BASIN MANAGEMENT BASED ON RESOURCE CONSERVATION

Zh. Bekbolotov and A. Jaloobayev

Water Department, Kyrgyz Republic

Many regions in the world face water scarcity. Among these are the countries
of Central-Asia, which have limited water resources. For this reason, efficient
water use and water conservation are top priorities, especially in terms of
irrigated agriculture.
The natural climatic conditions of the Central-Asian region, allied to edu-
cation and awareness of the subject, mean that traditionally the local popula-
tion has displayed a careful attitude to water. Unfortunately, with large-scale
irrigation development these traditions were somewhat forgotten, a process
exacerbated by the birth of a myth of future water abundance from Siberian
rivers. The Aral Sea started to shrink, water transfer from Siberia became im-
possible and the issue of efficient water use and water conservation became
critical.
Under water scarcity, the only means of equilibrium between water supply
and demand is demand management through water conservation.There is a
positive experience in the region, based on the results of the WUFMAS sub-
project (TACIS WARMAP), sub-component A-2 (Participation in water con-
servation, 1999–2000); GEF project, IWMI-SIC ICWC project, ‘Best practice
in water conservation adoption in SyrDarya and AmuDarya basin’. This expe-
rience showed that, in the Aral Sea basin, water conservation methods known
from science and tradition are being practiced, but not in a widespread man-
ner. Awareness of potential water productivity may allow countries to almost
double agricultural production under a water expense decrease of 10%.
As an example, we might turn to data from the WUFMAS project obtained
from crop yield monitoring on 22 control fields under typical conditions.
According to this data, irrigation water losses at the level ‘inlet to field-cotton
rooting zone’ amount to 51% across the region. The experience of the countries
taking 4 t/ha cotton under irrigation of 5 th.m3 /ha says much about the huge
potential of water conservation. The following comparisons underline the
gap in water conservation in the region. Each Tashkent resident spends nearly
1000 l on water per day, while in Shanghai this figure is 577, in Hong Kong
402 and in Kuala Lumpur just 354.
Many countries fully utilise wastewater. Such wastewater in our region
amounts to 6 m3 /yr, and is not used at all, creating a load on the environment.
It is important to remember that the water conservation effect is not limited by
167
P. Wouters et al. (eds.), Implementing Integrated Water Resources Management in Central Asia, 167–177.

C 2007 Springer.
168 ZH. BEKBOLOTOV AND A. JALOOBAYEV

irrigation water saving. It has been proved that water saving leads to irrigated
agriculture productivity increases. From WUFMAS data on land and water
productivity it is evident that, on average, the ‘gross-field’ irrigation norm for
cotton is 7243 m3 /ha, comprising 2039 m3 /ha of leaching and recharge and
5204 m3 /ha of vegetation irrigation. Under an average cotton yield of 2.33 t/ha
at field level, average weighted irrigation water expenses per yield unit amount
to 3,110 m3 /t, under water use productivity at field level of 0.32 kg/m3
(indicators may vary within 1600–10,340 m3 /t and 0.1–0.63 kg/m3 respec-
tively). For winter wheat, the average weighted ‘gross-field’ irrigation norm
amounted to 4575 m3 /ha under an average yield of 2.23 t/ha; irrigation water
expenses were 2080 m3 /t under irrigation water use productivity at field level
0.49 kg/m3 (data deviation from 180–5750 m3 /t and from 0.17–5.65 kg/m3
respectively).
Top-heavy water supply to the field leads to a reduction in land productivity
because, on the one hand, nutrients are washed out from the soil which cannot
be adequately compensated for by fertilisers and, on the other hand, because
of rising ground water and soil salinisation. According to WUFMAS control
field data, mobile phosphorus losses due to its washing out reach 65%, and
potassium losses are 50%, whilst soil salinisation reached 51% over the last
2 years.
Comparative analysis of irrigation water productivity based on gross prod-
uct shows the following: If in Israel water productivity equals 0.52 $/m3 , in
Uzbekistan it is 0.06 $/m3 , in South-Kazakhstan oblast it is 0.14 $/m3 and in
Kyzylordaoblast the figure is less than in Uzbekistan. Although these figures
reflect local market competitiveness, they are indicative. It is worth noting
that there is a difference in water use productivity for fishing culture between
Israel and The Netherlands.
In each planning zone, river site and command irrigated area within the
country, and within the basin the following circumstances, indicators and
factors should be analysed and evaluated:

