholic Intoxication in Handwriting includes:
1. Bizarre letterforms.
2. Greatly enlarged writing.
3. Illegible forms and writing generally.
4. Uneven baseline.
5. Meaningless blobs or extraneous strokes in the writing.
6. Inconsistency in slant of writing.
7. Inconsistency in the form of repeated letters.
Importance of Contemporaneous Standard:
For the reason that characteristic and qualities of handwriting gradually change with many writes, the alleged date of
writing in question and the actual date of all standard writings should be known. Because of this possibility of change the
standard always should include all that are available within a certain definite period, including the item when it is claimed
the questioned writing was written.
If it is alleged that writing was produced under unusual of any kind, the examiner should know this fact. If the writer
subjects to unusual changes in physical or mental condition due to age, disease or personal habits, or through any cause,
these facts also should be known. Certain general qualities in handwriting necessarily are affected by conditions of the
writer or surrounding the writer and often it is necessary to determine whether the written results are in harmony with
alleged condition.

Handwriting Identification:
Principle of Identification:
 When any two specimens of handwritings contain a combination of corresponding or similar and specifically oriented
characteristics of such number and significance as to preclude the possibility of their occurrences by mere
coincidence, and there are no unaccounted for difference, it may be concluded that they are similar in writing
characteristics and therefore written by one and the same person.
 Writing as a whole is a combination of certain forms, which are the visible result of a series of controlled successive
movement that follows the fixed grooves of habits.
 These writing habits like habits of speech become so automatic and unconscious that even by the most strenuous
effort, it is almost impossible to change them. It is one of the most permanent of human habits.
 Every developed and mature handwriting shows peculiarities, which is combination of all various and there cannot be
exactly duplicated in the writing of any other person.
General (Class) characteristics:
 These characteristics refer to those habits are part of basic writing system or which are modifications of the system of
writing found among so large group of writes that have only slight identification value.
 They might include an open top small letter “t” which occur in any rapid careless writings, proportion of all letters to
medium letters, slant connection and combination of letters.
 General similarities can certainly form a part of the basic identification but here must be a very unique combination of
them and of individual or personal writings indicate the class or genus or the difference that does not differentiate
maybe prove lack of genuineness.
Individual Characteristics:
 They are characteristics which are the result of the writer’s muscular control, coordination, age health, nervous temper
ant, frequency of writing, personality and character. No two persons write alike. They are found in the following:
1. Writing movement the character of writing movement is a primary determinant of writing speed. It makes more
time to make a long one. More time to form a small solid letter than a form a large “racy one” A short, steady line
suggest a firmly controlled and purposeful movement. A feather edged “broken line” suggest a slowly executed
movement.
2. Form and design of letters – all differences in form and design of letters are indicative of non – identity.

9 Scout Ranger 177-10

  Similarities of form are not indicative of identity they concern unusual forms or what are termed
deviations from the normal. Similarities are bound to occur in different writings but such similarities exist
only in letters that are normal in form, which facts bear no significance.
 Those deviations, which are found to be habitual, are given the greatest weight. Those, which occur only
occasionally, are next in importance. The writing pattern of letters has three dimensions, width, depth,
and height.
3. Free smooth, well-regulated movement produced without tension or impulsive variation characterizes muscular
control or motor control – Deviation from thru motor or muscular control are:
 Loose writing – this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of regulation. This is
noticed especially in tall letters forms.
 Restrained writing – there is lack freedom and inhibited movements. It gives you the impression that
every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small. There is distortion of letterforms which
may lead to illegibility. However small writing is not always evidence of restrained movement fatigue
during long periods of writings? True full arm movement can be employed only under rather ideal
conditions such as while sitting at a clean table or desk.
4. Motor Coordination – the efficient way, which the various muscles writing work together to produce written
forms. A writer with a good motor coordination writes without mental strain, forming his letters without
conscious attention.
The hand moves as soon as the mind conceives a word to write and the word is there on the paper. There are
times when one set of muscle do not properly yield to the pressure of the other set muscles especially at junction and
the conflict hinders the normal flow of the pen. This dis-coordination of writing muscles leaves a distinct mark which
is visible under magnification. Two writers or the same class may not have equal coordination or disco ordination
their writings. Each write has his own with regard to alignment and the relative position of the letters.

Faculty coordination is characterized by the following:

A. Wavering and very irregular line or strokes with uncertain and unsteady progress. There is no freedom of
movement along the strokes of the letterforms. The writing is obviously very low and is typical of the writing of a
young child or for any one who painstakingly draws a picture of an unfamiliar form.
B. Angular line – a very common fault of coordination. Curves, large and small are not smoothly rounded
and there is no gradual change of direction. On the contrary, and angle marks almost every change are direction
in the line. Investigation has disclosed that angles are accompanied by a lessening of writing speed.
5. Shading – In forearm movement where considerable speed is used, there is ordinarily but slight shading if any. The
shading impulse here is distributed over considerable length of the line whereas I writing produced with a slow
motion as in the finger movement the shading often has a “bunchy” appearance that is to say the maximum width of
the shaded line is attained abruptly. The shading impulse is firmly grounded and difficult to overcome. It is basis of
its degree and location. Some writers place the greatest emphasis on the straight strokes, others on the curves.
6. Skill – Legibility and symmetry are the basis upon which one’s skill or pictorial aspect is judged. Skill is classified as
poor, medium and good.
7. Alignment – Good alignment is obtained by a forearm movement in which the elbow joint is used as the center or
pivot of lateral motion and arm id held at right angles to the line or writing. This set-up allows the hand and forearm
to swing left and right in an arc and also permitting the forearm to rotate so that the palm may be turned downward
or upward.
8. Pen pressure – One of the most reliable indications of naturalness in handwriting is the rhythmical and fluent
application of pressure and release of pressure. This indicates that pressure is always in state of change moving form
light to heavy of form heavy to light.
9. Connection – The connective form determines the essential expression of the writing pattern. It is the main indicator
of his neuromuscular function. Connections used maybe rounded like the garland and the arcade, angular and
threads. They form the letter and ink them within the words.
10. Pen hold – This location of the shading can give clue to how the fountain pen is held. If the pen is held pointing the
right shoulder, shading appear fairly high or long the sided of circular form. This is shown in small letter “d”. If pen is
held pointing away from the right shoulder, shading tends to appear at the top and the bottom of circular formation
such as small letters “o”, “a”, and “d”.
11. Rhythm – This characteristic is an importance indicator of a natural writing movement. It is caused by a contraction
and relaxation of group of muscles in full coordination. Pres sure is always in a state of change from light to heavy or
vice versa.
12. Disconnections or pen lifts between letters – This characteristics maybe due to lack of movement control or closely
related to design of letters and habits controlling this characteristic were acquired when writing was learned. Many
free writers don’t stop the notion of the pen every time it is raised so that the notion itself maybe learning to write are
taught to take up the pen before the small letters “a”, “c”, “d”, “g”, “q”, and “t” and the design of certain styles of these
small letters requires that the pen be raised.
13. Speed – Speed of writing, which is correlated with naturalness of handwriting, is frequently shown by slurring of
letterforms.
Indication of speedwriting:
a. Smooth, unbroken strokes and rounded forms.
b. Frequently signs or tendencies to the right.
a. Marked uncertainly as to the location of the dots of small letters “I”, “J” and crosses of small letter “t.”
b. Increase spontaneity of words or small letter ‘t” connected with the following words.
c. Letters curtailed or degenerated almost to illegibility towards the end of words.
d. Wide writing width of letters is greater then the connecting spaces adjoining it.
e. Great difference in emphasis between upstrokes and down strokes.
f. Marked simplification of letters especially capital letters.
g. Rising line.
j. Increased pen pressure.
k. Increase in the margin to left at the beginning of the line.

