We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education

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Cambridge
IGCSE TM

Physics
STUDENT’S
BOOK

Dr Ho Boon Tiong
Wendy Brown
Dr Mark Venables
 Cambridge
IGCSE TM

Physics
STUDENT’S
BOOK
Dr Ho Boon Tiong
Wendy Brown
Dr Mark Venables

IGCSE Physics title page.indd 1 2/9/20 4:44 PM

FM_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 1 10/30/2020 7:31:58 PM
 © 2021 Marshall Cavendish Education Pte Ltd

Published by Marshall Cavendish Education

Times Centre, 1 New Industrial Road, Singapore 536196
Customer Service Hotline: (65) 6213 9688
E-mail: cs@mceducation.com
Website: www.mceducation.com

First published 2021

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the
copyright owner. Any requests for permission should be addressed to
the Publisher.

Marshall Cavendish is a registered trademark of Times Publishing Limited.

ISBN 978-981-4927-87-1

Questions and answers in this book have been written by the authors.
Any third-party digital resources have not been reviewed or endorsed by
Cambridge Assessment International Education.

Printed in Singapore

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 How to use this book
This book is designed to help you to build your knowledge and understanding of essential scientific concepts. It will also
enable you to appreciate the application of Physics in your everyday life and in the world around you. This Student’s Book is
part of the Marshall Cavendish Education suite of resources that will support you as you follow the 0625/0972 syllabus and
prepare for the Cambridge IGCSE Physics.

CHAPTER

4
*Chapter opener introduces
Forces the topic and links concepts
to real-life examples.

PHYSICS WATCH*

Low res image

provides multimedia resources, such as videos,
animations and simulations, making learning
‘come alive’. The resources can be called out on
PHYSICS WATCH a smartphone or a tablet by scanning a page
Scan this page to watch a clip what keeps a
kite flying in the air. using the MCE Cambridge IGCSE App.
QUESTIONS

This man is getting ready to fly his wau bulan. Wau bulan is a type • A main force is responsible to enable the
wau bulan to fly. Where does this force
of kite traditionally flown in Kelantan, a state in Malaysia. The lower come from?
part of the kite is shaped like a crescent moon. That is how the kite • What other forces are acting on the kite
got its name — bulan means moon in Malay. when it is flying in the air?
A typical wau bulan measures 2.5 m in width and 3.5 m in height.
Its frame is made of bamboo. A large wau bulan can be very heavy
• A big wau bulan will not fly when the
wind is not strong enough. Why? QUESTIONS*
and would need several people to launch it into the sky. When
there is a strong wind, the wau bulan is lifted up. The forces acting
on it enable it to fly as high as 500 m in the air. To control the height
and path of the kite, a few people on the ground hold and pull the
string attached to it.
assesses your prior knowledge on
the topic.
48

04_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 48 10/17/2020 11:06:38 PM

ENRICHMENT
THINK*
Let’s Practise provides formative
assessment questions at the end Chapter 18
poses challenging questions that
of sections to test your ability to
In a d.c. motor, the function of the split-ring commutator is
to reverse the direction of the current in the coil every half a
encourage you to apply the concepts
revolution. This occurs whenever the commutator changes
contact from one brush to the other. This ensures that the coil learnt to various contexts and
recall and apply concepts learnt. will always turn in one direction. Low res image
The turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a d.c. motor can
be increased by ENRICHMENT
THINK
prompts higher-level critical thinking.
• inserting a soft iron core into the coil; Refer to Figure 18.39.
• increasing the number of turns in the coil; Why are the iron
Figure 18.39 Practical d.c. motors, like the
• increasing the current in the coil. one shown above, have hundreds of turns parts curved?

Learning goals help you identify

of wire with a soft iron core at the centre.

TWB LINK
Let’s Practise 18.5
areas of focus and serve as a 1 The coil in a particular d.c. motor rotates in an anticlockwise direction. State the change(s)
that must be made in order for the coil to rotate in a clockwise direction.

checklist. 2 Explain the purpose of the rheostat in the d.c. motor.

TWB LINK

leads you to the revision exercises in

3 State the energy conversion that takes place in the d.c. motor.
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 18E,
this section. pp. XX–XX

the Theory Workbook.

18.6 The Transformer
In this section, you will learn the following:
QUICK CHECK • Describe the construction of a simple transformer with a soft iron core, as used for voltage
transformations.
• S Explain the principle of operation of a simple iron-cored transformer.
• Use the terms primary, secondary, step-up and step-down.
V N
• Recall and use the equation p = p where p and s refer to primary and secondary.
V N
serves as a checkpoint to check your
s s
• Describe the use of transformers in high-voltage transmission of electricity.
• State the advantages of high-voltage transmission.
• S Recall and use the equation for 100% efficiency in a transformer, IpVp = IsVs.

understanding of concepts by posing a true • S Recall and use the equation P = I2R to explain why power losses in cables are smaller when the
voltage is greater.
LINK

or false question. Rate your confidence level

Recall that a current-
carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field.
In 1831, Faraday discovered that when two coils of wire were wrapped around a soft iron ring

in your answer by drawing a pointer on the (Figure 18.40), the magnetic field produced by one coil could induce a current in the other.
A compass was placed above wire PQ to detect any changes in the magnetic field there. If the
Refer to Chapter 15.

confidence meter. Relating your answer

needle of the compass was deflected, it meant there was a magnetic field present. This indicated
that there was a current flowing in the wire PQ. QUICK CHECK

and confidence level to the correct answer S P

The compass remains
deflected when there is a
constant current in coil A.

helps you to detect any lack of knowledge coil A coil B compass

True or false?
LINK
or potential misconceptions. For example, iron ring Q

“High confidence in an incorrect answer Figure 18.40 Faraday’s iron ring experiment helps you make connections between
would suggest a misconception” and “low Electromagnetic Effects 321 sections or chapters.
confidence in a correct answer would 18_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 321 10/27/2020 8:06:44 PM

suggest a lack of knowledge”.

iii

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 Chapter 4

Let’s Investigate introduces Let’s

Let’s Investigate
Investigate 4A
Objective
10A

experimental skills and

To investigate the relationship between force and the extension of a spring
Materials
Metre rule, spring, standard 1 N loads, hanger, retort stand

techniques, and allows you

Procedure
1 Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 4.4.
2 Measure the length l0 of the spring without any load, i.e. force F = 0 N. Position your eye HELPFUL NOTES
to see how concepts are
correctly to avoid parallax error. Record this length using Table 4.1. LINK
3 Attach a 1 N load to the hanger on the spring. Measure the new length l of the spring and
Recall what you have
record this length for F = 1 N.
learnt in Chapter 1 about
4 By adding 1 N loads, measure and record the new lengths of the spring for F values of 2 N,

formed and tested.

how to avoid parallax error.

supports your learning by

3 N, 4 N and 5 N.
5 After you have recorded the length of the spring for F = 5 N, remove a 1 N load. You now
have a 4 N force applied on the spring. The spring should return to the length you have

providing tips, such as mnemonics,

recorded for F = 4 N.
6 Remove another 1 N load so that F = 3 N, and check the length of the spring. Repeat this for
F equals 2 N, 1 N and 0 N.
7 Calculate the extension x = l − l0 for each row of Table 4.1.
8 Plot a graph of F/N (y-axis) against x/mm (x-axis).

metre rule retort stand

and highlighting important notes
that you need to be aware of.
l0 HELPFUL NOTES
x
We can conduct similar
hanger
load experiments to obtain the
pointer load–extension graphs
for other elastic solids.
Instead of the spring, we
can use elastic bands or
Figure 4.4 Experimental set-up to investigate the extension of a spring
polythene strips.
Table 4.1
F/N 0 1 2 3 4 5

l/mm l0

x/mm 0

Discussion and conclusion

By using the data recorded in Table 4.1, we can plot the load–extension graph for the spring. PWB LINK
The graph will look similar to the one in Figure 4.3 on page 50.
The load–extension graph for the spring shows that the force applied is directly proportional to
the extension of the spring. PWB LINK

leads you to practicals in the

We can measure the extension of the spring when a load of unknown weight is attached to it,
Practical 4A, pp. XX–XX
and plot a graph. We can then use the graph to determine the unknown weight.

Practical Workbook.
Forces 51

*ENRICHMENT
04_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 51 10/17/2020 11:06:40 PM

INFO
Chapter 4 Chapter 4

offers snippets of To increase the stability of an object,

• its centre of gravity should be kept as low as possible (i.e. more mass packed at its bottom);
• its base area should be kept as wide as possible. Let’s Map It
information to supplement
ENRICHMENT
INFO
FORCES F
Many objects in our daily lives are designed to increase their stability. Racing cars, Bunsen burners,

Worked Example demonstrates

Defying Gravity table lamps and standing fans have large and heavy bases to lower their centre of gravity. Look
cause produce

your general knowledge and

around you. What other examples can you give? (SI unit: N)
Low res image

provide additional context

Worked Example 4I
Figure 4.36 shows the rest position and the displaced position of a balancing toy. Its centre
how to solve problems by affect

applying concepts learnt.

of gravity is indicated by the letter G. Explain briefly why the toy eventually returns to its rest

related to the topic.

position after being released from its displaced position. Turning effect known
Objects to change in
Motion as moment of a force
(a) Rest position (b) Displaced position size and/or shape
(Sl unit: N m)

Figure 4.38 Kyaiktoyo such as described by defined as

pagoda or Golden Rock
The Kyaiktoyo pagoda G
weighted
in Myanmar is a sacred
toy Resulant force F (N) = Moment (N m) = force (N)
site for Buddhists. It A spring
sits on top of a huge mass (kg) × accelleration (m/s) × perpendicular distance
Figure 4.36
heavy rock resting of the force from the pivot
at the edge of a cliff. Solution whose spring applies to
Many worshippers The centre of gravity is the point through which constant k is a can be
meditate underneath the weight of an object acts. When the toy is at rest, ratio given by
the rock, perhaps its centre of gravity G is directly below the pivot G
hoping to be in a state (i.e. its beak). k = Fx Balanced forces Unbalanced forces
of equilibrium just like where (Resultant F = O N) (Resultant F ≠ O N)

*ENRICHMENT
the rock. How does When the toy is displaced, G is moved upwards and pivot Anticlockwise Clockwise
to the right (Figure 4.37). Its weight now has a turning F = load
this rock stay put? The
effect about the pivot. The moment of the weight about x = extension for an object for an object
answer could be its
weight

ACTIVITY
centre of gravity. the pivot causes the toy to rotate clockwise towards its
rest position. Figure 4.37
represented for an object in
using Moving at a Moving in equilibrium
At rest constant velocity
ENRICHMENT a circle
ACTIVITY

provides individual and Let’s Practise 4.4

Make your own Principle of moments
Load-extension graph within
balancing toy using
the limit of proportionality Sum of clockwise moments =
suitable materials such
1 (a) What is the centre of gravity of an object? sum of anticlockwise moments
as sticks, modelling

group activities that clay, paper clips, cork, (b) Is the centre of gravity of an object the same whether it is near the surface of the Earth Accelerating due Decelerating due
cardboard, etc. or the Moon? Explain. to a push or pull to friction or drag which relate to
What principles 2 (a) How does the position of the centre of gravity affect the stability of an object?

encourage deeper thought

have you used in Stability of an object
(b) A minibus is travelling on the road carrying heavy loads on its roof rack. There are no
order to make your
passengers inside the minibus. When turning a corner, the driver drives very slowly.
toy balance?
Explain why.

to help reinforce your

Compare your
toy with those of 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in affected by its
your classmates. this section.
Base area Centre of gravity

learning. Exercises 4D–4E,

LINK TWB

pp. XX–XX
Exercise 4F Let's Reflect,
p. XX

68 Forces Forces 69

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Chapter 8
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 8A
10A
WORD ALERT Objective
To study Brownian motion of smoke particles
eye

Materials
Microscope, torchlight, glass cell containing smoke glass cell
Procedure

provides information on words 1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.7.

2 Seal a glass cell containing some

or explains words in a simpler

smoke and place it under
the microscope.
3 Focus the microscope such
glass lid
Headings are often posed as
questions so that information
that the smoke particles in

way to help you understand the glass cell appear as bright

dots. The smoke particles
appear as bright dots because
torchlight Figure 8.8 Smoke
particles moving in a
random manner

their meanings in context. is always directed towards

smoke
they scatter the light that
particles
shines on them.
LINK PWB 4 Observe the motion of the Figure 8.7 Experimental set-up to

This also helps you to be more Practical 8,

pp. xx–xx
smoke particles (Figure 8.8).
Observations
observe Brownian motion

1 The smoke particles moved in a random manner.

helping you to answer essential
familiar with the words and be WORD ALERT
2 The larger the particles, the less vigorous the motion.
Discussion and conclusion questions about the topic.
confident in using the words.
The smoke particles moved randomly because air molecules were colliding with them
Vigorous: moving with a randomly. Air molecules are too small to be seen under the microscope. This random motion of
great force smoke particles in air is an example of Brownian motion.

QUICK CHECK How does Brownian motion occur?

Brownian motion occurs Air consists mainly of nitrogen molecules, N2, and oxygen molecules, O2. These molecules are too small
in solids. to be seen under the microscope. A smoke particle is a solid lump of many carbon atoms. When light is
True or false? shone on a mixture of smoke particles in air, the smoke particles can be seen as tiny specks of reflected
light. How can a larger, more massive particle be affected by smaller lighter molecules in the air?
There are millions of molecules in the air moving at high speeds in all directions. This means that
there are many collisions on each smoke particle happening all the time. The smoke particle is
constantly pushed one way and then another. As we cannot see the molecules, the smoke particles
Supplement content is clearly
marked for those taking the
appear to be constantly moving small distances in a random path.

Let’s Practise 8.2

1
2
Describe the particle structure and arrangement of ice, water and steam.
Using the kinetic particle model of matter, explain
Extended paper.
(a) why a liquid takes the shape of its container;
(b) why the density of a gas is less than that of a solid;
LINK TWB
(c) why the smell of the perfume spreads throughout the room.
3 (a) Explain what Brownian motion is.
Exercise 8B,
pp. XX–XX
(b) How would Brownian motion change if the temperature is increased?
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

118 Kinetic Particle Model of Matter

iv
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FM_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 4 11/2/2020 9:23:46 PM

 Let’s Map It provides a visual
summary of the concepts Let’s Review offers summative
covered to help you integrate assessment questions to test
your learning and form your understanding and gives
connections between different you practice in answering
concepts. exam-style questions.

Chapter
Chapter 66 Chapter 6
Let’s Map It
Let’s Review
(Take g = 10 N/kg) 2 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
(a) State one example to show this and explain.
is the capacity to do Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
ENERGY E WORK W 1 A car screeches to a stop to avoid colliding with a van.
(b) (i) Name three sources of non-renewable energy.
(ii) Suggest two things that you can do to help
are related to (SI unit: J) Assuming that the road is level, what energy changes reduce the use of non-renewable energy.
(SI unit: J)
have occurred?
3 A simple pendulum consists of a string of length
A Kinetic energy ¦ thermal energy
50.0 cm and a pendulum bob of mass 10 g. The
B Kinetic energy ¦ sound energy string hangs vertically from a fixed point O with the
C Kinetic energy ¦ light and sound energy pendulum bob attached to its lower end at point P
is governed by is defined as D Kinetic energy ¦ sound and thermal energy (Figure 6.24).
2 A 0.8 kg brick is accidentally dropped from a
building. It reaches the ground with a kinetic energy of O
240 J. How tall is the building?
POWER P W=Fxs
A 19 m B 30 m
The principle of (SI unit: W)
conservation of energy where C 192 m D 300 m R
F = force 50.0 cm
3 What is the work done by a force of 6.0 N acting
s = distance moved in
the direction of the force horizontally on a body of mass 4.0 kg if the distance Q
2.0 cm
moved in the direction of the force is 3.0 m?
states that is defined as 0.5 cm
A 2J B 12 J
C 18 J D 24 J P
4 Which of the following energy resources is the odd Figure 6.24
Energy cannot be • Fuel
one out?
created or destroyed • Biofuel A Nuclear energy B Geothermal energy The pendulum bob is displaced to point R, 2.0 cm
but can be converted P=W=E • Water C Wind energy D Solar energy above P and released from rest. Assuming air resistance
from one form to t t • Geothermal resources
another. where • 5 A machine is able to lift 200 kg of bricks vertically up to is negligible, calculate the
Nuclear fission
W = work done • Sun a height of 30 m above the ground in 50 s. What is the (a) gain in potential energy of the pendulum bob at
E = energy converted – energy release by nuclear fusion point R;
power of the machine?
– source of most of our energy (b) kinetic energy of the bob at point Q, 0.5 cm above P.
examples of forms • Wind A 0.12 kW B 1.2 kW
of energy 4 A model car of mass 1.5 kg, with a string attached to
produced from C 6.0 kW D 300 kW
major energy its front end, is placed on a slope (Figure 6.25). A force
resources Section B: Short-answer and of 10 N is applied on the string to move the car up the
converted into useful energy by Structured Questions slope at a constant velocity. The force is applied in a
machines depending on their direction that is parallel to the slope.
• Potential energy 1 A cyclist pedals up to the top of a hill.
- Chemical potential energy (a) What kind of energy is being used to do work
- Elastic (strain) energy table
- Electrostatic potential energy
against gravity?
strin
- Magnetic potential energy (b) State the type of energy the cyclist has when he g 1.2 m
- Nuclear energy stops at the top of the hill. 0.6 m
- Gravitational potential energy Efficiency
Ep = mgh (c) When the cyclist moves downhill without pedalling,
• Where some of the energy input is converted floor
• Kinetic energy
what type of energy does he gain?
to useful energy and some into wasted energy
Ek = 1 mv2 such as heat and sound Figure 6.25
2 • S Can be calculated using the following
- Electrical energy formulae:
- Thermal energy
- Light useful energy output
Efficiency = × 100%
- Sound total energy input
useful power output
Efficiency = × 100%
total energy input

Energy,
Energy, Work
Work and
and Power
Power 99
33 100 Energy, Work and Power

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06_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 99 10/18/2020 3:05:08 PM 06_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 100 10/18/2020 3:05:10 PM

The following are also included at the end of the book:

• Notes to Physics Practical Work – provides information on laboratory safety, some common

experimental contexts in practical work, and the practical skills involved in the planning of experiments
and investigations

• Quick Revision Guide – lists each chapter,s key concepts and formulae for easy revision

• Answers – provided for questions in Quick Check, Let,s Practise and Let,s Review (only numerical and

short answers are included)

• Index – provided to help you search for key terms and phrases in the book

Note: Features indicated with an asterisk (*) are for enrichment and are beyond the syllabus.