r Potential land and water productivity based on available information, espe-

cially for dry years;
r Specific water consumption under minimum water discharge for biological
production using CROPWAT-FAO methodological approaches;
r Reasons for production shortage (connected to reclamation and water-
related factors) and possibilities for their elimination with assessment of
priorities and measures undertaken;
r Planning zone water-salt balance based on previous data; possibility of
their reduction to parameters providing ecologically sustainable develop-
ment (minimum salt exchange between river and irrigated area and be-
tween aeration zone and ground water with gradual salt storage decrease in
aeration zone and planning zone as a whole);
 BASIN MANAGEMENT BASED ON RESOURCE CONSERVATION 169

r Possibility of return water maximum involvement and utilisation in place

of origin;
r Possibility of released and ground water use;
r Possibility of organisational water losses reduction at all hierarchic levels;
r Unproductive water losses in all irrigation system links, first of all, at irri-
gated field, assessment of which will allow identification of the least capital
consuming measures of water conservation;
r Reduction of return water release to the river and water quality improvement
as result of water saving. Specific task is to analyse organisational water
losses,
r Identification of mistakes in water allocation and in water resources manage-
ment, including excessive water losses in channel, water release to natural
depressions and bad water use downstream. By the joint efforts of regional
and national experts, these losses should be identified and mechanisms for
their reduction and prevention should be developed.

The countries located in the flow formation zone are ready to provide
to all regional organisations the appropriate information about flow fore-
casts and climatic indicators. However, for this to occur, the participation
of all the countries involved is required in hydro-meteorological activity
funding.
Under market conditions, economic mechanisms play an important role;
water use efficiency and water saving indicators both at national and interna-
tional level will depend on water charges and their economic mechanisms will
dominate. During the period of market conditions formation in the Kyrgyz
Republic, the population, including those in rural areas, clearly understood
the necessity of economic reforms. Economic and structural transformations
made according to the Constitution are reflected in the water sector. Adopted
in 1994, the law ‘About Water’ approved the basic principle of paid water
use, water right distribution and national and international water relations.
Along with this, environmental legislation was also being developed. A basis
for water tariff policy and public water associations was laid. Last March,
Jokorgu Kenesh approved the law ‘About water users associations’, which de-
fines the objectives, principles and main directions of state policy on further
sustainable development of water users associations.
At present there are several different approaches to water charges for ir-
rigation in Central-Asian countries. For example, in Kazakhstan charges for
1000 m3 water delivery are 14,865 tenghe (0.105 cent/m3 ) and charges for
1 m3 surface water are 3.02 tiin (0.021 cent/m3 ); in Kyrgyzstan, meanwhile,
water charges are differentiated. During the growing period they are set
at 30 som/1000 m3 (0.063 cent/m3 ), whilst during the non-growing period
they fall to10 som/1000 m3 (0.021 cent/m3 ). By comparison, in Tajikistan
1 m3 water costs 0.3 diram (0.107 cent/m3 ). Meanwhile, in Turkmenistan and
170 ZH. BEKBOLOTOV AND A. JALOOBAYEV

