STUDY OF THE INTERNAL ORGANG

SPLANCHOLOGY
(SPLANCHNOLÓGIA)

The organs of the digestive, respirato- munological functions, because it con-

ry and urogenital systems belong to the tains nerves, blood vessels, and
internal organs (Gr. splánchna, Lat. - vessels. lymph
viscera). They are placed in the body cav- Hollow organs are different in
ities (thoracic, abdominal and pelvic cav-
(most often tubular shape), butshape
ity), in the facial (visceral) skull and neck. wall has a similar their
Internal organs provide metabolic general plan of struc-
ture. The wall of the hollow organ
and reproductive processes. In addition of three coats: internal consists
to similar functional
features, internal mucosa, middle
organs have common characteristics of
muscular, external adventitia or serous
(see Fig. 148).
development and structure. Thus, in the 1. The mucous
early stages of embryogenesis, organs of membrane, túnica
the mucósa, the tubular
covers
digestive, respiratory and organs of a inside and consists of the organs
from
lower section of the following layers
form one urogenital apparatus (from the inside out): epithelium, lamina
system. By structure, internal
organs can be divided into propria, and lamina muscularis mucosae.
tous and hollow parenchyma-
(tubular). the epithelium of the mucous
Parenchymatous organs consist of membrane, epithelium mucósae,
parenchyma and stroma. iS
represented by the following
specific, inherent to specific Functionally possible types: non-keratinized
belong to parenchvma organ
gdn cells
elong parenchyma. cStroma
structed by fibrous iscon-
stratified squamous (lines the
oral cavity,
(loose
connective tissue, which or
reticular) pharynx, esophagus,
often terminal segment of the rectum).
thickened trabeculae forms
from the fibrous (septa) that arise transitional (lines renal calyces,
tive tissue) (dense regular connec- ureters, urinary bladder, initial
its skeleton.
capsule of the
organ, forming section of the urethra), simple
Stroma, besides C0
and mechanical protective supporting umnar (lines small and large inte
also tine, gallbladder, trachea);
performs trophic and functions, simple
protective im- Cuboidal (lines bronchi, excretory
ducts of glands).
206
Study of the
Internal Organs-
Splanchology (SPI ANICLMU
 mina propria of the mucous gitudinále). The striated muscle tissue is
nembrane, lámina própria mucó- present in
of looseconnective separate places (at the initial
isa layer and terminal sections) of the digestive
thatserves as the basis for
sae,

tract (oral cavity,

tissue
and contains blood tion of
pharynx, the upper por-
epithelium esophagus, anus),
urogenital tract. Thanks to and
the
and lymph
vessels, nerves, and excretory
the muscular
coat the size of the lumen of
glands the diges-
gland, glándula
(Gr. aden, where tive tract,
respiratory and excretory uro-
The from "inflam genital tracts can change involuntarily (if
-

term'adenitis derives
the gland'), secretes into the non-striated muscle fibers form this
ion of organ mucus or di- lay-
the hollow
lumen oft er) or voluntarily (if striated muscle fibers
juices. Goblet cells, which are uni- torm this layer). A wave-like contraction
estive

glands, lie
in lamina propria and of the muscular coat of the intestines is
ellular of the called a peristalsis.
the cells of the epithelium
and the multicellular
betwee

nembrane, 3. Adventitia, túnica adventítia (Lat.

m u c o u s

found in the submucosa. The adventitia- external, outside), is formed

alands are by a loose fibrous connective tissue and
hicellular glands by shape are divided
tubular and tu- contains vessels and nerves. Adventitia
into alveolar (saccular),
structure into simple -

COvers the organs and connects them

huloalveolar, by
alveolus or tubule) and with the surrounding formations.
composed by one
of a complex of alve- Most organs of the abdominal cavity,
compound (consist the lungs, and the heart are not covered
oli and tubules
and have developed ex-

Cretory duct), by
function into mucous -

externally with adventitia but with the

serous coat, túnica serósa. It is a moist,
epithelio-
(secrete mucus that protects smooth and slippery outer membrane,
secretion
cytes), serous (secrete a watery which is constructed of its lamina propria
and serous-mucous
containing enzymes) of fibrous connective tissue) and
(a layer
(mixed) glands. mesothelium (simple squamous epitheli-
the lamina muscularis mucosae,
is a um). Mesothelium produces a
serous flu-
lámina musculáris mucósae, of the
fibers, id that facilitates the reciprocal slip
layer of non-striated muscle envelope, there
organs. Under the
serous
the contraction of which causes
connective tissue called
is a layer of loose
the formation of folds of the mu-
the subserous layer (téla subserósa
COus membrane.
Submucosa, téla submucosa, con-
SIsts of loose fibrous connective tissue The plan of the description
and contains blood and lymph vessels, (studying) of internal organs
contains
nerves, glands. The submucosa After the name of the organ, description
ymph nodes and single lymphocytes. function and giving some

he mucous membrane due to the pres- of its shape, usu-

weight, quantity),
data (size,
which digital (Gr. tópos-
nce of the submucosa may move, ally itslocation or topography
leads to the formation of folds of the mu- determined.
COus membrane. a place) is in anat
definition of topography
fhe skeleto-
. Muscular coat, túnica musculáris, definitions of
includes the
uSually consists of two layers of non- stri omy of the organ.
and holotopy
ated muscle fibers, separated by a thin Py, syntopy, interrelation of
the organ
Skeletopy is the Syn-
Conhective tissue layer: an internal cir
structures.
bone
an with surrounding of an organ
uar layer (strátum circuláre) and topy
describes the location

external longitudinal layer (strátum lon

áCI 207
relative to neighboring organs. Holotopy
defines the position and projection of the
21
organ on the corresponding regions and
body cavities.
After the topography, the external
structure of the organ (parts, surfaces,
borders, etc) is described and then its
-

internal structure. Finally, the data con-

cerning the development of the organ
(possible developmental defects), its 20
blood supply and innervation are provid-
ed. 19
18
Alimentary System
Digestive system (alimentary appara 17
tus), systéma digestórium (apparátus al-
imentárius), is a complex of organs that
mechanically and chemically process the
food, absorb the products of its
and remove the cleavage
undigested residues. The l6

digestive system consists of an alimen-

tary canal (canális alimentáris) and
di
gestive glands. The digestive tract begins
15
with the mouth -9
(os), includes the phar-
ynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestine and ends with an anus 14
The (Fig. 132).
length of the digestive tract reaches
9 m. The largest 13 12
liver, pancreas anddigestive glands are the
10
major salivary glands.
11
Oral cavity Fig. 132. Scheme of a
organs: position the diges
of
tive systm
The oral
cavity, cávitas
óris (the term 1- oral
glands; 2
stomatology is derived from stomach; 4- cardialesophagus;
-

3-fundus of
meaning "mouth"), consists of Gr. stóma 5- body of part of stomach
tions two sec- stomach; 6-
oral separated by gums and teeth the stomach; 7- pancreas; pyloric part of
vestibule and oral
gingiva is a mucous cavity proper. The
9
11-
descending colon; 108-jejunum,
- sigmoid colon,
facing to themembrane
ers the that cov- rectum; 12 ileum; 13 -
appendix
-

14
of the jaws. oral cavity caecum; 15 -
transverse colon,
surfaces 16-ascending colon; 17 duodenum, -

18- gallbladder; 19-

Oral vestibule 20-the left lobe of the right lobe of live
liver; 21 oral cavity -