10
Indication of slow writing:
a. Wavering forms and broken strokes.
b. Frequent signs or tendencies to the left.
c. Conspicuous certainly as to the location of the dots of small letters “i”, “j”, or “t” crosses with scarcely perceptible
deviation from the intended direction.
d. Frequent pauses by meaningless blobs, angles, divided letters and retouches.
e. Careful execution of detail of letters, toward the end or names.
f. Narrow writing.
g. No difference in emphasis in upstroke and down stroke.
h. Ornamental of flourishing connections.
i. Sinking lines.
14. Slant as a writing habit – under certain conditions, slant becomes highly significant and with many writers in one of
the most fixed of habits. Slight divergence in the few strokes of a single signature maybe very strong evidence of lack
of genuineness when such divergence is part of a combination of character pointing to a writer of a different system
of writing from that imitated. A slight but persistent difference in slant in two writings of considerable length, maybe
evidence difference might be the result of intended disguise.
15. Proportion of letters as an individual characteristic or habit - This characteristic refers to the proportion of the upper
and lower loops of capital and small letters and to the medium letters.
16. Quality of stroke or line quality – the line or stroke itself in writing shows the quality of speed and continuity of motion
with which it is made, the degree of muscular skill employed in the operation, the relation of the pen point to the
surface of the paper, the nature of the movement employed in mak8ing the stroke as shown by its force and freedom
or its hesitation.
17. Variation – there are trivial or superficial differences which can be observed when any two genuine signature or
writings are compared with each other. There writings will differ somewhat in size as well as in certain unimportant
particulars in design and execution because of the fact that the human writing mechanism is not an entirely accurate
reproducing instrument like a stamp print but produces and inevitable variation within a certain field. The degree of
this variation within a certain field. The degree of this variation varies with different writers.

Causes of Variation:
a. Function of some external condition i.e. influence of the available space.
b. Abnormal conditions such as physical injury, toxic effects, inebriation’s emotion and deception.
c. Position of letter – the letters is to be found initially, medially, and finally. The fact of a different position, especially in
combination with another and particular variation include both its nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to
determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
 Personal variation encountered under normal writing conditions is also a highly important element of
identification. The qualities of personal variation include both its nature and its extent. It becomes necessary to
determine the amount, extent, and exact quality of the variations.
 It is improbable that the variety and extent of the variation in handwriting will be exactly duplicated in two
individuals that such a coincidence becomes practically impossible and this multitude if possible variations when
combined is what constitute individuality in handwriting.
 With a group of signatures of a particular writer, certain normal divergence in size, lateral spacing and proportions
actually indicate genuineness. Variation in genuine writing is ordinarily in superficial parts and in size, proportions,
and degree of care given to the act, design, slant, shading, vigor, angularity, roundness and direction of stroke.
 The most common error in the identification of handwriting is due to the fact that the evidence of actual forgery is
executed on the ground that there is variation in genuine writing.

Individual characteristics or Habits:

These individual characteristics can still be classified into the following:
a. Permanent characteristics – these characteristics can be found always in his handwriting.
b. Common or usual - this characteristic can be found in-group of writers who studied the same system of writing.
c. Occasional – this characteristic is only fond occasionally in his handwriting.
d. Rare – this characteristics is only found occasionally in one or two persons in a group of one hundred individuals.
Fundamental Law as which govern the conclusion in handwriting identification problems:
a. A signature naturally and genuinely written under normal condition contain all of the individual habits of the
writer’s signature which are put into it in a way that is consistent with his writing ability and the writing quality of
his signature.
b. A signature is fraudulent if it contains habits, qualities or elements, which are significantly different from genuine
signatures written under similar conditions.

Probative Value of Writing Characteristics:

It is impossible to illustrate and define all the thousands of actual and possible individual qualities and
characteristics of writing and weight and measure their comparative values for the reason that these values differ greatly
with different writers and under varying conditions. It is very important to have an understanding of the principles by
which the force and significance of characteristics are to be measured.

Correct Conclusion:
1. To reach the conclusion that two writings are written by the same hand, characteristics or “dents” and scratches in
sufficient quantity to exclude the theory of accidental coincidence; to reach the conclusion that writings are by
different hands, we may find numerous likeliness in class characterized but divergence in individual characteristics or
we may find divergence must be something more than mere superficial difference.

Examples of some of the Individual Characteristics:

a. Hook to the right and hook to the left.
b. Shape, position, size and angle of “i” dots “t” crossing.

11 Scout Ranger 177-10

 c. Idiosyncrasies.
d. Bulbs and distinctive initial and final pen pressure.
e. Embellishment, added strokes and free movement endings.
f. Abbreviation of letters.
g. Simple and computed curves and graceful endings.
h. Terminal shadings and forceful endings.
i. Presence and influence of foreign handwriting, with the introduction of Greek “e”.

MOVEMENT OR MANNER OF EXECUTION:

1. Kinds of Movement
a. Forearm movement
b. Whole arm movement
c. Finger movement
d. Hand movement
2. Quality of Movement
a. Clumsy, illiterate and halting.
b. Hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness.
c. Strong, heavy and forceful.
d. Nervous and irregular.
e. Smooth, flowing and rapid.
3. Speed
a. Slow and drawn
b. Deliberate
c. Average
d. Rapid
4. Different movements employed affect writing in
a. Smoothness
b. Directness
c. Uniformity
d. Continuity of strokes
e. Connecting or curves between letters

POINTS TO CONSIDER IN EXAMINING EXTENDED WRITING:

(Anonymous, threat, poison letters)
1. Uniformity – Does the questioned writing have smooth, rhythmic and free-flowing appearance?
2. Irregularities – Does the questioned writing appear awkward, ill0-formed slowly drawn
3. Size & Proportion – Determine the height go the over-all writing as well as the height go the individual strokes in
proportion to each other.
4. Alignment – Are they horizontally aligned, or curving, uphill or downhill.
5. Spacing – Determine the general spacing between letters, spacing between words. Width of the left and right margins,
paragraph indentations.
6. Degree of Slant – Are they uniform or not.
7. Formation and Design of the letters, “t” – bars, “i” dots, lops, circle formation.
8. Initial, connecting and final strokes.

HANDPRINTING
 The procedure and the principle involved is similar to that of cursive handwriting the different steps in the
preparation of both collected and requested standards should be applied in this problem which is a determination of the
author of questioned hand printed writings.
 Specimens must be hand printed and reflect the style of printing habitually used by the writer. Instructions
should be given to print capitals, and small letters. At least the investigator should obtain about ten sheets of paper
containing the subject’s handwriting. The materials of course should approximate the materials used in the questioned
hand printed document.
 In block capital and manuscript writings, personal individual rest principally in design, selection, individual letter
construction, size ratios and punctuation habits. The initial step in handwriting examination is to determine whether the
questioned handwriting and standards were accomplished with:
1. A fluency of movement and a certainty of execution indicative of familiarity with and a measure or skill in
handwriting conversely.
2 A conscious mental effort and non-rhythmic execution denoting either unfamiliarity with or disguise in the
subject’s handwriting.

INVESTIGATION AND DETAILED EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES

SIGNATURE
 It is name of the person written by him/her in a document as a sign of acknowledgement.
 A name or a mark that a person puts at the end of a document to attest that he is its author or that he
ratifies its contents.
Many persons who have done a lot of writing transform their name. Letters become simplified or condensed
complex movement appears. This is now a signature. It is mark but this mark is now personal. It is a personal
combination of strokes in which it is possible to recognize the writer.
Signatures should be considered not just from the point of view whether there is any difference whatever. The
problem is to form a judgment first about the normal range of variation in the standard and then to consider whether any
difference you observe is within the range of normal variation established by the standards or whether variations shown
by several signatures.

12
THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURES IS CONSIDERED A SPECIALIZED BRANCH OF HANDWRITING
IDENTIFICATION, FOR THE FOLLOWING REASONS:
1. A signature is a word most practiced by many people and therefore most fluently written.
2. A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance.
3. A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details.
4. A signature is a word written without conscious thought the mechanics of its production and is written
automatically.
5. A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence.

Preliminary examination of Questioned Signatures: most writers have at least three types of signatures:
1. FORMAL - (a.k.a. CONVENTIONAL OR COPYBOOK FORM) – complete correct signature for an important
document such as will.
2. INFORMAL (CURSORY) – usually for routine documents and personal correspondence.
3. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - for the mail carrier, delivery boy or the autograph collector.
The events immediately preceding the execution of a signature may have a material bearing on its execution or
otherwise as when writers are affected by illness, old age, emotion, unusual writing position, intoxication and deception.
The writing variations that appear as a result of these different conditions might mislead the document examiner.
The circumstances which attended the signing of any questioned document should be carefully weighed by the
examiner and apply them in his study of the questioned signature. A questioned signature is not simply a signature but it
is signature signed at particular time, place and condition which the person who affixed it was at a particular age, in a
particular reason and purpose for recording his name. These circumstances are as integral as part of it as the letters which
comprise it.
FORGERY – forgery is strictly, speaking a legal term, which involves not only a non-genuine document but also, and intent
room however, it is used synonymously with fraudulent signature or spurious document.
THREE CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES
(CATEGORIES OF FORGERY OF SIGNATURES):
A. SIMULATED OR FREEHAND INITTION FORGERY A fraudulent signature, which was executed purely by simulation
rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature, can be referred as freehand imitation or simulated forgery.
 The free-hand drawing in imitation of model signature.

a. SIMULATED WITH THE MODEL BEFORE THE FORGER – The forger makes an effort to obtain a reproduction of the
model signature. He works slowly, stroke after stroke.
b. DIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works directly with ink.
c. INDIRECT TECHNIQUE – forger works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes with ink.
d. SIMULATED FREE HAND FORGERY (TECHNIQUE) – used by forgers who have a certain skill in writing, after some
practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model quickly.
 As genuine signature, especially done by good writer exhibit fluency and smoothness of the strokes. While simulated
or traced forgeries, the motion of the pen is slow and careful. The beginning and ending lines are usually blunt or
club-shaped appearance.
 There are however, simulated forgeries written by experts forgers which are passed as genuine, safely because the
untrained eyes arts only suitable to judge the signature by the general appearance or pictorial effects, but none of the
minutes.