Uzbekistan there are no water charges for irrigation, although in Uzbekistan

a charge is included in land tax and excessive water diversion is also paid for.
Meanwhile, paid water experience in Kyrgyzstan shows the importance of
this charge for water conservation. According to SIC ICWC analytical data,
based on WARMIS and ‘IWRM-Ferghana’ project data, since paid water use
was introduced in 1995, oblasts of Kyrgyzstan in the Ferghana valley have
sharply reduced water diversion for irrigation.
In the period before the introduction of paid water use (1986–1995), an-
nual water diversion was 3.7–4.7 bln.m3 . After its introduction, diversion
amounted to 2.67–3.68 bln.m3 (without taking into account the wet year
of 1998). If we consider the total water diversion for irrigation purposes
by the three oblasts in the Ferghana valley in 5-year intervals, it can be
seen that in 1986–1990 the figure was 22,271 mln.m3 , in 1991–1995 it was
19,655 mln.m3 and in 1996–2000 (after the introduction of paid water use) it
fell to 16,987 mln.m3 . This reduction has happened within the same irrigated
area, although under some cropping pattern changes. Thus, paid water use in
Kyrgyzstan has facilitated a sharp reduction in water diversion for irrigation
purposes.
Paid water use and the establishment of WUA led to a 30% reduction
of water diversion for irrigation. Kyrgyzstan does not face water scarcity
but it does recognise environmental needs and actively participates in wa-
ter conservation programmes. Thus the introduction of IWRM principles on
the Aravan-Akbura canal. Kyrgyzstan creates demonstration plots and pilot
projects, organises training and educates people in water-saving behaviour.
Demonstration plots within WARMAP, GEF and IWRM-Ferghana projects
and the SPECA programme serve as examples.
World experience shows that the participation of farmers in water re-
sources management, as a rule, creates conditions for more efficient water
use.
There are four main principles stimulating concerned parties and water
users to participate in institutional reforms, something that will increase the
number of stakeholders and give the programme more authority, thus increas-
ing the chance of reform sustainability. Although such principles of joint
participation are common for all countries, the mechanism of their imple-
mentation may differ depending on the socio-cultural situation in the country
concerned. The four principles are as follows:

– sharing information—Access to information for landowners;

– consultation—Discussion of transformation alternatives and priorities ap-
proval;
– joint decision making on technical questions;
– giving authority to water users though group responsibility in management.
 BASIN MANAGEMENT BASED ON RESOURCE CONSERVATION 171

In conditions of collective and state farms separation, and where water user
numbers are increasing, the issue of water productivity in irrigated farming
and irrigation network maintenance is solved by the establishment of a WUA.
With the establishment of a WUA, farmers and other agricultural organisations
have the opportunity for direct participation in water resources management
and irrigation system reconstruction. Over the last 7 years in Kazakhstan
and Kyrgyzstan, great experience in the establishment of WUAs has been
accumulated. Kyrgyzstan is a pioneer in this field, having started down this
road in 1995. There are now 316 WUAs in the republic.
One of the most serious shortcomings of national legislations in Central
Asia is the lack of, or the weakness in, the legal base in the water conserva-
tion field. Existing norms require rational water use but they are declarative.
There are no special sections on water conservation, a subject that has not re-
ceived any methodological, organisational, or technological provision. Water
conservation not only covers water deficit but has also an economic character
and requires legal provision. It is known that water resources in Central Asia
and many other regions are fully developed, and additional resources are ab-
sent. Even if they are available, expenses for their development will double
every 20 years. Water conservation is the only viable approach for long-term
prospects in Central Asia.
Irrational and inefficient water use causes damage to the region’s econ-
omy, a regional problem exacerbated by trans-boundary waters joint use. To
compensate water losses, water supply should be permanently increased with
additional charges for electric energy and other resources. If this happens,
water diversion and disposal increase substantially, a factor that requires ad-
ditional expenditure for environmental measures.
For any water-related system, water losses lead to system capacity in-
crease, reliability decrease and water and resources losses increase. Calcula-
tions show that water conservation and water losses reduction can reduce costs
per 1000 m3 by $95–100 in municipal water use and can reduce operational
costs by $35–40/yr per 1000 m3 . Water conservation policy should have an in-
tegrated approach covering progressive development, structures construction
and modernisation, allowing a high technological level of water conservation.
Thus, water conservation policy simultaneously facilitates water deficit com-
pensation and protects water resources and the environment from exhaustion
and pollution.
In this regard, energy conservation experience can be very useful. In
Kazakhstan, energy conservation policy is based on a special law approved
in 1997. This law creates economic and organisational conditions for the ef-
fective use of energy and environmental protection. In this legal act, the main
principles of state power policy are confirmed and the main directions of
energy conservation are defined.
172 ZH. BEKBOLOTOV AND A. JALOOBAYEV