The oral
vestibule, vestibulum óris,
slit-like space, and gums from the inside. The oral
is
-

and cheeks located erween between the lipsa

the tibule is connected with ves
the environment
from the lips
outside, and teeth, through the oral fissure (rima óris)
rounded by the su (rimuth
208 lips. hen the mouth is
Study the
of
Internal Organs-Splanchology (SRL OLI
 stibule is connected with Oral cavity proper
closea
through the narrow
proper

o r a
cavity
between the
teeth, and through a The oral cavity proper, cávitas óris
the

fissures behind
th last tooth and in própria, is limited anteriorly and laterally
space mandibulae. by the gums and teeth, superiorly-bythe
larger amus
the
the formation, palate, and inferiorly -by the floor ofthe
bia óris, are
of
Thelips, lábic
front

he orbicularis oris, oral cavity (Fig. 133, 162).

which is based

ith
redexternally with the skin, and in- From behind, the oral cavity is con
the mucous membra nected to the pharynx through the fauces.
tenally with
vermilion The fauces, fáuces, is an opening that
part (reddish
iate
connects the mouth with the pharynx
The intermediat

a non-ke-
lips is covered by
zone)
the
of
stratifiec
without
epithelium Fig. 134). It is bounded superiorly by the
ratinized
lands, through which
the fibers of the soft palate, inferiorly by the root of the
orbicularis oris are visi- tongue, laterally by the palatoglossal
of the and palatopharyngeal arches. The isth-
abial partThe upper lip, labium supérius,
mus of fauces, ísthmus faúcium, is the
ble partly. increase on the front surface
and
has a slight tubercle (tubérculum). space between the two palatoglossal
middle
palatopharyngeal arches. Palatoglossal
-

in the along
on the skin extending
The groove to the nasal arch (anterior pillar of fauces), árcus
from the tubercle is a
the midline (philtrum); palatoglóssus (plíca antérior faúcium),
called the philtrum
septum is
due to the droplets
fold of mucous membrane that connects

this name appeared the soft palate with the root of the tongue;
to be more pro-
of sweat that appear face in this place). at the base of this arch,
the muscle of the
nounced on the sweaty arch
same name lies. Palatopharyngeal
to the lower lip
The upper lip passes (posterior pillar of fauces),
árcus pala
the angles of mouth faúcium) is
(lábium inférius) in commis- topharyngeus (plíca postérior
a labial
ángulus óris), forming a fold of the
mucous membrane
that con-
sure (comissúra
labiórum) in this place. with the pharyngeal
nects the soft palate
and lower lip
Two frenula of upper lip the muscle
wall; at the base of this arch,
(frénulum lábii superióris/inferióris) ex of the same name lies. Between the pala-
lower lips to the
tend from the upper and arches,
median line.
toglossal and palatopharyngeal
gums along the there is the tonsillar fossa,
fóssa ton-
that forms
The complex of soft tissues tonsil (tonsilla
consists of silláris, where the palatine
the basis of the cheek (búcca) palatina) is located.
and masseter muscles, and
a
buccinator divides the oral
The palate, palátum,
buccal fat pad that are covered externally between each other.
It
and nasal cavities The
With skin, and internally with a mucous and soft palate.
-

consists of the hard

membrane. On the mucous membrane
dúrum, forms the
of the cheek close to the second upper hard palate, palátum
and is the bony
anterior part of the palate
molar, there is a papilla of parotid duct which covered on both
is
surfaces

papilla dúctus parotíde), through which plate, membrane. The mucous

with the mucous

the excretion of the parotid gland gets color,
of the palate has pink
a
membrane
into the oral vestibule. The buccal fat
fused densely with perios
is thick, and is
pad (Bichat's) (córpus adipósum búccae su-
the bony median palatine
teum. Along
[Bichat)) is formed by an adipose tissue, rise of the m u c o u s
membrane
-

located between the buccinator and mas- ture, is a

palatine raphe, ráphe

paláti, from the
seter muscles and skin. This fat pad is well transverse
anterior section of which the
developed in infants, in which it facilitates transvér-
the act of sucking milk. palatine folds (plicae palatinae

Alimentary System 209

 Fig. 133. Sagittal section of the
and neck: head
34
1-concha nasi inferior;
2-concha nasi media;
3 concha nasi superior;
4 recessus sphenoethmoidalis:
5 sinus sphenoidalis;
6-hypophysis cerebri
9 7-tonsilla pharyngealis;
10
8-torus tubarius; 9- membrana
atlantooccipitalis anterior;
11 10-arcus anterior atlantis;
29 12
11 palatum molle;
12 tonsilla palatina;
13 13-arcus palatopharyngeus;
-14 14 m . genioglossus; 15-epiglottis
15
16-plica aryepiglottica;
17 tuberculum cuneiforme;
18 arytenoideus transversus;
m.

28 21
17 19-cartilago cricoidea;
20 oesophagus;
25- -18
21 glandula thyroidea; 22-trachea:
24- 19 23 m. sternohyoideus;
23- 24 cartilago thyroidea;
-20 25-plicavocalis; 26-os hyoideum;
22
27 m. geniohyoideus;
28 m. mylohyoideus;
21-
29 vestibulum oris;
30- cavitas oris propria;
31-vestibulum nasi
32- limen nasi; 33 -
34 sinus frontalis
agger nasi
14

Fig. 134. Oral cavity, cavitas

oris (anterior view):
1-arcus dentalis superior;
3
13 2-raphe palati;
12 4 3-palatum molle;
4- arcus palatoglossus;

11
5-tonsilla palatina;
6-frenulum linguae;
7-gingivae;
10 8-labium inferius;
9-frenulum labii inferioris;
10- arcus dentalis inferior,
7 11-fauces;
12-uvula
13- palatum durum
14-labium superius
210
Study of the Internal
Organs -Splanchology (SPL ANCILOLQI
 tely. These folds.
pharynx and attaches to
neurosis. Function: it raisespalatine
e r g ea r c u a t

ridges, which are well apo-

alatine a soft
rns (in animals, they and pulls it palate
backward, widens the carti-
d e y e l o p e d i n n e w b o r n s

anical processing of
a c i i t a t e t h e m e c h a n i c a l

the palatal raphe ends

laginous part of the auditory tube, im-
front,
the proving the connection of the
in the
papilla (papilla
incisíva). cavity with the nasopharynx. tympanic
(od

th
an
i n c i s i

palate,
v e

paldtu mólle, forms vagus nerve. Innervation

The
soft
hird of the palate. Most 3 Musculus uvulae,
state is hangs
m. úvulae, is
unpaired muscle. It originates from the
the
posterior

ina relax
palate
o fthe y
oftwhy this part is
downwards,
that is posterior nasal spine and palatine apo-
asocalledpalatine
velum (vélum palatí- neurosis, extends to the back and down.
middle
of the free edge The muscle is attached to the
the mucous
num).in elongated appendage- membrane of the uvula. Function: it
thesoft
its
coftpalate,palatine is located. The ba- vates and retracts the uvula.
ele
úvula Innervation:
palate is formed by palatine vagus nerve.
Uvula

the soft striated muscle tissue. 4.

of
sponeurosis
s and Palatoglossal muscle, m. palato-
aponeurósis palatí- glóssus, paired, is situated in the thickness
Palatine aponeurosis,by the tendinous fi- of the arch of the same name. It
nisformed
mainly origi-
tensor veli palatini
muscle. nates from the transverse muscle of the
the
hers of the following tongue in its root portion, is attached to
The soft palate includes
the palatine aponeurosis. Function: mus-
muscles:

veli palatini, músculus tén- cle narrows the fauces, lifting the root of
1 Tensor
is a paired muscle. It orig- the tongue, lowering the soft palate and
Sor veli palatini, spine bringing the pillars to the median line. In
inates from a scaphoid fossa and a

and cartilaginous part nervation: vagus nerve.