B. TRACED FORGERY (TRACED SIGNATURE)

 Any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the outline of a genuine signature with a writing
instrument.

b. DIRECT TRACING – tracing is made transmitted light.

c. INDIRECT TRACING – forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which he will trace the forged signature
under the document bearing the model signature with a carbon paper between the two.

TYPES OF TRACED SIGNATURE:

1. CARBON PROCESS – the forger places the document to be forged on the bottom, interleaves a piece of carbon paper
and places on top a document containing the genuine signature. The forger then traces over the genuine signature
wit [h a pencil, pen stylus, of other sharp pointed instrument. The pressure of this over-tracing against the carbon
paper imprints the signature outline on the document being forged. Later, this impression outline is over written
using pencil, or directly with a fountain pen or any other similar writing instruments.
2. INDENTATION PROCESS – The document containing the model signature is placed on top of the forged document.
The forger traces with considerable pressure over the genuine signature using either a pencil; pen stylus or similar
sharp pointed instruments and created an indented signature outline on the document being forged. Later, this
impression outline is over written using pencil, or directly with a fountain pen or any other similar writing instruments.
3. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS – The document to be forged is placed on top of the document containing the
genuine signature. The two documents are superimposed over a light source on a transparent flat surface. The forger
trace the signature outline, with either pencil or fountain pen following the design (outline) of the genuine signature
set in bold relief by the light in back of it.
The obvious fault of this kind of forgery is the presence of tremor, retouching and poor line of quality. This is not
handwriting in the real, since but a drawing between a genuine signature and an almost perfect forgery is in the
manner of execution.

C. SPURIOUS SIGNATURE (SIMPLY FORGERY)

i. A fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent attempt of stimulation or limitation. Forger does not
try to copy a model but writes something resembling what we ordinarily call a signature. For this, he uses a
false (spurious) name and makes a rapid stroke, disturbing his usual writing by adopting a camouflage called
disguise.

13 Scout Ranger 177-10

 ii. This kind of forgery is easily detected as fraudulent in view of the fact that it is widely different from the other
genuine signature even in general appearance alone. The only question is to tackle the determination of the
probably writer of the forgery. Seldom are these fraudulent signature disguised.
iii. Further, in this type forgery, the forger having a writing habit of his own can be identified through
handwriting comparison.

D. FORGERY BY MEANS OF STAMPED FACSIMILE OF A GENUINE OR MODEL

 Some individuals very often use a stamped facsimile of their signature.

INDICATIONS OF FORGED SIGNATURES:

Generally, the indications of forgery are the presence of tremors, retouching, and poor line quality, when this are not
present, but instead the obvious feature are the one absent, and provided that the minute details are presents or correctly
reproduced.

ANACHRONISM:
 This something wrong in time and in place.
 This means that the forger has trouble matching the paper, ink, or writing materials to the exact date it was
supposed to have been written.

GUIDED SIGNATURES:
A signature which is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is steadied in any way is classified as a guide or
assisted signature. Under the law of most jurisdictions such as signature authenticates a legal document, provided it show
that the writer requested assistance.
Guided signature is most commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.
A. Genuine Signature which the writer refuses to admit not genuine.
 Generally presence of tremors, remnants of carbon, retouching (patching) indicates forgery. Produced, the
probability of genuineness.
E. Genuine signature Deliberately modified.
 Examination of this kind of signature is confidentially discover that the modification is only on the prominent
features of the letter designs that are pointed out by the disclaimer, while the rest appear to be normal. There are
unnatural tremors and retouching. The minute details in genuine signature are present.

SUGGESTED STEP IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE:

 Signature in documents must be examined exhaustively and scrutinized in every detail to avoid error in judgment.
 The difference between the layman’s observation and those with special training in questioned documents
examination lies on gross features in the signatures, while letter makes an exhaustive study of the minute details.
a. STEP 1 – place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta- position or slide by side for simultaneous
viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
b. STEP 2 – the first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of execution (slow,
deliberate, rapid, etc.) The fundamental difference existing between a genuine signature and an almost perfect
forgery is in the manner of execution.
d. STEP 3 – Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence of tremors, smooth, fluent or
hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous viewing is made.
d. STEP 4 – Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether the appearance
blunt, club shaped, tapered or vanishing.
f. STEP 5 – Design and structure of the letters. Determine as to roundness, smoothness, angularity and direction.
Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
g. STEP 6 – Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
h. STEP 7 – Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
i. STEP 8 – Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for these are the often changed
according to the whim of the writer.

Characteristics principles can be stated that supply most cases:

a. Pen pressure – the most unusual habit is the pulsation or pressure in the longer looped from such as in the “g” and
“y”. In these lower extensions, there is first an application of pressure but before the pen reaches the bottom of the
loop this pressure gradually diminishes and is applied again on the rising stroke.
b. Movement
c. Proportion
d. Unusual distortion of the forms of letters
e. Inconspicuous characteristics
f. Repeated characteristics
g. Characteristics written with speed

Indication of Genuineness:
1. Carelessness
2. Spontaneity
3. Alternation of thick and thin strokes
4. Speed
6. Simplification
7. Upright letters are interspersed with slanting letters
8. The upward strokes to a threadlike tracing
9. Rhythm
10. Good line quality
11. Variation

14
Indications of forgery: Simulated and Traced:
1. Tremulous and broken connecting strike between letters, indicating points at which the writer has temporarily struck.
2. No rhythm
3. Carefulness or unusual care and deliberation
4. No contrast between upward and downward strokes
5. Slow writing-angular writing
6. Blunt beginning and endings
7. Placement of diacritical marks just over the stem of letters.
8. Absence of spontaneity – lack of smoothness of letters.
9. Restrained writing – there is lack of freedom or “inhibited” movements. It gives the impression that every stroke is
made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
10. No variation.

Indications of Simple Forgery:

Writing habits of the writer (forger), which include his general and individuals characteristics, is evident forged signature.

Indications of forgery by means of Stamped Facsimile of a genuine signature:

1. Flat strokes
2. No contrast between upstrokes and down strokes.
3. Deposit of ink at the junction of two strokes or where two strokes cross each other.
4. No variation – all signatures will superimpose over each other.

WRITING MATERIALS (PAPER) IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

ONE of the subjects of inquiry in questioned documents is the writing material used. The common (probable)
questioned on paper is its AGE, whether the actual age of the paper corresponds with the alleged date of preparation of
the questioned document.
To fully understand the principles of tracing the age of the writings materials used in questioned documents, it is
imperative for a questioned documents examiner to be aware of the evolution and development of papers. When such
paper was first introduced or used, physical changes on papers and the importance of watermarks are some of the
valuable things that an investigator should know to come up with a more conclusive opinion.

PAPER
 Sheet of interlaced fibers – usually cellulose fibers from plants, but sometimes from cloth rags or other fibrous
materials.
 That is formed by pulping the fibers and causing to felt, or mat to form a solid surface.

WRITING MATERIALS
- The evolution of writing materials culminated in the development of paper. The oldest written records still
surviving are the Sumerian clay tablets dating back from the 4th millennium B.C.

PAPYRUS
- Came into use about 3,500 B.C. – people of Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Southern Europe used the pith (soft
spongy tissue of the stem) of the sedge (glasslike herb) CYPERUS PAPYRUS to make a writing material known as PAPYRUS.
PARCHMENT
- Writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats – was probably developed in the
Middle East more or less contemporaneously with papyrus. It came into wide use only in the 2 nd century B.C. in the city of
PERGAMUM in ANATOLIA.

VELLUM
- Writing materials made from fine skins from young calves or kids and the term (name) was often used for all
kind of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing material for bookmaking, while parchment
continued for special manuscripts.
- Almost every portable surface that would retain the marks of brush or pen was also used as a writing material
during the early period.