The state regulation system in energy conservation and its economic

mechanism are given. The legal norm defines a priority in renewable power
resources use, power engineering development programmes and ecological
issues solutions. Sections covering the legal mechanism of education, infor-
mation provision and scientific research are given much importance. Some
of the major principles of state policy in energy conservation are detailed
below:

– priority of fuel-power resources use efficiency over their mining growth

rate, heat and electric energy production;
– priority in health and safety, social conditions provision and environmental
protection under fuel-power resources mining, transportation and use;
– state regulation of power conservation area;
– obligatory reliable accounting of fuel-power resources.

In 1998, the law ‘About power conservation’ was adopted. The goal of this
law was the creation of conditions for the increase of fuel-power resources
efficiency in terms of mining, storage, transportation, processing, distribution
and use and the protection of consumer’s and producer’s interests through
the regulation of relations between the state and juridical and other persons
involved in the energy conservation field. State energy conservation policy is
ensured by:

– the creation of economic and legal conditions to stimulate juridical and nat-
ural persons toward energy conservation on the basis of a combination of
consumers, suppliers and producers interests stimulation, including tech-
niques and technologies of effective power resources use, accountability
and control over power resources spending;
– the development and implementation of state projects and programmes on
energy, alternative fuels and renewable and secondary power resources con-
servation and use;
– the implementation of demonstration projects of high power efficiency;
– the implementation of economic, information, educational and other direc-
tions in energy conservation area;
– international cooperation in power resources-use efficiency.

In the Kazakhstan law ‘About energy conservation’, a separate chapter

(Chapter 12) is devoted to the stimulation of juridical and natural persons for
power conservation measures (Chapter 12):

1. Those juridical and natural persons who achieve power resources spending
reductions of 1% from the established limit have a right to a tariff reduction
of 1.5%. Total tariff reduction should not exceed 25%.
 BASIN MANAGEMENT BASED ON RESOURCE CONSERVATION 173

2. Juridical and natural persons using unconventional and renewable re-

sources for more than 25% of their total power may have their tariff reduced
by 50%. Compensation for reduction of prices and tariffs (items 1 and 2
above) is drawn from territorial funds of energy conservation after power
expertise.
3. For rural areas and areas with a complex ecological situation, 80% of equip-
ment and structures for unconventional and renewable resources is com-
pensated from the national and local budgets. The list of eligible regions is
defined by the Kazakh Government on the basis of documents submitted
by local authorities, power supervision and environmental bodies.
4. Juridical and natural persons developing and constructing power installa-
tions and units have tax privileges defined by the Tax Code of the Republic
of Kazakhstan.
5. Juridical and natural persons saving fuel or energy also have tax privileges
defined by the Tax Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
In the Kyrgyz law ‘About power conservation’ there are also incentives, but
tax privileges themselves are not foreseen. Chapter 23, entitled ‘Stimulation
of power conservation’ lays out these incentives:
– grant allocation from the fund of power conservation for socially meaningful
projects, maximum share of which in total funding is defined by legislation
of Kyrgyz Republic;
– compensation in power resources prices of cost of energy of conservation
technologies, including capital cost of power installations using renewable
resources constructed within framework of state programmes of power con-
sumption efficiency increase;
– reimbursement of expenditures paid by suppliers for resources under-use
by consumers because of power conservation;
– setting of accelerated depreciation norms on power conservation equipment,
devices, materials, control, regulation and account devices, list of which is
defined by the state body of power conservation management;
– State support for power conservation projects and programmes;
– provision of government guarantees to foreign investors financing power
conservation projects, within financial means foreseen by state budget for
power conservation measures.
In Tajikistan there is a law ‘About power conservation’ and a Government
provision ‘About measures on introduction norms in heat and power use in
the national economy of Tajikistan’. This law provides a basis for power
conservation policy.
In Turkmenistan there is no special law regarding power conservation.
Moreover, this issue is not considered as a priority because there is no
174 ZH. BEKBOLOTOV AND A. JALOOBAYEV

