CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Written Report

INTRODUCTION

Curriculum as viewed by Alebiosu (2005) is an instrument that dictates the affairs of

every educational system. It is the vehicle through which knowledge and other learning activities

are disseminated. The goal of a successful educational program and thus effective curriculum

development should be to meet the needs and current demands of the culture, the society, and

the expectations of the population being served. Therefore, curriculum development and the

educational reform process continually under goes review, revision, and constant change

(Johnson, 2001). Curriculum development can be challenging, therefore the involvement of all

stakeholders, especially individuals who are directly involved in student instruction, are a vital

piece in successful curriculum development and revision (Johnson, 2001).

Instructional leadership is shared with teachers, in its most progressive forms it is being

cast as collegial investigation, reflection, and coaching (Blasé, 1999, p. 350). Problems and

conflict do happen, but “problems are our friends” (Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2013, p.

293). Problems need to be embraced so that the organization can come up with a reasonable

solution or solutions. Finally, for schools to be successful with change and development, they

must believe that creating a culture of continuous improvement is the way to adapt to changing

needs and conditions. Schools need to continuously assess themselves and have the goal

toward self-actualizing (Glickman, Gordon & Ross-Gordon, 2013, p. 293). Thus, schools are

never perfect or self-actualized.

Definitions of Curriculum

 Curriculum comes from the Latin verb ‘currere’, meaning ‘to run’. As a noun it meant

‘Racecourse’, so some indication already of something that has a clear start and

endpoint with challenges along the way.

 Some authors define curriculum as the total effort of the school to bring about desired

outcomes in school and out-of-school situations.

 It is also defined as a sequence of potential experiences set up in school for the purpose

of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.

 Curriculum – is a structured set of learning outcomes or task that educators usually call

goals and objectives. (Howell and Evans 1995)

 Curriculum is actually the “what” of teaching.

 For teachers, curriculum is the listings of subjects to be taught in school.

 A document which describes a structured series of learning objectives and outcomes for

a given subject matter area

 Includes a specification of what should be learned, how it should be taught, and the plan

for implementing/assessing the learning.

What is Curriculum Development?

Curriculum development is the multi-step process of creating and improving a course taught at a

school or university. While the exact process will vary from institution to institution, the broad

framework includes stages of analysis, building, implementation, and evaluation.

In K-12 schools, curricula are often developed at a local or state level to result in standardized

learning outcomes across different schools. At the college level, instructors may get more
individual flexibility to develop their own curricula. Either way, the individual or group is

responsible for planning a course (and choosing strong corresponding course materials) that

effectively accomplishes educational goals and meets student needs.

Ideally, the curriculum development process should be one of continuous improvement rather

than a linear or stagnant approach. Plans for instruction should be frequently reviewed, revised,

and updated as new and different needs arise. Change may be required due to subject-area

discoveries, innovations in instructional best practices, or shifts in course delivery such as the

pivot to remote teaching.

Characteristics of Curriculum Development

1. It is a process

2. It is an orderly, logical, cohesive constructing of knowledge and experience

3. The ultimate aim of CD should be emotional and spiritual maturity of students and

academic excellence

Four Phases of Curriculum Development

1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes

the philosophy of strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be

translated to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners. Curriculum planning

allows for focus in teaching and identifies the activities that will best help students to

learn. Sensible curriculum planning will bring focus to your teaching, and it will also

make it easier to figure out what activities, projects, and lessons you do each day.

2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection

and organization of the content, the selection and organization of learning experiences

or activities and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure

achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the resources to be
 utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes. Curriculum design focuses

on the creation of the overall course blueprint, mapping content to learning objectives,

including how to develop a course outline and build the course. Each learning objective

is met with assessment strategies, exercises, content, subject matter analysis, and

interactive activities.

3. Curriculum Implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the

curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. Implementing

the curriculum is where action takes place. It is how teachers deliver instruction and

assessment through the use of specified resources provided in a curriculum.

4. Curriculum Evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have

been achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning

(formative) or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will

determine the factors that have hindered or supported the implementation. Curriculum

evaluation serves two important functions: first, it provides a means of obtaining

information that can be used to improve a course, and secondly, it provides a basis for

decisions about curriculum adoption and effective use.