DEVELOPMENT OF PAPER MANUFACTURING:

CAILUN (TSAI LUN)
 It is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a Chinese court official, CAI LUN (TSAI LUN), in
about A.D. 105.
 The first to succeed in making paper from vegetable fibers, tree barks, rags, old fish nettings.
 The art of papermaking was kept secret for 500 years; the Japanese acquired it only in the 7 th century A.D.
 In A.D. 751, the Arab city of Samarkand was attacked by marauding Chinese and some Chinese taken as prisoners
were skilled in papermaking and were forced by the city Governor to build and operate a paper mill and Samarkand
soon became the papermaking center of the Arab world.

CHLORINE – was introduced in the 9th century for bleaching and colored linen could already manufactured for paper.
ESPARTO - a grass grown in Libya, also in Spain and North Africa was first introduced in England in 1861.
STRAW – was used to make paper in 1880.
SULPHITE – paper from wood was not attempted until 1869 and paper called SULPHITE (modern type) was first used
between 1880 and 1890.

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OLDEST MANUSCRIPT – letters dated A.D. 874 have been found in Egypt and the oldest manuscript in England on cotton
paper dated 1890.

TRACING THE AGE OF PAPER (DOCUMENT)

The age of the document may be estimated from paper four cases were reported by Lucas in which the age of the
document was established from the compositor/ composition of the paper.
In one of these cases, a document dated 1213 AH (A.D. 1798) was found to be written on paper composed entirely of
chemical prepared wood cellulose. Considering that this type of paper was not introduced not until about 60 years, the
document is obviously a fake one.

WATERMARKS
 Sometimes a limit may be placed to the age of the document by means of watermark, the earliest known dating
from 1282. Unfortunately, however, not all papers contain watermarks.
 The earliest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the WATERMARK – a brand put on the
paper by the manufacturer.
 It is impressed into the paper by wires on the rollers called DANDY ROLL that make the paper, and these designs
are changed from time to time.
 Usually watermarks are requested by their owners / manufacturers with the patent office.
 If present, watermark is one of the most reliable means of trading the age of the paper, However, the questioned
documents examiner’s findings is limited only to the APPROXIMATE DATE (YEAR) of the paper manufacturer.
 In determining the age of the paper by watermarks, it is necessary to ascertain the owner of the watermark in
question or its manufacture.
 In the FBI, checking the reference file of the laboratory does this. Once the manufacture is determined, then
consideration is given to changes in design and defects of individual design.
 In recent years, some large manufacturers have cleverly incorporated inconspicuous changes in their watermark
design in order to dater their products.
 Obviously, document is fraud if it contains a watermark; which was not in existence at the time the document
purports to have been executed.

IN CASE THE WATERMARK OF A CERTAIN PAPER MANUFACTURE DID NOT CHANGE, THE FOLLOWING IS
APPLIED:
 In those cases where no change in the design has been made over a long period of time, defects in the individual
design may furnish a clue as to the age of the paper.
 The dandy roll, through constant usage, will somehow be damaged. This damage is also known as caused by WEAR
AND TEAR which become progressively more and more as time goes by.
 The damages on the dandy roll will leave some peculiar markings on the watermark of the paper manufactured or all
papers that will pass through the damaged dandy roll.
 The investigator, carefully determining the distinct markings caused by the dandy roll’s damaged surface, will
coordinate with the paper manufacture regarding when such damage occurred on the dandy roll used.

DISCOLORATION:
One-way of tracing the age of the paper is through the observance of the changes in its physical characteristics
particularly DISCOLORATION. Naturally, a paper will discolor after a passage of time due to numerous environmental
factors such as moisture, temperature, dust, etc.

CAUSES OF DISCOLORATION:
Discoloration is highly influenced by storage of the papers or documents and conditions like the following:
1. Due to process of oxidation brought about by natural means.
2. Brown spots due to mold that is very characteristics both.
3. In appearance and distribution.
4. Exposure to dust and dirt.
5. Occasional staining of fruit juice, grease.
6. Excrete of rats, mice and other insects.
7. May also due to heat, partial burning, etc.

a. WOOD PULP – papers out of wood pulp may start to discolor at edges from 2 to 3 years.
b. RUG-SHIP QUALITY – maybe very old before discoloration starts.

WRITING INSTRUMENT:
PEN:
A tool for writing or drawing with a colored fluid, such as ink. The rise and spread of Christianity increased the
demand for permanent written religious documents.
Pen came from the Latin word “PENNA”, meaning feather.

QUILL PENS:
It is a hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used for writing on parchment. Poland,
Germany, Russia, and the Netherlands were the largest producers of quill.
As the size of writing became, both writing tools and surfaces change. Vellum or parchment books replaced the
papyrus roll, and the QUILL replaced the REED PEN.
Although quill pens can be made from the outer wing feathers of any bird, those of goose swan, crow and (later)
turkey, were preferred. The earliest reference (6th century AD) to quill pens was made by the Spanish Theologian. ST.
ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, and this tool was the principal writing implement for nearly 1300 years.
To make a quill pen, heating or letting it dry out gradually first hardens a wing feather. The hardened quill is then
cut to a broad edge with a special penknife.
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BALL POINT PEN:
- JHON LOUD, in 1888,patented the first ballpoint-writing tool. A ballpoint pen has in its point a small rotating metal
ball that continually inks itself as it turns.
 The ball is set into a tiny socket. In the center of the socket is a hole that feeds ink to the socket from a long tube
(reservoir) inside the pen.
 As early as the 19th century, attempts had been made to manufacture a pen with a rolling ball tip, but not until 1938
did Hungarian inventor GEORGE LAZLO BIRO invent viscous, oil-based ink that could be used with such pen.
1. The ink was waterproof and almost inerasable;
2. The ball point pen could write on many kinds of surfaces and could be hold in almost any position for writings;
and
3. The pressure required to feed the ink was ideal for making carbon copies.

FIBER TIP PENS:

 In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced in to the U.S. market and have since challenged the ballpoint as the
principal writing implement.
 YUKIO HORIE of Japan invented the first practical fiber tip pen in 1962. It was ideally suited to the strokes of Japanese
writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink brush.
The leading 19th century English pen manufacturers were WILLIAM JOSEPH GILLOT, WILLIAM MITCHELL, AND
JAMES STEPHEN PERRY.
 Unlike its predecessors, the fiber tip pen uses dye as a writing fluid. As a result, the fiber tip pen can produce a wide
range of colors unavailable in ballpoint and fountain pen inks. The tip is made of fine nylon or other synthetic fibers
drawn to a point and fastened tot eh barrel of the pen. Dye is fed to the point by elaborate capillary mechanism.
THE EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INK
 The examination of inks often plays an important part in document examination. In these cases the inks to be
examined are not available in liquid form. One kind of examination centers on the question as to whether the ink of
some writings or of alterations in a police blotter is identical with the ink found in the possession of the suspect.
 For this reason, the examination of questioned documents is restricted to a comparative examination of certain
properties of these inks. However the examination carries with it certain difficulties as the quantity of material
available for examination is small and the examination is small and the examination can be done only one.
 It is necessary then that before a chemical examination is attempted, which results in a partial destruction of writing,
an exhaustive examination by non-destructive methods be carried out.
 These non-destruction methods include visual examination with the id of a binocular microscope as well as
photographic examination. They should be used first before any chemical examination is resorted to.
COMPOSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INK
1.Indian Ink
The oldest of Indian ink consisted of a suspension of carbon black (soot or lampblack) in water to which a glue or
vegetable gum was added. Inks of these compositions are still on the market mostly in the shape of sticks or cakes. In
modern carbon ink, the glue or gum is replaced by a solution of shellac in borax or ammonia. These inks are not affected
by oxidants. It is practically impossible to remove the last traces of the carbon from the paper without causing damage to
it.
2.Log wood Inks
These ink which were extensively about a century ago, have now because obsolete and are no longer
manufactured. They were made fro an aqueous extract of logwood chips and potassium chromate. These inks will be
found only on old.

3. Iron Gallotanate Inks

This ink has been used as writing for over a thus and years. Formerly it was made of a fomented infusion of gall
must to which iron sale were added. The ink was composed of suspension of the black, almost insoluble ferric ternate.
The particles were kept in suspension by adding glue or gum Arabic. This manufacturing method was not
economical and so it had to be changed. It was observe that if the ink was slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid or
sulfuric acid, the oxidation of the ferrous iron was checked and the undesirable precipitation of the ferric tannat was
prevented. The ink thus obtained was practically colorless and did not acquire the black color desired before it matured
on paper. Coloring matter (Aniline dyes) was added to the inks as well as a sterilizing agent to prevent growth of mold and
bacteria in the ink.