FM_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 5 11/2/2020 9:18:10 PM

 Contents
PREFACE ii 6 Energy, Work and Power 83



6.1 Energy 84


CONTENTS iv 6.2 Work 90


6.3 Energy Resources 93


6.4 Power 97


1 Measurements of Physical

Quantities 1 7 Pressure 102



1.1 Physical Quantities 2
7.1 Pressure 103

1.2 Scalars and Vectors 10


7.2 Pressure in liquids 106


2 Motion 17 8 Kinetic Particle Model of Matter 112


2.1 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration 18
8.1 The States of Matter 113

2.2 Graphs of Motion 23


8.2 The Particle Model 115

2.3 Acceleration of Free Fall 28


8.3 Gases and the Absolute Scale of Temperature 119


3 Mass, Weight and Density 35 9 Thermal Properties and


Temperature 126
3.1 Mass and Weight 36

9.1 Thermal Expansion 127

3.2 Density 40

9.2 Specific Heat Capacity 130



9.3 Changes of State 135
4 Forces 48


4.1 Forces 49 10 Transfer of Thermal Energy 142


4.2 Forces and Motion 54
10.1 Transfer of Thermal Energy 143

4.3 Turning Effect of Forces 59

10.2 Conduction 144

4.4 Centre of Gravity 64

10.3 Convection 147


10.4 Radiation 149
5 Momentum 72

10.5 Applications and consequences of thermal


energy transfer 154

5.1 What Is Momentum? 73

5.2 Momentum, Impulse and Force 75
11 General Properties of Waves 161

5.3 The Principle of Conservation of Momentum 78


11.1 Introducing Waves 162

11.2 Properties of Wave Motion 168

11.3 Common Features of Wave Behaviour 173

vi

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 12 Light 179 18 Electromagnetic Effects 300



12.1 Reflection of Light 180 18.1 Electromagnetic Induction 301



12.2 Refraction of light 186 18.2 The A.c. Generator 305



12.3 Total Internal Reflection 192 18.3 Magnetic Effect of a Current 308



12.4 Refraction by Thin Lenses 197 18.4 Force on a Current-carrying Conductor 313



12.5 Ray Diagrams for Thin Converging Lenses 199 18.5 The D.c. Motor 318



12.6 Dispersion of Light 205 18.6 The Transformer 320


13 Electromagnetic Spectrum 211 19 Nuclear Model of the Atom 331


13.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum 212 19.1 The atom 332


13.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 214 19.2 The Nucleus 335


13.3 Electromagnetic Radiation in Communication 217 19.3 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 337


14 Sound 223 20 Radioactivity 343


14.1 What Is Sound? 224 20.1 Detection of Radioactivity 344


14.2 Transmission of Sound 227 20.2 Nuclear Emission 345


14.3 Echoes and Ultrasound 229 20.3 Radioactive Decay 348


14.4 Pitch and Loudness 232 20.4 Half-life 352


20.5 Safety Precautions 357


15 Simple Phenomena of

Magnetism 237 21 Earth and the Solar System 363


15.1 Magnets and Their Properties 238

15.2 Temporary and Permanent Magnets 242 21.1 The Earth 364


15.3 Magnetic Field 245 21.2 The Solar System 370


16 Electrical Quantities 250 22 Stars and the Universe 377


16.1 Electric Charge 251 22.1 The Sun as a Star 378


16.2 Electric Field 255 22.2 Stars 379


16.3 Electric Current 257 22.3 The Universe 382


16.4 Electromotive Force and Potential Difference 260
Notes to Physics Practical 388

16.5 Resistance 262

Quick Revision Guide 396

16.6 Electrical Energy and Electrical Power 267

Answers

403

17 Electrical Circuits and Electrical Index 408

Acknowledgement

Safety 271 412


17.1 Circuit Diagrams and Components 272

17.2 Series Circuits 275

17.3 Parallel Circuits 277

17.4 Action and Use of Circuit Components 283

17.5 Electrical Safety 288

vii

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FM_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 8 10/30/2020 7:31:59 PM
 CHAPTER
Measurement of
1 Physical Quantities

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about physical

measurements of a baby.

QUESTIONS

• What do you understand by the

term average?
• Other than head circumference, what are
From the day you were born, you were being measured. You two other important measurements taken
wouldn’t remember, but your parents probably took you to the to monitor a baby’s growth pattern?
clinic several times to have you measured. The measurements • What are some other physical quantities
taken were then plotted to monitor your growth pattern. that are commonly used as measurements
in daily life?
Head circumference is an important measurement to monitor
during the first two years of a baby’s life. The average head
circumference of a newborn is about 33 cm. By monitoring the
baby’s head circumference, we can detect if the baby’s head and
the brain inside it are growing normally.

01_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 1 24/09/20 5:30 PM

 Chapter 1

1.1 Physical Quantities

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the use of rulers and measuring cylinders to find a length or a volume.
• Describe how to measure a variety of time intervals using clocks and digital timers.
• Determine an average value for a small distance and for a short interval of time by
measuring multiples.

Physics is the study of our natural world — from the very large (e.g. the solar system) to the very
small (e.g. the atom). The study of physics is related to two main ideas: matter and energy. The
knowledge we have gained in the field of physics is the result of the work of many scientists. These
scientists have conducted many experiments to verify their ideas on matter and energy. When they
carry out experiments, they need to make accurate measurements in order to obtain reliable results.

What are physical quantities?

Look at the sign in Figure 1.1. You may have
noticed similar signs along bridges where
WORD ALERT vehicles can pass underneath. In physics,
height is a physical quantity — ‘3.8’ is the
Magnitude: size numerical magnitude and ‘m’ is the unit.
A physical quantity is a quantity that can
be measured. It consists of a numerical
magnitude and a unit.
There are altogether seven basic physical
quantities, or base quantities. Table 1.1
shows the seven base quantities and their
corresponding SI units. SI units are the
units of measurement in the widely used
International System of Units (abbreviated SI
from French: Système International d’Unités).

Figure 1.1 The sign warns drivers on the clearance limit to

pass underneath the bridge. In which other places can you
find similar signs?
ENRICHMENT Table 1.1 The seven base quantities and their SI units
INFO
Do you know? Base quantity SI unit Symbol for SI unit
1 The length from your Length metre m
wrist to your elbow
Mass kilogram kg
is the same as the
length of your foot. Time second s
2 Your mouth produces Electric current ampere A
1 l of saliva a day. Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
3 Breathing generates Luminous intensity candela cd
about 0.6 g of carbon
Amount of substance mole mol
dioxide every minute.
4 On average, people
can hold their breath
for about one minute.
The world record is
21 min 29 s.

2 Measurement of Physical Quantities

01_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 2 24/09/20 5:30 PM

 Chapter 1
Other common physical quantities such as area, volume and speed are derived from the seven base
quantities. They are called derived quantities. For example, speed is derived from length (i.e. distance
travelled) and time. Table 1.2 gives examples of how some common physical quantities are derived
from the base quantities.

Table 1.2 Some common derived quantities and their SI units

How it is derived from
Physical quantity Symbol for SI unit PHYSICS WATCH
base quantities

Area Length × width m2 Scan this page to watch a

Volume Length × width × height m3 clip about how unit errors
can cause a disaster.
Length
______
Speed m/s
Time

​​
 ​​
 
 
In the past, people used parts of their bodies and things around them as units of measurement.
That was how measuring terms such as the foot, yard and horsepower came about. Unfortunately,
such methods of measurement created much confusion because the measurement varied from
individual to individual. It was not until 1968 that scientists agreed to adopt one universal set of
units — the SI units.

Prefixes for SI units

Using decimal notation, the distance between air molecules can be expressed as 0.000 000 01 m.
If we need to mention this quantity a number of times, it would be tedious to use this type of
notation. Instead of using decimal notation, it is more convenient to use prefixes to represent
1
the quantity. For example, when measuring short distances such as ________ of a metre, we simply
1 000 000
​​ 
 
 
​​
express it as one micrometre.
 
 
Thus, 0.000 000 01 m can be expressed as 0.01 μm (micrometre), where μ represents the submultiple
10–6. The prefixes listed in Table 1.3 are useful for expressing physical quantities that are either very big
or very small.
Table 1.3 Some common prefixes and their symbols
Factor Prefix Symbol
10 9 giga- G
Multiples

106 mega- M
103 kilo- k
10–1 deci- d
Submultiples

10–2 centi- c
10–3 milli- m
10–6 micro- μ
10–9 nano- n

Standard form
Another convenient and acceptable way of expressing physical quantities
is to use the standard form. Standard form is a way of writing numbers, in
which one integer (1 to 9) is multiplied by an appropriate power of 10. For
example, 0.005 67 and 16 800 will be expressed in standard form as 5.67 × 10–3
​
​
and 1.68 × 104. In the case of 0.01 μm, it can also be expressed as 1 × 10–8 m.
​
​
​
​
Some other common quantities expressed in standard form are shown below:
• One kilometre (km) is 1 × 103 m.
•
​
​
• One milliampere (mA) is 1 × 10–3 A.
•
​
​
• Three megajoules (MJ) is 3 × 106 J.
•
​
​
• Six microcoulombs (μC) is 6 × 10–6 C.
•
​
​
• Eight nanoseconds (ns) is 8 ×10–9 s.
•
​
​
Measurement of Physical Quantities 3

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 Chapter 1
How do we measure length?
In physics, length is an important quantity that is often used. For example, we measure length to find
out how far an object has moved, how much space an object occupies (i.e. the object’s volume) and
how far apart two objects are.
The SI unit for length is the metre (m). There is a wide range of lengths in this world from the width
of a human hair to the radius of the Earth. It is necessary to use the appropriate instruments and
methods to measure different types of length.

The metre rule and measuring tape

ENRICHMENT The metre rule and measuring tape (Figure 1.2)
THINK
are instruments that are commonly used to
A stack of paper is
measure length.
shown in Figure 1.3.
How would you A metre rule can measure lengths of up to
estimate the thickness one metre. A steel measuring tape is suitable
of a sheet of paper in for measuring straight distances longer than a
the stack? metre, while a cloth measuring tape is suitable
for measuring the length along a curved surface,
such as a person’s waist.
What is the precision of an instrument?
The smallest unit an instrument can measure
is known as its precision. What is the smallest Figure 1.2 A metre rule and a
unit on a metre rule? It is 0.1 cm or 1 mm. retractable steel measuring tape
Figure 1.3 A stack Therefore, the precision of a metre rule is 1 mm. are used to measure lengths.
of paper
The thickness of a piece of paper is less than the precision of a metre rule (i.e. 1 mm). Therefore,
you cannot measure the paper’s thickness directly using a metre rule. You will have to estimate
its thickness.
How do we avoid errors in measurement?
When you use a metre rule, your eyes should be positioned such that your line of sight is
perpendicular to the rule (Figure 1.4(a)). In other words, you must look at the rule 'straight on', not
at an angle. If this is not done, an error will be introduced into the measurement (Figure 1.4(b)). This
type of error is called parallax error.
QUICK CHECK Accurate length of object = 2.9 – 1.0 = 1.9 cm Inaccurate length of object = 3.0 – 0.9 = 2.1 cm

When using a metre

rule to measure length, I possible
must be careful to avoid zero error at object
parallax error. this end
True or false?

cm 1 2 3 cm 1 2 3
(a) Accurate measurement (b) Inaccurate measurement
Figure 1.4 How to take accurate readings by avoiding parallax errors

A metre rule may have its zero mark at the very end of the rule. It may no longer be suitable for
measuring if the zero-mark end is worn. The worn end of the rule may introduce errors into the
readings. Hence, it is better to measure from another point and subtract it from the final reading
(Figure 1.4(a)). Taking several readings and calculating the average also minimises errors.

4 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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 Chapter 1
The vernier calipers
A pair of vernier calipers (Figure 1.5) has a main scale and a sliding vernier scale.
It is a useful tool for measuring both the internal and external diameters of small
objects. Vernier calipers are able to measure to a precision of 0.01 cm.
Figure 1.5 Measuring Low res image
How do we use the vernier calipers? the diameter of a bolt
using vernier calipers
Figure 1.6 shows how a pair of vernier calipers is used.
inside jaws main scale Step 2
Read the main scale to the immediate
left of the zero mark on the vernier
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 cm scale. In this case, the reading on the
main scale is 31 mm or 3.1 cm.
0 10 0.1 mm

vernier scale
Step 3
ball bearing 3 4 The 4th vernier mark coincides with a
marking on the main scale. This gives
a reading of 0.4 mm or 0.04 cm on the
outside jaws vernier scale.

Step 1 Step 4
0 10
Grip the ball bearing gently using the The diameter is found by adding the
outside jaws of the calipers. vernier scale reading to the main scale
reading:
31 mm + 0.4 mm = 31.4 mm or
Figure 1.6 Using the vernier calipers 3.1 cm + 0.04 cm = 3.14 cm

How do we avoid errors when using the vernier calipers?

Before using the vernier calipers, we need to examine the instrument for zero error.
First, ensure the jaws are touching each other. Then check if the zero mark on the main scale
coincides with the zero mark on the sliding vernier scale. Table 1.4 shows how to correct for zero
errors on the vernier calipers.

Table 1.4 Checking and correcting zero errors when using the vernier calipers

Corrected
Type of zero error Example of observed reading
reading

No zero error 0 1 3 4
main scale main scale
3.14 cm
The zero marks of the two
scales coincide. vernier scale vernier scale
0 10 (No correction
0 10
required)
Reading = 3.14 cm
Positive zero error 0 1 main scale 3 4 main scale
The zero mark of the
vernier scale is slightly to vernier scale vernier scale 3.17 – (+0.03)
the right of the main scale. 0 10 0 10 = 3.14 cm

3 divisions
Zero error = +0.03 cm Reading = 3.17 cm
Negative zero error 0 1 main scale 3 4
main scale
The zero mark of the
vernier scale is slightly to vernier scale vernier scale 3.11 – (–0.03)
the left of the main scale. 0 10 0 10 = 3.14 cm

3 divisions
Zero error = –0.03 cm Reading = 3.11 cm

Measurement of Physical Quantities 5

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 Chapter 1
How do we measure volume?
The SI unit for volume is the cubic metre (m3). What are the basic methods of measuring the
volumes of solids and liquids?

Volume of regular solids

A metre rule or vernier calipers can be used to measure the dimensions of a regular solid. The volume
of the solid can then be determined by using the appropriate formula. Here are some examples:
(a) Volume of a rectangular block = l × b × h, where l = length, b = breadth and h = height

​
​
​
 ​
(b) Volume of a cylinder = _1 πd 2h, where d = diameter and h = height
4

​​ 
 
​​
 
 
(c) Volume of a sphere = 4_ π(__) , where d = diameter
3
d
3 2

​​
 ​​
 
 
​​​
​
 ​
 
 
​​​ 
​​
Volume of irregular solids meniscus V2 View the readings
How do we find the volume of small V1 for V1 and V2 with
objects that sink? your viewing eye at
By means of a measuring cylinder, the same level as
we can find the volume of a small the bottom of the
object, V = V2 – V1, where V1 = volume meniscus.
of water before putting in the
object and V2 = volume reading after Figure 1.7 Finding the volume of a small object that sinks
putting in the object (Figure 1.7).
How do we find the volume of
small objects that float? V4
For small objects (such as Volume of cork is
V3 given by V = V4 – V3
a piece of cork) that float,
a sinker such as a lump of
sinker cork
metal is used. The sinker ensures
that the small object is
totally immersed in the water
(Figure 1.8). Figure 1.8 Finding the volume of a small object that floats
How do we find the displacement
volume of large objects can
that sink?
Volume
For large objects (such as a of object
stone) that sink, we use a = V5
displacement can and a
measuring cylinder to find empty
measuring
the volume (Figure 1.9). cylinder V5 wooden block
Note: In the case of large
objects that float, we can before immersing after immersing
use a sinker in the same the object the object
way as in Figure 1.8.
Figure 1.9 Finding the volume of a large object that sinks

measuring
Volume of liquids cylinder
The volume of a liquid can be found by pouring the V
liquid into a measuring cylinder and reading the volume
V directly (Figure 1.10). Ensure that the measuring cylinder
LINK PWB liquid of unknown
is resting on a flat horizontal surface and that any
volume V
bubbles in the liquid are removed.
Practical 1A, pp. XX–XX

Figure 1.10 Measuring the volume of a liquid

6 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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 Chapter 1
How do we measure time?
Imagine that you are stranded on an island. You do not have a watch or a mobile phone.
How would you be able to tell the time? We can tell time by observing events that repeat at
regular intervals or periods. Examples of such events are seasons, phases of the Moon, sunsets
and positions of the Sun.
The SI unit for time is the second (s). The year, month, day, hour and minute are other units for
measuring time.
Scientific work cannot rely on the observation of natural events, which are not fixed. For example, the
time interval between a sunrise and a sunset is different in winter and summer. The time intervals for
scientific work have to be fixed; they cannot change. Can you think of recurrent motions that can be
used to measure time for scientific work?

Using a pendulum to measure time

A simple pendulum can be used to measure time. It consists of a heavy object, called a bob
(e.g. a metal ball), that is attached to one end of a string. The other end of the string is fixed. When a
pendulum swings freely, it will move back and forth at regular intervals.
Each complete to-and-fro motion is one oscillation (Figure 1.11).

WORD ALERT

Motion: movement
Calibrated: adjusted

R S S
R R
Figure 1.11 When the bob moves from R to S and back to R, the pendulum completes one oscillation. In what other
ways can the bob swing to produce one complete oscillation?

The period of a simple pendulum is the time taken for one complete oscillation.
The period of a pendulum depends on its length. Pendulum clocks can be calibrated to measure
time accurately by adjusting the length of the pendulum.
For scientific work, time intervals have to be precisely measured. The period of the oscillations must
not change. Most modern timepieces are calibrated using precise timekeeping devices called atomic
clocks (Figure 1.12).

Instruments used to measure time

The common instruments used to
measure intervals of time in hours,
minutes and seconds include clocks
and stopwatches.

Low res image

Figure 1.12 This atomic clock

used in some satellites can
measure time to within .45
nanoseconds over 12 hours.

Measurement of Physical Quantities 7

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 Chapter 1
Pendulum clock
All timepieces use some kind of periodic motion to measure time. Pendulum clocks keep time using
a pendulum’s periodic swing.
Clocks and stopwatches
The oscillations of springs and the natural vibrations of crystals are other periodic motions that can
be used to keep time. Most clocks and watches today use quartz crystals. Quartz crystals are small,
accurate and require very little electrical energy.
Figure 1.13 shows several instruments that measure time. Depending on the accuracy and precision
needed, the instruments used will vary.
Low res image
Most stopwatches can measure time to a precision of 0.01 s. Digital stopwatches usually show
readings up to two decimal places. However, we usually take readings to the nearest one decimal
place. This is because we need to start and stop a stopwatch by hand, unlike the electronic sensor
used in a data logger. This manual operation introduces a random error called human reaction time.
Human reaction time is about 0.3–0.5 s for most people.