Five Curriculum Approaches in Curriculum Development

1. Intellectual- Academic Approach

• Emphasizes the importance of theories and principles in curriculum planning.

• This model is influenced by the philosophy of John Dewey (1916)

• Attempts to analyze and synthesize the historical development, cultural demands

and philosophical ideas which underpin the curriculum, including issues and trends.

• The academic approach is a more focused on the structure of knowledge and

organization of subject matter into subjects. The training and development of the
 mind is what is most important. Observable actions are not as significant in this

approach. When people adopt this approach, they believe in training the mind like a

muscle. A strong muscle can be used in many different ways just as a strong mind

can be used in many different occupations in life.

2. Behavioral-Rational Approach

• The oldest and still more preferred approach by many educators (Taba and Tyler

models)

• Defines the why (objectives), what (content), how (method), when (sequence) and

how much (scope)

• Formulated are goals and objectives--- content and the evaluation of learning

outcomes

• It means-ends approach. Curricula were developed through this approach become

the actual blueprints which prescribe the roles of key figures in the educative

process.

• MEANS = CURRICULUM ENDS = INSTRUCTION

• Viewing the curriculum as the means and instruction as the end is a behavioral

orientation.

• The behavioral approach is focused on, as you can guess, behavior. Everything the

students do must be observable as this is the evidence that the student has achieved

the goals and objectives, which are also based on observable behaviors.
3. Systems-Managerial Approach

• Considers the major interconnected elements of inputs, throughputs (process) and

outputs that comprise the educational system

• This approach emphasizes the managerial/leadership and supervisory aspect of the

curriculum especially in the implementation and organization process.

• The model is a cyclical process. It is an offshoot of the linear behavioral-rational

approach.

• Curriculum is viewed as the major system and the other processes related to it such

as supervision, instruction and evaluation are subsystems.

• The success of the system depends on the close monitoring by administrators who

provide interventions and corrective measures whenever possible problems are

detected.

4. Humanistic-Aesthetic Approach

• This approach emphasizes the uniqueness of each child and the curriculum has to

be designed and developed based on the needs, interests, and ability of children.

• It lays stress on self-actualization and self-reflectiveness of the learners.

• Originating in humanistic theories of learning, this approach emphasizes on valuing

ego identity, freedom to learn and personal fulfillment.

• The curriculum focuses on active interaction among learners and teachers, on

problem solving and on inquiry. Cooperative and collaborative learning, independent

learning, small group, learning is some of the curricular strategies which have

emanated from this approach.

• This approach also propagates for curriculum areas in arts, music, literature, dance,

etc. which emphasize the development of human side of the learner more than on

the development of his intellectual activities.

• Eclectic approach is a method of language learning/teaching that combines various

approaches and methodologies to teach language depending on the aims of the

lesson and the abilities of the learners.

• In this approach teacher has more flexibility & adaptability to choose best elements

according to the need & aim of the students.

• Different teaching methods are borrowed and adapted to suit the requirement of the

learners. It breaks the monotony of the class.

• Oftentimes, Filipino educators, in particular, prefer eclectic models (halo-halo) which

are a combination of several approaches, rather than commit themselves to one

particular approach only. • Eclectic models are not mere patchwork (pagtagpi-tagpi)

• but a synthesis. (pagbuo o paghahabi) where desired features from several models

are selected and integrated into a new whole.

Concepts of Curriculum Development

In the school, both the educator and the student are part of the curriculum because they are part

of the environment, while in the family the child is expected to progress and achieve the goals of

education.

1. Organized form of subject-matter: Curriculum is the organized form of subject-matter,

specially prepared to experiences and activities which provide the student with the

knowledge and the skill he will require in facing the various situations i of real life.

Obviously, the term ‘curriculum’ cannot be restricted to; list of books, because it must

include other activities which provide [the student with the knowledge and the skill he will

require in facing [the various situations of life, meet the requirement of children. Hence,

Snow curriculum includes those environments of the schools and numerous other
 elements not taught by books. In the words of Bent and Kronenbur, “Curriculum, in its

broadest sense, includes the complete school environment, involving all the courses,

activities, reading and associations furnished to the pupils in the school.”