4. Fountain Pen Inks

These inks are regarded as special fountain pen inks, and consisting or ordinary iron gallotannate inks with a lower
iron content in most but with a higher dyestuff content than normal inks. This style of ink is placed on the market under
the name of “blue-black permanent”. The iron content range from 7.Fe/I (e.g. Parker Quink permanent blue) to 2.7Fe/ (e.g.
Pelikan Fullhaltertinte)

4. Dyestuff Ink
These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuff, to which a preservative and a flux are added.
The writing qualities of the ink are improved by addition of substances such as glycerol, glucose or dextrin. The dark blue
and black inks are often composed of four or more dyes because no black dyestuff of sufficient tinctorial capacity is
known.

5. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks

These inks are special group of dyestuff inks. They consist of a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made
soluble in water by means of borax, liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate. Sometimes the pigment suspension is
combined with acid or basic dyestuff.

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 6. Alkaline Writing Inks
These are quick drying inks, which possess a ph of from 9 to about 11. They penetrate quickly through the size of
the paper allowing the ink to penetrate quickly into the paper. The dyestuff in these inks consist of acid dyes, sometimes
combined with phthalocyanine dye.
These inks are not much demand because they are rather expensive and because they affect the material of many
fountain pens. The best known of these inks are the Parker supercrhome inks which in the colors blue, black, blue, red and
green. Phtalocynine dye is found in the blue supercrhrome inks. The superchrome inks were already obtainable since
1950, which fact maybe or importance for the determination of the age of a document.

7. Ball-point Pen Inks

The ballpoint pens did not appear on the European market before 1945. The development of the present pen was
accomplished during World War II because the Army and the Air Force needed a writing instrument which would not leak
at high altitude and which supplied quick d drying water resistant writing.
In principle, the construction of all ballpoint pens is the same. The differences are in the finish, the precision with
which the instrument is made, the size and the material of the ball, and the composition of the ink. As a rule, the diameter
of the ball lies between 0.6 and 1.0 mm, the cheapest makes having the largest diameter. The ball is made of steel while
the more expensive makes sapphire.
The quality of the pen is chiefly to be judged by the writing angle. The best writing angle for ballpoint pen is 90
degrees, but a normal hand of writing seldom uses this angel. The cheaper makes have a minimum writing angle of 55-60
degreess. If one writes at too small an angle, the brass socket holding the ball will scratch a lined into the paper, parallel
with the ink line.

8. Stamp Pad Inks

They are made with the acid substances such as glycerol, glycol, acetone or benzyl alcohol and water. Airline dyes
are added as coloring matter. For quick drying stand pad inks, more volatile organic solvents are used as acetone,
ethanol, etc. As a vehicle dectrime, gum Arabic or tannin is sometimes added. Through the addition of tannin, the stamp
impression becomes water resistant after drying.

9. Hectograph Inks
These inks very much resemble stamp pad inks and are exclusively made with basic dyes. To the dyestuff solution
several other substances are added such as glycerol, acetic acid and acetone.

10.Typewriter Ribbon Inks

These inks very much usually composed of a blend of aniline dyes, carbon black and oil such as olein or castor oil.
The two-tone ribbons contain no dyes, but pigments suspended in an oil base. This is necessary because aniline dyes
tend to bleed and would cause the sharp division between the differently colored halves of the ribbon to merge.

12. Printing Inks

Printing inks often consist of a mixture of colored pigments carbon black and a “base” which may consist of oil,
resins, synthetic or a mixture of these. It is possible to remove printing ink from a document by scrubbing the document
with an aqueous solution of a suitable detergent. The rubbing and breaking up of the surface of the ink and the
detergent facilities the suspension and eventual removal of the carbon and other ingredients by the water.

13. Canceling Ink

These inks often contain carbon and this fact should be burned in mind when it is required to decipher faint
cancellation marks on postage stamp and wrappers. Carbon is opaque of infrared sensitive plate and the riled upon to
improve the legibility of any marking affected by a carbon containing canceling ink.
Erasure of canceling in on valuable stamps is usually affected by attack on the medium which bind the carbon to
the surface of the stamp and it is regretted that many canceling inks are manufactured with media which offer resistance
to attack so that the resistant carbon can simply be swabbed off. This can be usually be detected by infrared photography
which will reveal the traces of carbon, which almost invariably mean on the stamp.

14. Skrip Ink

Skrip ink is manufactured by W.A. Chaffer Pen Company since 1955. The inks contain a substance which is
colorless in visible light and has a strong affinity for the fibers of the paper, and yet is not bleached by hypocrite ink
eradicators or washed out by soaking on water.
Thus if a writing with “skrip” is obliterated with ink eradicator, the original will produced a characteristics
florescence and can be deciphered by reviewing under filtered ultra-violet. Similarly if writing made with was able skrip is
soaked in water so the invisible dye is washed out, the original record can be read clearly by filtered ultra-violet light.

THE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF INK

The chemical examination of ink is indicated in the following problems:
1. The Chromatographic examination and separation of the dyestuff in the ink
2. The determination of the age of the ink

TYPEWRITER/TYPEWRITING EXAMINATION AND IDENTIFICATION

TYPEWRITER:
A machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers or that can produced printed letters and figures on
paper.

EVOLUTION OF TYPEWRITERS:
1. Several typewriters like machines were develop during the latter part of the 17th century the first patent, however, was
granted by QUEEN ANNE of England to HENRY MILL in 1714 for a machine designated to reproduced a letter of the
alphabet.
2. Within the next 100 years, however, at least 50 attempts were made by various inventors to develop a typing machine.
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3. IN 1829, WILLIAM AUSTIN BURT of Detroit invented the TYPOGRAPHER.
4. The development of the practical typewriter begun in 1866 by CHRISTOPHER LATHAM SHOLES and was patented in
1868. He developed the first practical typewriter in cooperation with two fellow mechanics, CARLOS GLIDEN and
SAMUEL SOULE.
5. Six years later, Christopher Lathan Sholes entered an agreement with ELIPHALET REMINGTON AND SONS,
GUNSMITHS & SEWING MACHINES MANUFACTURERS; the company produced the REMINGTON Model 1.
6. Four years later, REMINGTON MODEL II was introduced having both the lower and upper case of the alphabet.
7. MARK TWAIN, was among the first to buy a typewriter and the first to submit a typewritten manuscript to a publisher.
8. GEORGE BERNARD SHAW recognized the importance of typewriter when he became the first playwriting to use it as a
stage prop in Candida in 1897.
9. When THOMAS EDISON visited Sholes to see his machine, he forecasted that typewriters would one day be operated
by electricity.
10. Soon afterwards, Edison built such a typewriter. He used a series of magnet, which made the machine cumbersome
and too expensive to be marketed.
11. The first practical electric typewriter was invented in 1914 by JAMES F. SMATHERS of Kansas City.
12. In 1933, the International Business Machines, Inc. (IBM) introduced the first commercially successful electric typewriter
to the business world.
13. The latest development in electric typewriter is one, which not eliminates type bars and movable carriages but can use
size interchangeable type of typefaces.
14. The first basic change in typewriting operation appeared in 1961. Despite of the revolutionary advances in typewriting
capabilities, one essential element has remained unchanged since the first Remington. The keyboard arrangement,
nicknamed QWERTY for the top line of letters, was designed to make it easier for salesmen to use the machine.
15. A much more efficient arrangement was devised in 1936 by AUGUST DVORAK. The process of change over the
DVORAK seemed so difficult that it was never even begun.

IDENTIFICATION AND EXAMINATION OF TYPEWRITER QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

01. The earliest comment in writing by a document examiner on typewriting identification was made HAGAN n 1894. He
wrote that all typewriter machines even when using the same kind of type become more or less peculiar by use as to the
work done by them. These peculiarities positively connect them with the printing done by the machine.
02. This exposition of the principles of typewriter identification was followed in 1900 by AMES who wrote that the identity
of writing by different operators as well as that done on different machines could be done with considerable degrees.
Different operators have their own peculiar methods, which differ, widely in the location of data, address margins,
punctuation, spacing, singing as well as impression from touch.
03. In several articles written between 1901 to 1907, ALBERT S. OSBORNE, the foremost document examiner of the early
20th century, define the principles of typewriting identification used today. He called it THE LANDMARKS IN TYPEWRITING
IDENTIFICATION.

