Applied Electronics II

ECEG-3113
Instructor: Mulugeta G.
 CHAPTER 5
OSCILLATORS
 Outlines:
 Introduction to oscillators
 Basic principles for oscillation
 RC Phase shift oscillator oscillators
 Wien-bridge oscillator
 Tuned oscillator
 Crystal oscillator
 Relaxation oscillators
 Introduction
• In the design of electronic systems, the need frequently arises
for signals having prescribed standard waveforms, for example,
sinusoidal, square, triangular, or pulse.
• Circuits that generate square, triangular, pulse (etc.) waveforms
without external input signal is called nonlinear oscillators or
function generators,
• Sinusoidal oscillator operation is based on the principle of
positive feedback, where a portion of the output signal is fed
back to the input in a way that causes it to reinforce itself and
thus sustain a continuous output signal.
• Oscillators are widely used in most communications systems as
well as in digital systems, including computers, to generate
required frequencies and timing signals.
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 4
 Types of Oscillators
Generally, oscillators are classified into two:
1. FEEDBACK OSCILLATORS:
• One type of oscillator is the feedback oscillator which returns a
fraction of the output signal to the input with no net phase shift.
• A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier for gain and a
positive feedback network that produces phase shift and
provides attenuation.
• After oscillations are started, the loop gain is maintained at 1.0
to maintain oscillations.
2. RELAXATION OSCILLATORS:
• A relaxation oscillator uses an RC timing circuit to generate a
waveform that is generally a square wave or other non-
sinusoidal waveform.
• Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or other
device that changes states to alternately charge and discharge a
capacitor through a resistor.
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 5
 Basic Principles of feedback oscillator
• The basic oscillator consists of an amplifier and a frequency-
selective network connected in a feedback loop.
• A positive feedback amplifier is one that produces a feedback
voltage (Vf ) that is in phase with the original input signal.
• A phase shift of 180° is produced by the amplifier and a further
phase shift of 180° is introduced by feedback network.
Consequently, the signal is shifted by 360° and fed to the input
i.e., feedback voltage is in phase with the input signal.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 6

 Cont..
• Although actual oscillator circuits do not have an input signal, we
initially include one here to help in the analysis.

• closed-loop transfer function is

given by:

• Loop gain of the feedback circuit is:

• we know that the loop gain T(s) is positive for negative feedback,
which means that the feedback signal Vfb subtracts from the
input signal Vs .
• If the loop gain T(s) becomes negative, then the feedback signal
phase causes Vfb to add to the input signal, increasing the error
signal vε.
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 7
 Cont..
• If T(s)=−1, the closed-loop transfer function goes to infinity, which
means that the circuit can have a finite output for a zero input
signal.
• As T(s) approaches −1, an actual circuit becomes nonlinear, which
means that the gain does not go to infinity .
• Assume that T(s) ≈−1 so that positive feedback exists over a
particular frequency range.
• Therefore, the condition for oscillation is that, at a specific
frequency, we have

• The condition that T (jωo) =−1 is called the Barkhausen criterion.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 8
 Cont..
• The Barkhausen criterion shows that two conditions must be
satisfied to sustain oscillation:
1. The total phase shift through the amplifier and feedback
network must be N × 360◦, where N = 0,1,2,. . . .
2. The magnitude of the loop gain must be unity.
• In the feedback circuit block diagram , we implicitly assume
negative feedback. So for an oscillator, the feedback transfer
function, or the frequency selective network, must introduce an
additional 180◦ phase shift such that the net phase around the
entire loop is zero.
• For the circuit to oscillate at a single frequency ωo , the condition
for oscillation, from the above equation, should be satisfied at
only that one frequency .