2. Curriculum is comprehensive experience: In the words of Munroe, “Curriculum

embodies all the experiences which are utilized by the school to attain the aims of

education.” Thus, the various subjects included for study in a curriculum are not intended

merely for study or rote learning but to convey experiences- of various kinds. Curriculum

does not mean only the academic subject traditionally taught it the school, but it includes

the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on

in the school in the classroom, library laboratory, workshop, playground and in the

numerous informal contacts between teachers and  pupils.

3. The curriculum includes all the learner’s experiences in or outside school: All

experiences which are devised to help the child to develop mentally, physically,

emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally.” it is obvious, then that, the aim of

curriculum is to provide experience to the student so that he may achieve complete

development. By calling the curriculum an experience, the fact is made explicit that it

includes not merely books, but all those activities and relationship which are indulged in

by the student, both inside and outside the school.

4. Curriculum is not an end in itself, but a means to an end: Curriculum is a means or

tool?  It is apparent from the foregoing definitions that because it is created – in order to

achieve the aims of education. That is why, one finds that different educationists have

suggested different kinds of curricula to conform to the aims and objectives ascribed to

education; Explaining the concept of curriculum as a tool of education, Cunningham

writes, “The curriculum is the tool in the hands of the artist (the teacher) to mold his

material (the pupil) according to his ideal (objective) in his studio (the school).” Here the
 educator is compared to an artist and the curriculum as one of the instruments of tools

used by him to develop the student according to, and in conformity with the aims of

education. It is evident that the curriculum will change with every change -in the aims of

education.

5. The curriculum may be seen as the totality of subject matter, activities, and

experience which constitute a pupil’s school life: Curriculum includes all activities

Elaborating the same concept further, H.H. Horne says, “The curriculum is that which the

pupil is (aught. It involves more than the acts of learning and quiet study, it involves

occupations, production, achievements, exercise, activity. “Pragmatists, too, have

included the entire range of the student activities in the curriculum because according to

them, the child learns by doing. In the light of the various definitions of curriculum given it

is possible to arrive at a definition of the term which includes all the points mentioned in

these definitions. Briefly, then, curriculum is the means of achieving the goals of

education. It includes all those experience activities and environments which the

educand receives during his educational career. Such a definition of curriculum

comprehends the student entire life, a contention borne out by all modern educationists

who believe that the child learns not only inside the school, but also outside it, on the

playground, at home, in society, in fact, everywhere. That is why, there is nowadays so

much insistence on the participation of the parents in the child’s education and on not

restricting the environment of the curriculum to the school environment but taking it

means every possible kind of environment encountered by the child. Besides, it includes

all those activities which the child does, irrespective of the time and place of these

activities. It also includes the entire range of experiences that the child has in the school,

at home, in the world at large. Considering from his liberal standpoint, one finds that is

preparing the curriculum one has much wider background than would otherwise be
 possible. Clarifying the purpose of curriculum, it has been pointed out in the report of the

Secondary Education Commission

(1952-53 India) that, “The starting point for curricular reconstruction must, therefore, be

the device to bridge the gulf between the school subjects and to enrich the varied

activities that make up the warp and woof of life.” Hence, the curricular should be so

designed that it strains the student to face the situations of real life, a curriculum can be

said to have the following major purposes.

6. Synthesis of subjects and life: The aim of the curriculum is to arrange and provide

those subjects For an student study which will enable the student to destroy any gulf

between school life and life outside the school.  The opinion of the Secondary Education

Commission has already been quoted.

7. Harmony between individual and activity: In a democracy, such social qualities as

social skills, cooperation, the desire to be of service, sympathy, etc., are very significant

because without them, no society can continue to exist. On the other hand, development

of the individual’s own character and personality arc also very important. Hence, the

curriculum must create an environment and provide those books which enable the

individual to achieve his own development at the same time as he learns these social

qualities.

8. Development of democratic values. In all democratic countries, the curriculum of

education must aim to develop the democratic values of equality, liberty and fraternity,

so that the students may develop into fine democratic citizens. But the development

should not only aim at national benefit. The curriculum must also aim to introducing a

spirit of internationalism in the. Student

insisted that it must be designed to satisfy the needs and requirements of the. student It

is seen that one finds a great variety of interests, skills, abilities, attitudes, aptitudes,’ etc.

