3.

6 Springs
Springs are elastic devises that act as flexible joints between two structural bodies or machines.
They function by distorting when loaded and recover to the original shape when the load is
removed. They can be used to cushion, absorb or control energy due to vibration or shock. They
find applications in automobile springs and shock absorbers, railway buffers and air-craft landing
gears.
Springs are also used for the control of motion like in brakes and clutches, for measuring forces
as in spring balances and engine gauges, and in storing of mechanical energy as in clocks and
watches. Types of springs include helical springs, leaf springs, spiral springs and their variants.
Helical springs are discussed in this section.

3.6.1 Helical Springs

Helical springs are coiled wires in the form of a helix as shown in Figure 3.14. They are basically
used for compressive or tensile loads because the loads are applied along the axis. In this type of
spring the major stresses are torsional shear due to twisting. They may also resist bending
moments or torque. The cross-section of the wires may take common geometrical shapes like
circular, square or rectangular.

F
d

Figure 3.14
F
D

When helical springs are so close that the plane containing each turn is nearly at right angles to
the axis of the helix (usually less than 10o), they are referred to as closely coiled and the wire is
subjected to torsion. In open coiled helical springs, there is a gap between the two consecutive
turns, so the helix angle is large. This has limited use and so, discussion shall be limited to
closely coiled helical springs.
3.6.1.1 Helical Spring with Axial Load
Considering Figure 3.14, let
D = mean coil diameter d = spring wire diameter n = number of coils
D
C = =spring index l = length of wire G = modulus of rigidity
d
x=deflection of spring θ=angle of twist

Formula for maximum shear stress (τ max):

D
The torque or moment on the wire at all sections, T =F
2
T
The shear stress in the spring wire due to torsion is τ t ¿
Z
3
πd
where Z= is the section modulus of a wire with circular cross-section.
16
Hence,
FD
2 8 FD
τ t= 3
= (3.33)
πd πd 3
16

The average shear stress in the spring wire due to the force F;

F F
τ F= = 2
a πd , where a is the cross- sectional area of a wire;
4
Hence,
F 4F
τ F= 2
= 2
πd πd (3.34)
4
8 FD 4 F
Therefore, maximum shear stress (τ max) in the spring wire is, ¿ τ t +τ F = +
πd 3 πd 2

( ) ( )
8 FD 1 8 FD 1
τ max= 1+ = 1+
πd 3
D πd 3
2 C (3.35)
2
d

D
where C= is the spring index and can equally be written as,
d

8 FD
τ max=( K s ) (3.36)
πd 3
 1
where K s =1+ is the shear stress correction factor
2C

For the purpose of taking into account the effect of direct shear and change in coil curvature a
stress factor K w is introduced to replace K s and expressed as

4 C−1 0.615
Kw= +
4 C−4 C

K w is known as Wahl's correction factor.

Formula for angle of twist (θ):

This is the twist of one end of the wire relative to the other, and is given by the torsion formula
T Gθ q Tl
given in equation (3.32), i.e., =¿ = from which, θ=
J L r GJ
πd 4
Spring length l ≈ πDn and recall that polar moment of inertia J=
32

FD
( πDn )
2
Hence, θ=
G ( )
πd 4
32

2
16 F D n
¿ (3.37)
G d4

Formula for deflection (x):

Axial movement of the free end, x=θ ( D2 )
3
8FD n
i.e. x= 4 (3.38)
Gd

Alternatively, the work and strain energy method (discussed in latter chapter) can be used: i.e.,
average external work done = strain (stored or absorbed) energy, U and mathematically
expressed as;

1 1 T 2l
Fx= Tθ= =U
2 2 2GJ

1
¿ ¿
2
 3
8FD n
i.e. x= 4
Gd

Strain Energy and Stiffness, [(U) and (k)]

4 F2 D 3 n
Strain energy U = 4 , which may be written in the form,
Gd

( )( )
2
8 FD π 2 Dn d 2 τ
2
π 2
U= ¿ ( πDn)( d )
πd 3 16 G 4G 4

π 2
Since l ≈ πDn and a= d is the cross-sectional area of the wire
4

τ2
Strain energy, U= ( volume of spring) (3.39)
4G

Spring stiffness is defined as the load per unit deflection, i.e.

F
F ¿ 3
k= 8FD n
x 4
Gd

4
Gd
¿ 3 (3.40)
8D n

Example 3.12
The wire of a helical spring has a diameter of 10mm and spring index of 6. If
(a) acted on by a static load of 1.2KN, find the maximum shear stress in the wire.
(b) also compressed by 0.5mm, find the number of wire coils.
Take G = 83x103N/mm2.