Low res image

Figure 1.13 Which time measuring
instrument would you use to
measure the time taken by a runner
to run a 1 m race? Why?

ENRICHMENT
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 1A
1
ACTIVITY
Objective
Use the Internet to find retort stand
an online reaction time
To calibrate a simple pendulum to measure time
clamp
test. Find out what is in seconds
your average reaction Apparatus
time. Compare Pendulum, stopwatch, metre rule, retort stand
your reaction
and clamp
time with those of
your classmates. Procedure l

1 Tie the pendulum to the clamp and measure

the length l of the string in metres
(Figure 1.14).
2 Measure the time taken for the pendulum to make pendulum
20 oscillations.
3 Vary the length l of the string between 50 and
90 cm and repeat step 2.
Figure 1.14
4 Complete Table 1.5.

Table 1.5

Time for 20 oscillations

Length tave/s Period
T 2/s2
l/m t1/s t2/s (t1+ t2) T/s
[t ave =
2 ]
0.500
0.600
0.700
0.800
0.900

8 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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 Chapter 1
5 Plot a graph of period T/s against length l/m, and find the length of the pendulum with a
period of one second. Plot also a graph of T2/s2 against length l/m.
Calculation
tave
The period of the pendulum, T, is found by dividing tave by 20s, i.e, T = ___
20
.
Results and discussion

Period T/s T 2/s2

Length l/m Length l/m

Figure 1.15 Figure 1.16

How does this experiment allow us to use a pendulum to measure time in seconds?
The length of the pendulum with a period of one second can be read off the graph. By using a
pendulum of this length, we can measure time by counting the number of oscillations (e.g. if 1
WORD ALERT
oscillation takes 1 s, then 60 oscillations take 60 s or 1 min).
What can we observe about the graph of T against l? Linearly: in a straight line
The period increases with length but not linearly (Figure 1.15).
What does the plot of T 2 against l tell us?
It tells us that the square of the period is directly proportional to the length. This produces a
straight-line graph when we plot T 2 against l (Figure 1.16). By extending the straight-line graph, PWB LINK
we can easily predict the period of the pendulum for lengths that are not included in the graph
we have plotted. Practical 1B, pp. XX–XX

Worked Example 1A
A student checks the accuracy of an antique clock (Figure 1.17). He
uses a digital stopwatch to find the period of the clock’s pendulum. XI XII I
(a) If X and Y are the two extreme positions of each oscillation, state
X

II III IV
XI

the path of one complete oscillation. QUICK CHECK

VIII

V VI VII
(b) The student’s timings for two separate measurements of 20
In an experiment to
oscillations are 35.70 s and 34.98 s. Calculate the average period find the period of a
of the clock’s pendulum. simple pendulum, we
Solution take the time for one
complete oscillation.
(a) X to Y and back to X or Y to X and back to Y.
X Y True or false?
(b) Average time for 20 oscillations
35.70 s + 34.98 s
= _____________ = 35.34 s
2
35.34 s
Average period of the clock’s pendulum = ______ = 1.767 s
2 Figure 1.17

Measurement of Physical Quantities 9

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 Chapter 1
Let’s Practise 1.1
1 The world’s smallest playable
0 1 3 4 5 3

guitar is 10 μm long. Express
the guitar’s length in 0 5 10

standard form.
2 A pair of vernier calipers is

used to measure the 0 5 10
diameter of a ball bearing.
What is the reading of the
vernier calipers shown in Figure 1.18
Figure 1.18?
3 (a) What is the SI unit of volume? 2 3
4


(b) How do we measure the volume of 1


a small irregular object that floats 5
on water?

0
4 Figure 1.19 shows a voltmeter scale with a

strip of mirror mounted under the needle.
mirror
Suggest how this may help reduce errors
when readings are taken.
Figure 1.19
5 Figure 1.20 shows an oscillating pendulum.

If the time taken for the pendulum to swing
from A to C to B is 3 s, what is the period of
LINK TWB the pendulum?
6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map

Exercises 1A–1B, for the concepts that you have learnt in A C
pp. X–X this section. B
Figure 1.20

1.2 Scalars and Vectors

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Understand the terms scalar quantity and vector quantity.
•

Know some examples of scalar and vector quantities.
•

Determine, by calculation or graphically, the resultant of two vectors at right angles.

What are scalars and vectors?
You have learnt that a physical quantity consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.
A physical quantity can be of two types: scalar or vector.
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has magnitude only.

10 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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 Chapter 1
For example, speed is a scalar quantity because it tells us how fast or slow an object is moving.
It does not tell us which direction the object is heading.
To describe speed in a specific direction, we use the term velocity. Velocity tells us both how fast or HELPFUL NOTES
slow an object is moving and in which direction. We say velocity is a vector quantity.
Which type of physical
A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. quantities have
Table 1.6 shows some common scalars (scalar quantities) and vectors (vector quantities). magnitude only and
which have both
Table 1.6 Common scalars and vectors magnitude and direction?
To know, remember
Scalar Vector
this line:
Speed Velocity Sam Magoo has a Very
Distance Displacement Mild Diarrhoea.
Time Force Can you tell now?
Mass Acceleration
Volume Momentum
Energy Weight
Temperature Electric field strength LINK
Electric current Gravitational field strength
Why is distance a scalar
quantity and displacement

Vector diagrams a vector quantity?

Find out more in Chapter 2.

How are vector quantities represented?

Let us take a common example of a vector quantity, namely, force.
A force is a vector — it has both magnitude and direction. Its SI unit is the newton (N). At any time,
two or more forces may be acting on an object. The forces may have different magnitudes and
directions. In such cases, we can use vector diagrams to add up these forces.
In a vector diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow is
proportional to the magnitude of the vector. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the
vector. Figure 1.21 shows the vector diagram of a force of 20 N in the direction 45° north of east.

Step 1 N
Choose an appropriate scale to
represent the force. W E

Scale 1 cm : 5 N
S

4 cm

Step 2
45°
Draw a base line (horizontal in this
case) and measure the required angle
with a protractor.

Figure 1.21 Drawing a vector diagram Step 3

Draw an arrow at the angle
measured. The length of this
arrow should be proportional to
the magnitude of the force. This is
defined by the scale in Step 1.

Measurement of Physical Quantities 11

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 Chapter 1
How do we add vectors?
Scalars, such as distance and speed, have magnitude and no direction. When we add scalars, we add
their magnitudes only.
Unlike scalars, vectors have both magnitude and direction. When we add two or more vectors, we
cannot add their magnitudes only. We need to find a single vector that produces the same effect
as the vectors combined. The single vector, called the resultant vector, must be equivalent to the
individual vectors combined in terms of magnitude and direction.
Adding parallel vectors
Let us assign the direction towards the right as positive. Figure 1.22 shows two parallel forces of
magnitudes 3 N and 5 N acting on a block. Both forces act in the same direction (i.e. towards the
right). The resultant force is 8 N (i.e. 3 N + 5 N = 8 N) and is directed towards the right. A resultant
vector is usually indicated by a double-headed arrow.

resultant
3N force = 8 N

5N
Figure 1.22 Addition of vectors acting in the same direction

In Figure 1.23, the two forces are still parallel but act in opposite directions. The resultant force is 2 N
(i.e. 5 N + (–3 N) = 2 N) and is directed towards the right.

resultant
force = 2 N

3N 5N

Figure 1.23 Addition of vectors acting in opposite directions

In Figure 1.24, two parallel forces of 3 N act on the block in opposite directions.
This produces zero resultant force.

resultant
3N 3N force = 0 N

Figure 1.24 Addition of vectors that are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions

QUICK CHECK Adding non-parallel vectors

Figure 1.25 shows two non-parallel forces, F1 = 4 N and F2 = 3 N, acting on a block at right angle to
When adding vectors, each other. How can we add the two forces to obtain the resultant force R?
I must consider both
magnitude and direction. R=?
True or false? F2 = 3 N

F1 = 4 N

Figure 1.25 Addition of non-parallel vectors

12 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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 Chapter 1
Figure 1.26 shows how we can obtain the resultant force R graphically by drawing a parallelogram.
The resultant force R is the diagonal of the parallelogram.

R
F2

θ
F1

Figure 1.26 Adding vectors using the parallelogram method (Scale 1 cm: 1 N)

By measuring the angle θ and the length the diagonal, we obtain the resultant force R = 5 N at an
​
​
angle θ ≈ 37°C to the horizontal.
​
​
We can also obtain the resultant force R by calculation.
Using Pythagoras’ Theorem,
 
_ _ _
R = √ F12 + F22 = √ 4 2 + 3 2 = √ 25 = 5 N

​​
 
​
​ 
​ 
​ 
 ​
​ 
​ 
​  
​​
 
​​
 
​
​​ 
​ 
 ​
​​ 
​ 
 
​​
​​
 
 
​​
 
F 3
tan θ = __2 = _ = 0.75
​
​ 
​​
F1 4
​ 
​
​​
 ​​
 
 
​​ 
 
​​
 
​
​ 
​​
θ = 36.9°
​
​
​
​
Hence, the resultant force R has a magnitude of R = 5 N, making an angle of θ = 36.9° with

​
​
​
​
the horizontal.
By using either the parallelogram method or the calculation method, we arrive at the same answer:
the resultant force has a magnitude of 5 N, and acts at an angle of 36.9° to the horizontal.

Let’s Practise 1.2

1 Distinguish between a scalar quantity and a vector quantity. Give one example of each.

2 Figure 1.27 shows the forces acting on a box. What is the resultant force?

15 N

20 N TWB LINK

Figure 1.27 Exercises 1C–1D,

pp. XX–XX
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 1E

this section. Let’s Reflect, p. XX

Measurement of Physical Quantities 13

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 Chapter 1

Let’s Map It

PHYSICAL
examples with QUANTITIES can be
SI units classified into

Scalar Vector
quantities quantities

have have
only both

Length (m) Volume (m3) Time (s)

• Magnitude
Magnitude
can be can be can be • Direction
measured measured measured
using using using

• Measuring cylinder • Clocks and digital

for liquids and small timers (e.g.
irregular solids pendulum clocks and
• Formulae for regular stopwatches)
Represented Addition of two
solids by vector vectors to give the
• Displacement method diagrams resultant vector can be
for large irregular determined graphically
solids
based
or by calculation.
on

Periodic motions
called oscillations

Instrument Precision Measuring range

Measuring tape 1 mm Several metres

Metre rule 1 mm Several cm to1 m

Vernier calipers 0.1 mm 1 cm to 15 cm

14 Measurement of Physical Quantities

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01_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 14 24/09/20 5:30 PM
 Chapter 1

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 4 Figure 1.29 shows a simple pendulum.

1 In a particular experiment, you are required to measure

the distance between two points. The two points are
between 0.7 m and 0.8 m apart. Which of the following
instruments should you use to obtain a reading that
has a precision of 0.001 m?
A A half-metre rule

B A metre rule

C A ten-metre measuring tape

D A metre rule and a pair of vernier calipers P R

2 Figure 1.28 shows two vernier scales. The top vernier Q

scale shows the reading when the vernier calipers
are closed. The bottom vernier scale shows the Figure 1.29
reading when the diameter of a steel ball bearing is
being measured.
Which of the following statements about the

period of the pendulum is/are not true?
0 10 20 30
1 It is independent of the mass of the bob.

mm 2 It increases as the length of the pendulum increases.

0 5 10 3 It is the time taken for the bob to swing from Q to P and

back to Q.
0 10 20 30 A 1 and 2 only B 1 and 3 only



mm C 2 and 3 only D 3 only



0 5 10 5 Figure 1.30 shows two forces acting at right angle to

each other.
Figure 1.28

What is the diameter of the ball bearing?

3N

A 1.49 cm B 1.50 cm



C 1.59 cm D 1.61 cm
4N



3 When using a measuring cylinder, one precaution to

take is to Figure 1.30
A check for zero error.
Which of the following shows the resultant force?

B look at the meniscus from below the level of the


water surface.
A B
C obtain more readings by looking from more than




one direction.
D position the eye in line with the base of the meniscus. 5N 5N

C D



7N 7N

Measurement of Physical Quantities 15

0 4:26 AM
01_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 15 24/09/20 5:30 PM
 Chapter 1

Let’s Review
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions 4 A student conducted an experiment to measure the

1 Identify the physical quantity, numerical magnitude acceleration due to gravity g of a simple pendulum.

and unit in the following statements: The data obtained were tabulated in Table 1.7.

(a) The length of a table is found to be five metres.
Table 1.7

(b) The time the pendulum takes to complete a single

oscillation is two seconds. Length of 0.35 0.65 1.00 1.45 1.95
thread l/m
(c) A typical car has a mass of one thousand kilograms.
Time for 20

24.1 32.4 40.1 47.5 56.3
2 A student measures the width of a glass slide using a oscillations t/s

pair of vernier calipers.
The relation between the period T, the length l of the

pendulum and the acceleration due to gravity g is
___
__l
T = 2π
√g . Find the value of g using the

​​
 
​ 
 
​   
 
​​
 
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 graphical method.
5 Figure 1.32 shows a lorry that is stuck in muddy

0 10 0.1 mm ground being pulled by two jeeps. Each jeep exerts
a force of 3000 N at an angle of 45° to the horizontal.
Using a vector diagram, determine the resultant force
on the lorry.

glass slide pulled by jeep

3000 N
Figure 1.31

(a) In Figure 1.31, what is the measurement of the width of

45°

the glass slide? lorry
45°
(b) List the precision of the following measuring

instruments: vernier calipers and metre rule.
(c) Explain why the method shown in Figure 1.31 will not

yield an accurate measurement.
How would you obtain a more accurate pulled by jeep
3000 N

measurement of the width of the glass slide?
3 Describe the method you would use to find the volume Figure 1.32

of the following:
(a) a matchbox

(b) the cork stopper of a bottle

(c) some liquid perfume in a very small bottle

16 Measurement of Physical Quantities

01_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 16 24/09/20 5:30 PM

 CHAPTER

2 Motion

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about

average speed.
In track and field, the 1-metre race has always been the crowd’s
favourite. The short-distance race tests an athlete’s ability to
accelerate to his or her maximum speed. QUESTIONS
In the August 21 Rio Olympics, the winner of the men’s 1-metre
final, a Jamaican, clocked an amazing time of .1 seconds as he • Who is this incredible sprinter from Jamaica?
crossed the finishing line! With this win, he became the first person • Can you spot him in the photo? Is he ahead
of the others at this point?
in history to win the 1-metre race three times in three consecutive
• How did he eventually win the race?
Olympics. His 1-metre timings for the August 212 London
Olympics and the August 2 Beijing Olympics are .3 seconds
and . seconds respectively. His best ever is . s during the 2
World Athletics Championship in Berlin.
What an amazing record! If you dream of becoming a fine sprinter,
get into MOTION!

17

02_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 17 24/09/20 5:29 PM

 Chapter 2

2.1 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define speed and velocity.
total distance
• Recall and use the equation average speed = ____________ .
• Define acceleration. total time
• Recall and use the equation a = Δv
___ .
Δt

What is speed?
If Usain Bolt were to race against a cheetah
in a 100-metre sprint, will the winner be Low res image
the human king of speed or the animal
king of speed (Figure 2.1)?
To find out, we need to compare their speeds.
Speed refers to how fast something moves.
Speed is the distance travelled
per unit time.
distance travelled
Speed = _______________
time taken
Its SI unit is metre per second (m/s).
Based on Usain Bolt’s 100-metre
fastest record time of 9.58 s,
distance travelled 100 m Figure 2.1 Who is the real king of speed?
Speed = _______________ = _____ = 10.4 m/s
time taken 9.58 s
Compare this with the cheetah’s average running speed shown in Figure 2.2.

Low res image

Snail Cheetah High-speed train

0.000 5 m/s 30 m/s 83 m/s

Figure 2.2 Average speeds of some animals and objects

18 Motion

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 Chapter 2
What is average speed?
Table 2.1 shows the results for men’s running events at the 2016 Rio Olympics.
Table 2.1 Results for men’s running events at the 216 Rio Olympics
Athlete Country Event/m Time/s Speed/m/s
Usain Bolt Jamaica 100 9.81 10.2
Usain Bolt Jamaica 200 19.78 10.1
Wayde van Niekerk South Africa 400 43.03 9.30
David Lekuta Rudisha Kenya 800 102.15 7.83

The speeds shown in the table are actually average speeds. Average speed assumes that each
athlete ran at the same speed throughout the entire distance.
total distance travelled
Average speed = ___________________
total time taken WORD ALERT
In reality, the athletes did not run at the same speed throughout their races. The speed at one
instant is different from the speed at another instant. The speed of an object at a particular instant is Instant: a point in time
known as its instantaneous speed.

QUICK CHECK
Worked Example 2A
The actual speed of a car
A car travels 6 km in 5 min. Calculate its average speed in m/s. is always the same as its
Solution average speed.
total distance travelled True or false?
Average speed = ____________________
total time taken
6 × 1000 m
_________
=
5 × 60 s
= 20 m/s

How does the average speed of a car compare with the other objects and animals shown in
Figure 2.2? ENRICHMENT
INFO
Animal Migration
Animal migration is the
seasonal movement of
Low res image animals from one place
to another in search of
feeding and breeding
grounds. Humpback
whales are observed
to make some of the
longest migrations of
any mammals. One of
Boeing 747 Bullet from a gun their common migratory
250 m/s 457 m/s routes is between Alaska
and Hawaii. The route is
about 4830 km one way.
The humpback whales
can swim from Alaska to
Hawaii in 36 days. This
works out to an average
speed of 5.6 km/h in
choppy waters!

Motion 19

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 Chapter 2
How is distance different from displacement?
LINK
Figure 2.3 shows the motion of an object from point A to point B and then to point C. We shall use
Recall the two types
it to illustrate the difference between distance and displacement.
of physical quantities,
namely, scalars and 10 m
vectors, that you have
learnt in Chapter 1. A C B
8m 2m

HELPFUL NOTES
Distance Displacement
For any object moving • The total length covered by a moving • The distance measured in a straight line in a

•
•
in a straight line, we can object regardless of the direction specified direction
assign a direction from of motion • Has both magnitude and direction

•
a reference point as • Has magnitude only • SI unit: metre (m)
•
•
positive. As an example, • SI unit: metre (m) • Displacement of the object travelling from A to B, and
•
•
refer to Figure 2.3. If we • Distance travelled by the object from then to C
•
assign the direction to A to B, and then to C = 10 m − 2 m

​
​
the right of A as positive, = 10 m + 2 m = 8 m (from A to C)

​
​
the displacement of

= 12 m • Refers to the shortest distance and direction of an object

the moving object at B

•
from the starting point
is +10 m.
​
​
Figure 2.3 Difference between distance and displacement

Worked Example 2B
N
Figure 2.4 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a U-turn
to travel another 7 km along the same road.