A student curriculum, should be so designed as satisfy the general and specific

requirements of the student.

10. Realization of values: One aim of education is development of character, -and what is

required for this is to create in the student a faith in the various desirable values. Hence,

one of the objectives of education is to create in the student a definite realization of the

prevailing system of values.

11. Development of knowledge .and Addition to knowledge: In its most common

connotation, the term curriculum is taken to mean development of knowledge or

acquisition of facts and very frequently, this is the aspect kept in mind while designing a

curriculum. But it must be remembered that it is not the only objective, although it is the

most fundamental objective of a curriculum. In the contemporary educational patterns

that curriculum is believed to the suitable which can create a harmony between the

various branches of knowledge so that the student attitude should be comprehensive

and complete, not one sided.

12. Creation of a useful environment: Another objective of curriculum is to create an

environment suitable to the student primarily the environment must assist the student in

achieving the maximum possible development of his facilities, abilities and capabilities.
Principles of Curriculum Development

1. Principle of utility: T.P. Nunn, the educationist, believes that the principles of utility is

the most important principle underlying the formation of a curriculum. He writes, “While

the plain man generally likes his children to pick up some scraps of useless learning for

purely decorative purpose, he requires, on the whole, that they shall be taught what will

be useful to them in later life, and he is inclined to give ‘useful’ a rather strict

interpretation.” As a general rule, parents are in favor of including all those subjects in

the curriculum which are likely to pose useful for their child in his life, and by means of

which he can be fade a responsible member of society.

2. Principle of Training in the proper patterns of conduct: According to Crow and

Crow, the main principle underlying the construction of a curriculum is that, through

education the student should be able to adopt the patterns of behavior proper to different

circumstances. Man is a social animal who has to constantly adapt himself to the social

environment. Therefore, education must aim at developing all these qualities in the

student which will facilitate this adaptation to the social milieu. The child is by nature self-

centered, but education must teach him to attend the needs and requirements of others

besides himself. One criterion of an educated individual is that he should be able to

adapt himself to different situations with which he is comforted. In his context, the term

conduct must be understood in its widest sense. Only then can this principle of

curriculum construction be properly understood. “All our activities in social, economic,

family and cultural environment constitute behavior or conduct, and it is the function of

education of teach us how he behaves in different situation.”

3. Principle of Synthesis of play and work: Of the various modern techniques of

education, some try to educate through work and others through play. But a great

majority of educationists agree that the curriculum should aim at achieving a balance
 between play and work. In other words, the work given to the student should be

performed in such a manner that the child may believe it to be play. There is a difference

between work and play. That is why, parents want to engage the child in work instead of

allowing him to play all the time, but the child is naturally inclined to spend his time in

playing. Keeping this in view, T.P. Nunn has written, “The school should be thought of

not as a knowledge-monger’s shop, but a place where the young a -e disciplined in

certain forms of activity. All subjects should be laugh; in the ‘play way’ care being taken

that the ‘way’ leads continuously from the irresponsible frolic of childhood to the

disciplined labors of manhood.”

4. Principle of Synthesis of all activities of life: In framing a curriculum, attention should

be paid to the inclusion, in it, of all the various activities of life, such as contemplation,

learning, acquisition of various kinds of skill, etc. In the individual and social sphere of

life, every individual has to perform a great variety of activities, and this success in life is

determined by the success of all these activities. ‘Hence, the curriculum should not

neglect any form of activity related to any aspect of life. A curriculum constructed on this

basis will be both comprehensive and closely related to life. In other words, it should

include all the activities that student is likely to require in later life.

5. Principle of individual differences: Modern educational psychology has brought to

light, and stressed the significance of individual differences that exist between one

individual and another. It has been discovered that people differ in respect of theft

mental processes, interests, aptitudes, attitudes, abilities, skills, etc., and these

differences are innate. All modern education is paid centric that is, it is centered around

the ‘child. Psychologists insist that the curriculum should be so designed as to provide

an opportunity for complete and comprehensive development to widely differing

individuals. One of the basic qualities of such a curriculum is flexibility; for it must be
 flexible, in order to accommodate, student of low, average or high intelligence and

ability, and to provide each one a chance to develop all the greatest possible extent.