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 9

 Oscillation Start-Up Conditions
• For oscillation to begin, the voltage gain around the positive
feedback loop must be greater than 1 so that the amplitude
of the output can build up to a desired level.
• The gain must then decrease to 1 so that the output stays at
the desired level and oscillation is sustained.
• Initially, a small positive feedback voltage develops from
thermally produced broad-band noise in the resistors or other
components or from power supply turn-on transients.
• The feedback circuit permits only a voltage with a frequency
equal to the selected oscillation frequency to appear in phase
on the amplifier’s input.
• This initial feedback voltage is amplified and continually
reinforced, resulting in a buildup of the output voltage to
required level.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 10

 Cont…
• As shown in figure below, When oscillation starts at 𝑡0 , the
condition 𝑨𝒄𝒍 > 𝟏 causes the sinusoidal output voltage
amplitude to build up to a desired level. Then 𝑨𝒄𝒍 decreases
to 1 and maintains the desired amplitude.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 11

 Phase-Shift Oscillator
• A type of sinusoidal feedback oscillator called the phase-shift
oscillator. One configuration of this oscillator circuit is shown
below.
• The basic amplifier of the circuit is the op-amp A3 , which is
connected as an inverting amplifier with its output connected
to a three-stage RC filter.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 12

 Cont..
• The voltage followers in the circuit eliminate loading
effects between each RC filter stage.
• The inverting amplifier introduces a −180 degree
phase shift, which means that each RC network must
provide 60 degrees of phase shift to produce the 180
degrees required of the frequency-sensitive feedback
network in order to produce positive feedback.
• Note that the inverting terminal of op-amp A3 is at
virtual ground; therefore, the RC network between op-
amps A2 and A3 functions exactly as the other two
RC networks.
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 13
 Cont..
• Also, to aid in the analysis, we assume an input signal (Vi) exists at
one node as shown in the figure.
• The transfer function of the first RC network is :

• Since the RC networks are assumed to be identical, and since

there is no loading effect of one RC stage on another, we have :

where β(s ) is the feedback transfer function.

 Cont..
• The amplifier gain A(s) in the above equations is actually the
magnitude of the gain, or

• The loop gain is then :

• from the above equation, the condition for oscillation is that

|T ( j ωo )|= 1 and the phase of T ( jωo ) must be zero degrees.
• When these requirements are satisfied, then Vo will equal (Vi)
and a separate input signal will not be required.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 15

 Cont..
• If we set s = j ω, the above equation becomes :

• To satisfy the condition T (jωo) =−1, the imaginary component

of the equation must equal zero.
• Since the numerator is purely imaginary, the denominator must
become purely imaginary , or

• Which yields : where ωo is the oscillation frequency

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 16

 Cont..
• At this frequency , the above equation becomes :

• Consequently, the condition T ( j ωo ) =−1 is satisfied when:

• This equation implies that if the magnitude of the inverting

amplifier gain is greater than 8, the circuit will spontaneously
begin oscillating and will sustain oscillation.
• Using the above equation for v1, we can determine the effect
of each RC network in the phase-shift oscillator .

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 17

 Cont..
• At the oscillation frequency ωo , the transfer function of each
RC network stage is ;

• which can be written in terms of the magnitude and phase, as

follows:

Or
• As required, each RC network introduces a 60 degree phase
shift, but they each also introduce an attenuation factor of (1/2)
for which the amplifier must compensate.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 18

 Cont..
Example 5.1:
Consider the phase-shift oscillator with parameters C = 0.1 μF and
R = 1kΩ.

• The minimum amplifier gain magnitude is 8 therefore, the

minimum value of R2 is 8kΩ.
• Higher oscillation frequencies can easily be obtained by using
smaller capacitor values.
Exercise 5.2:
Design the phase-shift oscillator to oscillate at fo = 22.5 kHz. The
minimum resistance to be used is 10k.
(Ans. Set R = 10 kΩ, C = 408 pF, R2 = 80 k Ω)
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 19
• The two voltage followers in the circuit need not be included in a
practical phase-shift oscillator. Fig below shows a phase-shift
oscillator without the voltage-follower buffer stages.

• The three RC network stages and the inverting amplifier are still
included.
• The general expression for oscillation frequency phase-shift
oscillator is :For the above ckt N=3 (RC stsges)

and the amplifier resistor ratio must be:

 Wien-Bridge Oscillator
• Another basic oscillator is the Wien-bridge circuit, shown in below.