Solution
D
(a) Spring index, C= i.e. D=Cd D=6 (10 )=60 mm
d

From equation (3.35), maximum shear stress,

τ max=¿
8 FD
πd 3
1+ (1
2C
¿
8(1200)(60)
π ¿¿ )
2
¿ 198.73 N /mm
 (b) From equation (3.38), the number of wire coils,

xGd 4
n= ¿ 0.5(83000)¿ ¿ ¿ 12
8 FD 2

Example 3.13
A close coiled helical spring is made of 7 mm diameter wire. It has 25 coils and each of them
with 80 mm diameter. If the maximum shear stress in the spring is 220 N/mm2, compute
(a) the maximum axial force producing this maximum shear stress
(b) the deflection of the spring when carrying the maximum force.
Take G = 200KN/mm2

Solution:
Given values are; d=7 mm n=25 D=80 mm
2 2
τ max=220 N /mm G=200,000 N /mm

(a) From equation 3.35, the maximum axial force;

τ max π d 3
F=
(
8 D 1+
1
2C )
D
where C= is the spring index.
d

Therefore, F=220 π ¿ ¿ ¿ 354.7 N

(b) From equation (3.38),

3
8FD n
deflection, x=
G d4
3
8(354.7) ( 80 ) (25)
¿ 4
¿ 711.4 mm
200000(7)

3.6.1.2 Helical Spring with Axial Couple

The material spring is subjected to pure bending in this case, which reduces the radius of the
coils. The bending moment, M is considered constant throughout the spring and is equal to the
applied axial couple. Shown in Figure 3.15 is a spring subjected to a couple. The maximum
bending stress may thus be determined from the simple bending theory,
M E σ
= =
I R y
 M

M Figure 3.15

Formula for maximum bending stress (σ max):

M σ My
From = , σ=
I y I

where, I, is the modulus of inertia of the spring.

I M
Since, Z= , σ=
y Z
3
πd
where, Z is the elastic section modulus and for a circular cross-section, Z=
32
Therefore, maximum bending stress,

M
M ¿ 32 M
σ max= πd
3 ¿ (3.41)
Z πd 3
32

Formula for deflection or angle of twist of the spring (ϕ)

l 2
M
Strain energy due to bending, U = ∫ dx, as given in equation (10.4)
0 2 EI
 2
M l
Since the bending moment is constant at all sections, U ¿
2 EI
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the spring wire.

Equating the work done by M to the strain energy in the wire,

1 M2l
M ϕ=
2 2 EI

Ml
Therefore, ϕ=
EI
4
πd
Since l ≈ πDn and I= (for a circular cross-section)
64

M (πDn)
ϕ= 64 MDn
Ed 4 ¿ (3.42)
Ed 4
64

Formula for strain energy

M2 l
The strain energy may be written as
2 EI

( )
2
U=
32 M Dn
=¿ σ2 πd 2
¿ ( πDn )
Ed 4 8E 4

σ2
¿ x volume of spring (3.43)
8E

Example 3.14
A close coiled helical spring is subjected to an axial couple of 24Nm. If the spring has 20 coils
with wire diameter of 6mm and the mean coil diameter of 220 mm, determine
(a) the maximum bending stress in the wire
(b) the angle of twist
(c) the strain energy stored
Take E = 200N/mm2

Solution
Given are, M =24 Nmm n=20 d=6 mm D=220mm
2
E=200 KN /mm

(a) From equation 3.41, maximum bending stress,

 32 M 32(24)
σ max ¿ ¿
πd 3 π (6)3

¿ 1.1323 N /mm2

(b) From equation 3.42, the angle of twist of the spring,

64 MDn 64(24 )( 220)(20)

ϕ =¿ ¿
Ed 4 200 ¿ ¿

¿ 0.026 rad ¿ 1.50 C

(c) From equation 3.43, strain energy stored,

2
32 M Dn 32 ( 24 ) (220)(20)
2
U= ¿
Ed 4 200 ( 10 )3 ¿ ¿

¿ 0.31289 Nmm

PROBLEMS

1. The following results were recorded during a tensile test on a mild steel specimen of
circular cross- section:
Initial diameter = 25mm, Gauge length = 250mm, Diameter of cross – section at fracture
after failure = 18.6mm, Elongation of specimen at 120KN load = 0.31mm, Loads at limit of
proportionality = 166KN, Load at yield point = 176KN, Ultimate load = 261KN, Load at
failure = 239KN.

Calculate:
(a) The Modulus of Elasticity of the steel specimen
(b) The stress at limit of proportionality
(c) The yield stress
(d) The ultimate stress
(e) Percentage & elongation and contraction
(f) The stress at failure

Solutions: (a) 197KN/mm2, (b) 338N/mm2, (c) 359 N/mm2, (d) 532N/mm2, (d) 2.31%,
44.6%, (f) 879N/mm2

2. The results of a laboratory test using a universal testing machine on a high yield steel bar is
given as follows:
Initial length of bar = 100mm, Initial diameter of bar = 25mm

Point of measurement Loading F Extension x Diameter

(KN) (mm) (mm)
 Limit of proportionality 90 0.045 24.68
Upper yield point 110 0.081 24.19
Ultimate or maximum 196 5.74
point
Ultimate failure point 200 10.13 21.95
(point of fracture)