of sphenoid bone, 5. Palatopharyngeal muscle, m. pal-
tube. The muscle passes
of the auditory
downwards over the superior
constric- atopharyngeus, is paired, triangular mus-
the pterygoid hamu- cle, that lies behind the previous muscle.
tor of pharynx to
lus of sphenoid bone, passes in a groove It originates from the lateral wall of the

of pterygoid hamulus and bends at a pharynx and the plate of thyroid carti-
straight angle medially. Tendinous fibers lage. It is attached by posterior fascicle
of the muscle diverge and interweave (fascículus postérior) to the palatine apo-
with the tendinous tendon fibers of the neurosis, torming a palatopharyngeal

opposite muscle, forming palatine apo- sphincter (m. sphíncter palatopharýn-

fascicle (fas-
neurosis. Function: the muscle stretches geus), and by the anterior
hamu-
the palatine aponeurosis and widens the cículus antérior) to the pterygoid
-

part of the auditory tube, lus and the medial plate of the pterygoid
artilaginous bone. Function:
with the
increasing of its lumen. Innerva- process of the sphenoid
raises the
tion: mandibular nerve. muscle narrows the fauces and
Levator veli palatini, m. levátor pharynx. Innervation: vagus nerve consists of:
ell palatini, is paired muscle, located The function of the soft palate
Dehind the previous muscle. It originates 1) closing of the nasophar
effective
swal-
m the lower surface of petrous part of ynx from the oropharynx during
une temporal bone anterior levator and tensor veli
open- to the lowing, when the velum to the
of
ing the carotid canal and from the car- palatini press the palatine
aginous part of the auditory tube. The lateral walls of the pharynx
posterior and of food or liq-
nUSCle extends downwards and medially, 2) dosage of portions and then
passing over the superior constrictor of uid that reach the oral cavity

Alimentary System 211

 lower jaws by means of a dento-alha
pass into the pharynx
and esophagus,
joint (or gomphosis). alveolar
The function
of solic food. the
when the palatoglossal
and palatopha- of the
of
teeth is the grinding
narrow the fauces; in hu-
ryngeal muscles the man, there are 2 changes of teeth:
to the root of
3) dense adjoining
when the uous teeth erupt first, and there aredecid-
calm condition,
tongue in a manent teeth in an adult By structure:
at the root of the and
uvula lies in the groove osition incisor teeth, canine
tongue, which prevents
the drooping of poS teeth,
molar and molar teeth are distinguished
pre-
vertical position of
the mandible in the Each tooth has three main parts: tho
the creation of a
the human body due to
negative pressure in the oral cavity, which crown coróna déntis) directed into ar
muscles. oral cavity, the root (rádix déntis), deen.
saves energy of masticatory
with ened into the alveolus of the jaw, and the
The oral cavity is lined internally
membrane of mouth, túnica small neck (cérvix déntis) is the narrow-
a mucous
consists of a non-ke- ing between the crown and the root cov
mucósa óris, which
ratinized stratified squamous epithelium ered by the gingiva (F1g. 135a). Part of the
and mixed glands. The mucous
mem- tooth above the gums is called the clin-
brane passes from the lips of oral ves-
ical crown (coróna clinica), and the part
tibule on the alveolar processes of the below the gingival margin- the clinical
maxilla and alveolar part of the mandible, root
(rádix clinica). The clinical root is lon-
covers the neck of the teeth and passes to ger than the clinical crown.
the inner surface, and from them - to the The tooth is mainly made of dentine
floor of the oral cavity inferiorly and to the (dentinum), a strong composite of inor
palate superiorly. The mucous membrane
that covers the periosteum of the alveolar
ganic (72%, preferably hydroxyapatte
crystals [crystállum hydroxyapatiti)) and
processes of the maxilla and the alveo-
lar part of the mandible is called gingiva
5
gingivo). The gingival mucous membrane
is thick and dense, rich in blood vessels,
but poor in nerve endings. The features
6
of the gingival mucosa are also that there
is no submucosa in it, and its lamina
pro
5
pria directly passes into the periosteum of
the alveoli. Gingiva continues on the neck
of the teeth, ending 4
by a gingival mar-
gin (márgo gingivális). Between the teeth, 2
the gingival margin thickens,
forming the
gingival (interdental) papillae (papíllae
gingiváles [interdentáles}). The gingival
groove, sulcus gingivális, is located be-
tween the gingival 3
margin and the teeth
(see Fig. 136). In some diseases of the Fig. 135. The external structure of permanen
teeth, this groove can be transformed teeth (dentes permanentes); lingual surtace
into a
gingival pocket. a-
molar tooth, dens molaris: 1 -cuspis
dentis; 2- radix dentis; 3 apex radicis
Teeth dentis; 4- cervix dentis; 5-facies oclusalls
b canine tooth, dens caninus:1- margo
The teeth, déntes, are
incisalis; 2 - crista marginalis; 3 - apex radio
fastened
strong formations
in the alveoli of the dentis; 4cingulum; 5- tuberculum dentis
upper and 6-facies lingualis
 substanc-
collagen fibers) incisális, from the borders of
nctlv
of dentin tubuless which maar
ginal ridges (crístae
a n i c( m o s t l y

margináles) descend
D e n t i n e c o n s i s t s

fwhich
i n s i d e of whi odonto- on the
lingual surface. The marginal
n i b u ud

es
i e
ntindles),
b l a s tp r o c e s s e s a r e
located, the bodies of es on the
lingual surface
ridg-
the pulp. The enamel, merge into a
ie in t h e
c r o w n of the tooth
cingulum (cingulum), over which a small
odontoblasts
covers thettissue
mélum, c o v e
tubercle (tubérculum déntis) is located
i s s u e of the human
s t r o n g e s t
(Fig. 135 b).
the 9 7 % of inorgan On the occlusal
is containing 96- surface of the crown of
and is nstructed the molar and
premolar teeth, the cusp
ubstances. The enamel

body

(prisma enaméli), each

prisma
enan

cúspis déntis, is distinguished, it is

enamel
prisms

with a dense mem- increase, in the amount from one to five.

a sharp
of w h i c h i s c o v e r e d

which protects the The cusps have an

of the prism,
of the prism from apex of cusp (ápex
droxyapatite crystals
b r a n e

cúspidis) and are joined with each other (if

influence of
food subbstances. more than one on one
hydro

c h e m i

the root of the

c a l
tooth) by ridges:
the
Ceme
um, covers
ceméntum transverse, triangular oblique (crís-
or
hich
whic is constructed of ta transversális/trianguláris/0blíqua). By
cement,
In
tooth.
histologically bone,
similar to location on molar and premolar teeth,
substance
S u t

periodonta ligament terminate, the following cusps are distinguished:

of
pers
strengthens the dento-alveolar buccal, palatal, lingual, mesiobuccal,
which
of t r a n s i t i o n of enamel into mesiopalatal, mesiolingual, distobuc-
ioint. The place on the neck of the tooth. cal,
cement is located of the tooth, the surfac- distopalatal, distolingual, and dis-
tal (cúspis buccális/palatinális/linguális/
On the crown
es are
described that are directed to:
the vestibular
mesiobuccális/mesiopalatinális/mesiolin-
1) oral vestibule
-

guális/distobuccális/distopalatinális/dis-
buccal or labial) surface, fácies ves- tolinguális/distális).
tibuláris (buccális s. labiális); The root (each root, if several), con-
tains the tooth apex (ápex rádicis déntis),
2tongue-the lingual (palatal) sur-

face, fácies linguális (palatinális); which has an apical foramen (forámen

3) same tooth of the opposite side ápicis déntis) (Fig. 136). The blood ves-
(upperor lower) the occlusal surface, sels and nerves pass into the cavity of
fúcies occlusális; the tooth through the apical foramen.
adjacenttooth the approximal
surface, fácies approximális. The follow-
The cavity of the tooth (pulp cavity),
cávitas déntis (pulpáris), is a cavity in the
ing surfaces are
approximal: dentine of the tooth, consisting of a pulp
mesial surface, fácies mesiális, cavity of crown (cávitas corónae) and
facing towards the closer tooth to root canal (canális rádicis déntis), and
thefirst incisor tooth (Gr. mesos contains a dental pulp. The root canal of
middle); the tooth opens by the apical foramen.
distal surface, fácies distális, fac The dental pulp, púlpa déntis, consists
ing towards the distant tooth from of crown pulp (púlpa coronális) and root
the first incisor
contact zone, área
tooth; pulp (púlpa radiculáris). The pulp is con-
structed of a loose connective tissue that
which
directly contingens,
contacts is pierced by blood vessels and nerves. It
cent tooth. the adja-
The space between is rich in cells (odontocytes, odontoblasts,
the adjacent teeth is denoted as a and fibroblasts) and performs a trophic
diastema, diastéma. function. In the molar and premolar teeth,
teethhecarries
crown of the
incisor and caninee there are buccal, palatal, mesiobuccal,
the incisal
margin, márgo mesiolingual, mesial, distal, and
acC