6. Principle of Constant development:  Another basis for curriculum construction is the

principle of dynamic curriculum, based on the realization that no curriculum can prove

adequate for all times and in all places. For this reason, it should be flexible and

changeable. This is all the truer in the modern context when new discoveries in the

various branches of science are taking place every day. Hence, it becomes necessary to

reshape the curriculum fairly, frequently in order to incorporate the latest development.

7. Principle of Creative training: Another important principle of curriculum construction is

that of creative training. Raymont has correctly stated that a curriculum appropriate for

the needs of today and the future must definitely have a positive bias towards creative

subjects. And, one of the aims of education is to develop the creative faculty of the.

Student. All that is finest in human culture is the creation of man’s creative abilities.

Children differ from other in respect of this ability. Hence, in franking a curriculum,

attention must be paid to the fact that it should encourage each to student develop his

creative ability as far as is possible.

8. Principle of Variety: Variety is another important principle of curriculum construction.

The innate complexity makes it necessary that the curriculum should be valid, because

no one kind of curriculum can develop all to facilities of an individual. Hence, at every

level the curriculum rust has variety, it will, on the one hand, provide an opportunity

development of the different faculties of the student, while on the other, it will retain his

interest in education.

9. Principle of Education for leisure: One of the objectives ascribed to education is

training fr leisure, because it is believed that education is not merely for employment or
 work. Hence, it is desirable that the curriculum should also include training in those

activities which will make the individual’s leisure more pleasurable. A great variety of

social, artistic and sporting activities can be included in this kind of training., Besides,

student should be encouraged to foster some of the other besides, so that they can put

their leisure to constructive and pleasant use.

10. Principle of Related to community life: Curriculum can also be based on the principle

that school and community life must be intimately related to each there. One cannot

forget that the school is only a miniature form of immunity. Hence, the school curriculum

should include all those activate which are performed by members of larger community

outside the’ boundaries of the school. This will help in evolving social qualities of the

individual, in developing the social aspect of his personal band finally, in helping his final

adaptation to the social environs & into which he must ultimately go.

11. Principle of Evolution of democratic values: The construction of a curriculum in a

democratic society is conditioned by the need to develop democratic qualities in the

individual. The curriculum should be, so dogged that it develops a democratic feeling

and creates a positive in democratic values. In all the democratic societies of the wool

this is the chief consideration in shaping the curricula for primary, secondary and higher

education. It is evident from the foregoing account of the various liaises of curriculum

construction that this should be duly conditioned by careful thinking on all aspects

individual and social life variety, play and work, earning of livelihood, leisure, etc.

Proponents for Models of Curriculum Development

There are models presented to us from well-known curriculum experts/ specialists like Ralph

Tyler, Hilda Taba, Galen Saylor and William Alexander which would help clarify the process

of curriculum development
A. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

 Also known as Tyler’s Rationale

 The curriculum development model emphasizes the planning phase. This is presented in

his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.

 The brilliance of Tyler’s model is that it was one of the first models and it was and still is

a highly simple model consisting of four steps.

1. Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words, what do

the students need to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural

objectives that are indicators of mastery. All objectives need to be consistent with the

philosophy of the school and this is often neglected in curriculum development. For

example, a school that is developing an English curriculum may create an objective

that students will write essays. This would be one of many objectives within the

curriculum.

2. Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step

one. For example, if students need to meet the objective of writing an essay. The

learning experience might be a demonstration by the teacher of writing an essay.

The students than might practice writing essays. The experience (essay

demonstration and writing) is consistent with the objective (Student will write an

essay).

3. Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first or

should the students learn by writing immediately? Either way could work and

preference is determined by the philosophy of the teacher and the needs of the

students. The point is that the teacher needs to determine a logical order of

experiences for the students.

students’ ability to write an essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the

teacher could have the students write an essay without assistance. If they can do

this, it is evidence that the students have achieved the objective of the lesson.

B. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

• Hilda Taba was an architect, a curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a

teacher educator.

• Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. She believed that teachers should participate

in developing a curriculum.

• As a grassroot approach Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from

• the top as what Tyler proposed.

• It is known as Grassroot Approach, where teachers are involved in the development

of curriculum. 