restriction on power resources use in the country and some resources are
supplied to the population free of charge.
In Uzbekistan, in 1997, the government approved a power strategy, and in
May 1997 the law ‘About rational power use’ was approved. This law includes
power consumers, producers and suppliers. It foresees the establishment of
standards in power conservation, power certification, accounting and auditing.
Based on power engineering experience, it would be expedient to create a
legal base for power conservation in all countries of the region. In this law, tax
and custom privileges measures aimed at power conservation, new technolo-
gies and the introduction of equipment, as well as water saving incentives,
should be included.
It is desirable to create a favourable investment climate both in each coun-
try and in the region as a whole, promoting investment in irrigated agriculture
efficiency, including water conservation. The states of the region carry out a
policy of grain independence. In this connection, areas under wheat are ex-
panded at the expense of cotton forage crops and melons. As a result, livestock
productivity is reduced because of a lack of forage base. Vegetables, fruits and
melons production satisfies the local market and also allows for some export.
The actual level of exports does not correspond to the full potential because of
imposed restrictions. As a result, agricultural producers lose potential income.
Food imports are reducing both in volume and variety. Government pol-
icy is directed at further import reduction and food export increase, and does
not foresee regional specialization. Serious gaps in food production growth
compared with population growth leads to food problem aggravation. The
population’s access to adequate nutrition will depend on agricultural produc-
tion efficiency and economic development in general. Calories are the main
indicator of nutrition. It is estimated that the number of calories consumed
per capita should reach 2700–3200. This requires appropriate agricultural pro-
duction. To this end, in the near future measures to strengthen the agricultural
sector, expansion of irrigated areas and new water resources development are
needed, given that water is a main factor of irrigated farming.
Irrigation technique perfection and crop yield increase will arise from the
following. Firstly, irrigated farming needs intensification in order to satisfy
population demand for food. Secondly, water spending for irrigation should
be evaluated with regard to future water conservation technologies. At the
same time, it is necessary to take into account traditional water conservation
methods. One of the ways this can be done is through field protecting forest
stripes, which can save 15–25% of water.
Presently, in the tropical belt, there is a spread of Mexican wheat whose
potential yield is 10 t/ha. This crop served as the basis for the ‘green revolution’
in India and some other countries. It is evident that without the help of technical
measures it is impossible to solve the world’s food problem.
 BASIN MANAGEMENT BASED ON RESOURCE CONSERVATION 175

Biology plays an important, and perhaps even leading role. With help
of biotechnologies, combined with advanced irrigation techniques (drip and
other in-soil irrigation), it is possible to achieve desirable results, including
water resources provision. These resources should be renewable up to some
limit, which depends on the diversion volume and water quality connected
with its use.
Food production growth will be ensured by yield increase .The irrigation
norm will reduce due to improved irrigation techniques and crop selection.
Total irrevocable water expenses will grow insignificantly. This indicator must
be stabilized and the main effect will be decreased water expenses per unit
of production. That is why the main strategic direction in water sector de-
velopment is water expenses per production unit decrease. These measures
should be carried out in all economic sectors, but in the first place in irrigated
agriculture.
Integration processes between countries in the region, based on under-
standing by governments of the mutual benefits to be had from cooperation,
are very important. Taking into account the long-term forecast for grain price
increases in the future, the issue of grain shortages can be solved by grain
production in Kazakhstan. It is known that wheat cultivation on irrigated lands
is unprofitable. That is why arguments for wheat growing are unconvincing.
Wheat grown on non-irrigated land in the Kazakhstan steppes gives much
better results in yield and profitability. By carrying out a moderate policy in
grain self-sufficiency on the basis of interstate cooperation, it is possible to:
r Increase areas under forage crops and, especially, alfalfa;
r Restore crop rotation using alfalfa as a nitrogen fixing crop for soil
fertility rehabilitation;
r Increase production of forage grain;
r Increase livestock forage base efficiency;
r Increase livestock productivity.