Alimentary System 213

 10

Fig. 136. Longitudinal

3 of the tooth: section
1-cavitas coronae;
4 2 sulcus gingivalis;
3-desmodontium,
4- cavitas dentis;
5-foramen apicis dentis;
6-canalis radicis dentis;
7-cementum;
8-periodontium;
9-dentinum;
6
10-enamelum

(rádix buccális/palatinális/
canine, two premolar and three molar
cessory roots teeth (Fig. 137) in each half of the unn
mesiobuccdlis/mesiolinguális/mesiális/
and lower dental arcade. The location of
distális/accessória).
surrounds and the teeth can be written in the form of
Acomplexoftissues that a dental formula, where the numerator
tooth in the jaw alveolus is called
fixes a
or dental represents the compOsition of the upper
periodontium (periodóntium) dental arcade, and the denominator-the
periosteum. The outer non-covered part lower one; the vertical line indicates the
of the gingiva is called the gum (periodón-
tium protectiónis lgingíva]). The inserting median plane:
periodontium, periodóntium insertiónis,
adjoins to the tooth and consists of gingi- 3212 2123
desmodentium. 321212123
vae, gingival groove, and
The desmodentium (or periodontal lig-
ament), desmodóntium, is a collection of The following formula is proposed tor
World
short connective tissue fibers, vessels, and denoting individual teeth by the
nerves that pass from the alveolus' wall to Health Organization (WHO):
the cement of dental root.
There are 32 permanent teeth, déntes
87654321 12345678
permanentes, in an adult. The teeth of the 87654321 12345678
maxilla together form the upper dental
arcade (maxillary dental arcade) (árcus
dentális supérior arcáde [árcus dentális The first digit in the two-digit number
second
maxilláris]), the lower jaw teeth - low- represents the half of the jaw, the
tooth. 50
er dental arcade (mandibular dental digit the order number ofthe
arcade) (árcus dentális inférior arcáde the number 34 indicates the
first premo
árcus dentális mandibuláris]). In the for- lar tooth of the left half of the lower jaw
mation of the upper and lower dental ar Incisor teeth, déntes incisivi, are
cades, 16 teeth, or 8 mirror symmetrical have a weag
cated most medially. They in u the
teeth on each side of the median plane shaped crown, which is bigger
are involved. There are two incisors, one of a snove
per teeth and has the shape

214 Study of the Internal Organs - Splanchology (SPLANCHNOLÓGIA)

 2
1

P e r m a n e n t
eeth,
tee: dentes permanentes:
37. arisivi: 3-dentes canini; 4, 5 - dentes premolares; 6, 7 , 8 -dentes molares
12-dentes
Fig. incisivi; 3

smaller in the lower ones and has rection. The smallest of them the last
anditis central molar tooth erupts latest, at 17-30
of a chisel There
are
shape years, so it is called the wisdom tooth
e

lateral incisors. The single

(medial) and conical shape, (third molar tooth), dens serotínus (dens
incisors has a
root of the sides. The function of the moláris tértius). Sometimes the wisdom
fattened on the tooth may be missing. There are from 3 to
or cutting pieces
incisor teeth shearing
is
5 cusps on the occlusal surface of molar
of food. teeth. The upper molar teeth have 3 roots:
déntes caníni, located
Canine teeth, two buccal and one palatal. Lower molar
incisors. They have the
laterally to the teeth have two roots: mesial and distal.
with other teeth, root,
longest, compared tooth is The shape of the crown and the num-
and crown. The upper canine
The vestibular ber of roots of the wisdom tooth vary (its
larger than the lower one. roots often merge into one), which in-
can
surface of the canine is convex, and
the
dicates, as well as their lack in
some peo-
Sometimes
ingual one slightly concave.
of these teeth
the root of the lower canine tooth is bitur- ple, the gradual reduction molar teeth is
Cated at the apex. Canine teeth are adapt- in humans. The function of
ed for holding and cutting of the food. to grind food.
Deciduous teeth, déntes decídui,
are
Premolar teeth (premolars or bicus
similar in shape and structure
to perma-
pids), déntespremoláres, are found behind nent teeth but have
smaller dimensions.
the canine teeth. On their occlusal surface, teeth in a child. On
There are no premolar
nere are two cusps: one bigger on the each side of the
dental arcade, there
are
Duccal side and the other smaller- on the canine and two
molar
ingual side. The root is cone-shaped, the two incisors, one
teeth (milk molars).
TUpper premolar tooth can sometimes is
20 of milk teeth
ave two roots. The function of premolar Tooth formula of
teth is written as follows:
grinding
the food.
Molar teeth (molars), déntes moláres, 2012 2102
lOcated behind the premolar teeth. 2012 2102
eir size
decrea in the backward di-

Alimentary System
215
 The designation of milk teeth is based in the tissues of the teeth)
on the following WHO formula: the enamel (manifested
of
hyperplasi of
by the prese
enamel drops on the neck
hypoplasia of the enamel the to
of
VNMni|imV V
V M ni|inm V
the (manifester
presence of yellow or brown
8
the enamel); spots on
2) of the the location of the
The teeth eruption, which is accom-
supraocclusion (the upper teeth teeth
panied by gradual thinning of the gums, reach the occlusal surface of do not
their rupture and the appearance of the dental arcade), the lu
lower
crown of the tooth in the oral cavity, often infraocclusion
teeth do not reach the (the lower
Ner
trouble children. Replacement of perma- of the upper dental occlusal surfaca
arcade), otated
nent teeth begins at the age of 6 years. (rotation of the tooth around tooth
The order and time of eruption have sig- crowding (cluster of teeth); its axis,
nificant individual differences and can be 3) of the number of
presented in this way. tia (increased number ofteeth-hyperdon-
teeth),
Deciduous teeth eruption dates: tia (reduced number of teeth),hypodon-
adentig
.Medial incisor teeth-6-8 months. (no teeth);
Lateralincisor teeth-7-9 months. 4) of the size of the teeth-macrodon-
Firstmolar - 12-15 months. tia, microdontia, double teeth,
C a n i n e teeth - 16-20 months.
5) of the shape of teeth-
Second molar-20-24 months. tooth (the first upper incisor Hutchinson's
tooth has a
notch on the occlusal edge), a conical
Permanent teeth eruption dates: (peg
shaped) tooth, a barrel-shaped tooth, etc.
First molars-6-7 years. The arrangement of the
Medial incisor teeth-7-8 years. upper and
lower dental arcades at the closure of the
Lateral incisor teeth -8-9 years. teeth is called occlusion (mórdex). At the
First premolar teeth-10-12 years. tightest closing of the teeth, each of the
Canine teeth 10-13 years.
-

teeth of the maxilla touch the same teeth

The second oremolarteeth -12-14 of the mandible and the adjacent (the lat
years. eral-for the front teeth or the posterior-
Second molar teeth -