7 km

ending point E

starting point 5 km
Figure 2.4
HELPFUL NOTES
Calculate
The magnitude of (a) the distance covered;

displacement is the
(b) its displacement.
distance measured along

a straight line from the Solution
starting point to the (a) Distance covered = 5 km + 7 km = 12 km
final point.

​
​
(b) Taking the direction due east of the starting point as positive,
Its direction is taken from

the starting point to the Displacement = 5 km − 7 km = −2 km

​
​
​
​
final point. It is at a point 2 km due west from the starting point.

20 Motion

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 Chapter 2
How is velocity different from speed?
When determining the velocity of an object, we need to know the speed of the object and the
direction in which it is travelling. When calculating velocity, we use displacement instead of distance.

Velocity is speed in a given direction. Its SI unit is metre per second (m/s).
displacement
Velocity = ___________
time taken
Similarly, as in the case of average speed,
total displacement
Average velocity = _______________
total time taken

Worked Example 2C
If the runner in Figure 2.5 takes 25 s to run 200 m, distance
calculate her average speed and average velocity. travelled
200 m
Solution QUICK CHECK
total distance travelled 200 m
Average speed = ___________________ = ______
total time taken 25 s
Speed is the same
= 8 m/s displacement as velocity.
total displacement 50 m
50 m True or false?
Average velocity = ________________ = _____
total time taken 25 s
= 2 m/s (from her initial position
to her final position)
Figure 2.5

What is acceleration?
Understanding acceleration
An object is accelerating when its velocity changes. Figure 2.6 shows that an object undergoes
acceleration when its speed or direction changes, or when both its speed and direction change.

2 m/s 3 m/s 2 m/s

2 m/s

(a) Change in speed (b) Change in direction

ENRICHMENT
THINK
In groups of two,
2 m/s discuss whether each
3 m/s of the following events
involves acceleration:
(c) Change in both speed and direction 1 A space shuttle
blasting off
Figure 2.6 When acceleration occurs 2 An airplane landing
3 A lift approaching
a given floor
4 A train leaving
a station
5 A car coming to
a stop

Motion 21

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 Chapter 2
When the change (increase or decrease) in the velocity of an object for every unit of time is the
same, the object undergoes constant or uniform acceleration (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2 Object moving with uniform acceleration

Time/s Velocity/m/s
QUICK CHECK
1 20 80
An object is accelerating +20 –20
when its speed changes. 2 40
+20
60
–20
True or false?
3 60 40
+20 –20
4 80 20
+20 –20
5 100 0

From Table 2.2, when the velocity of the object is increasing by 20 m/s every second,
the acceleration is 20 m/s2. When the velocity of the object is decreasing by 20 m/s every second,
the object is said to be undergoing a deceleration of 20 m/s.
ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Find out whether Calculating acceleration
a stone undergoes Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit time. Its SI unit is metre per second per
acceleration when it is
second (m/s2).
whirled in circles.
change of velocity (v − u) Δv
1 Tie a string to Acceleration a = _______________ = _____ = ___
a small stone. time  t Δt
2 Whirl the stone in where v = final velocity, u = initial velocity and t = total time taken
circles as shown in
Figure 2.8.
3 In small groups,
discuss whether
Worked Example 2D
the stone undergoes
acceleration. Explain
A car at rest starts to travel in a straight path. It reaches a velocity of 12 m/s in 4 s (F
(Figure 2.7).
your answer. Calculate its acceleration.
u = 0 m/s v = 12 m/s

tu = 0 s tv = 4 s
Figure 2.7
Solution
We assign the direction to the right as positive.
Given: Initial velocity v1 = 0 m/s (since the car starts from rest)
Final velocity v2 = 12 m/s
Time taken = 4 s
v − u (__________
v = _____ 12 − 0) m / s
a = Δv
Δ
___ = = 3 m/s2
Δtt v
Δ t − tu (4 − 0) s
TThe
he acceleration is 3 m/s2 in its travelling direction.

Figure 2.8 Whirling a stone

Let’s Practise 2.1

LINK TWB 1 A toy car travels 96 m in 12 s. Calculate its average speed.
2 The velocity of a golf ball rolling in a straight line changes from 8 m/s to 14 m/s in 10 s.
Exercises 2B, pp. XX-XX
Calculate its acceleration.
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

22 Motion

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 Chapter 2

2.2 Graphs of Motion

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Sketch, plot and interpret distance–time and speed–time graphs.
• Determine qualitatively, from given data or the shape of a distance–time graph or speed–time
graph, when an object is at rest, moving with constant speed, accelerating or decelerating.
• Calculate speed from a distance–time graph.
• Calculate the area under a speed–time graph to determine distance travelled.
• Determine when an object is moving with constant or changing acceleration from given data
or the shape of a speed–time graph.
• Calculate acceleration from a speed–time graph.
• Know what is meant by deceleration and use this in calculations.

Distance–time graphs
By studying the distance–time graph of an object (Figure 2.9), Distance/m
we can get some information about the motion of the object.
E
In what way will the distance–time graph change if the object
travels a longer distance at a uniform speed? C D
The motion of the object is described in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 Motion of an object

Section Motion of an object
A to B The graph is a horizontal line.
A B
0 Time/s
The distance travelled does not change with time.
The object is not moving. Figure 2.9 Distance–time graph of a moving object
B to C The graph has a constant positive gradient.
The distance travelled increases uniformly.
The object is moving at a uniform speed. ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
C to D The graph is a horizontal line.
The distance travelled does not change with time. Sketch a distance–time
The object is not moving. graph for your journey
from your home to
D to E The graph has a constant positive gradient.
your school. Then,
The distance travelled increases uniformly.
exchange graphs
The object is moving at a uniform speed.
with a classmate and
The graph is less steep here compared to section B
discuss the differences
to C. Therefore, the object has a lower speed here.
between your graphs.

Gradient of distance–time graphs

The gradient of a distance–time graph of an object gives the speed of the object.
Figure 2.10 shows a car travelling away from the starting point O. The car travels in one direction only.

starting
point
distance s
O

Figure 2.10 Motion of a car

Motion 23

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 Chapter 2
The distance–time graphs below show four possible journeys of the car.

PHYSICS WATCH Distance/m Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5

50
Distance/m 0 10 20 30 40 50
Scan this page to
40
explore distance–time
graph simulation. 30 • The graph has a constant gradient.

•
• The distance increases 10 m for every second.
20

•
10 • Gradient = 50 −0
_____
= 10

 
 
5−0

•
​​
 
 
 
​​
  
 
 
Time/s ∴ Speed = 10 m/s
0 1 2 3 4 5

 
​
​
Figure 2.11Car travelling at a uniform speed

Distance/m Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
QUICK CHECK 50
Distance/m 20 20 20 20 20 20
For an object that is not 40
moving, its distance–time • The graph has zero gradient.
30

•
graph is a horizontal line. • The distance remains at 20 m.
20

•
True or false?
• Speed = 0 m/s
•
10

Time/s
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2.12 Car stopped or car at rest

Distance/m Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
125
Distance/m 0 5 20 45 80 125
100

75 • The graph has an increasing gradient.

•
• The speed of the car increases. It travels faster
50
•
each second.
25

Time/s
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2.13 Car travelling with an

increasing speed

Distance/m Time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5
QUICK CHECK 125
Distance/m 0 45 80 105 120 125
The constant gradient 100
of a slope in a distance– • The graph has a decreasing gradient.
75
•
time graph indicates that
an object is moving at a • The speed of the car decreases. It travels slower
50
•
uniform speed. each second.
25
True or false?
Time/s
0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 2.14 Car travelling with a

decreasing speed

24 Motion

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 Chapter 2
Speed–time graphs
Area under speed–time graphs
Figure 2.15 shows the speed–time graph for an object moving from one place to another over a time
interval of 24 seconds. Based on the graph, how can we describe the motion of the object? What is
the distance travelled by the object?

Speed/m/s

60

50

40 Speed–time graph

30

20

10

Time/s
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

Figure 2.15 Speed–time graph of an object moving from one place to another

At t = 0 s, the object is at rest. From t = 0 s to 6 s, the speed of the object increases uniformly from
0 m/s to 36 m/s, and remains constant at 36 m/s from 6 s to 15 s. From 15 s to 24 s, the speed of the
object decreases from 36 m/s to 0 m/s.
For an object travelling with uniform acceleration, the area under its speed–time graph gives
the distance it travels.
From Figure 2.15, the total area under the speed–time graph WORD ALERT
= area of the trapezium
Trapezium: a four-sided
= _1 × sum of parallel sides × height = _1 × (9 + 24) × 36 = 594 shape with two
2 2 parallel sides
Therefore, the total distance travelled by the object is 594 m.

Worked Example 2E Speed/m/s

HELPFUL NOTES

Figure 2.16 shows the speed–time graph for an 8 In Figure 2.15, the object
object moving with a uniform speed. accelerates from rest to
7
36 m/s in 6 s. It then
What is the total distance travelled from t = 0 s
6 remains at this speed for
to t = 10 s?
5 9 s (acceleration = 0 m/s2).
Solution 4 Distance can be Finally, it decelerates to
determined by the area 0 m/s in 9 s.
Area under speed–time graph 3 of the rectangle under In Figure 2.16, the
= area of the rectangle 2 the speed–time graph object travels at 6 m/s
= 10 × 6 1 (acceleration = 0 m/s2)
throughout the journey.
= 60 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time/s
Total distance travelled from
t = 0 s to t = 10 s is 60 m. Figure 2.16

Motion 25

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 Chapter 2
Gradient of speed–time graphs
The gradient of a speed–time graph gives the acceleration of the object.
Based on Figure 2.15 on page 25, the acceleration of the object can be calculated as shown in
Table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Calculating the acceleration of the object

Time interval Initial speed u and final speed v Acceleration

(36 − 0 ) m / s
0 s to 6 s u = 0 m/s, v = 36 m/s __________
= 6 m/s2
(6 – 0) s

(_________
0 − 0) m / s
6 s to 15 s u = 36 m/s, v = 36 m/s = 0 m/s2
(15 – 6) s

(0 – 36 ) m / s
__________
15 s to 24 s u = 36 m/s, v = 0 m/s = −4 m/s2
(24 − 15) s

Uniform and non-uniform acceleration

A train leaves a station and travels along a straight track towards the next station.
Figure 2.17 shows how the speed of the train varies with time over the whole journey.

Speed/m/s

20
Low res image
15

10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time/s

Figure 2.17 Speed–time graph of a train

QUICK CHECK Table 2.5 describes how the motion of the train changes over the whole journey (Figure 2.17).

The non-uniform Table 2.5 Motion of the train

acceleration of an object Time interval Speed of train Acceleration of train
is shown by the changing
gradient of the speed– 0 s to 10 s • The speed is increasing uniformly. The acceleration of the train is uniform.
time graph. • The gradient remains constant.
True or false? 10 s to 70 s • The speed remains constant at 15 m/s. The acceleration of the train is zero.
• The gradient is zero.
70 s to 90 s • The speed is decreasing non-uniformly. • The acceleration of the train is negative
• The gradient is becoming less negative (deceleration) and non-uniform.
(the slope becomes less steep). • The deceleration of the train
is decreasing.

26 Motion

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 Chapter 2
Worked Example 2F
A motorist approaches a traffic light junction at Speed/m/s
15 m/s. The traffic light turns red when he is 30 m
from the junction. He takes 0.4 s before applying
the brakes and his car slows down at a rate of 15
3.75 m/s2 for a time interval of Δt before coming to
a stop at time T.
Figure 2.18 shows the speed–time graph of
this motorist.
(a) Describe in words the speed and acceleration
of the car between Time/s
0 0.4 T
(i) t = 0 s and t = 0.4 s; Δt

(ii) t = 0.4 s and t = T s. Figure 2.18

WORD ALERT
(b) What do you call this duration of 0.4 s?
(c) Calculate the value of Δt. Duration: length of
(d) What is the total distance travelled by the car from t = 0 s to t = T s? time, period
(e) Is the motorist able to stop his car in time?
Solution
(a) (i) The car travels at a uniform speed of 15 m/s with zero acceleration.
(ii) The speed of the car decreases from 15 m/s to zero with a uniform
deceleration of 3.75 m/s2.
(b) Human reaction time
(c) Given: Uniform deceleration = 3.75 m/s2 (i.e. acceleration a = −3.75 m/s2)
HELPFUL NOTES
Change in velocity Δv = final velocity − initial velocity = (0 –15) = −15 m/s
Δv = −3.75 m/s2 = −
(d) By definition, a = ___
15 m/s
_______ The symbol Δ means
Δt Δt change. So Δt means
∴ Δt = 4 s change in t, i.e., final t
minus initial t.
(e) Distance = area under speed–time graph
= area of trapezium = _1_ × (0.4 s + 4.4 s) × 15 m/s
2
= 36 m
Since the distance of his car is more than 30 m, the motorist is unable to stop his car in time.

Let’s Practise 2.2

1 Figure 2.19 shows the Distance/m
distance–time graph of
an object from its 300
starting point. 250
Describe the motion of the 200
object in terms of both its 150
distance from the starting 100
point and its speed at
50
(a) t = 0 s;
(b) t = 20 s; 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time/s
(c) t = 40 s.
Figure 2.19

Motion 27

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 Chapter 2
2 S The speed–time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.20.

Describe the motion of the car in terms of both its speed and acceleration for the following

time intervals:
Speed/m/s

20

15

10

5
LINK PWB
Time/s
Practical 2, pp. XX–XX 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

Figure 2.20
(a) t = 0 s to t = 5 s (b) t = 5 s to t = 10 s (c) t = 10 s to t = 15 s






(d) t = 15 s to t = 20 s (e) t = 20 s to t = 25 s (f) t = 25 s to t = 30 s






LINK TWB (g) t = 30 s to t = 35 s


Exercises 2B–2C,
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

pp. XX-XX

2.3 Acceleration of Free Fall

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State that the acceleration of free fall g for an object near to the surface of the Earth is

approximately constant and is approximately 9.8 m/s2.
• Describe the motion of objects falling in a uniform gravitational field with and without air resistance.

What did Galileo discover?
If we drop a large stone and a small pebble from the same height at the same time, which object will
hit the ground first?
In the 17th century, Galileo Galilei discovered that all objects fell at the same acceleration due to
the Earth’s gravity, regardless of mass or size. To make his discovery, Galileo did a series of experiments
and careful observations. Galileo’s finding was different from Aristotle’s widely accepted claim
(Figure 2.21).
Aristotle’s claim Galileo’s finding

t=0

A heavier object No! Both the heavier

will fall faster than object and the lighter
a lighter object. object will fall at the
same rate.

t= t1

ground

Figure 2.21 If you were a scientist in the 17th century, would you have accepted Galileo’s finding? Why?
28 Motion

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 Chapter 2
Acceleration due to gravity, g, is a constant for objects close to the Earth’s surface. The value of g is
generally taken to be 9.8 m/s2. For simplicity in calculations, we will approximate this value to 10 m/s2
throughout this book, unless otherwise stated. PHYSICS WATCH

How do objects fall without air resistance? Scan this page to watch
a clip of the feather and
hammer experiment.
An object can only be in free fall if the only force acting on it is its own weight. Figure 2.22 shows
the paths taken by a feather and by a hammer falling in a vacuum.

t=0s At rest

Wf
Wh
t=1s
10 m/s
Wf
Wh

t=2s

20 m/s Wf
Wh

t=3s

Wf
30 m/s Wh

Figure 2.22 A feather and a hammer in free fall

From Figure 2.23, we can make the following deductions: Speed/m/s

• The direction of motion for the two objects gradient gives
•
is downward. 40 acceleration
• They fall towards the centre of the Earth.
•
30
• Their speed under gravity increases by 10 m/s
•
every second.
20
• That means both objects have a uniform acceleration
•
of 10 m/s2.
10
• The acceleration of free-falling objects does not depend
•
on their mass or size. Time/s
• All objects fall freely at a uniform acceleration of 0 1 2 3 4
•
10 m/s2 near the Earth’s surface. Figure 2.23 describes
Figure 2.23 Speed–time graph of
the motion of free-falling objects. free-falling motion

Motion 29

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 Chapter 2
Worked Example 2G
WORD ALERT
Object A was dropped from the third floor. The time taken for the object to reach the ground
Negligible: so small that was 1.34 s. Assume that air resistance was negligible. Figure 2.24 shows the path of the
it can be ignored free-falling object.

t=0 Object A
third floor
v0 = 0

+ve
height = ?

t1 = 1.34 s
v1 = ?
ground

Figure 2.24

(a) Calculate the speed of object A just before it hit the ground.
(b) Calculate the height of the third floor from the ground.
(c) Object B, which was lighter than object A, was dropped from the same third floor. State and
explain whether there would be any change in the speed–time graph of object B compared
to that of object A.
Solution
Since air resistance was negligible, the object was in free fall (i.e. accelerating at 10 m/s2).
Given: Time taken t to reach the ground is t1 = 1.34 s
To visualise the problem, we sketch the path and the speed–time graph for free-falling object A
(Figure 2.25).

Speed/m/s
v1

Time/s
0
t1 = 1.34

Figure 2.25
v1 − 0
(a) Gradient of speed–time graph = _______
1.34 − 0
Uniform acceleration due to gravity = 10 m/s2
v1 − 0
∴ _______ = 10
1.34 − 0
v1 = 13.4 m/s
The speed of object A just before it hit the ground was 13.4 m/s.
(b) Area under speed–time graph = _1_ v1t1 = _1_ × 13.4 m/s × 1.34 s = 9 m
2 2
The height of the third floor from the ground was 9 m.
(c) No. Both object A and object B would have the same speed–time graph, since they fell at
a constant acceleration of 10 m/s2.

30 Motion

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 Chapter 2
How do objects fall with air resistance?
When you run fast, do you feel air brushing against you?
If you do, you are experiencing air resistance.
A parachutist makes use of air resistance to land safely on the
ground (Figure 2.26).

Air resistance is a form of frictional force. It has the

following characteristics:
• It opposes the motion of moving objects.
Low res image
• It increases with the surface area (or size) of moving objects.
• It increases with the density of air.
• It increases with the speed of moving objects.
Figure 2.27 describes the motion of a small piece of paper in free fall
and the motion of the same paper experiencing air resistance.

Figure 2.26 Air resistance at work

Paper in free fall

• The only force acting on an object in free fall is
its own weight.
• The paper accelerates uniformly at 10 m/s2 as
it falls. It reaches a speed of 100 m/s in 10 s.