Seven major steps to her linear model which are the following:

1. Diagnosis of Learners’ Needs

The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by identifying the needs

of the students for whom curriculum is to be planned. For example; Majority of students are

unable to think critically.

2.  Formulation of Objectives

After the teacher has identified the needs of learners that require attention, he or she

specifies the objectives by which needs will be fulfilled.

The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum.

Not only objectives and content should match, but also the validity and significance of the

chosen content need to be determined. i.e. the relevance and significance of the content.

4.  Organization of the Content

A teacher cannot just select content but must organize it in a Particular Sequence taking into

consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement and their interests.

5.  Selection of Learning Experiences

Content must be presented to students and they must be engaged with the content. At this

point teacher should select appropriate instructional methodology that will involve the

students with the content.

6.Organization of Learning Activities

The learning activities be organized in a sequence depending both on content sequence

and learners’ characteristics. The teacher needs to keep in mind the students he or she will

be teaching.

7.  Evaluation

The curriculum planner i.e. the teacher must determine what objectives have been

accomplished. To assess the achievement of learning objectives, evaluation procedures

need to be designed.

Strengths of using the Taba Model

1. This model taps into higher-order thinking skills.

2. Builds comprehension skills such as inference, synthesizing and summarizing.

answers.

4. Questioning is open ended, No clear right or wrong response.

5. When grouped together students work collaboratively with others to build speaking and

listening skills.

6. Provides an opportunity for healthy classroom discussions before and after

generalizations are made.

Limitations of using the Taba Model

1. Can be difficult for some students to handle the open-ended aspect of the model.

2. Without clear direction it may be difficult for teachers to plan and prepare questions for

the path of the students take.

3. Difficult to adapt for all subjects, or at least for some types of texts.

4. Texts must be chosen in advance.

Summary

Curriculum Development has a broad scope because it is not only about the school, the

learners, and the teachers. It is also about the development of a society in general. In a more

specific context, curriculum development supports the learner’s personal development by

enhancing their self-respect, confidence, and motivation. It also helps students unleash the

skills, abilities, and strengths that they possess. Teachers modernize, implement, and innovate

curricula to deliver the expected product from it. Moreover, the ultimate goal of curriculum

development is to improve educational practice.

1. Curriculum consists of continuous chain of activities needed to translate

educational goals into concrete activities, materials and observable change in

behavior. A lesson plan for example is a curriculum used by the teacher in

the classroom.

2. Curriculum is your content. Curriculum development is the process of

creating a lesson that helps students learn that content. You start with what

you need students to learn, analyze the methodology that best presents that

need, develop the learning materials using appropriate methodology,

evaluate and revise. It takes time put it improves the learning.

3. Curriculum planning is vital to ensure the course can be implemented

successfully

4. Curriculum models help to create structure and ideas of how to plan a

curriculum, although any structure may prevent or suppress ‘blue sky

thinking’.

5. All components in the curriculum are important, aims, content, methods,

assessment and evaluation, and must receive attention, if you want a

curriculum that meets all your expectations.

6. Curricula MUST be capable of responding to urgent and important

educational needs, e.g. changes in curricula delivery during the pandemic.

Although, the response seems to have been hit and miss in some places!
 7. It should always be remembered that curricula are the means by which

society becomes educated, so what is in the chosen curriculum must always

be considered carefully and thoughtfully before including it in the curriculum.

8. The improvement of curriculum development as a process and the

management of curriculum has to be a central concern of all of those

educators involved. Collaboration among all curriculum implementers or

leaders in the school and the education system will help a sustainable and

effective curriculum.

References

Abbott EE (1909). On the analysis of the factors of recall in the learning process.

Psychological Monographs, 11, 159-177.

Alismail, H. & McGuire, P.  (2015). 21st-century standards and curriculum:

Current research and practice. Journal of Education and Practice

6, 150-154). Retrieved from Alsubie, M. (2016). Curriculum development:

Teacher involvement in curriculum development. Journal of Education and

Practice, 7,  106-107. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1083656.pdf

https://oer.pressbooks.pub/curriculumessentials/chapter/curriculum-design-

development-and-models-planning-for-student-learning-there-is-always-a-need-for-

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