13-16 years. for the posterior teeth) tooth of the man-

Third molar teeth 17-30 years.
-

dible (except upper third molar tooth)

An eruption of teeth in girls occurs The most widespread version of the
somewhat earlier than in boys. Delay physiological occlusion is the one where
or violation of the order of
teething can the upper incisors protrude somewhat in
mean that the body of the child lacks vita- front of the lower incisors and cover them
mins and microelements, and it can be a Gt.
partially (physiological prognathism,
sign of rickets. In elderly people, there is a pro - forward, gnáthos - jaw). Less com
loss of permanent teeth. The third mon is the physiological progenism (o1.
change
of teeth happens very rarely. genéion- chin) when the lower incisors
Abnormalities in the development of are located in front of the upper one, and
teeth are characterized by a violation of the physiological orthognathism (or zero
their structure, location, quantity, size, bite) when the incisor teeth join by the
and shape. One can distinguish the fol-
lowing anomalies:
cutting edges. Pathological prognathis
IS characterized by excessive develop
1) of the structure of the teeth-fluo-
rosis (insufficiency of fluoride and calcium ment of the maxilla or the presence ora
underdeveloped mandible. In this case

216 Study of the Internal Organs-Splanchology (SPLANCHNOLÓGIA)

 significantly protruded for The tongue is
maxilla between the anterior
an
oval-elongated
Warda n dc o n t a c t shaped organ (Fig. 138). The big anterior
a b s e n t .
Pathological progenism,
Pathr
part of the tongue is called the body of
i5 occurs when the lower jaw
eeth
b yc o n t r a s t
tongue (córpus línguae), and the poste-
upper. At pathological rior one is the root of
outgrowst h e
isturbed. These can
is distu
tongue (rádix lín-
chewing guae). The tongue anteriorly ends with
CMSIOnons, occurwith
y some diseas- the apex of tongue
ereditary
or
(e.g, to sit supporting
(ea.
(ápex línguae). The
habits margin of tongue (márgo linguae) con-
and bad with your hands). tacts with the teeth and it is the
es
helowerjaw
by the boundary
upper teeth are supplied between its upper and lower surfaces.
The
and pposterior
middle
o andalveolar The upper surface or dorsum
anterior
(the
branches maxillary ar-
of the tongue, dórsum linguae, is convex,
branch-
thelowerteeth-by the rough, it touches the palate. The shal-
arteries

teny)
andinferior alveolar artery. Venous low median sulcus of
ofthe
tongue, súlcus
es drainec through the veins of the mediánus linguae, passes on the mid-
blood is the facial vein and the line of the dorsum of the
same names
o
tongue. The
hervgoid plexus. Lymph is drained from
to the submental, submandib-
thelarteeth
and further - to the deep cervical 14
teeth are innervated
nodes. The upper
the infraorbital nerve
hv the branches ofbranch of the trigeminal 13
(from the second
nerve)-the superior anterior, middle and
that form the
posterior alveolar nerves
dental plexus situated above the
superior
teeth. The lower teeth are innervated by
the branches of the lower alveolar nerve
(from the third branch of the trigeminal
nerve), which form the inferior dental
plexus. 12
11 6
Tongue
The tongue, língua, (gr. glóssa), is a mus-
Cular organ that, when sleeping, fills the
proper oral cavity wholly. It belongs to the
igestive system and performs the func 10
tions:
1) mixing of the food and moving it
from one part of the oral Fig. 138. Tongue, lingua (superior view):
cavity to anoth- 1-plica glossoepiglottica mediana;
er
2-vallecula epiglottica;3 radix linguae;
2) articulate language (most of the
4-foramen caecum linguae; 5- sulcus
SOunds are
pronounced with the partici- terminalislinguae; 6 sulcus medianus
-

pation of the tongue); linguae; 7 - corpus linguae; 8- papillae

)the peripheral organ
mucous membrane
of taste (the filiformes;9-apexlinguae; 10-papilla
the covering tongue fungiformis; 11 papillae foliatae;
contains taste buds). Babies use the 12-papillae vallatae; 13- tonsilla lingualis;
Tongue for sucking milk. 14-epiglottis

Alimentary System 217

 transverse groove, which is directed per- form a billow with7-12 papillae tha
median súlcus of the cated in front of
terminal sulcus a lo
a
pendicularly to the
tongue, originates
from it to the margins ramen caecum. The vallata dfo-
of the tongue, is called the
terminal sul- quite big in size iameter ispapillae
2-3 r are
each of them has a
cus of tongue (súlcus
terminális línguae).
concentric mm),
and furrow and a platen (Fig.
Anterior (presulcal) part (pars antérior 139). Tas
(presulcális]) is located anteriorly
to the buds are located between Taste
terminal sulcus of the tongue, and pos of the fungiform, foliataeepitheliocu
cytes
terior (postsulcal) part (pars postérior
and vallate
papillae. They are also conic papillae.atae
[postsulcális]) posteriorly to the same
-

pillae cónicae (a kind of pa-

liform papillae
groove. The deepening
in point of joint of slightly larger than them) and lentiform
the median and terminal sulci is called the papillae, papíllae lentifórmes (similar to
foramen caecum of tongue (forámen fungiform papillae).
cáecum línguae), which is the remnant of There are four main
sensations
the embryonic thyroglossal duct (dúctus taste a
sweet, salty, sour andof
feeling of
thyroglossális). bitter. The sweet taste is felt better
on the
The mucous membrane of the anterior apex of the tongue, bitter taste in
the
-

part of the dorsum of the tongue forms area of vallatae and foliate
papillae, salty
small protrusions papillae of tongue, on the root of the tongue, SOur
o n the
papillae linguáles. According to the shape middle part of the dorsum of the
and location papillae of the tongue are The plaque containing microbes is
tongue
ac-
subdivided into four main types. cumulated between the papillae of the
Filiform
papillae, papillae filifórmes, are the most tongue during the day. It is necessary to
numerous and the smallest among the clean the tongue as well the teeth
every
other papillae, they perform just mechan-
ical (preventing slipping of the food on
day.
The lymphoid nodules, nóduli lym-
the dorsum of the tongue) and sensitive phoidel, are located in the submucosa of
nonspecific functions (nervous receptors the postsulcal part of the tongue. Aggre-
perceive the touch and pain). The fun- gation of these nodules forms the lingual
giform papillae, papíllae fungifórmes, tonsil (tonsilla linguális).
have rounded tops and narrowed bas- The inferior surface of tongue (täcies
es, they are located closer to the apex of of the tongue contains the fold of
the tongue. The foliate papillae, papíl- inferior)
the mucous membrane along the median
lae foliátae, form of vertical folds in the line called frenulum of tongue, frénulum
back part of the margins of the tongue. lingúae, it is clearly visible at the raised
The vallate papillae, papíllae vallátae tip of the tongue (Fig. 140). Rudimentary