Speed/m/s

100 free fall

terminal with air

velocity resistance

Time/s
0 10

QUICK CHECK
Paper experiencing
air resistance A feather falls at the
same acceleration as a
• An object experiences • The acceleration starts • When the weight of the paper
stone in the absence of
greater air resistance to decrease due to the balances the air resistance,
air resistance.
when its speed increases. increasing air resistance. its acceleration decreases
True or false?
• The paper accelerates at to zero.
10 m/s2 initially. • The paper continues to fall at
a uniform velocity known as
terminal velocity.
Figure 2.27 Motion of falling paper with and without air resistance

Motion 31

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 Chapter 2
Worked Example 2H
A window cleaner drops a sponge from a window at time t = 0 s. Figure 2.28 shows the
speed–time graph of the sponge falling.

Speed/m/s

14

12 E
D
10
C
8

6
B
4

0 A Time/s
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Figure 2.28

(a) Describe the motion of the sponge between A and E.

(b) Calculate the distance that the sponge falls through between t = 0 s and t = 0.6 s.

Solution
(a) From A to B, the speed of the sponge increases uniformly at a rate of 10 m/s2.

From B to D, its speed is still increasing but at a decreasing rate.

The acceleration decreases.

From D to E, the sponge has zero acceleration and reaches its terminal velocity of 12 m/s.

(b) Distance = Area under speed–time graph = __1 × 0.6 s × 6.0 m/s = 1.8 m
2

​​ 
 
​​
 
​
​
​
​
Let’s Practise 2.3
1 An object is released from an unknown height and falls freely for 5 s before it hits

the ground.
(a) Sketch the speed–time graph for a time interval of 5 s, assuming there is negligible


air resistance.
(b) Calculate the speed of the object just before it hits the ground.
LINK TWB


(c) Calculate the unknown height.


Exercises 2D–2E, 2 S Why does a feather reach terminal velocity faster than a hammer, even though both are

pp. XX-XX released from the same height?
Exercise 2F Let's Reflect, 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

p. X this section.

32 Motion

02_IGCS
02_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 32 24/09/20 5:29 PM
 Chapter 2
Let’s Map It

is described
MOTION
in terms of

involves can be found by • Area under

• Distance (m)
speed–time graph

Speed (m/s)
• scalar

• Speed = distance travelled

time taken
can be found by
total distance travelled
• Average speed =
total time taken

• Gradient of distance–time graph

involves
• Displacement (m)

Velocity (m/s)
• vector

can be found by
displacement
• Velocity =
time taken

change in velocity
can be found by • Acceleration =
time
• Gradient of speed–time graph

Acceleration (m/s2)
• vector

• Acceleration of free fall, g = 9.8 m/s2

• without air resistance, object falls
example
with constant acceleration
• with air resistance, object falls with
decreasing acceleration and may reach
terminal velocity

Motion 33

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02_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 33 24/09/20 5:29 PM
 Chapter 2

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 2 Figure 2.29 shows the speed–time graph for a car

1 The average speed of a car is 35 km/h. If it travels in motion.

at this speed for 45 minutes, what is the distance Speed/m/s
it has travelled?
A 0.78 km B 26.25 km 20




C 129 km D 467 km 15



2 A car accelerates uniformly from 5 m/s to 13 m/s in
10

4.0 s. What is the acceleration of the car?
A 0.50 m/s2 B 0.80 m/s2 5



C 1.25 m/s2 D 2.00 m/s2



0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Time/s
3 A ball is thrown vertically upwards at 1.2 m/s.

It decelerates uniformly at 10 m/s2. What is the time Figure 2.29
taken for the ball to reach zero speed?
A 0.12 s B 2.4 s Describe the motion of the car between

C 6.0 s D 12 s (a) t = 0 s and t = 10 s;

4 Which speed–time graph shows the motion of (b) t = 10 s and t = 15 s;

an object which decelerates non-uniformly? (c) t = 15 s and t = 20 s;

(d) t = 20 s and t = 30 s;
AA Speed B B Speed

Speed Speed
(e) t = 30 s and t = 35 s.

3 A train travels along a straight track from one station

to another. Figure 2.30 shows how the speed of the
train varies with time over the whole journey.
Time
Time Time
Time Speed/m/s

C C Speed
Speed DD Speed
Speed 40
30
20
10
Time/s
Time
Time Time
Time 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
  
Figure 2.30
Section B: Short-answer and
Structured Questions (a) State the time interval over which the train

is decelerating.
1 A car travelled from town A to town B, and then to
(b) Determine the acceleration of the train.

town C. It took 0.5 hour to travel 50 km from town A to

town B. The car stopped for 0.25 hour in town B. Then it (c) Determine

travelled another 30 km to town C in 1.25 hour. (i) the distance between the two stations;


Calculate the average speed of the car for the (ii) the average speed of the train over the


whole journey.

whole journey.
4 A feather was released from rest in vacuum. It was

then released from rest in air. In both situations, the
feather was released from the same significant height.
(a) Compare and discuss the motion of the feather in

vacuum and in air.
(b) Sketch the speed–time graphs of the motion of the

feather in vacuum and in air.

34 Motion

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 CHAPTER
Mass, Weight
3 and Density

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to take a short quiz.

QUESTIONS

• Why does a spacecraft use a lot of energy

to go into space?
A lot of energy is used to power a spacecraft when it is launched • The astronaut in the photo is floating in
from the Earth towards space. Once in space, the spacecraft

space. Does the astronaut still have weight?
separates from its main engine and rocket boosters. It then fires its • Why is the astronaut able to bounce about

own engine to put it into orbit around the Earth. While in orbit, an easily on the Moon but not on the Earth?
astronaut sometimes leave the spacecraft to be out in open space.
When the spacecraft wants to land on the Moon, the engine is fired
again to steer the spacecraft. Once on the Moon, the astronaut
from the spacecraft can do some moonwalking. Unlike on the
Earth, the astronaut is able to bounce about easily on the Moon.

35

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 Chapter 3

3.1 Mass and Weight

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State what is meant by the term mass and weight.
• Describe, and use the concept of, weight as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.
• Define gravitational field strength.
w and know that this is equivalent to the acceleration of free fall.
• Recall and use the equation g = m
• Know that weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance.

Is mass the same as weight?

When we say that a person weighs 100 kilograms, we actually mean that the person has a body mass
of 100 kilograms. When we buy a 5-kilogram bag of rice, we are buying a bag of rice that has a mass
of 5 kilograms, not a bag of rice that weighs 5 kilograms.
In physics, weight and mass are two very different quantities. In everyday language, we often misuse
the term weight when we mean mass. So, what is the difference between mass
and weight?

What is mass?
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest relative to the observer. Its SI unit is
ENRICHMENT the kilogram (kg) .
INFO
Tides The object has to be at rest when the observer measures the amount of matter in it.
Why is this so?
High tides and low
tides are observed Scientists have found that when an observer looks at an object moving at very high speeds (near to
in places near the the speed of light), the observer sees that the object has a different mass from when it is stationary.
sea. Have you ever However, such high speeds do not happen in everyday life. These observations take place in
wondered what causes specially built laboratories that study small particles moving at very high speeds. The mass of an
the tides? object is a fixed quantity under normal circumstances.
Thus, we can say that mass is a property of a body that does not change with its location or shape.
Low res image The mass of a body depends on the number and composition of atoms and molecules that make up
the body. It is a scalar quantity.

(a) High tide

What is weight?

Do you know why objects fall to the ground after you throw them up in
the air? This is because a force called weight pulls them towards the Earth.
Low res image This force is the gravitational pull (gravitational force or gravity) exerted
by the Earth.
Weight is the gravitational force on an object that has mass. Its SI unit is
(b) Low tide the newton (N).

Figure 3.1 Places near Since weight is a force, it is a vector quantity with both magnitude and
the sea experience tides direction. The direction of weight is downward, i.e., towards
the centre of the Earth.
Gravitational force
of attraction exists
between the Earth and
the Moon. The high
and low tides are the
effects of the Moon’s
gravitational force on
the Earth.

36 Mass, Weight and Density

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 Chapter 3
What is a gravitational field?
You have learnt earlier that the weight of an object with mass is due to the gravitational force acting
on it. This weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

A gravitational field is a region of space in which a mass exert a force of attraction on

another mass.
For example, the Earth with a huge mass has a gravitational field surrounding it. As such, any
object within the Earth’s gravitational field will experience a force exerted by the Earth on it. The
gravitational force experienced is the strongest at the surface of the Earth. It gets weaker further
away due to a decreasing gravitational field strength.

What is gravitational field strength?

The weight of an object depends on the strength of the gravitational force acting on it. For example,
an object weighs less on the Moon than on the Earth. This is because the Moon’s gravitational field
strength is weaker than the Earth’s gravitational field strength.
Gravitational field strength g is defined as the gravitational force per unit mass.
In equation form: g = W where g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)
m

W = weight (in N)

m = mass of the object (in kg)

On the Earth, the gravitational field strength g is approximately 10 N/kg. This means that a 1-kg mass
​
​
on the Earth’s surface experiences a force of 10 N due to the Earth’s gravitational field.
On the other hand, the same 1-kg mass on the Moon experiences a gravitational force of only 1.6 N. PHYSICS WATCH
This is because the gravitational field strength on the Moon is 1.6 N/kg.
Scan this page to explore
Imagine if we were to weigh an elephant on the Earth’s surface and the Moon’s surface (Figure 3.2). a simulation on mass
The elephant would weigh much more on the Earth’s surface than on the Moon’s surface even and weight.
though its mass remains unchanged.

Mass: 1.0 × 104 kg Mass: 1.0 × 104 kg

g: 10 N kg–1 g: 1.6 N kg–1
Weight: 1.0 × 105 N Weight: 1.6 × 104 N

weighing scale
calibrated for use
on Earth

Moon

Earth
Figure 3.2 The elephant ‘loses’ weight when it is on the Moon!

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 Chapter 3
How are mass and weight related?
From the equation g = W m , we have W = mg. Thus, the weight or gravitational force W acting on an

 
WORD ALERT object is directly proportional to its mass m. For example, if we double the mass of the object,
the weight or gravitational force acting on the object becomes doubled.
Directly proportional:
to increase or decrease by
the same number
of times Worked Example 3A
A mobile phone has a mass of 75 g. Calculate its weight if g is 10 N/kg. ​ ​

Solution
Mass of mobile phone m = 75 g = 75 × 10 −3 kg = 0.075 kg ​ ​ ​    ​ ​​  ​​

Weight of mobile phone W = mg = 0.075 kg × 10 N/kg = 0.75 N ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Gravitational field strength and acceleration due to gravity

On the Earth, the gravitational field strength g near its surface is 10 N/kg. ​ ​

Therefore, the weight W (in N) of an object of mass m (in kg) is given by:
​ ​ ​ ​

W = mg
​ ​ ​  ​

= m × 10 N/kg ------------- (1)

​      ​

If the object were to free-fall under gravity without air resistance, we can find its acceleration using
the equation:

LINK F = ma where F = resultant force (in N)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​   ​

m = mass (in kg)

​ ​

You will learn more about

a = acceleration (in m/s2)
the equation F = ma in
​  ​

Chapter 4. Consider an object of mass m (in kg) free-falling under gravity without air resistance. It is free-falling
​ ​

at an acceleration of a = g = 10 m/s2 due to its weight W (in N). So, we have

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

​​ F = ma ​ ​

W = mg
​  ​ ​  ​

= m × 10 m/s2 --------------- (2)

​   ​

By equating equations (1) and (2), we have

HELPFUL NOTES W = mg
​  ​ ​ ​

The gravitational = m × 10 N/kg

​   ​

field strength g = W _
= m × 10 m/s2
m
​​   
​​ 

​   ​

is equivalent to the
acceleration of free fall. Therefore, 10 N/kg = 10 m/s2. This shows that gravitational field strength near the Earth’s surface
g=W
However, the weight W of W
m = 10 N/kg is equivalent to the acceleration of free fall g = m = 10 m/s .
2
an object of mass m is
W = mg regardless
of whether it is at rest
or free-falling. What do common weighing instruments measure?
Common weighing instruments, such as the electronic balance (Figure 3.3), spring balance and
bathroom scale, actually measure the weight of an object, not its mass. These instruments, however,
are calibrated to give readings in grams (g) or kilograms (kg).
Using these instruments, an object will have different mass readings at different gravitational field
strengths. For example, if an astronaut steps on a bathroom scale on the Moon, the reading will be
lower than the reading taken on the Earth. This is because the gravitational field strength on the
Moon (1.6 N/kg) is less than that on the Earth (10 N/kg).

38 Mass, Weight and Density

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 Chapter 3
This means that a weighing scale calibrated for use on the Earth
cannot be used on the Moon. The weighing scale has to be
calibrated to the Moon’s gravitational field strength in order to give
accurate mass measurements on the Moon. To etch out]

Low res image

Figure 3.3 The electronic balance is a commonly

used laboratory instrument for measuring mass. In
fact, electronic balances measure weight, but they are
calibrated to give readings for mass.

How is mass measured?

The mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance
(Figure 3.4). Unlike a weighing scale, a beam balance does not have
to be calibrated for different gravitational field strengths.
A beam balance compares the gravitational force acting on an
object with that acting on standard masses. As both the object
and the standard masses experience the same gravitational field
strength, the mass reading taken for a given object, whether on the
Earth or on the Moon, will be the same.
Figure 3.4 Simple beam balance
Table 3.1 shows how mass is different from weight. used to measure mass

Table 3.1 Differences between mass and weight

Mass Weight
• An amount of matter • A gravitational force
•
•
• A scalar quantity (i.e. has only magnitude) • A vector quantity (i.e. has both magnitude
•
•
and direction)
• SI unit: kilogram (kg) • SI unit: newton (N)
•
•
• Independent of the gravitational field strength • Dependent on the gravitational field strength
•
•
• Measured with a beam balance or a calibrated • Measured with a spring balance
•
•
electronic balance

Worked Example 3B
QUICK CHECK
The acceleration of free fall on the Moon is 1.6 m/s2. The acceleration of free fall on the Earth is
10 m/s2. A rock has a mass of 10 kg on the Earth. Calculate the weight of the rock on As a satellite is launched
(a) the Earth; (b) the Moon. from the Earth into
space, its weight



Solution decreases while its mass
We know that remains unchanged.
• the mass of the rock does not change whether on the Earth or on the Moon; True or false?
•
• weight = mass × acceleration of free fall.
•
​
​
(a) Therefore, the weight of the rock on the Earth = 10 kg × 10 m/s2 = 100 N

​
​
(b) The weight of the rock on the Moon = 10 kg × 1.6 m/s2 = 16 N

​
​
(Note: 1 kg m/s2 = 1 N)

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 Chapter 3
Let’s Practise 3.1
1 Give four differences between mass and weight.

2 Why is the mass of a body not affected by changes in the physical environment

such as location?
3 The Moon has a gravitational field strength one-sixth that of the Earth’s. If a person has

a mass of 60 kg on the Earth, how much will he weigh on the Moon?
4 The gravitational field strength of Jupiter is 22.9 N/kg. An astronaut weighs 1200 N on

the Earth. What will his weight be on Jupiter? Assume the gravitational field strength of
LINK TWB the Earth is 10 N/kg.
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
Exercise 3A, pp. XX–XX

this section.

3.2 Density
In this section, you will learn the following:
m
• Define density and recall and use the equation ρ = V .

• Describe how to determine the density of a liquid and certain solids.
•

Determine whether an object floats based on density data.
•

Determine whether one liquid will float on another liquid based on density data.

What is density?
When we talk about density, we are talking about how much mass is Table 3.2 Densities of
packed into a given space. common substances

The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit volume. Substance
Density
/g/cm3
In some cases, density can be used to identify substances.
Gases
For example, the density of pure gold is 19 300 kg/m3. If the density
of a gold ring is not 19 300 kg/m3, then it is not made of pure gold — Dry air 0.00123
it must have some impurities in it. Oxygen 0.00143
To calculate the density of a substance, we need to know its mass Liquids
m and its volume V. Density ρ (Greek letter ‘rho’, pronounced ‘row’) is
​
​
given by Turpentine 0.87
m Oil 0.92
ρ= where ρ = density
V
​
​
Pure water 1
m = mass of the object
​
​
Seawater 1.025
V = volume of the object
​
​
Mercury 13.6
The SI unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3).
If mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and volume in cubic Solids
metres (m3), the unit of density would be the SI unit. However, Polystyrene 0.016
 
HELPFUL NOTES if mass is measured in grams (g) and volume in cubic Cork 0.24
centimetres (cm3), the unit of density would be gram per cubic
 
To convert density values Pine wood 0.5
centimetre (g/cm3).
from g/cm3 to kg/m3, Ice 0.917
we simply multiply them
As most objects we handle daily have relatively small masses and
by 1000. volumes, the unit g/cm3 is more commonly used. The densities of Glass 2.5
some common substances are shown in Table 3.2. Iron 7.874
Gold 19.3

40 Mass, Weight and Density

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 Chapter 3
Substances that float on water have lower densities than water. Substances that sink in water have
higher densities than water.
ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
ice Place a solid cube of
modelling clay in water
ice and watch it sink to
the bottom of the tank
of water.

ice Now, if you have a

much smaller cube of
the same modelling
clay, will it float or sink
in the water?
turpentine water mercury If it sinks again, can you
ρ = 870 kg/m3 ρ = 1000 kg/m3 ρ = 13 600 kg/m3 think of a way to make
it float?
Figure 3.5 Ice cubes placed in three different liquids. The density of the liquid determines whether the ice cube floats
or sinks.

Why does a heavy steel ship float? ENRICHMENT

A small iron ball sinks in water, but a large and heavy ship (Figure 3.6) floats! Why? INFO
Submarine
A large ship is an object that is made up of more than one material. In addition to steel, it contains
A submarine is an
a large volume of air in the various rooms and cabins. Therefore, we will have to consider the average
interesting watercraft
density of the ship. The average density of an object is calculated by dividing its total mass by its
that can sink, float
total volume. or be at rest at any
For example, a ship of mass 7.68 × 107 kg is 268 m long, 32 m wide and 25 m high. What is the average
​ ​
position in the ocean.
density of the ship? How is it possible?
The feature that gives
Assuming a cuboidal shape,
a submarine of a fixed
the volume of the ship = 268 m × 32 m × 25 m = 214 400 m3;
​ ​ ​ ​
size or volume this
the mass of the ship = 7.68 × 107 kg. capability is the special
tanks known as ballast
​ ​

Therefore, the average density of the ship: tanks. These ballast

Average density = mass = 7.68 × 10 kg
7 tanks can be filled
= 358 kg/m3
volume 214 400 m3 with different amounts
The average density of the ship is actually less than the density of seawater, which is about of air or water to vary
the total mass of
1025 kg/m3. Therefore, the ship is able to float!
the submarine.

Low res image

Figure 3.6 Why does a large and heavy

ship float, while an iron ball sinks?