• The circuit consists of an op-amp connected in a non-inverting

configuration and two RC networks connected as the frequency-
selecting feedback circuit.
 Cont..
• Again, we initially assume that an input signal exists at the non-
inverting terminals of the op-amp.
• Since the non-inverting amplifier introduces zero phase shift, the
frequency-selective feedback circuit must also introduce zero
phase shift to create the positive feedback condition.
• The loop gain is the product of the amplifier gain and the
feedback transfer function, or
 Cont…
• where Zp and Zs are the parallel and series RC network
impedances, respectively. These impedances are :
and
• Combining these equations, we get an expression for the loop gain
function,

• Since this circuit has no explicit negative feedback, as was

assumed in the general network shown, the condition for
oscillation is given by :

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 23

 Cont…
• Since T( jωo ) must be real, the imaginary component of the
equation must be zero; therefore,

• which gives the frequency of oscillation as :

• The magnitude condition is then :

Or
• This equation states that to ensure the startup of oscillation, we
must have( R2/ R1)> 2.
 TUNED OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
• Although the RC feedback oscillators, particularly the
Wien bridge, are generally suitable for frequencies up
to about 1 MHz, LC feedback elements are normally
used in oscillators that require higher frequencies of
oscillation.
• oscillators that use transistors and LC tuned circuits or
crystals in their feedback networks can be used in the
hundreds of kHz to hundreds of MHz frequency range.
• These oscillators do not typically contain an op-amp.
• It is another oscillator configuration that include
Colpitts, Hartley , crystal and uni-junction oscillators.
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 25
 Colpitts Osillator
• The ac equivalent circuit of the Colpitts oscillator with an FET
is shown below. A circuit with a BJT can also be designed.
• Figure below shows the small-signal equivalent circuit of the
Colpitts oscillator .

• A parallel LC resonant circuit is used to establish the oscillator

frequency , and feedback is provided by a voltage divider
between capacitor C1 and inductor L .
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 26
 Cont…
• Resistor R in conjunction with the transistor provides the
necessary gain at resonance.
• The transistor output resistance ro can be included in R. A KCL
equation at the output node yields :

• And a voltage divider produces :

• Substituting the above equation, we find that :

 Cont…
• If we assume that oscillation has started, then Vo≠0 and can be
eliminated from the above equation. We then have :

• Letting s = j ω, we obtain :

• The condition for oscillation implies that both the real and
imaginary components of this equation must be zero. From the
imaginary component, the oscillation frequency is :
 Cont…
• which is the resonant frequency of the LC circuit. From the real
part of the above equation the condition for oscillation is :

• Combining the equations, yields :

where gmR is the magnitude of the gain.

• This equation states that to initiate oscillations spontaneously, we
must have gm R >(C2/C1).
 Hartley Oscillator
• The Hartley oscillator is similar to the Colpitts except
that the feedback circuit consists of two series inductors
and a parallel capacitor
• Figure below shows the ac equivalent circuit of the
Hartley oscillator with a BJT . An FET can also be used.

• The following derivation is based on Hartley oscillator

with FET.
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 30
 Cont..
• Again, a parallel LC resonant circuit establishes the oscillator
frequency, and feedback is provided by a voltage divider
between inductors L1 and L2 .
• The analysis of the Hartley oscillator is essentially identical to
that of the Colpitts oscillator. The frequency of oscillation,
neglecting transistor frequency effects, is :

• The condition for oscillation is:

𝐿1
= 𝑔𝑚 𝑅
𝐿2
• where 𝑔𝑚 𝑅 is the magnitude of the gain.
• This equation states that to initiate oscillations spontaneously,
we must have gm R >(L1/L2).
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 31
 Crystal Oscillator
• The most stable and accurate type of feedback oscillator uses a
piezoelectric crystal in the feedback loop to control the
frequency.
• Quartz is one type of crystalline substance found in nature that
exhibits a property called the piezoelectric effect.
• Crystals used in electronic applications typically consist of a
quartz wafer mounted between two electrodes and enclosed in
a protective “can” as shown in Figure below.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 32