2 3
Fig. 139. Lingual papillae, papillae linguales:
. 4

1-papilla fungiformis; 2- papilla vallata; 3 papilla

-

filiformis; 4 papilla conica;

lentiformis 5- papld

218 Study of the Internal Organs - Splanchology (SPI ANCHNNOLÓCIN

 1. The superior longitudinal
cle, músculus longitudinális supérior, is
mus
placed under the dorsum of the tongue.
Muscle originates from the root of the
tongue, attaches to aponeurosis of the tip
of the tongue. Function: muscle shortens
the tongue, raises the tip; during the uni-
ateral contraction it moves the tip of the
tongue laterally.
2. The inferior longitudinal mus-
cle, m. longitudinális inférior, adjoins the
lower surface of the tongue. Muscle orig
inates from the root of the tongue. It is
attached to aponeurosis of the tip of the
tongue. Function: muscle shortens the
tongue, pulls the tip downward; during a

unilateral contraction it moves the tip of

surface of the tongue, the tongue laterally
Inferior
Fia. 140. (anterior view):
inferior linguae
facies frenulum linguae;
1-apex linguae; 2- caruncula
sublingualis; 4
3-plica fimbriata
sublingualis; 5-plica

fímbriáta, passes
fimbriated fold, plica later
end of the frenulum
from the upper
backward parallelly to the margin
ally and fold, plíca sub-
of the tongue. Sublingual 12
the lower end of the
linguális, passes from the an-
11-
frenulum laterally and backward, 10
contains a rounded
terior end of the fold
membrane-sub-
elevation of the mucous
sublinguális.
lingual caruncle, carúncula
The basis of the tongue
consists of 3
muscular and connective tissue. The con
the mu-
nective tissue is impacted under
cOUs membrane, forming here a lingual 8
Im-
aponeurosis (aponeurósis linguae).
pacted connective tissue forms lingual
median
septum (séptum linguae) in the
plane. mm. linguae:
Muscles of tongue, mm. línguae, are Fig. 141. Muscles of the tongue,

divided into intrinsic and extrinsic mus 1 dorsum linguae; 2-apex

linguae
m. genioglossus;
cles (Fig. 141). All muscles of the tongue 3 mandibula; 4
m. longitudinalis
are innervated by the hypoglossal nerve 5- m. geniohyoideus; 6
hyoglossus; 8-os hyoideum;
L.Intrinsic muscles of the tongue orig inferior; 7 m.
-

medius;
nate and insert in the thickness of
the 9 m. constrictor pharyngis
11- m. constrictor
Longue. These muscles change the shape 10 m. stylopharyngeus;
12 m. styloglossus
pharyngis superior;
-

of the tongue.

Alimentary System 219

 3. Transversemuscle, m. transvér tongue backward and
sus linguae, lies between two longitudi- unilateral contraction- upward,
laterally, during the
nal muscles. It originates from the lingual The tongue is
artery (the branch
supplied by the
septum. Muscle is attached to aponeuro of the externa
sis of the tongue margins. Function: mus- rotid artery). Blood
from the
ngualCa
cle narrows and elongates the tongue, drained by lingual vein ngue i
into
twists it into a tube. jugular vein. Lympha int an
vessels ernal
mental andpas
4 Vertical muscle, m. verticális liín- the submandibular,
guae, as the separate
bundles of fibers deep cervical lymph nodes ateral
extend from the dorsum to the lower s u r innervate mucous membrane Such nerv
face of the tongue, it is located between tongue: of
the
the fibers of the longitudinal and trans- 1) chorda tympani (a
verse muscles of the tongue. The pos- facial nerve [VII ranial branch of h.

innervation, and lingualnervel) tar

-

terior part of the fibers is a continuation

nerve
of the fibers of the genioglossus muscle. the mandibular nerve
[branch (fron
Vertical muscle of the tongue originates nerve] nonspecITIC
- V cr anial
from aponeurosis of the inferior surface of anterior two-thirds sensory
of the innervation
of the tongue. It is attached to aponeuro 2) glossopharyngeal nerve
tongue:
sis of the dorsum of the tongue. Function: nial nerve) innervates back a X Ca
third of the
muscle extends the tongue and makes it tongue, including the vallate
papillae;
flatter 3) superior laryngeal nerve (the branch
I Skeletal (extrinsic) muscles of the of the vagus nerve-X cranial nerve) inner
tongue originate from the bones of the vates the root of the tongue near the epi
skull. These muscles change the position glottis.
of the tongue.
1. Genioglossus,
m. génioglóssus,
originates from the mental spine of the
Glands of the mouth
mandible. The fibers of the muscle fan- The glands of the mouth
cifully diverge and insert in thickness (glándulae
óris) comprise minor and major salivary
of the tongue from apex to the root of glands the ducts of which are opened into
the tongue. Function: muscle pulls the the oral cavity (Fig. 142).
tongue forward and down. Minor
2.
salivary glands, glándulae
Hyoglossus, hyoglóssus, the
m.
salivatóriae minóres, are groups of mu
length is about 2 cm. It originates from cOsal and serous glands located in the
a body and
greater horn of hyoid bone. thickness of the mucous membrane and
Part of the fibers that
originate from submucosa of an oral cavity. According to
lesser horns forms
chondroglossus
(m. chondroglóssus), from greater
location minor salivary glands are subd
horns vided into such groups:
ceratoglossus (m. ceratoglóssus). The fi- 1) labial glands, glándulae (gll) la
bers of the muscles are inserted in thick
biales, mucous glands that are situatea
ness of the lateral parts of the and
lingual on the inner surfaces of the lips;
aponeurosis. Function: muscle pulls the 2) buccal glands, gl. buccáles, - the

tongue backward and down. contained in te

3.
mucous glands that are
Styloglossus, m.
styloglóssus, origi- inner surface of the cheek;
nates from styloid process and
stylohyoid
ligament. Muscular fibers interwove with 5) molar glands, qll. moláres, -bucthe
cal glands, that are grouped opposite
hyoglossus muscle in the lateral parts of last molar;
the tongue. Function: muscle
pulls the

220 Study of the Internal Organs Splanchology (SPLANCHNOLOGIA)

 1

25

24-

23
22
8
21-

20
19
10
18

17

16
12
15 14 13

oris:
the mouth, glandulae
Fig. 142. Glands of
accessoria; 3 -

ductus parotideus; 4-fascia parotidea;

masseter;
2-gl. parotidea profunda); 7 m.
-

1-m. buccinator; parotidea (pars submandibularis;

superficialis); 6- gl. 11- gl.
5-gl. parotidea (pars 10- m. stylohyoideus; anterior
m. digastrici; 15 v e n t e r
posterior
8-mandibula; 9-
venter
m. mylohyoideus;
14 gl. sublingualis; minores;
s u b m a n d i b u l a r i s ; 13 sublinguales
-

12 ductus
17 mandibula; 18-
ductus 22- lingua;
lingualis anterior;
-

16 m. geniohyoideus; sublingualis; 21-gl.

m. digastrici;
20 caruncula -

19-ductus sublingualis major; buccales

23-labium superius; 24 gl. labiales; 25-gll.
glándulae sal-
glands,
Major salivary paired parenchy-
palatinae,
4) palatine glands, gl. on the pal- ivatóriae majóres, are
the external
located the glands of
glands function-
TWO groups of
matic organs,
structural and the
ate on both sides of the
median line; secretion, the
gl. linguáles,that which is a lobule
lingual glands,mixed
5) al unit of ducts of major
salivary
glands
and Excretory oral cavity
mucous, serous mem- into the
the m u c o u s are opened parot-
are contained beneath mixed
glands comprise the
cluster of glands
Drane of the tonque. The
of the Major salivary and sublingual
glands.
thelower surface submandibular
parotidea-
ingual glands on id, glândula
is often called ante 1. Parotid gland, type,
ongue near the apex gland of
serous

(Nuhn gland), glandu-

alveolar
compound secret. She is
nor lingual gland excretes liquid protein
la linguális antérior [Nuhn). that