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 Chapter 3
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 3A
Objective
To determine the density of a liquid
Apparatus
Burette, beaker, electronic balance, retort stand
Procedure
1 Find the mass m1 of a dry, clean beaker.

burette
2 Run a volume V of liquid from the burette into the

beaker (Figure 3.7).
3 Find the mass m2 of the beaker and the liquid. retort
stand

Precaution
When reading the volume of the liquid, make sure
that your eyes are level with the base of the meniscus
of the liquid.
Calculation
If the masses are measured in g and the volume in cm3,
then the density ρ of the liquid is
ρ = m2 − m1 g/cm3 = m2 − m1 × 1000 kg/m3. beaker
V V
​
 
Figure 3.7

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Invigate 10A3B
Objective
QUICK CHECK b
To determine the density of regular objects (Figure 3.8) l
If a block of metal is Apparatus
h
broken into two equal Vernier callipers, metre rule, electronic balance
parts, the density of each cuboid
part is half the density of Procedure
the original metal block. 1 Find the mass m using the electronic balance.
d

True or false? 2 Determine the volume V by taking appropriate

​
​
measurements and then calculating the volume using the
following formulae: l
(a) Cuboid — measure the length l, breadth b and height h


​
​
V=l×b×h

​
​
​
 
​
​
​
(b) Cylinder — measure the diameter d and length l


​ 
​
cylinder
V = πd × l
2

4


​
(c) Sphere — measure the diameter d


V = ( )π ( )
3
4 d
3 2 d


​
 ​​
​​​ 
​​
Precaution
Check the instruments used for zero error, and avoid parallax
error when taking readings. sphere
Calculation Figure 3.8
If the mass of the object is in g and the volume in cm3,
m m
then density ρ of the object = g/cm3 = × 1000 kg/m3.
V V
​
​
​
​
42 Mass, Weight and Density

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 Chapter 3
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Invtigate 103C
A
Objective
To determine the density of irregularly shaped objects that sink in liquid (such as a glass stopper
in water)
Apparatus
Measuring cylinder, glass stopper, string, electronic balance, water, small towel, scissors

v2

v1

Figure 3.9 Figure 3.10

Procedure
1 Measure the mass m of the glass stopper using the electronic balance.

​
​
2 Fill the measuring cylinder with water to about one-third of its depth. Note the volume

reading V1 (Figure 3.9).
3 Tie a piece of string to the glass stopper and then lower it gently into the water. Note the

new volume reading V2 (Figure 3.10).
4 Determine the volume of the glass stopper, given by V2 − V1.

​
​
5 Remove the glass stopper from the measuring cylinder and dry it with the towel.

6 Repeat steps 2 to 5 twice with different values of V1 and obtain the corresponding values of

V2 and (V2 − V1).
​
​
7 Determine the volume V of the glass stopper by taking the average value of the three sets of

data for (V2 − V1).
​
​
Precaution LINK
Check the instruments used for zero error, and avoid parallax error when taking readings.
Calculation Recall what zero error and
If the mass of the glass stopper is in g and the volume in cm3, parallax error are from
m m Chapter 1.
then density ρ of the glass stopper = g/cm3 = × 1000 kg/m3.
V V
​
​
​
​
Low res image PWB LINK

Practical 3A,
pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 3
Worked Example 3C
ENRICHMENT A cube of side 2.0 cm has a density of 6.0 g/cm3. A hole of volume 1.0 cm3 is drilled into the cube.
THINK
The hole is filled up with a certain material of density 5.0 g/cm3. Calculate the density of this
Can balloons carry you
composite cube in (a) g/cm3; (b) kg/m3.
up into the sky?
In 1982, Mr. Larry Solution
Walters from USA, (a) Mass of 1.0 cm3 of the material of density 5.0 g/cm3 = 5.0 g/cm3 × 1.0 cm3 = 5.0 g

​
​
attached 45 helium
Volume of cube after a hole of 1.0 cm3 is drilled = (2.0 × 2.0 × 2.0) cm3 − 1.0 cm3
weather balloons to
​
​
​
​
​
​
a lawn chair, sat on = 7.0 cm3

it and soared into Mass of cube after a hole of 1.0 cm3 is drilled = 6.0 g/cm3 × 7.0 cm3 = 42.0 g
the sky.

​
​
mass of composite cube
He reportedly reached ∴ Density of composite cube =
volume of composite cube

a height of 5000 m
before bursting the (42.0 + 5.0) g
balloons one by one
=
(7.0 + 1.0) cm3

with a pellet gun.
= 5.9 g/cm3
On his way down,

the balloons’ loose (b) To convert to kg/m , recall that 1 kg = 1000 g (or 1 g = 10−3 kg)
3

cables got entangled Since 1 m = 100 cm,

with power lines.
1 m3 = (100)3 cm3 = 106 cm3 (or 1 cm3 = 10−6 m3).
This resulted in a

20-minute blackout in 1g 10−3 kg
Therefore, 1 g/cm3 = = = 1000 kg/m3.
Long Beach, USA! After 1 cm3 10−6 m3

his misadventure, Larry
was nicknamed the Thus, 5.9 g/cm3 = 5.9 × 103 kg/m3.

​
​
“Lawn Chair Pilot”.
Based on what you
have learnt about
density, can you Worked Example 3D
explain why balloons
can lift a person into In an experiment, a solid material of unknown density is placed in three different liquids.
the sky? Can they Table 3.3 shows the results of the experiment.
lift a person to outer
space? Why? Table 3.3
Liquid Density of liquid/(kg/m3 ) Observation
Mercury 14 000 The object floats
Seawater 1100 The object floats
Paraffin 700 The object sinks

Which of the following shows the density of the object?

A Exactly 700 kg/m3 B Between 700 kg/m3 and 1100 kg/m3



C Exactly 1100 kg/m3 D Between 1100 kg/m3 and 14 000 kg/m3



Explain your choice.
Solution
B. For any solid material to float in a liquid, the density of the material must be lower than the
WORD ALERT density of the liquid. Conversely, for any solid material to sink in a liquid, its density must be
higher than the density of the liquid. Based on the density values of the three different liquids,
Conversely: on the other this means that the density of the solid material is lower than 1100 kg/m3 and higher than
hand, in the opposite way 700 kg/m3.

44 Mass, Weight and Density

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 Chapter 3
Worked Example 3E
A physics teacher showed some students a simple experiment. She prepared some water,
glycerine and mercury in three small separate beakers. The teacher poured the water into a
measuring cylinder, followed by glycerine and then mercury. The students observed that the
three liquids did not mix but instead settled into three distinct layers in a certain order.
Table 3.4 shows the densities of the three liquids.
Table 3.4
Low res images
Liquid Density of liquid/(kg/m3)
Mercury 13 600
Glycerin 1260
Water 1000

Which of the following shows the correct

order of the three liquids starting from the
bottom of the measuring cylinder?
A Water, glycerine, mercury B Glycerine, water, mercury



C Mercury, glycerine, water D Mercury, water, glycerine



Explain your choice.
Solution
C. When any two liquids that do not mix are placed in the same container, the liquid with the
lower density will float on top of the liquid with the higher density. Based on the density values WORD ALERT
of the three immiscible liquids, mercury with the highest density will sink to the bottom of the
Immiscible: do not mix
measuring cylinder. Water with the lowest density will float to the top. Glycerine, with a density
when put together
lower than mercury and higher than water, will form the middle layer.

Let’s Practise 3.2

1 Define density and state its SI unit.
2 Given that the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, what is the mass of 1.0 cm3 of water in grams?
3 How would you measure the density of an irregularly shaped object that sinks in water? TWB LINK

4 The mass of a measuring cylinder is 60.0 g. When 30 cm3 of olive oil is poured into it, the Exercises 3B–3C,
total mass is 87.6 g. What is the density of olive oil in g/cm3? pp. XX-XX
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 3D Let's Reflect,
this section. p. XX

Mass, Weight and Density 45

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 Chapter 3

Let’s Map It

values may be
is defined as
MASS m
compared using
• Electronic balance A measure of the quantity
of matter in an object at
• Beam balance (SI unit: kg) rest relative to the observer

values may be
compared using is related to

is is
defined defined
A gravitational as as
force on an object
that has mass
WEIGHT W DENSITY ρ Mass per unit
volume
(SI unit: N) (SI unit: kg/m3)

can be ρ= m
W=m×g described v
as

where

The effect of a gravitational

field on a mass
Gravitational field Based on density data,
strength g is the we can determine
force per unit mass. • whether an object
floats;
• whether one
which is equivalent to liquid will float on
another liquid, given
the two liquids do
not mix.
Acceleration of
free fall g

˜°
46 Mass, Weight and Density

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 Chapter 3

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 3 (a) A boy made a model ship with a mass of 1.1 kg and


1 Which of the following statements is correct? a volume of 900 cm3. Will it float on water?
(Take the density of water to be 1000 kg/m3.)

A The mass of an object can be measured with
(b) A piece of gold has a mass of 10.0 g and a density of

a spring balance.

19.3 g/cm3.
B The weight of an object can be measured with
(i) What is the volume occupied by the piece

a beam balance.

of gold?
C The mass of an object does not change
(ii) When the piece of gold is placed in a beaker

with location.

of mercury of density 13 600 kg/m3, explain
D The weight of an object can never change.
whether it will float or sink?

2 A rock on the Moon has a mass of 0.5 kg. It is brought
4 Figure 3.11 shows a rectangular solid block of

to the Earth, where the gravitational field strength is

dimensions 20 cm by 10 cm by 15 cm. It has a cylindrical
stronger. On the Earth, the rock will have
hole bored at its centre.
A less mass and less weight.

B less mass and the same weight.

C the same mass and the same weight.

15 cm
D the same mass and more weight.

3 A measuring cylinder contains 20 cm3 of water. When

ten identical steel balls are immersed in the water, the 10 cm
water level rises to 50 cm3. If one ball has a mass of 27 g, 20 cm
what is the density of the steel in g/cm3? Figure 3.11
A 0.9

B 8.1 The mass of the block is 14.9 kg, and it is made of a


C 9.0 material that has a density of 5 g/cm3.

D 13.5 (a) What is the mass of the block in gram?


(b) What is the volume of the block before the
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions

cylindrical hole is bored at its centre?
1 Explain the following observations: (c) What is the cross-sectional area of the hole in cm2?


(a) The mass of a piece of rock, measured using a beam 5 Two liquids A and B are poured into a tall beaker


balance, is the same on the Earth and on the Moon. half-filled with water. It is observed that three distinct
(b) The weight of the same piece of rock, measured layers are formed with the water layer in between liquid

using a spring balance, is different on the Earth and A above it and liquid B below it.
on the Moon. (a) Is the density of liquid A greater than water?

2 A breakfast cereal packet carries the following label: (b) If the density of water is 1000 kg/m3, what can you


This package is sold by weight, not volume. Some settling deduce about the densities of liquid A and liquid B?
of the contents may have occurred during transport.
If settling occurs, what changes, if any, will occur to the

(a) mass of the contents;

(b) weight of the contents;

(c) volume of the contents;

(d) density of the contents?

Mass, Weight and Density 47

20 4:31 AM
03_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 47 10/17/2020 10:53:31 PM
 CHAPTER

4 Forces

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip what keeps a

kite flying in the air.

QUESTIONS

This man is getting ready to fly his wau bulan. Wau bulan is a type • A main force is responsible to enable the

wau bulan to fly. Where does this force

of kite traditionally flown in Kelantan, a state in Malaysia. The lower come from?
part of the kite is shaped like a crescent moon. That is how the kite • What other forces are acting on the kite
got its name — bulan means moon in Malay.

when it is flying in the air?

A typical wau bulan measures 2.5 m in width and 3.5 m in height. • A big wau bulan will not fly when the

wind is not strong enough. Why?

Its frame is made of bamboo. A large wau bulan can be very heavy
and would need several people to launch it into the sky. When
there is a strong wind, the wau bulan is lifted up. The forces acting
on it enable it to fly as high as 500 m in the air. To control the height
and path of the kite, a few people on the ground hold and pull the
string attached to it.

48

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 Chapter 4

4.1 Forces
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know the effects of forces.
•

Sketch, plot and interpret load–extension graphs and describe the associated

experimental procedures.
• Define spring constant.
F
•

Recall and use the equation k = x .

​​
• Define and use the term limit of proportionality, and identify this point on

a load–extension graph.

LINK

What are some effects of forces? Recall what you have

learnt in Chapter 2
You have learnt that gravitational force causes objects close to the Earth’s surface to fall with the about the acceleration
acceleration of free fall, g (about 9.8 m/s2). This is one effect of a force. Figure 4.1 shows some other of free fall, g.
effects of forces.

Effects of some forces

Change in size and shape

A force can change

the size and shape
A force can change
of dough.
Low res image the size and shape
of the rubber band
of a catapult

Low res image

Change in motion

A force can change

the direction of a A force can slow
moving shuttlecock. down or stop a
moving car.

LINK

Low res image Low res image You will learn more about
force and motion in
Section 4.2
Figure 4.1 Effects of some forces

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 Chapter 4
How can we study the effects of forces?
How much force is needed to cause an object to move? How much force can an object endure
before it breaks? To find out, we need to study the effects of forces.
A simple study can be done to find out the effects of different loads on an elastic solid. An elastic
solid is an object that changes in size and shape when a force is applied, and returns to its original
size and shape when the force is removed. Examples of elastic solids are rubber bands and springs.
WORD ALERT

Endure: withstand, Load–extension graph

cope with Figure 4.2 shows the effects of different loads on a spring. When a load is attached to the spring, the
Extends: stretches spring extends. We can calculate the extension of the spring by taking the difference between the
extended length and the original length.

4.0 cm

6.0 cm
A spring with no
load has a length of 8.0 cm
4.0 cm. This is the
original length of 3.0 N
the spring.
The spring with a 3.0 N The spring with a 6.0 N
load is extended to 6.0 cm. load is extended to 8.0 cm.
The extension of the The extension of the
6.0 N
spring is 6.0 − 4.0 = 2.0 cm.
​ ​ spring is 8.0 − 4.0 = 4.0 cm.
​ ​

Figure 4.2 The extension of the spring depends on the amount of force applied.

From Figure 4.2, the extension of the spring is doubled from 2.0 cm to 4.0 cm when the load is
doubled from 3.0 N to 6.0 N. The load, i.e. the force applied, is directly proportional to the extension.

Load F/N When the load is not too

heavy, the load–extension
graph shows a straight
line passing through the
origin (i.e. load is directly
HELPFUL NOTES proportional to extension).

The size of extension

of a spring when
pulled depends on Extension x/cm
the type of material it
Figure 4.3 A sketch of load–extension graph for an elastic solid
is made of. However,
the force applied is
always proportional to We can plot a load–extension graph (Figure 4.3) to show the relationship between the force and
the extension. the extension of an elastic solid. This relationship can help us determine the magnitude of an
unknown force on an elastic solid.

50 Forces

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 Chapter 4
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 4A
10A
Objective
To investigate the relationship between force and the extension of a spring
Materials
Metre rule, spring, standard 1 N loads, hanger, retort stand
Procedure
1 Set up the experiment as shown in Figure 4.4.

2 Measure the length l0 of the spring without any load, i.e. force F = 0 N. Position your eye

​​
​ 
​​​
correctly to avoid parallax error. Record this length using Table 4.1. LINK
3 Attach a 1 N load to the hanger on the spring. Measure the new length l of the spring and
Recall what you have

​
​
record this length for F = 1 N.
learnt in Chapter 1 about
4 By adding 1 N loads, measure and record the new lengths of the spring for F values of 2 N, how to avoid parallax error.

3 N, 4 N and 5 N.
5 After you have recorded the length of the spring for F = 5 N, remove a 1 N load. You now

have a 4 N force applied on the spring. The spring should return to the length you have
recorded for F = 4 N.
6 Remove another 1 N load so that F = 3 N, and check the length of the spring. Repeat this for

F equals 2 N, 1 N and 0 N.
7 Calculate the extension x = l − l0 for each row of Table 4.1.

​
 
 
 
 ​
​ 
​​​
8 Plot a graph of F/N (y-axis) against x/mm (x-axis).

​
​
metre rule retort stand

l0 HELPFUL NOTES
x
We can conduct similar
hanger
load experiments to obtain the
pointer load–extension graphs
for other elastic solids.
Instead of the spring, we

can use elastic bands or
Figure 4.4 Experimental set-up to investigate the extension of a spring
polythene strips.

Table 4.1
F/N 0 1 2 3 4 5

l/mm l0

x/mm 0

Discussion and conclusion

By using the data recorded in Table 4.1, we can plot the load–extension graph for the spring.
The graph will look similar to the one in Figure 4.3 on page 50.
The load–extension graph for the spring shows that the force applied is directly proportional to
the extension of the spring. PWB LINK
We can measure the extension of the spring when a load of unknown weight is attached to it,
Practical 4A, pp. XX–XX
and plot a graph. We can then use the graph to determine the unknown weight.

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 Chapter 4
Worked Example 4A
QUICK CHECK
A student measures the length of a spring. He then attaches Table 4.2
The load–extension different loads to the spring. He measures the length of the
Load F/N Length/cm
graph of spring A has a spring for each load. Table 4.2 shows his results.
0 16.0
steeper gradient than (a) Plot the load–extension graph.

that of spring B. Spring 1.0 18.0
(b) Deduce the relationship between force and extension
A is more elastic than

based on the graph. 2.0 20.0
spring B.
3.0 22.2
True or false? (c) The student attaches a load of unknown weight to the

spring and measures the length of the spring. The length 4.0 23.8
is found to be 21.0 cm. What is the weight of this load? 5.0 26.0

Solution
(a) To plot the load–extension graph, we need to calculate the extension for each load.

Table 4.3 shows the values obtained.

Table 4.3
Load F/N Extension x/cm
0 16.0 − 16.0 = 0
​
​
1.0 18.0 − 16.0 = 2.0
​
​
2.0 20.0 − 16.0 = 4.0
​
​
3.0 22.2 − 16.0 = 6.2
​
​
4.0 23.8 − 16.0 = 7.8
​
​
5.0 26.0 − 16.0 = 10.0
​
​
Figure 4.5 shows the graph of Load F/N against Extension x/cm.

Load F/N

5
4.5
4
3.5
3
weight 2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0 Extension
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 x/cm

Extension of
unknown weight

Figure 4.5

(b) The weight of the load is the force acting on the spring. The load–extension graph is a

straight line passing through the origin. This shows that force is directly proportional to
the extension for the spring.
(c) For the unknown weight, the extension x = 21.0 – 16.0 = 5.0 cm

From the graph, when the extension is 5.0 cm, the load is 2.5 N.