 Cont..
• When a changing mechanical stress is applied across the
crystal to cause it to vibrate, a voltage develops at the
frequency of mechanical vibration.
• Conversely, when an ac voltage is applied across the crystal, it
vibrates at the frequency of the applied voltage.
• The greatest vibration occurs at the crystal’s natural resonant
frequency, which is determined by the physical dimensions
and by the way the crystal is cut.
• This means that crystal oscillators are fixed-frequency devices.
• As you can see, the crystal’s equivalent circuit is a series-
parallel RLC circuit and can operate in either series resonance
or parallel resonance.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 33

 Cont..
• Fig below shows the ac equivalent circuit of a Pierce oscillator,
which is similar to the Colpitts oscillator but with the inductor
replaced by the crystal.

• Crystal oscillator frequencies are usually in the range of tens

of kHz to tens of MHz.
• A great advantage of the crystal is that it exhibits a very high
Q (Qs with values of several thousand are typical).

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 34

 RELAXATION OSCILLATORS
• The second major category of oscillators is the
relaxation oscillator.
• Relaxation oscillators use an RC timing circuit and a
device that changes states to generate a periodic
waveform.
• In this section, you will learn about several circuits
that are used to produce non-sinusoidal waveforms.
• The following oscillators are examples of the most
well-known relaxation oscillator:
A Triangular-Wave Oscillator
A Square-Wave Oscillator
5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 35
 A Triangular Wave Oscillator
• The op-amp integrator covered in Chapter 3 can be used as the
basis for a triangular-wave generator.
• One practical implementation of a triangular-wave generator
utilizes an op-amp comparator to perform the switching
function.

• To begin, assume that the output voltage of the comparator is at

its maximum negative level.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 36

 Cont..
• This output is connected to the inverting input of the integrator
through R1, producing a positive-going ramp on the output of
the integrator.
• When the ramp voltage reaches the upper trigger point (UTP),
the comparator switches to its maximum positive level.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 37

 Cont..
• This positive level causes the integrator ramp to change to a
negative-going direction.
• The ramp continues in this direction until the lower trigger
point (LTP) of the comparator is reached. At this point, the
comparator output switches back to the maximum negative
level and the cycle repeats.
• Since the comparator produces a square-wave output, the
circuit can be used as both a triangular-wave generator and a
square-wave generator.
• Devices of this type are commonly known as function
generators because they produce more than one output
function.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 38

 Cont..
• The output amplitude of the square wave is set by the output
swing of the comparator, and resistors R2 and R3 set the
amplitude of the triangular output by establishing the UTP and
LTP voltages according to the following formulas:

• where the comparator output levels, +Vmax and -Vmax, are

equal.
• The frequency of both waveforms depends on the R1C time
constant as well as the amplitude-setting resistors, R2and R3.
• varying R1, the frequency of oscillation can be adjusted without
changing the output amplitude.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 39

 A Square-Wave Oscillator
• The basic square-wave oscillator shown in Figure below is a type
of relaxation oscillator because its operation is based on the
charging and discharging of a capacitor.
• Notice that the op-amp’s inverting (-) input is the capacitor
voltage and the non-inverting (+) input is a portion of the output
fed back through resistors R2 and R3.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 40

 Cont..
• When the circuit is first turned on, the capacitor is uncharged, and thus the
inverting input is at 0V. This makes the output a positive maximum, and the
capacitor begins to charge toward Vout through R1.
• When the capacitor voltage (VC) reaches a value equal to the feedback voltage
(Vf) on the non-inverting input, the op-amp switches to the maximum negative
state.
• At this point, the capacitor begins to discharge from +Vf toward -Vf. When the
capacitor voltage reaches -Vf, the op-amp switches back to the maximum
positive state.
• This action continues to repeat, as shown in Figure below, and a square-wave
output voltage is obtained.

5/24/22 compiled by: Mulugeta G. 41