Alimentary System 221

221
 of the buccal re tubular gland of
mixed, mai
located in the back
area

the ramus of type. It is located in

gion behind and laterally
the mandible.
to
Parotid masseteric
fascia gle almost comple submandibulaar serous
on the trhan-
of the gland, the bun-
face of the mylohyoid loweer sur-
forms the capsules
tissue pass from the
terior part of the gland muscle. The
he pos-
dles of connective bends behind the
back margin of the mylohya
thickness of the organ's
capsule into the
sends mus On
parenchyma into lob- the upper surtace and
fibers that divide the retromandibu- mandibular (Wharton's) off t sub.
ules. External carotid artery, duct Subma
auriculotemporal nerves submandibuláris Vhartonj). (d
lar vein, facial and
the thickness of the gland.
dibular duct passes forw nan-
pass through face of the sublingual gland on the Sur-
Facial nerve is branching into terminal and
forms sublingual caruncle. oper on
motor branches in the gland and
in relation to which Submandibular gland is
glandular branches of the supplied
the parotid plexus,
parotid gland is divided into the su-
the
and the venous blood is drained
facial arte
perficial part (pars superficiális) by
deep part (pars profúndus). Excretory Lymphatic vessels are opened facial ver
to the suh.
parotis duct (Stenon), dúctus parotídeus mandibular nodes. Facial artery and
(Stenon), 6-7 cm in length, passes from submandibular lymph nodes adjoinvein,to
the front edge of the gland forward un- the outer surface of the
surface The gland is innervated
submandibular
der the zygomatic arch on outer
of the masseter till anterior margin of the
gland. by sensory
branches of lingual nerve (from the
muscle, bends medially, penetrates the division of the trigeminal nerve);
third
para-
buccinators and opens by the papilla in sympathetic fibers of chorda tympani of
oral vestibule. Accessory parotid gland, the facial nerve supply
secretory inner
glándula parotídea accessória, often lies vation, sympathetic fibers of the external
on the surface of the masseter close to carotid plexus reach the gland along the
parotid duct. facial artery.
Movements of the mandible during
3.Sublingual gland, glandula sub-
chewing sort of are massaging the pa- linguális,-a little compound alveolar- tu
rotid gland, contributing to secretion. In- bular gland of mixed, mainly serous type.
flammation of the parotid gland
(paroti-
tis) is manifested by swelling ahead of the
It lies on an upper surface of mylohyoid
muscle under the mucous membrane of
ear behind the
mandible and sharp pain
during chewing. the sublingual Major sublingua
fold.
The parotid duct,dúctus sublinguális májor, opens on
gland is supplied the
parotid branch of the superficial by the sublingual caruncle close to the sub
ral artery. The venous tempo- mandibular duct (sometimes ducts open
blood is drained by Together). Minor sublingual ducts, duc
retromandibular vein.
pass to the same names Lymphatic
vessels tus sublinguales minores, about 10-12 0
lymph
gland is innervated by sensory nodes. The
number, open along the sublingual
rou

nal branches of cognomi- till sublingual caruncle.

auriculotemporal
(from the third division of the nerve Sublingual gland is supplied by aSuD
nerve), by parasympathetic trigeminal lingual artery (a branch of thelingua
the branches of
glossopharyngeal nerve via otic gan-
glion, by
tery). Venous blood is drained by cog
minal vein. Lymphatic vessels pass tothe
sympathetic
external carotid plexus.branches from the The
The
submandibular and mental nodes.ches
2.
Submandibular gland, glándula asgland is innervated by the same bra
submandibuláris, -
as the submandibular
compound alveolar- gland.
glana.
 during swallowing and at the various
P h a r y n x

movements of the head.

is the hollow organ, 14
hollow In accordance with the structures that
The
pharynx which carries food and are located the front of the pharynx, the
length,
in of it digestive and respira-
16
cm
part
organ is subdivided into the nasal, oral
is
airandapparatu
of ahuman. The pharynx and laryngeal parts of the pharynx.
it slocateddin front
ory of the bodies of cervi- The nasopharynx, pars nasális

rtebrae from the base of the skull to pharyngis, located at the level -II of the
cal 6th cervical vertebra, and cervical vertebrae behind the choanae.
the
level ofhtinues Vault of pharynx, fórnix pharýngis, ad-
the
below contir
into the oesophagus
Pharyngooesophageal Con joins to the external base of the skull in
(Fig. 143).
the place of transi- front of the foramen magnum. This part
striction is situated In
pharynx
into the oesophagus. of the pharynx is never close up, so the
tion of the is separated
from the back- pharyngeal cavity, cávitas pharýngis,
The pharynx lon- freely connected with the environ-
posterior to anterior) by
bone (from the ment through choanae and nasal cavity
and longus colli muscles,
qus capitis
orevertebral layer
of cervical fascia and (Fig. 144a). The nasopharynx is connect
tissue retropharyngeal ed with middle ear through the auditory
loose connectiveretropharyngeum), which tube that opens to the lateral wall by the
space (spatium nodes. pharyngeal opening of auditory tube
retropharyngeal lymph
contains
Vascular-nervous bundles
of the neck (óstium pharýngeum túbae auditívae
tissue of pharyn-
lateral [auditóriae]). Torus tubarius limits this
and adipose the
space (spatium opening, the torus is formed by protru-
geal (parapharyngeal [parapharyngeum])
sion of cartilaginous part of the auditory
lateropharyngeumm
both sides of the pharynx. tube. Torus tubarius continues downward
are located on
Retropharyngeal and lateropharyngeal obliquely into a salpingopharyngeal
each other and are called
fold (plíca salpingopharýngea), it con-
spaces connect tains in the base the same name muscle.
as peripharyngeal space
(spátium peri-
loose con- Torus levatorius (of the levator vel-
pharyngeum). The presence of downward
nective tissue allows moving the pharynx li palatine muscle) passes
backbone
and anteriorly in front of the pharyngeal
relatively to the cervical part of

Fig. 143. The scheme of the

crossing of the respiratory
and digestive tracts.
3 palatum molle;
2 pars nasalis pharyngis;
3 pars oralis pharyngis;
4 4-pars laryngea pharyngis;
5 -oesophagus;
6 cavitas laryngis;
7 lingua
8-palatum durum;
9-cavitas nasi

Alimentary System 223

 11 4

10

(posterior view):
Fig. 144. Pharynx torus tubarius; 3 choanae; 4-uvula
-

1 basis cranit, 2-
- radix

a - cavity of the
pharynx:
-

7- oesophagus; 8-recessus piriformis: g aditus

linguae; 6-plica
n. laryngei superioris;
11 -fornix pharyngis.
laryngis; 10- epiglottis;
constrictor pharyngis superior; 2-m. stylopharynge
geus
of the pharynx: 1 m.
-

b-muscles
m. pterygoideus
medialis; 5
-

m. constrictor pharyngis mediue

us,
3-m. stylohyoideus; 4
6-m. constrictor pharyngis
inferior; 7 oesophagus

and torus epiglottis: odd median glossoepiglot

opening of the auditory tube, tic fold, plíca glossoepiglóttica medi
continues to the palate as the salpingo-
na, and a paired lateral glossoepiglot
palatine fold (plíca salpingopalatina). tic fold, plíca glossoepiglóttica lateralis
Pharyngeal recess, recéssus pharýngeus Paired depression epiglottic vallecula
from
(Rosenmüller), is located posteriorly situated between
torus tubarius. Pharyngeal tonsil,
tonsíl vallécula epiglóttica,
transi- these folds.
la pharyngeális, is located at the
A crossing of the respiratory andd
tion of the upper wall of the pharynx into in the oropharynx
gestive tracts occurs
posterior one. Paired tubal tonsil, tonsílla the lar
tubária, is located on the side wall of the (see Fig. 143). During swallowing the la
closes
pharynx between the opening of the au- ynx is lifted, the epiglottis
soft palate separates
ditory tube and soft palate. Three pharyn- ryngeal inlet, and the
oropharyn
nasopharynx from the
geal tonsils with three tonsils of oral cavi- the
reaches the laryngo
ty form the pharyngeal lymphoid ring. hence food or liquid
the oesophagus.
The oropharynx, pars orális pharungis, pharynx and then in
located at the level of I cervical vertebra The laryngopharynx, la
pars
located at the level or
behind the oral cavity, and connected with gea pharýngis,
behind thelar
last through the fauces. Three folds locat c e r v i c a l vertebrae
with a caviy
connects
ed between the root of the tongue and ynx. The pharynx