Typewriting Examination:
The typewriters have become an instrument of worldwide importance in the correspondence and commence of the world
and therefore could be an effective screen for commenting crime. In several articles written between 1901 and 1907,
Albert S. Osborne, the foremost document examiner of the early 20th century, defined the principles points enunciated by
Osborne are as follows:
a. The typefaces used by the different typewriter manufacturer can be differentiated on the basis of design and have
dating significance.
b. Through usage, typewriters develop individually which can serve to identify the typewriting of a particular typewriter.
c. The gradual development of typewriters develops individuality plus ribbon condition and typeface. Cleanliness can be
used to date a document of fix it written a period of time
d. Horizontal and vertical alignment, titling characters, lock of uniformity of impression (off footedness), type-face score,
breads, defects, defects and deformities all serve to identify the type writing of a particular machine.
e. Peculiar habits of striking the typewriter keys, spacing, arrangement, punctuation, mistakes, corrections, can be used to
identify at typist or differentiate typists.
f. A sheet of paper cannot be reinserted in a typewriter in exact register with previous typing done on the sheet of paper.

Classification of Typewriters as to Typeface:

a. Pica-Type - the typefaces are spaced ten characters to the horizontal inch
b. Elite - type - the typefaces are spaced twelve characters to the horizontal

Identification of Typewriter by the Defects of the Stroke:

Introduction:
The identification of a typewriter consist first of the preliminary examination f the questioned document in which
the general characteristics such as the style, the dimension of the characters, the spacing and the design of the letters.
This important phase of work enables document examiner to eliminate numerous suspect typewriters keeping only those
of the same make and model as that of the suspected type writers provided however they are equipped with the same
character. The defects of the typewriter maybe compared to ailment or sickness and congenital deformation while its
translation on the paper are compared to symptoms of the defects. This comparison has the advantages of sorting out
the exact conditions of the control of questioned typewriter documents as follows:
a. First, it will show the actual state of the typewriter and consequently that the aspect of the strokes is not immutable but
evolves progressive so that a good identification needs the comparison of documents from sufficiently adjacent.
b. It will show that the expert does not see the defect of the typewriter right away but only its translation n the paper by a
writing anomaly of which he must appreciate the cause. Like in medicine, a given symptoms maybe common to several
ailments and inversely the same ailment maybe accompanied at certain movements by different symptoms.
c. Lately it will explain that certain anomalies are not even ascribable to an organic cause of the typewriter but to a
phenomenon outside it. For example, an error of manipulation by the typist may give some anomalies of the stroke and
have no connection with the mechanism of the typewriter itself. Others are due to a temporary sickness such as a torn
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ribbon, which will give an incomplete impression of the character, or dust, which may choke the mechanism of the stroke.
It is only the character or dust, which may choke the mechanism of the stroke. It is only permanent faults, which permit of
positive identification.
TERMINOLOGIES IN TYPEWRITER EXAMINATIONS:
1.ALIGNMENT DEFECT - Include character which write improperly in the following respects. A twisted letter, horizontal
mal-alignment, vertical, malalignment and a character special adjustment to the types lock.
2.CARBON IMPRESSION - any type writing which is classed as a carbon by action of the typefaces striking through
carbon paper is classed as carbon impression. Generally, carbon impression is “Carbon Copies” but sometimes-original
typewriting is made directly through a carbon paper carbon.
3.CHARACTER - in connection with typewriting identification the terms “character” is use to include either letters,
symbols, numerals, or point of punctuation.
4.CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPEFACE - with use the type faces becomes filled with lint, is allowed to progress without cleaning,
there comes of time when the written impression actually print with the clogged areas shaded on a solid block.
5.DEFECTS - the term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in typewriter which is reflected in its works and
which leads to its individualization or identification.
6.HORIZONTAL MAL-ALIGNMENT - an alignment defect in which the character prints the right on left of its proper
position is known as horizontal alignment.
7.MAL-ALIGNMENT - is synonymous with the term “Alignment Defects”
8.OFF ITS FEET - The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner than over the remainder of its outline.
9.PERMANENT DEFECT - Any identifying characteristics of a typewriter, which cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the
typeface, or replacing the ribbon is classed permanent defect. Actually, this term is not absolutely accurate since all
defects in typewriters undergo modification and change in time.
10.PLATEN - The cylinder, which serves as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the blown the typeface, is known
as a platen.
11.PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING - a modern from of typewriting which resembles printing in that all of the
horizontal space as they do with the conventional typewriter, for example the “I” occupies two units. The “o” three and the
“m” five. A typewriter of this design is known as p [repression spacing machine.
13.RIBBON CONDITION - typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree of determination is a measure
of the ribbon conditions.
14.RIBBON IMPRESSION - typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon s called ribbon impression.
15.TRANSITORY DEFECTS - identifying typewriter characteristics, which can be eliminated by cleaning.
16.TYPE FACE - the printing surface of the type block is known as the typeface, with most modern typewriter this block is
attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar, which propels the typeface giants the ribbon and paper to make the
typewriter impression.
17.TYPE FACE DEFECTS - any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the typeface is known as typeface
defects. These defect may be actual breaks in the outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away sometimes
refereed to as broken type, or they may be misruled outlines of the letters where the type face metal has become bent or
smashed, they can only be corrected by replacing the type block.
18.TWISTED LETTER - Each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle to the base line, due to wear,
and damage to the type bars and the type block, some letters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their
correct slant.
19.VERTICAL MAL-ALIGNMENT - a character printing above or below its proper position has the quality of vertical mal-
alignment.

IDENTIFICATION OF TYPEWRITTEN DOCUMENTS:

A preliminary step in the identification of typewriting it is necessary to establish that the style and size of the
letters and numerals are the same and that both the letter spacing and the line spacing are the same. In order to make a
further study leading either towards an identification or non-identification such instrument as magnifying lenses,
microscopes and various kinds of measuring devices are used. These instruments make it possible to study the following:
1.SLANT - A study is made of each character to determine to what extent, if any, it leans either to the right or to the left.
2.ALIGNMENT - if a typewriter is in proper alignment each character should strike in the center of an imaginary rectangle.
3.FOOTING - a letter may strike heavier either on the right, on the left, on the top or on the bottom.
4.DEFECTS IN THE TYPE FACE - these maybe brought about either through mistreatment or as results of ordinary wear
and tear. When questioned typewriter is compared with known typewritten exemplars, three general areas of examination
are made:
* Size and spacing (vertical and horizontal)
* Type style
* Unique identifying characteristics - character and alignment defects.
OBTAINING KNOWN TYPEWRITTEN EXEMPLARS:
Properly prepared known typewriting samples not only facilities the examination in the laboratory but they aid
immeasurably in the demonstration in the courtroom.

HOW TO OBTAIN EXEMPLARS OF TYPEWRITING:

1. If the typewriter ribbon is obviously new, remove if room the typewriter and send it to the laboratory with the
typewriting exemplars prepared from another ribbon (the text of the material in question may still be discernible of the
ribbon)
2. Use paper of about of about the same size as the questioned material, type out of full word for word copy of the
message ion question, typographical errors, using as nearly as possible the same degree of touch as that used in typing
the questioned material.
3. After placing the typewriter in a stencil position or removing the cloth ribbon, obtain samples of each character on the
keyboard by typing through carbon paper which has been inserted carbon side down over a piece of white bond paper.
4. Make certain that each specimen contain the make, model and serial number of the typewriter from which it was
produced as well as the date and initials of the officer.
5. Typewriter specimen should be taken from suspected typewriter. It is usually not necessary to forward the typewriter to
the laboratory if completed known exemplars are obtained.
20
6. If possible, after a typewritten is obtained from a suspected typewriter, the investigation should insure that the
typewriter is kept in its current condition.
7. With evidence this obtain from typewritten documents, the laboratory experts are in position to lend valuable assistance
to the solution and subsequent prosecution of many cases.

TYPES OF TYPEWRITERS
1. CONVENTIONAL TYPEWRITERS USING TYPE Bars
a. Pica type - 10 letters /inch
b. Elite type 12 letters/inch
c. 6 Lester/inch
d. Teletype Machine
e. 14-16 letter/inch - special s typewriters

2. TYPEWRITER USING SINGLE ELEMENTS OR BALL

A typewriter machine, capable, of typing 10 or characteristic per inch. Change of horizontal spacing is done easily
by the flip of a switch.

3. TYPEWRITER USING A PRINT WHEEL (ELECTRONIC TYPEWRITER)

This is a typewriter equipped with a type device called a print wheel; the printwheel contains all of characteristics
capability of typing 10,12 and 15 letters per inch.