Regional cooperation should be based on the economic benefit from agri-

cultural production, and should cover such spheres as milk and meat produc-
tion in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, livestock development and sugar beet
cultivation in Kyrgyzstan, vegetable cultivation in Turkmenistan and Uzbek-
istan and fruits and melon crops in Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Greenhouses and film-cover technologies, barriers processing and storage and
dry fruits production can facilitate export potential in agricultural production.
Regional cooperation will lead to food import reduction, leaving a negligible
volume of export within the region in accordance with economic expediency.
It is clear that no one country could agree with a policy of dependence on
food imports until a period of political and military security is achieved. Spe-
cialists predict urban population growth, with correspondent available water
176 ZH. BEKBOLOTOV AND A. JALOOBAYEV

resources redistribution. Urban and industrial water supply will become the
highest priority. The agricultural sector will shift toward the production of
valuable crops. As world experience shows, in spite of potential benefits,
water will be redistributed from the agricultural sector to industrial needs.
In countries such as Israel, Cyprus and Malta, governments have success-
fully shifted the population away from agriculture to industry, commerce and
tourism. Agriculture is limited to valuable export crops and food for the pop-
ulation is bought, but not produced locally. A strategy of irrigated farming
production change toward food import, paid for by urban growth and com-
merce development (the so-called import of ‘virtual water’) is being realised.
In our region, the necessity and importance of ‘virtual water’ (water used
for another purpose) for regional food provision should be recognised. The
main parameters of food provision, in order to prevent possible crisis, should
be based on regional cooperation and integration in agricultural and food
production.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The most important condition for water protection and water conservation
policy is a flexible and appropriate legal base, corresponding to international
practice. As was mentioned before, one of the serious shortcomings of national
legislations in Central-Asian countries is the lack of, or weakness in, the legal
base regarding water conservation. A lack of water policy and water protection
and conservation legislation can lead to water demand growth. Taking into
account the above permanent legislation, perfection is necessary at the national
level, along with coordination of national legislations at the regional level and
regional conventions development. For maximum effect in water conservation
policy, international cooperation is very important. A good base for this could
be the development of the model law ‘About water conservation’ for all CAR
countries.
In the economies of the countries involved, structural transformations are
underway. Land ownership is changing and investment redistribution is taking
place. The high price of power is preventing the achievement of the maximum
benefit from available resources, which in turn leads to investment activity
intensification in the water sector. With respect to these circumstances, the
strategic goal of national policy in water resources is the realisation of long-
term measures directed at eliminating the negative consequences of limited
water resources and creating conditions for economic growth, social and eco-
logical issues solution and interstate water relations regulation. In this respect,
it is necessary to understand that water is an economically valuable resource
that determines the country’s development sustainability, and water quality
issues should therefore be considered alongside issues of water quantity.
 BASIN MANAGEMENT BASED ON RESOURCE CONSERVATION 177

An integrated approach to water resources management and water conser-

vation, water pollution reduction and water diversion from natural sources,
as well as economic regulation of water use on the basis of a balanced tariff
system, are the main principles of water policy. Reduction of water diversion
from natural sources should be considered as the most important aspect for the
ecological security, rehabilitation and preservation of rivers. Huge multi-fold
effects are achieved in all economic spheres related to water. Water diversion
reduction leads to minimisation of expenses for water object construction,
waste reduction and a reduction of the load on the environment. It is im-
portant that a source fully retains its functional element as an environmental
component. Independently, water policy, level and goals should lead to water
conservation as a result of consumption reduction and prevention of negative
ecological impacts.
The participation of the population in the decision-making process links
water users and administrators. Also of great importance is the establishment
of WUAs, and their strengthening role as a tool of water policy realisation at
public and private levels of water management.
All of the above-mentioned factors should be realised within a framework
of common water conservation policy and strategy, coordinated with all the
countries of the region.