224 Studyofthe Internal Organs -Splanchology (SPLANCHNOLÓGIA)

 through the laryngeal inlet.
the larynx pterygoid process to the posterior
of superior laryngeal nerve, plíca margin of the mandible;
superic on mucous mem-
n
larýngei
ownward obliquely on
mylopharyngeal part, pars my-
rane,
passes lopharyngea, originates from the
from the laryngeal inlet, it is
oth sides
both
posterior part of the mylohyoid
formed by the superior laryngeal artery line of the mandible;
branch.of superior larynge-
andinternal
There is quite deep paired piri-
glossopharyngeal part,pars
al
nerve.
glossopharýngea, originates from
recéssus irifórmis, laterally
receess, the root of the tongue.
form
from this fold. Some extraneous bodies 2. Middle constrictor, m. constríctor
(shells of seeds,fish bones, etc.) can get pharýngis médius, consists of two parts:
chuick during swallowing in this recess. the chondropharyngeal part (pars
wall is
constructed chondropharýngea) and ceratopharyn-
The pharyngeal
outer adventitious, middle mus- geal part (pars ceratopharýngea) that
from the
cular and inner
mucous membranes. In originate from lesser and greater horns of
the upper part
of the nasopharynx, con- the hyoid bone respectively and attached
nective tissue layers of the wall form the to the pharyngeal raphe.
pharyngobasilar fascia (fáscia pharyn- 3. Inferior constrictor, m. constric-
gobasiláris). There are no muscles in this tor pharýngis inférior, consists of two
olace. The internal circular layer of mus- parts: thyropharyngeal part (pars thy-
cular membrane forms the constrictor
ropharýngea) and cricopharyngeal part
muscles of the pharynx, and the external (pars cricopharýngea), which originate
longitudinal layer forms elevator muscles from with a thyroid and cricoid cartilages
of the pharynx. of the larynx, respectively, and attach to
There are superior, middle and inferior the pharyngeal raphe.
constrictors (see Fig. 144b). Their fibers The function of constrictors is a suc-
pass from front backward, grasp arched cessive narrowing of the pharyngeal cav-
the pharynx and connect the bundiles of ity from up to down that pushes a bolus
the opposite side muscles, forming on to the oesophagus. Constrictors are in-
the back wall of the pharynx in midline nervated by pharyngeal branches of the
the pharyngeal raphe (ráphe pharýngis). vagus nerve via pharyngeal plexus.
1. Superior constrictor, m. constric- Elevators of pharynx comprise sty-
tor pharýngis supérior, consists of four lopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus, and
parts that attached to the pharyngeal ra- palatopharyngeus muscles.
phe: 1. Stylopharyngeus, m. stylopharýn-
pterygopharyngeal part, pars geus, is a thin long muscle that originates
pterygopharýngea, originates from the styloid process. It passes along
from pterygoid hamulus and a rear the pharyngeal wall and one part of fi
edge of a medial plate of ptery- bers weaves into the wall between supe-
goid process of sphenoid bone; rior and middle constrictors, the second
buccopharyngeal part, pars part attaches to the thyroid and epiglottic
buccopharýngea, originates fromn cartilages of the larynx. Function: elevates
pterygomandibular raphe, ráphe pharynx and larynx. Innervation: glosso
pterygomandibuláris, located in pharyngeal nerve.
the place of joining of buccinators 2. Salpingopharyngeus, m. salpin-
muscle with superior constric- gopharyngeus, originates from cartilag-
tor. This raphe extends as a thin inous part of the auditory tube. It is at-
connective tissue ribbon from a tached along with the palatopharyngeal

Alimentary System 225

 muscle to the lateral wall of the pharynx. a bit
right to the ervical
Function: elevates the pharynx and pre- sophagus, recurrent part of
vents moving forward of the cartilage of vagus nerves) nerves (brandthne oe

laterallyttocommon
the auditory tube and the initial part of ies pass ches ot
carotidd arter
the
the levator velli palatine during swallow-
ing, thereby prevents deformation of the
Thoracic part, pars
in the thoracic
oesophagus
thorácicae
cavity from the place
cartilaginous part of the auditory tube.
Innervation: a vagus nerve via the pha-
let to exit
through
of the diaphragm.
the thoracicacedin-
oesophageal
ryngeal plexus. the syntopy of Attthe upper hia
the third
The mucous membrane of the naso-
pharynx is covered by stratified ciliated
to the
position of theoesophagus is sim
cervical part ofof the
epithelium, other parts - by multilayered
oesophagus.
In themiddle third of the
stratified squamous nonkeratinized epi- anteriorly is crossed oesoph an.
thelium. It contains small salivary glands by
(level IV of the thoracic the aortic agus
arch
of mixed type pharyngeal glands (gl.
principal bronchus (levelvertebra) and let
-

vertebra):; thoracic duct passesvbehind

of thora
pharyngeáles). oracic
The pharynx is supplied basically by
the ascending pharyngeal artery, and
oesophagus, descending aorta behindto
and left to oesophagus,
-

enind
other branches of the external carotid ar hind and right to azygos vein-be
tery as well - maxillary and facial. Venous
nerve
oesophagus, right vaqus
passes right to the
lood is drained by venous pharyngeal
plexus that located around of muscular
Descending aorta crosses theoesophaqus
lower third
of oesophagus
membrane of the pharynx to the system posteriorly and
of the internal jugular vein. posteriorly and right to it. Azygospasses
vein
Lymph flows and right vagus nerve located posteriorty
out to the deep cervical
lymph nodes. The to oesophagus, pericardium and left va
pharynx is innervated by the pharynge-
al nervous plexus placed under middle
gus nerve-anteriorly.
Short abdominal part,
constrictor and formed by branches of pars abdom-
a inális, 2-3 cm in length, adjoins
vagus, glossopharyngeal nerves and cer to the left lobe of the liver.
anteriorly
vical ganglia of the sympathetic trunk. The cervical and thoracic
parts of the
oesophagus have an external adventitia,
Oesophagus which connects with
neighbor organs
The oesophagus is the hollow tubular
Adventitia of the oesophagus is quite
loose that provides certain mobility. Ab-
organ, 23-26 cm in length. It is a contin-
dominal part of the oesophagus is cov
uation of the pharynx. The
extends from the level of theoesophagus
ered by a serous membrane (peritoneum)
VI cervical Muscular coat of the oesophagus
vertebra to level of the XI thoracic ver-
consists of two layers: external longitu
tebra, where it enters into the stomach. dinal and internal circular. In the upper
Topographically the oesophagus is sub- third of the oesophagus, muscular lay
divided into three parts: cervical,
thoracic er has a striated muscular tissue, in
tne
and abdominal.
lower third smooth musculartissue,"
Short cervical part,
pars cervicális the middle both types of muscularts
-

(cólli), is located in front of the cervical Sue. The anterior part of the longitudnal
portion of the vertebral column till the layer fibers of striated muscles originate
level of 1st thoracic
vertebra, where the from the plate of cricoid cartilage of E
superior aperture of thoracic cage locat-
ed. The trachea is situated larynx by cricooesophageal tendo
anteriorly and (téndo cricoesophágeus). Part ofnonsu

226 Study of the Internal Organs Splanchology (SPI ANCHNIQLÓCIAN.

-