THE DEFECTS OF A TYPEWRITER:

1. The Defects of the Character
a. The character may show a distortion in its engraving, a “break” which is shown by an alteration of the design.
Exceptionally, it means a defect of manufacture. Most often, the break occurs when the machine is working. The metal is
locally damage by the continue stroking of the letter against hard surface and according to the general direction of the
striking will dented or deviated. In the first case the altered sign will print an incomplete design with broken or interrupted
lines, in the second case it behind the other, the characters of corresponding bars strikes the back of the first and crashes
on it.
b. Twist of the printing surface which comes in the course of manufacturing, Irregular tempering gives an abnormal
contraction of the metal for the bearing of the character again the plated and gives a local impression more intense and
more heavily inked.
c. Misalignment of the two engraved on the same character so that they are not set exactly one under the other. This
defect may be due to bad engraving of the mold.

2. Positioning of the Character on the Type bar

a. A bad position f the bar on the plate f soldering apparatus, results in a bad portioning of the character. It will be bent
forward, backward or sideways.
b. Sometimes a solder fails in the course of typing. The character turns over the slides along its support. The changes of
alignment become greater and greater growing in frequently in proportion with the collar of the solder. This defect is
detected in the writing by the fact that the top and the bottom of the letter are not printed with the same intensity and
mostly, the vertical misalignment has a tendency to vary at each stroke and becomes so important that often a part of
both sign of the deficient characters are impressed at the same item.

3. Defects of the Type- bar

The deformation of a type 0bar modify the position of the character in connection with the platen and alters the originally
correct writing.
a. Any error of place position of the bar in the basket gives an incline to its head and the character.
b. The type bars are outer sinuous. Under the effect of and intensive working the bends are modified, so that the the-bars
elongates or shorten and its head inclines forward or backward. This deformation causes a misalignment of the character
and in longer allows a uniform impression of its surface.
c. Twist of the type bars of caused by is taking of the typist. In depressing, by error, two neighboring keys, two
corresponding bars are moved towards the type-bar guide 1,each bars undergoes the lateral strike of the other and bends
along its longest urinal axis. One error in manipulation does not great damage but its repletion certainly develops the
defect. The type bar thus bent to long offers a perfectly vertical surface to the axis of the platen and the character strikes
the paper more or less off its feet.

4. Defects of the Ring

On a worm typewriter it is not exceptional to find that the more active type bars have depressed the metal of the right at
their point of contract. It no longer has any effect on the type bars corresponding to the depression - it no longer stops
them in their travel and it does not send them back to their original position.
These bars strike directly at the platen, stoop their momentarily and fall back by their own weight giving by this
very slow motion a vibration to the character in the character in the vicinity in the vicinity of the platen. At this time the
escapement has already moved and the character gives two impressions instead of one. The second impression, displaced
in connection with the first and much paler seems to be its shadow. The name given to it is vie led stroke.

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

1.DOCUMENT - In its fullness meaning a document is any material which contains marks, symbols, or sign either visible,
partially visible, or invisible that may presently or ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone. Pencil or ink
writing, typewriting, reprinting on paper is its most usual from.
2.QUESTIONED DOCUMENT - any document about which done issue has been raised to which is under scrutiny is
referred to as questioned document (Also DISPUTED DOCUMENT).

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3.DISPUTED DOCUMENT- the term “disputed document” suggests that there is an argument or controversy over the
document, and strictly speaking, this is its true meaning. In this text, however, disputed document and questioned
document which is under social security.
4. HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT - any document, which is completely written and signed by one person, is known as a
holograph or holographic document. In a number of jurisdiction a holographic will can be probated without anyone
having witnessed it execution.
5.EXAMINATION - is the act of making a close and critical study of any material, and with questioned documents is the
process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types are undertaken, including microscopic, visual
photographic, chemical, ultraviolet, and infrared examinations.
6. COMPARISON - is the act of setting two or more items side by side to weight their identifying qualities. It infers not
only a visual but also the mental act in which the elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the others.
7.COLLATION - (as used in this text) means critical comparison or side by-side examinations.
8.MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - any study or examination which s made with the microscopic in order to discover
minute physical details is termed a microscopic examination.
10. OBLIQUE OR SIDE LIGHT EXAMINATION - an examination with the illumination so controlled that it grazes or strike
the surface of the document from one side at very low angle is refereed to as an oblige or side light examination.
11. ULTRAVIOLET EXAMINATION - In an examination of this kind, the documents is viewed with the source of
illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.
12.INFRARED EXAMINATION - infrared examination of documents employs invisible radiation beyond the red portion of
the visible spectrum (rainbow), which is usually recorded on specially sensitized photographic emulsions. These infrared
or heat rays can be also be converted to visible light by electronic viewing equipment which to date has had limited used
in the questioned document works.
13. CONCLUSION - A scientific conclusion results form relating observed facts logical, common sense reasoning in
accordance with established rules or laws. The document examiners conclusions legal term “opinion”
14. OPINION - In legal language, the document examiner’s conclusion is known as an opinion. Actually, in court he not
only expresses an opinion but also demonstrates the reasons for arriving at this opinion (Throughout this book opinion
and conclusion are used synonymously).
15. SIGNATURE - As defined by Webster, is one’s name written by him on a document as sign of acknowledgment.
16. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a particular time and place, under
particular conditions, while the signer was at particular age, in a particular physical and mental condition, using particular
implements, and with a particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
17.SIMULATED SIGNATURE - A freehand signature, which has been used to prepare an imitated or traced forgery, is
known as the model.
19. WRITING/HANDWRITING- writing is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a combination
of certain forms, which as the very visible results of mental and muscular habits acquired by long continued, painstaking
effort. What is seen as writing is the end aimed, but is only a record of the more fundamental part of the process, which is
a series of controlled, successive movements growing out of the imitation of arbitrary forms, A written forms is simply a
record of a motion, and mature writing by many repetitions finally becomes an unconscious coordinator movement that
produces record.
20. COPY BOOK FORM - the designed of letters which are fundamental to a writing system are refereed to as copybook
forms. This terminology is derived from the old methods of teaching handwriting from a copybook, which contained
engraved script printed on each page for the study to imitate.
21.STANDARDS - by “Standard” in questioned documents investigation, we mean those things whose origin are known
and can be proven and which can be legally used as examples to compare with other matters in question. Usually a
standard consist of the known handwriting of a person such case “standard” has the same meaning as is understood by
the word-specimen of handwriting.
22.SAMPLE - a selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text, the term sample follows
closely the statistical usage.
23.EXEMPLARS - Specimen of the writing of suspects are commonly known as exemplars. The term standards is a
general term referring to all authenticated writings of the suspects while examples refers especially to a specimens of
standards writing offered in evidence or obtained or request for comparison with the questioned writing.
24.FORGERY - Every person who, with intent to dread, signs the name of another persons, or of fictitious persons,
knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely makes, alters, forgers or counterfeits any - checks drag, due bill for
the payment of money or property or counterfeits or forges the seal forged or counterfeit, with intents the same to be
dace altered forged, or counterfeit, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any person... is guilty of forgery.
25.SIMPLE FORGERY - is the fraudulent waiting of the signature of another in the natural or disguised writing of the
forgery, the latter exerting no effort to affect resemblance between the forgery and he genuine signature, of the individual
whose signature is being forged.
26.TRACED FORGERY - Any fraudulent signature, which has executed by actually following the outline of a genuine
signature with a writing instrument, is a traced forgery. Such a signature, maybe produced width the aid of carbon paper
by first facing carbon outline and then covering this with a suitable ink stroke, or the forgery may be traced from outline
made visible by the light coming through the model signature and the fraudulent document.
27.FREEHAND IMITATION (SIMULATED FORGERY) - A fraudulent signature, which was executed purely by simulation
rather than by tracing the outlines of genuine signature, can be referred to as freehand imitation of freehand forgery. The
term-simulated forgery has identical meaning.
28.SYSTEM (OR WRITING) The combination of the basic design of letters and the writing movements as taught in school
make up the writing system. Writing through use diverges from the system, but generally retains some influence of the
basic training.
29. Writing habit- is any repeated element or detail, which may serve to individualize writing.
30.SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABITS - This term is applied to any characteristics of handwriting, which is sufficiently
unique any well fixed to serve as fundamental points in the identification.
31.CHARACTERISTICS - A characteristics is any property or mark, which distinguished, and in document examination,
commonly refers to identifying details. There are two groups of characteristics, class and individual.
32.CLASS CHARACTERISTICS - Not all characteristics encountered in document examination are peculiar to a single
person, or thing and one, which is common to a group, may be described as class characteristics.
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33.NATURAL CHARACTERISTICS - These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated specimens of any
individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
34.INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS- Characteristics which is highly personal or peculiar and is unlikely to occur in other
instance is best described as individual (Compare with Class Characteristics).
35.CURSIVE WRITING - Writing in which the letters are for the most part joined together in cursive.
36.NATURAL WRITING - Any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to control or alter its
identifying habits and its usual quality of execution is natural writing (Compare with Disguised Writings).
37. DISGUISED WRITING - a writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habits in hopes of hiding his identity.
The results, regardless of their effectiveness, are termed disguised writing.
38.LEFT - HANDED WRITING - any writing executed with hand from that normally used can be termed “wrong handed
writing”. This is one means of disguise. Thus, the writing of right-handed person, which has been executed with his left
hand, accounts for the common terminology for this class of disguise as “left hand writing.
39.MOVEMENT - is an important element of handwriting. It embraces all of the factors which are related to the motion of
to writing instrument -skim, speed, freedom hesitation, rhythm, emphasis, tremor, and the like. The manner in which the
writing instrument is moved that is by finger, hand or arm action any influence each f these factor.
40.SPEEDWRITING - Not everyone writes at the same rate so that consideration of the speed of writing may be
significant identifying elements. Writing speed cannot be measured precisely from the finished handwriting but can be
interrupted in broad terms of slow, moderate, or rapid.
41.PEN EMPHASIS - The act of intermittently forcing the pen against the paper surface with increased pressure is termed
pen emphasis. When the pen point has flexibility, this emphasis produce shading but with more rigid writing points heavy
pen emphasis can occur writing without any evidence of shading.
42.PEN LEFT - An interruption in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument (pen) from the paper is described as
a pen lift.
43.PEN POSITION - The relationship between the pen point and the paper is known as pen position. Specially, the angle
between the pen and the line of writing and between the pen point and the paper surface, are the elements of pen
position. Both conditions may be reflected in the writing.
44.PEN PRESSURE - The average fore eight, which the pen contracts the paper is described as pen, pressure, and may be
estimated from an examination of the writing. Pen pressure as opposed to pen emphasis deals than the periodic
increased.
45.PATCHING - Retouching or going back over a defective portion of a writing stroke can be described as patching.
Careful patching is a common defect in forgiveness.
46.RETOUCHING - Retouching and patching are used synonymously
47.RETOUCHING - any stroke which goes back over another writing strokes is retracing. In natural handwriting there may
be many instances in which the pen doubles back over the same course.
48.RHYTHM - Rhythm is that element of the writing movement which is marked by regular or periodic recurrences. It may
be classed as smooth, intermittent or jerky in its quality.
49.SHADING - Shading is a widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or the use of a stub
pen.
50.SKILL - In any act there are relative degrees of ability or skill, and specimen of handwriting usually contains evidence
oft he writers proficiency letter relative to the base line.
51.WRITING CONDITION - Writing condition include both the circumstance under which the writing was prepare and he
factors which influence the writers ability to write at the same execution. Circumstances pertaining to preparation involved
the writers position, the paper support and backing, the writing instruments, while writing ability to modified by the
writers health, nervous, state or degree of intoxication.
52. BASELINE - their led or imaginary line upon which the writing, rest is termed the base line.
53.QUALITY - Quality is a distinct or peculiar character. In this Text, quality is used in describing handwriting to refer to
any denitrifying factor, which is related to the writing movements, itself.
54.LINE QUALITY - the visible in the written stroke of the basic movements and manner of nodding the writing
instruments is characterized by the term “line quality”. It is derived from a combination of actors including writing kill,
speed rhythm, and freedom of movements, shading and pen position.
55.ALIGNMENT - is defined as including block capitals sometimes referred to as lettering and manuscript, and manuscript
writing occasionally described as lower-case printing.
56.HAND LETTERING - Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written separately is form of hand
lettering or hand printing.
57.ALIGNMENT - /alignment defects include characters which write improperly in the following respects. A twisted letter,
horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment, and character off its feet. These defects can be corrected by special
adjustment to the type bar and type block.
58.CARBON IMPRESSION - Any typewriting, which is placed on the paper by the action of the type, faces striking though
carbon paper is classed as a carbon impression. Generally, carbon impressions are carbon copies, but sometime original
typewriter is made directly through a carbon ribbon.
59.CHARACTER - In connection with typewriting identification, the term character is used to include letters, symbols,
numerals, and point of punctuations.
60.CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPE FACES - With use the typefaces become filled with line, dirt, and ink, particular in enclosed
letters such as the o, e, p and g. If this condition is allowed to progress.
61.DEFECTS - The term “defect,” described any abnormality or mal-alignment in a typewriter which is reflected in its word
and which leads to its individualization or identification.
62.HORIZONTAL MAL-ALIGNMENT - An alignment defects in which the character prints to the right or left of its proper
position is known as horizontals mal-alignment.
63.MAL-ALIGNMENT - mal-alignment is synonymous with the term alignment defects (See term No. 59, hereof)
64.OFF ITS FEET- the condition of a type face printing feature on one side or corner than over the remainder of its outline
is described by the term “off it feet”.
65.PERMANENT DEFECT - any identifying characteristics of typewriter, which cannot be corrected by simply cleaning the
type, face or replacing the ribbon is classed as permanent defect. Actually, this term is not absolutely accurate since all
defects in typewriter undergo modification and change with time.