52 Forces

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 Chapter 4
Spring constant and limit of proportionality
Recall that the load–extension graph for a spring is a straight line with a positive gradient. This means
that for any point along the graph, the ratio of load F to extension x always gives the same value,
i.e. a constant. This constant is called the spring constant and is given by

k= F where k = spring constant

x

F = force

x = extension

The spring constant is defined as the force per unit extension.
The unit for k depends on the units for force F and extension x. When F is in N and x is in cm,
the unit for k is N/cm. Similarly, when F is in N and x is in mm, the unit for k is N/mm. Since the SI unit
for length is m, and force is N, the SI unit for the spring constant is newton per metre (N/m).
Refer to Worked Example 4A on page 52. What is the spring constant of the spring?
We can take any values of force F and extension x to calculate the spring constant.
So, for F = 5 N and x = 10 cm,
F 5
k = x = 10 = 0.5 N/cm
However, the force or load is proportional to the extension only when value of F is not too large.
There is a point beyond which the extension is no longer directly proportional to the load. This point ENRICHMENT
is called the limit of proportionality as shown in Figure 4.6. THINK
When a spring is
Load F/N stretched within its
limit of proportionality,
will it always return
to its original size and
shape? What happens
when it is stretched
beyond its limit
of proportionality?

limit of proportionality

Extension x/cm

Figure 4.6 Load–extension graph showing the limit of proportionality

Worked Example 4B WORD ALERT

Two girls want to weigh a watermelon, but they do not have a kitchen scale. So they use a Suspended: made to
spring and a 1 kg bag of sugar to measure. When suspended, the bag of sugar stretches the hang freely
spring by 50 mm, while the watermelon stretches the spring by 75 mm. Assuming that the
extension of the watermelon is within the limit of proportionality,
(a) calculate the spring constant of the spring;

(b) calculate the weight of the watermelon.

(Take g = 10 N/kg.)
Solution
Weight of 1 kg bag of sugar = 1 × 10 = 10 N
​
 
 
 
 
 
 ​
(a) Spring constant k = F = 10 N = 0.2 N/mm
x 50 mm

(b) Weight W = kx = 0.2 N/mm × 75 mm = 15 N

​
​
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 Chapter 4
Let’s Practise 4.1
1 A student measured the length of a spring which was found to be 25.0 cm. She then

attached an 8 N weight to the spring. She measured the new length, which was found to be
29.0 cm.
(a) Calculate the extension of the spring.

(b) The student decided to plot a load–extension graph for the spring. She repeated the

step above to obtain the extension of the spring for the following weights:
2 N, 4 N, 6 N and 10 N. Sketch a graph to show what her load–extension graph would
look like.
(c) Calculate the spring constant of the spring.


(d) Using your answer in (c), calculate the extension of the spring when the load is 14 N.


(e) The student decided to increase the weight on the spring up to 14 N.


Table 4.4 shows her results.

(i) Use the table to plot the load–extension graph.



(ii) Explain why the extension of the spring for F = 14 N was different from the


calculated value in (d).

Table 4.4

F/N 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 13 14

x/cm 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

LINK TWB
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
Exercise 4A, pp. XX–XX

this section.

4.2 Forces and Motion

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Determine the resultant force.
•

State the effects of a resultant force.
•

Know that an object either remains at rest or continues in a straight line at constant speed unless

acted on by a resultant force.
• Describe solid friction.
•

Know that friction acts on an object moving through a liquid or a gas.
•

Recall and use the equation F = ma and know that the force and the acceleration are in the

same direction.
• Describe, qualitatively, motion in a circular path due to a force perpendicular to the motion.

Low res image

54 Forces

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 Chapter 4
How can we determine the resultant force on
an object? LINK

Recall what you have

A force is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction. When more than one force acts on learnt in Chapter 1
an object, we need to consider the direction of each force in order to determine the resultant force.

 
about how to
Figure 4.7 shows how to determine the resultant force on a ball with two or more forces acting along add vectors.
the same straight line.

(a) 3N 5N (b) 2N (c) 12 N positive

ard direction

r w
positive fo HELPFUL NOTES
8N
direction
positive
8 N direction When determining the
resultant force for forces
Resultant force = 3 + 5 = 8 N Resultant force = 2 + 8 = 10 N Resultant force = 12 + 8 = 20 N acting in a straight line,
towards the right downwards in the forward direction remember to assign one
direction as positive. The
(d) 10 N 6N (e) (f) positive
opposite direction will
8N 11 N

direction

rd be negative. The sign of
positive 2 N wa
for the resultant force, after
direction 20 N
8N positive adding the forces, will tell
direction you the direction of the
Resultant force Resultant force Resultant force resultant force.
= 10 + 2 + (−6) = 6 N = 8 + (− 8) = 0 N = 11 + (−20) = −9 N

​
​
​
​
​
​
​
​
towards the left (Forces are balanced.) in the backward direction
Figure 4.7 Calculating the resultant force acting on a ball

How does a resultant force affect motion?

Imagine holding a ball in your hands. What happens when you throw the ball upwards? What is the
resultant force on the ball? It is the gravitational force acting downwards. This downward resultant
force causes all objects near the Earth to accelerate towards the Earth. It also changes the direction
of an object moving upwards so that it falls back downwards (Figure 4.8).
A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by changing its direction of motion or its speed.
What happens when the resultant force is zero?

Balanced forces
When the forces acting on an object are balanced, the resultant force acting on
the object is zero. The motion of the object with zero resultant force depends
on the initial state of the object.
• If an object is at rest, it will remain at rest (stationary) until it is acted on by a
•
resultant force.
• If an object is moving with zero resultant force, it will continue to move in a
•
straight line with constant speed until it is acted on by a resultant force.

Low res image

Figure 4.8 The ball falls back
downwards after being thrown
upwards due to the gravitational force
acting on it.

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 Chapter 4
Can an object move at constant speed in a straight line when the resultant force is zero? A trolley
must be constantly pushed or it will stop moving. This is because a force that opposes motion, is
PHYSICS WATCH always present between two moving surfaces. When the pushing force on the trolley is zero, this
opposing force becomes the new resultant force which stops the trolley.
Scan this page to
explore the effect
of resultant force
Unbalanced forces
on motion. A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by changing its direction of motion or its speed.
When the forces acting on an object are unbalanced, the resultant force acting on the object is
not zero. The resultant force causes the object to move in a different direction, or to accelerate
or decelerate.
HELPFUL NOTES
When a resultant force causes an object to move, the object will accelerate in the direction of
Do you notice that the resultant force.
N is equivalent to The resultant force F acting on an object of mass m is related to the acceleration of the object by
kg m/s2? In fact, this is the following equation:
the definition of the
newton: 1 N is the F = ma where F = force (in N)

resultant force acting m = mass (in kg)

on an object of 1 kg
mass when the object a = acceleration (in m/s2)

accelerates at 1 m/s2.

Worked Example 4C
Figure 4.9 shows the forces acting on an object at rest. The mass of the object is 20 kg.

10 N 50 N

Figure 4.9

(a) Calculate the resultant force on the object.

(b) What effect does this resultant force have on the object?

(c) What is the velocity of the object after 2 s?

Solution
(a) Let the right direction be positive.

Resultant force = 50 N + (−10 N) = 40 N towards the right

​
​
(b) The resultant force changes the velocity of the object. It causes the object to accelerate.

40
(c) Using F = ma, a = = 2 m/s2 towards the right
20

Since a = change in velocity = v − 0
time taken 2

​​
The velocity v of the object after 2 s = 2 × a = 2 × 2 = 4 m/s towards the right.

​
 ​
​
 ​
56 Forces

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 Chapter 4
What are the effects of friction?
WORD ALERT
Friction is a force that impedes motion.
Solid friction is the type of friction that occurs when two solid surfaces are in contact with or slide Impedes: slows down or
against each other. In Figure 4.10, we see that a force greater than the friction must be applied so that prevents something
there is a non-zero resultant force to make the object move. The object will stop if we remove the Resistive: opposing,
applied force. acting against
push F book F
friction friction
friction

1 To make the book move 2 Once the book is moving, 3 When we stop applying a



across the table, we apply a we apply a force of the same force, the resultant force is
force that is greater than the magnitude as the friction only the friction, towards
friction between the table such that the resultant force the left. As the direction
and the book. The resultant is zero. of the resultant force is
force towards the right opposite to the motion
makes the book move in the of the book, the book
same direction. stops moving.

Figure 4.10 Friction acts in the opposite direction to motion

Friction between two moving surfaces produces heating. For example, our hands feel warm when we
rub them together. PHYSICS WATCH
Friction does not only oppose motion between solid surfaces. Objects moving through a liquid or
a gas experience friction too. A swimmer is slowed by friction between the water and her body. Scan this page to watch a
A car moving on a road, or an aeroplane flying in the air experiences air resistance, which opposes clip on the forces acting
on a skydiver.
the motion of the vehicle.
Friction is a resistive force because it acts in the opposite direction to motion.
In liquids and gases, friction is usually called drag (Figure 4.11).

Drag

In liquids In air

• A ball bearing falls more slowly in oil than in air

• The parachutist slows down when

or in water as there is more drag acting on the she opens the parachute as there
ball bearing falling in oil. is air resistance opposing her
QUICK CHECK
downward motion.
An object cannot move
oil water when the resultant force
acting on it is zero.
True or false?
ball
bearing ball
bearing

Figure 4.11 Motion through a liquid or a gas will experience drag.

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 Chapter 4
How does a force cause an object to move in
a circular path?
An object moving in a circular path with a constant (2)
velocity velocity
speed is shown in Figure 4.12. An object in a circular
path has the following properties:
• The direction of its velocity is changing all the time.
•
• A non-zero resultant force acts on it to keep
•
force
the object in a circular path.
force
• The direction of the force changes as (3) (1)
force
•
the object moves.
• The force is perpendicular to the motion of
•
the object. force
Figure 4.12 shows the directions of the velocity and
velocity velocity
force when the object is at positions (1), (2), (3) and (4).
WORD ALERT At each position, the perpendicular force pulls the (4)
moving object towards the centre of the circle. Figure 4.12 Motion in a circular path is due to
Perpendicular: at a 90° a force perpendicular to the motion.
angle to a given line,
plane or surface
Force and circular motion
The magnitude of the force required to keep an object moving in a circular path depends on three
quantities — mass of the object, speed of the object and the radius of the circular path. Table 4.5
shows how force is related to these three quantities for an object moving in a circle.

Table 4.5 Force, mass, speed and radius of circular path for an object in circular motion
Constant mass and speed Constant mass and radius Constant speed and radius

velocity
velocity v v
A
force FA A A
B force FA force FA
B
force
velocity force FB>FA FB>FA force
v velocity velocity FB>FA
vA velocity v
B vB>vA

Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 4.15

Figure 4.13 shows the forces on two Figure 4.14 shows two objects with In Figure 4.15, the mass of object B
objects of the same mass and moving the same mass and moving in the is greater than that of object A. For
with the same speed. The force on same circular path. object B to move at the same speed
object B is greater. As a result, the The force on object B is greater. As a as object A and in the same circle,
radius of the circular path for object B result, the speed of object B is greater the force on object B must be greater
is smaller. than the speed of object A. than that on object A.

With mass and speed of the With mass of the object and radius To keep speed of the object and
object constant, the radius of of circular path constant, the radius of circular path constant,
the circular path decreases if the speed of the object increases if an increased mass of the object
force increases. the force increases. requires an increased force.

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 Chapter 4
Let’s Practise 4.2
1 Read each of the following descriptions carefully. State if it is true or false. Correct any

description which is false.
(a) The resultant force on a moving object is zero. The object stops moving.


(b) The resultant force on an object is zero. The object remains at rest.


(c) An object is moving to the right. A resultant force towards the right acts on it.


The object slows down.
(d) An object is moving downwards. An upward force with magnitude equals to the


weight of the object acts on the object. The resultant force is zero and the object falls at
constant speed.
(e) Friction acts in the direction opposite to the motion of an object.


(f) Friction can cause heating.


(g) There is no friction in liquids or gases.


(h) Acceleration = force × mass


​
​
(i) A resultant force on a moving object is perpendicular to its velocity. This force has


no effect on the motion of the object.
(j) An object is moving in a circular path. The resultant force on the object increases.


If the object continues moving at the same speed, it must continue to move with
TWB LINK
a smaller radius.
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 4B, pp. XX–XX

this section.

4.3 Turning Effect of Forces

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the moment of a force and give everyday examples.
•

Define the moment of a force as moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot;

​
 ​
recall and use this equation.
• Apply the principle of moments to situations with one force on each side of the pivot.
•

Apply the principle of moments to other situations, including those with more than one force on

each side of the pivot.
• State that, when there is no resultant force and no resultant moment, an object is in equilibrium.
•

Describe an experiment to demonstrate that there is no resultant moment on an object

in equilibrium.

What is the moment of a force?

It’s easy to open
A force acting on an object can cause the It’s harder to open
the door when the
the door when the
object to turn. This effect is known as the turning effect is large.
turning effect is small.
turning effect of a force. An example of this
can be seen when we open a door. We apply
a force to swing the door about its hinge
(Figure 4.16).
The turning effect can be large or small. How
can we measure the turning effect of a force?

Figure 4.16 Turning effect depends on where the force

is applied

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 Chapter 4
The turning effect is measured by a physical quantity known as moment of a force.
In Figure 4.17, we observe that objects turn about a fixed location, called the pivot.

pivot
force
force

pivot

force pivot

Tightening a bolt Turning a steering wheel Opening a bottle cap

Figure 4.17 Using the turning effect of a force in our daily lives

To produce a turning effect, the force applied must be at a distance from the pivot.
If the force is applied at the pivot, there is no turning effect. This would be like trying to open a door
by pushing at the hinge — the door would not open.
­
Figure 4.18 shows a simplified diagram of a line of action
door being pulled. The hinge is the pivot and of the force
the force F applied is shown by an arrow. clockwise
Distance d is the perpendicular distance from d
moment about
the pivot to the line of action of the force. door the pivot
hinge
Moment of a force is defined as the (pivot) F
product of the force and the perpendicular
distance from the pivot. Figure 4.18 Simplified diagram of a door being pulled

Its SI unit is newton metre (N m).

Moment of a force = F × d
​
 
 
 
 
​
where F = force (in N)

d = perpendicular distance from the pivot (in m)

F
Moment of a force is a vector quantity. anticlockwise
Its direction can be clockwise (Figure 4.18) or d
moment about
anti-clockwise (Figure 4.19). door the pivot
hinge
If the force applied is 5 N and the (pivot)
perpendicular distance is 0.3 m, the moment
of a force Figure 4.19 Simplified diagram of a door being pushed
• in Figure 4.18 = 5 × 0.3 = 1.5 N m clockwise;
•
​
​
• in Figure 4.19 = 5 × 0.3 = 1.5 N m anticlockwise.
•
​
​
Worked Example 4D
The minimum moment to open a door is 20.5 N m. The door must be opened with a force of
50 N at the handle. Calculate the minimum distance of the handle from the hinge.
Solution
Given: Moment = 20.5 N m , minimum force F = 50 N
Moment = Fd
∴ d = moment = 20.5 N m = 0.41 m
F 50 N
​
​
The handle should be at least 0.41 m away from the hinge.

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 Chapter 4
What is the principle of moment?
Figure 4.20 shows two forces FL and FR acting on a steering
wheel. The pivot is at the centre
FL FR
of the wheel. What is the resultant moment?
The moments are both in the anticlockwise direction. 4N 4N
Moment of FL = 4 N × 12 cm = 48 N cm FL F
​ ​

12 cm 12Rcm
Moment of FR = 4 N × 12 cm = 48 N cm
​ ​

4N 4N
We can find the resultant moment by adding the
moments together.
12 cm 4.20 Two forces on a steering12 cm
Figure
Resultant moment = 48 N cm + 48 N cm = 96 N cm ​ ​

wheel acting in opposite directions

The wheel turns in the anti-clockwise direction.
FL FR
Suppose the force FR is reversed so that it is in the same
4N 4N
direction as FL (Figure 4.21). What effect does the reversing WORD ALERT
of force have on the resultant moment? F F
12 cmL 12Rcm Reversed: made to go in
Now, the moments are both in opposite directions.
4N 4N the opposite way
Moment of FL = 48 N cm anticlockwise
Moment of FR = 48 N cm clockwise 12 cm 12 cm
Take the anti-clockwise direction to be positive.
Resultant moment = 48 N cm + (−48) N cm = 0 N cm ​ ​ ​ ​

There is no resultant moment. The wheel does not turn. Figure 4.21 Two forces on a steering
wheel acting in the same direction
When the total clockwise moment is equal to the total
anticlockwise moment, there is no resultant turning effect
about a pivot. This is the principle of moments.

Worked Example 4E 0.3 m 0.9 m

A man holds a stiff fishing rod with two hands.
A 30 N fish hangs at one end. Figure 4.22
shows the positions of the man’s hands and
pivot
the fish on the rod, with the right hand as the
pivot and the left hand applying a force F. The F 30 N
rod is horizontal, stationary and very light, QUICK CHECK
Figure 4.22
such that the effect of its weight is negligible.
When calculating
Calculate the force F.
moments, we can assign
Solution the clockwise direction
Clockwise moment of the fish’s weight = 30 N × 0.9 m = 27 N m ​                   ​
as positive.
True or false?
Anticlockwise moment of F = F × 0.3 m = 0.3 F N m
​                     ​

Using the principle of moments,

(0.3 m)F = 27 N m
​​   ​         ​

F = 27 N m = 90 N
0.3 m

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 Chapter 4
Worked Example 4F
Figure 4.23 shows a similar diagram as 0.3 m 0.9 m
Figure 4.22 in Worked Example 4E. This time,

 
consider the pivot to be at the left hand and
the force F applied using the right hand.
Calculate the force F.
F
Solution 30 N
Perpendicular distance of the fish from
Figure 4.23
the pivot = 0.9 m + 0.3 m = 1.2 m
Clockwise moment of the fish’s weight
= 30 N × 1.2 m = 36 N m
​
​
Anticlockwise moment of F = F × 0.3 m = 0.3 F N m

​
​
  
Using the principle of moments,
(0.3 m)F = 36 N m
​
 
​
 
 
F = 36 N m = 120 N
0.3 m

 
Worked Example 4G
Figure 4.24 shows a hand winch. Figure 4.25 shows a simplified diagram of the hand winch.
The hand winch is used to move a load of 3000 N. Calculate the minimum force required to turn
the drum.

force handle force F

2m
load
3000 N 2m
0.1 m

load L
drum axis of drum = 3000 N
0.1 m
(not drawn to scale)
pivot
Figure 4.24 Figure 4.25
Solution
Clockwise moment of load L about the pivot = 3000 N × 0.1 m = 300 N m
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Anticlockwise moment of force F about the pivot = F × 2 m = 2F N m
 
 
 
 
 
 
Taking anticlockwise direction to be positive, resultant moment = (2F − 300) N m
 ​
 
 
​ 
 
To turn the drum, resultant moment > 0.
(2 m)F − (300 N m) > 0
​
​​
 
​
​​
 
 ​
​​
 
 
​
​​
F > 300 N m > 150 N
2m

 
The minimum force required to turn the drum is 150 N.