From the given results, calculate

(a) Modulus of Elasticity of the bar
(b) Stresses at limit of proportionality, upper yield point, Ultimate point and Ultimate
Failure point
(c) Percentage elongation
(d) Percentage contraction
(e) Poisson Ratio

3. Following a laboratory tensile test conducted on a 6.6mm diameter steel material with a gauge
length of 50mm, the following results were obtained:
- Load at limit of proportionality = 6.0KN at elongation of 0.043mm.
- Load at yield point = 9.7KN
- Load at failure = 14.2KN and reduction of area at failures = 45%

Calculate:
(a) Modulus of Elasticity of the specimen
(b) The yield stress
(c) The ultimate stress
(d) The failures stress

4. A 450mm square concrete is reinforced with 20mm diameter steel bars which are four in
number and placed in the corners of the concrete mass. If the modulus of elasticity for steel bars
is 205 GN/m2 and that for concrete is 15 GN/m2, determine the compressive stresses in the steel
and concrete when the total compressive load on the column is 1.2MN.

5. A steel column with circular cross-section carried an axial load of 1,000KN and its failure
stress was 410N/mm2. Determine the diameter of the column
Solution: d=55.74 mm

6. An aluminum bar of 20mm is rigidly fixed at the ends in a copper tube of 30mm external
diameter and 24mm internal diameter. Assuming that at a temperature of 25oC there was no
stress, compute the stresses in the bar and tube if the temperature increases to 250oC. Take the
Modulus of elasticities of aluminium and copper as 70KN/mm2 and 105KN/mm2 respectively.
Also, take their coefficients of linear expansion as 2.1x10-5 per oC and 1.7x10-5 per 0C
respectively.

7. A composite bar of two materials and same initial length is subjected to a compressive load of
100KN. If one of them has a cross sectional area, A1 of 0.020m2 and the other, A2
of 0.035m2, determine the amount of load each of the materials will bear? Take modulus of
elasticity of the first material, E1= 105 GN/m2 and the other, E2 = 85GN/m2
Solutions: F 1=41.4 KN , F 2=58.6 KN

8. A thin cylindrical shell has an internal diameter of 240mm. If it is 4mm thick and subjected to
an internal pressure of 3.2MN/m2, calculate the hoop and longitudinal stresses in the shell and
assuming the ends are closed.

9. A 20mm thick circular cylinder contains mineral grease. It has an internal diameter of
440mm. If a piston is made to slide in the cylinder to generate a maximum of 120MN/m2
tensile stress, determine the maximum force, F on the piston.
Solution: F=1657.9 KN

10. A 24mm thick cylindrical shell with an ultimate tensile strength of 460N/mm2 has an external
diameter of 1.2m. If the factor of safety is 4, calculate the safe pressure in the shell.
Solution: p=4.51 N /mm2

11. The propeller shaft of a factory machine has to transmit a twisting moment of 250KNm. The
15m long shaft has outside and inside diameters of 300mm and 200mm.
Find;
(a) The maximum shear stress
(b) The total twist in degrees

Solutions: (a) 58.7N/mm2, (b) 4.20

12. A shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of 15KNmm. If the maximum shear stress is
75N/mm2, determine the diameter of the shaft.
Solution: D=10.06 mm

13. The 15m long propeller shaft of a ship is 120mm thick and has an internal radius of 180mm.
If it is subjected to a maximum shear stress of 79MN/m2, determine the torque and the angle of
twist on the shaft. Take G = 100GN/m2
Solution: T =2916.3 KNm ,θ=0.0395 rad or 2.270

14. A close coiled helical spring is to carry a load of 6KN with a deflection of 55 mm and a
maximum shearing stress of 500 N/mm2. If the number of turns is 10, estimate
(a) Wire diameter
(b) Mean coil diameter.
Take G = 85,000 N/mm2

15. A close coiled helical spring made of 12mm diameter wire has 10 coils of 130mm mean
diameter. If the spring is subjected to an axial force of 150N, determine;
(a) the maximum shear stress induced
(b) the deflection
(c) the stiffness of the spring
Take G = 83KN/mm2
16. A 25 KN trailer truck moving at 5 km/h has to be brought to rest by a spring buffer.
Determine the number of springs each of 15 coils will be required to store the energy of motion
during a compression of 150 mm. The spring wire, made of steel rod is 30 mm and the coil
diameter is 250. Take G = 150 N/mm2.

17. A close coiled helical spring has 10mm diameter wire and 20 coils. Let each coil’s
diameter be 100mnm and the allowable stress on the spring be 150 N/mm2, Calculate
(a) the maximum allowable force on the spring
(b) the deflection of the spring
(c) the total strain energy stored in the spring at that force
(d) the stiffness of the spring.
Take G = 90KN/mm2

18. A close coiled helical spring is made of 8mm diameter wire. It is required to extend
30mm for an axial load of 120 N and a twist of 0.33 radian for an axial couple of 1.5Nm.
Determine the diameter and number of the coils required. Take E = 208KN/mm2 and G =
82KN/mm2