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66.TRANSITORY DEFECT - Any identifying typewriter characteristics that can be eliminated by cleaning the machine or
replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory defects. Clogged type is the most common defects in this class.
67.TYPE FACE- The printing surface of the type block is known as the typeface. With most modern typewriters this block
attached at the end of movable arm or type bar, which proposes the face against the ribbon and the paper to make
typewriter impression.
68.VERTICAL MAL-ALIGNMENT- character printing above or below its proper position has the quality of vertical mall-
alignment.
69.TYPE FACE DEFECTS - Any peculiarity of typewriter caused by actual damage to the typeface is known as typeface
defects. These defects maybe actual breaks in the outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away,
sometimes referred to as a broken type, or they may be distorted outline of the letter where the type face metal his
become bent or smashed. They can only replace by replacing the type block.
70.PEN - a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper is a pen.
71.FOUNTAIN PEN - a fountain pen is modern nib which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially designed ask or
chamber. After complete filling the pen is capable of writing a number of pages without refilling.
72.PEN NIBS - the tow division or points, which from the writing portion of pen are its ribs
73.FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT- One quality of the nib pen is its fly ability. The quality varies which different pens and can
be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading oft he ribs or a given degree of shading.
74.BALL POINT PEN - a writing instrument which has its marking tip of small freely rotating ball bearing which rolls the
ink o to the paper is known as a ball point pen. These all use highly vicious non-aqueous ink.
75.INK - is a fluid or vinous markings material used for writing or printing.
76.ERASURE - the removal or writings typewriting or printing, from a document is an erasure. It may be accomplished by
either of two means. A chemical eradication, in which the writing is removed or bleached by chemical agents (e.g. liquid in
eradicator), and an abrasive erasures, in which the writing is effaced by rubbing with a rubber erasure or scratching out
with a knife or other sharp with implement.
77.OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original invisible to as an addition.
78.ADDITION - Any rather made a part of the document after its original preparation may be referred to as addition.
79.INSERTION OR INTERLINEATION - The term Insertion and interlineations include the addition of writing and other
material between lines or paragraph or the addition of whole page to a document.
80.SEQUENCE OD STROKES - The order in which writing strokes are please on the paper is revered of whole page of
document.
81.WATERMARK - Certain papers are marked with a translucent design, a watermarks impressed in them during the
course of their manufacture.
82. COUNTERFEITING - The term Counterfeiting as used in the articles 161 and as ordinarily understood in law, is applied
to an uttering of false money, or the forgoing of bank notes which are the equivalent of money.
83.TYPEWRITER - a writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures symbols and the resembling printed
ones.
84.PEN STOP - Is a temporary cessation of the movement of the pen (w/ out lifting) to hang direction of movement or
strokes.
85. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of testing two or more signature in an inverted position to weight their
identifying significance the reason being that those we fail to see under normal comparison may readily be seen under
this theory.

“THE EFFECTS OF OUR ACTIONS MAYBE POSTPONED BUT THEY ARE NEVER LOST. THERE IS ENIVITABLE
REWARD FOR GOOD DEEDS AND INESCAPABLE PUNISHMENT FOR BAD. MEDITATE UPON THIS TRUTH, AND SEEK
ALWAYS TO EARN GOOD WAGES FROM DESTINY.” Good Luck and God Bless!!!

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