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 Chapter 4
What happens when an object is in equilibrium?
When there is no resultant force, an object either remains at rest or moves at a constant PHYSICS WATCH
speed along the same straight line.
Scan this page to explore
When there is no resultant moment, the total anti-clockwise moments equal the total the principle of moments.
clockwise moments, and the object does not turn.
When there is no resultant force and no resultant moment, an object is in equilibrium.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 4B
10A
Objective
To demonstrate that there is no resultant moment on an object in equilibrium
Materials
Metre rule, optical pin, retort stand, 50 g and 100 g masses, split cork, plasticine, thread
Procedure
1 Set up the experiment as shown

in Figure 4.26.
d1 d2
2 Balance the metre rule at the
metre rule

50 cm mark using an optical pin
as shown.
optical
3 Check that the metre rule can pin

rotate freely about the pin in 50 g 100 g
both directions.
4 Balance the metre rule about the

pivot by fixing some plasticine to
the end that tends to move up.
The attached plasticine remains a
part of the metre rule for the rest Figure 4.26
of the experiment.
5 Using a loop of thread, hang mass m1 = 50 g on one side of the rule at a distance

d1 = 45.0 cm from the pivot.
6 Balance the rule horizontally by hanging mass m2 = 100 g on the other side. Measure and

record the distance d2 from the mass m2 to the pivot (Figure 4.26) in Table 4.6.
7 Repeat steps 5 and 6, using 40.0 cm, 35.0 cm, 30.0 cm, and 25.0 cm for d1.

8 Calculate the anticlockwise moment, clockwise moment and resultant moment at each

distance. Remember that the force exerted by m1 is about 0.5 N and that exerted by m2 is
about 1 N.

Table 4.6

Anticlockwise Clockwise Resultant
d1/cm d2/cm
moment/N cm moment/N cm moment/N cm

45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
25.0

PWB LINK
Observation and conclusion
From Table 4.6, we observe that whenever the anticlockwise moment is equal to the clockwise Practical 4B, pp. XX–XX
moment, the resultant moment is zero. The metre rule does not turn and stays in equilibrium.

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 Chapter 4
Let’s Practise 4.3
1 Write the word equation for moment of a force.

2 What are the conditions for an object to be in equilibrium?

3 A uniform metre rule is balanced at its midpoint as shown in Figure 4.27.

0 cm 20 cm 50 cm R 100 cm
d1 d2
pivot

10.0 N
8.0 N
Figure 4.27

(a) Calculate distance d1.

(b) Calculate the moment of 10.0 N weight.


(c) The ruler is in equilibrium. Find the position R.


4 Figure 4.28 shows the forces on a pole AB lying horizontally on the ground.

Calculate the minimum vertical force F, needed to lift the pole.

10.0 m
F
4.0 m

A B

800 N
LINK TWB Figure 4.28
Exercise 4C, pp. XX–XX
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

4.4 Centre of Gravity

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State what is meant by centre of gravity.
•

Describe an experiment to determine the position of the centre of gravity of an irregularly-shaped

plane lamina.
• Describe qualitatively the effect of the position of the centre of gravity on the stability of

simple objects.

What is centre of gravity?

At which point can you balance a uniform metre rule on the tip of your finger?
WORD ALERT
If you place your finger at the 30 cm mark or the 60 cm mark, the metre rule will topple. Gravitational
force causes the metre rule to turn and fall.
Topple: to lose balance
and fall down What happens if you place your finger at the 50 cm mark?

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 Chapter 4
When your finger is at the 50 cm mark, the metre rule balances perfectly (Figure 4.29). Why is this so?

Figure 4.29 Balancing a metre rule on the tip of a finger

Gravitational forces pull at every part of an

object. The resultant gravitational force on
support force
the object is its weight. It acts through a point ruler
known as the centre of gravity.
The centre of gravity of an object is the point
through which the weight of the object acts. centre of
gravity pivot (finger)
When the object is balanced at its centre of
weight
gravity, the object does not turn because there
is no resultant moment of its weight. The object perpendicular distance from pivot = 0
does not move because the support exerts an moment of weight = 0
upward force to balance its weight (Figure 4.30). Figure 4.30 Forces acting on the metre rule
The object is said to be in equilibrium.
The centre of gravity of the metre rule is at the 50 cm mark. Thus, you can balance the rule on your
finger tip at the 50 cm mark.

How to locate the centre of gravity of an object

For an object of regular shape and uniform density, the centre of gravity is at its geometrical centre. ENRICHMENT
Examples of regular shapes are rectangles, triangles, circles, cuboids, spheres and rings. The centre of THINK
gravity of an object may also lie outside the object. A ring is an example of such an object (Figure 4.31). Other than a ring,
can you think of one
ring other object where the
centre of gravity lies
outside the object?

WORD ALERT
Figure 4.31 The blue dots represent the centre of gravity of regularly-shaped objects
Lamina: a piece of a
To locate the centre of gravity of an irregularly-shaped plane lamina, material that is thin
we can use a plumb line. and flat
pin
To make a plumb line, attach a weight (e.g. a pendulum bob) to one
end of a long string. Then hang the plumb line from a pin and let it string
move freely about the pin. When the plumb line is perfectly still, QUICK CHECK
F and W balance each other out such that the resultant force and the
The centre of gravity of
resultant moment are both zero (Figure 4.32). The string is on the same
F an object can lie outside
straight line that passes through the centre of gravity of the weight.
weight the object.
centre of gravity True or false?

Figure 4.32 Forces acting on

a plumb line

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 Chapter 4
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 4C
10A
Objective
To locate the centre of gravity of an irregularly-shaped plane lamina using a plumb line
Materials
irregularly-shaped lamina, plumb line with a pendulum bob, retort stand, split cork, pin
Procedure
1 Make three small holes near the edge of the lamina. The holes should be as far apart as

possible from one another. The holes must be small so that not too much of the lamina is
removed. An example is given for reference (Figure 4.33).

retort stand split cork

irregularly-shaped
lamina
pin

plumb line

pendulum bob

Figure 4.33

2 Hang the lamina freely from a pin on one of the holes.

3 Hang a plumb line from the pin in front of the lamina.

4 When the plumb line is steady, draw dotted lines on the lamina to trace

the plumb line.
LINK 5 Repeat steps 2 to 4 for the other two holes.
PWB

Conclusion
Practical 4C, pp. XX–XX
The point of intersection of the three lines is the position of the centre of gravity.

Worked Example 4H
A student wants to measure the weight of a uniform 0 50 70 80 100
metre rule. She hangs a weight of 2.5 N at the 80 cm
mark. Then she adjusts the position of the ruler on a pivot
until it balances perfectly as shown in Figure 4.34. What is
the weight of the ruler? (Note: The centre of gravity of a
uniform metre rule is at the 50 cm mark.) W 2.5 N
Solution Figure 4.34
Perpendicular distance from pivot for 2.5 N force
= 80 − 70 = 10 cm
 
 
 
 
Clockwise moment of 2.5 N force = 2.5 × 10 = 25 N cm
 
 
 
Perpendicular distance from pivot for the weight of ruler = 70 − 50 = 20 cm
 
 
 
 
Anticlockwise moment of W = W × 20 = 20W N cm
 
 
 
Using the principle of moments, 20W = 25
25
W = = 1.25 N
20

 
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 Chapter 4
How does the centre of gravity affect the stability of
an object?
Consider a book with six faces — two broad and four narrow. Suppose we make it stand upright on
one of its narrow faces (Figure 4.35(a)). If we give it a slight push, the book will topple (Figure 4.35(b)).
The book is unstable.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 4.35 A book standing on one of its narrow surfaces is unstable, but the same book lying flat on its broad surface
is stable.

However, if we lay the book flat on one of the broad faces and give it a slight push, the book will not
topple (Figure 4.35(c)). It is stable.
The weight of an object acting through its centre of gravity causes it to topple when the resultant
moment is not zero. Table 4.7 shows how we can try to balance a paper cone in three ways. The
two forces acting on the cone are its weight W and the contact force R. Notice that the paper cone
topples more easily in certain situations.

Table 4.7 Types of equilibrium

Stable
Stable
Stableequilibrium
equilibrium
equilibrium Unstable
Unstable
Unstableequilibrium
equilibrium
equilibrium Neutral
Neutral
Neutralequilibrium
equilibrium
equilibrium

Before
Beforebeing
being After
Afterbeing
being Before
Beforebeing
being After
Afterbeing
being Before
Beforebeing
being After
Afterbeing
being
tilted
tilted tilted
tilted tilted
tilted tilted
tilted displaced
displaced displaced
displaced

W
W W
W W
W W
W
CC CC CC W
W W
W
line
lineof
of line
lineof
of CC
action
action RR RR RR action
action RR RR
RR
ofW
of W of W
of W
If the cone is slightly tilted, If the cone is slightly tilted, If the cone is slightly displaced,
• its centre of gravity rises before returning to • its centre of gravity drops; • its centre of gravity remains at the






its original height; • the line of action through its weight W lies same height;


• the line of action through its weight W still outside its base; • the lines of action through its weight W and




lies within its base; • the moment of its weight about the contact contact force R coincide;


• the moment of its weight about the contact point C causes the cone to topple. • the moment of its weight about the contact




point C causes the cone to return to its point C is zero; it stays in the position to
original position. which it is displaced.

From Table 4.7, we can conclude that the stability of an object depends on the location of its centre
WORD ALERT
of gravity and the width of its base.
Displaced: shifted,
moved from its
original place

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 Chapter 4
To increase the stability of an object,
• its centre of gravity should be kept as low as possible (i.e. more mass packed at its bottom);
•

ENRICHMENT • its base area should be kept as wide as possible.

•

INFO
Many objects in our daily lives are designed to increase their stability. Racing cars, Bunsen burners,
Defying Gravity table lamps and standing fans have large and heavy bases to lower their centre of gravity. Look
around you. What other examples can you give?
Low res image
Worked Example 4I
Figure 4.36 shows the rest position and the displaced position of a balancing toy. Its centre
of gravity is indicated by the letter G. Explain briefly why the toy eventually returns to its rest
position after being released from its displaced position.

(a) Rest position (b) Displaced position

Figure 4.38 Kyaiktoyo

pagoda or Golden Rock
The Kyaiktoyo pagoda G
weighted
in Myanmar is a sacred
toy
site for Buddhists. It
sits on top of a huge Figure 4.36
heavy rock resting
at the edge of a cliff. Solution
Many worshippers The centre of gravity is the point through which
meditate underneath the weight of an object acts. When the toy is at rest,
the rock, perhaps its centre of gravity G is directly below the pivot G
hoping to be in a state (i.e. its beak).
of equilibrium just like
the rock. How does When the toy is displaced, G is moved upwards and pivot
this rock stay put? The to the right (Figure 4.37). Its weight now has a turning
answer could be its effect about the pivot. The moment of the weight about
weight
centre of gravity. the pivot causes the toy to rotate clockwise towards its
rest position. Figure 4.37

ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Make your own
balancing toy using
Let’s Practise 4.4
suitable materials such
1 (a) What is the centre of gravity of an object?
as sticks, modelling

clay, paper clips, cork, (b) Is the centre of gravity of an object the same whether it is near the surface of the Earth

cardboard, etc. or the Moon? Explain.

What principles 2 (a) How does the position of the centre of gravity affect the stability of an object?

have you used in

(b) A minibus is travelling on the road carrying heavy loads on its roof rack. There are no
order to make your

passengers inside the minibus. When turning a corner, the driver drives very slowly.
toy balance?
Explain why.
Compare your
toy with those of 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
your classmates. this section.

LINK TWB

Exercises 4D–4E,
pp. XX–XX
Exercise 4F Let's Reflect,
p. XX

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 Chapter 4

Let’s Map It
FORCES F
cause produce
(SI unit: N)

affect

Turning effect known

Objects to change in
Motion as moment of a force
size and/or shape
(Sl unit: N m)

such as described by defined as

Resulant force F (N) = Moment (N m) = force (N)

A spring
mass (kg) × accelleration (m/s) × perpendicular distance
of the force from the pivot
whose spring applies to
constant k is a can be
ratio given by

k = Fx Balanced forces Unbalanced forces

where (Resultant F = O N) (Resultant F ≠ O N)
Anticlockwise Clockwise
F = load
x = extension for an object for an object

represented for an object in

using Moving at a Moving in equilibrium
At rest constant velocity a circle

Load-extension graph within Principle of moments

the limit of proportionality Sum of clockwise moments =
sum of anticlockwise moments
Accelerating due Decelerating due
to a push or pull to friction or drag which relate to

Stability of an object

affected by its

Base area Centre of gravity

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 Chapter 4

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 6 Which statement describes an object in equilibrium?

1 What quantities of an object can a force change? A The resultant force is zero.

A Mass and length B The resultant moment is zero.

B Speed and length C The resultant force and resultant moment are zero.

C Speed and weight D There is no force acting on the object.

D Weight and mass 7 A boy is planning to design a water bottle. Which

2 A feather is floating downwards at constant speed. procedure should he follow to design the most stable
water bottle?

What is the resultant force on the feather?
A Air resistance A Make the centre of gravity high and the base

area large.

B Gravitational force
B Make the centre of gravity high and the base

C Pointing downwards

area small.

D Zero
C Make the centre of gravity low and the base

3 A resultant force of 4 N causes an object to accelerate

area large.

at 2 m/s2. What force is needed to make the same
D Make the centre of gravity low and the base
object accelerate at 3 m/s2?

area small.
A 2N


B 4N Section B: Short-answer and

C 6N Structured Questions


D 8N 1 Figure 4.39 shows the forces acting on a toy boat.


4 Figure 4.38 shows a car moving in a circular path. In

which direction is the resultant force acting on the car? resistive forward
forces = 45 N thrust = 50 N
B
C
water

Figure 4.39

(a) Calculate the resultant force on the boat.

(b) Some time later, the boat moves at constant speed.

A What is the resistive forces acting on the boat?
D 2 (a) What is the unit of the moment of a force?


(b) A girl and her brother are sitting on a see-saw.

The girl weighs 500 N. Her brother weighs 700 N.
 
Figure 4.40 shows their positions on the see-saw.
Brother
Girl 700 N
500 N
Figure 4.38

5 Which of the following is the SI unit for moment of 3.5 m

a force?
A kg

B kg m

C N

D Nm
d

Figure 4.40

70 Forces

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 Chapter 4

Let’s Review
(i) The see-saw is in equilibrium. State how the 4 Figure 4.42 shows a uniform 1 m plank XY weighing



see-saw can be in equilibrium. 200 N hinged to a wall at X. A 500 N force acts
(ii) Calculate how far from the pivot should the downwards on the plank 20 cm from X. The plank is


brother should be sitting. held horizontally by a force F acting upwards from Y.
3 Figure 4.41 shows a load of 3000 N balanced by a Using X as pivot, calculate the magnitude of force F.

concrete block of weight W, on the arm of a crane.
The concrete block can be moved along the arm.
F
arm of 4m 10 m 1m
a crane
50 cm 20 cm
concrete
block pivot
Y X
W
200 N 500 N
Figure 4.41

(a) What is the moment of the load? Figure 4.42

(b) Using the principle of moments, calculate the

weight W of the concrete block.
(c) The load is replaced by a new load weighing 1800

N. What is the new distance of W from the pivot
when the arm is balanced?

Forces 71

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 CHAPTER

5 Momentum

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on the impact

of a collision.

QUESTIONS
Trains are an important means of transport in many parts of the
world. In India alone, more than 20 million people board trains • Name two physical quantities of the
to move from one place to another every day. However, we hear train that will affect the impact of
of train accidents happening now and then. When fast-moving a collision.
trains or trains carrying heavy loads collide, it poses a great • State how each of the two physical
quantities affects the impact of
danger to human lives and causes great damage. Engineers have a collision.
been conducting case studies to find ways to increase safety for
passengers and reduce damage. In some studies, trains were
purposely crashed into concrete walls — without passengers, of
course! This was done to investigate the impact upon collision.

72

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 Chapter 5

5.1 What Is Momentum?

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define momentum as mass × velocity.
•

​
 
 
​
Recall and use the equation p = mv.

​
​
An object has momentum when it is in motion.
A fast-moving object has more momentum than a slower-moving object of the same mass
(Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Two identical arrows move towards a target at different speeds. Which of the two arrows has
more momentum?

A massive moving object has more

momentum than a lighter moving object
of the same velocity (Figure 5.2).

Mass and velocity are two physical

quantities that determine the
momentum of an object. LINK
Momentum is defined as the product of
Is mass a vector or a
mass and velocity.
scalar quantity? What
Its SI unit is kilogram metre per about velocity?
second (kg m/s). Figure 5.2 An elephant and a dog are moving at the same velocity Recall what you have
to chase the hunter. Which animal has more momentum? learnt in Chapter 1.
Momentum = mass × velocity
 
p = mv where p = momentum m

  

m = mass v

v = velocity

Momentum is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude and direction.

mass m mass m
velocity –v1 velocity v1
momentum –p1 momentum p1 QUICK CHECK

The momentum of
an object can have
Figure 5.3 The trains have different momentums as the trains are travelling in different directions. a negative value.
True or false?

Momentum 73

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 Chapter 5
Worked Example 5A
HELPFUL NOTES
Calculate is the momentum of
To calculate momentum (a) a runner of mass 50 kg running at 4 m/s;

in its SI unit (kg m/s), the (b) a man of mass 70 kg walking at 1.2 m/s;
unit for mass (m) should

be kilogram (kg) and (c) a soccer ball of mass 400 g (0.4 kg) moving at 25 m/s;

​
​
​​​
the unit for velocity (v) (d) a car of total mass 1000 kg travelling at 18 km/h (5 m/s).

​
​​
​
​​
should be metre per
second (m/s).
Solution
By definition, momentum = mass × velocity
(a) momentum of the runner = 50 kg × 4 m/s = 200 kg m/s

(b) momentum of the man = 70 kg × 1.2 m/s = 84 kg m/s

(c) momentum of the soccer ball = 0.4 kg × 25 m/s = 10 kg m/s

(d) momentum of the car = 1000 kg × 5 m/s = 5000 kg m/s

Worked Example 5B
(a) What is the speed of a bus with mass 8000 kg and momentum of 88 000 kg m/s?

(b) A car travelling at 12 m/s has a momentum of 14 400 kg m/s. Calculate its mass.

Solution
(a) Given: Mass m = 8000 kg

Momentum p = 88 000 kg m/s

By definition, p = mv

p 88 000 kg m/s
v=_ m=
___________ = 11 m/s
 
 
 
8 000 kg

 
 ​
 
​​
 
 
  
​​
 
 
(b) Given: Momentum, p = 14 400 kg m/s

Velocity, v = 12 m/s

By definition, p = mv

p 14 400 kg m/s
m = _ = ___________ = 1200 kg
 
 
 
v 12 m/s

​​
 ​​
 
 
​​
 
 
​​
 
 
Let’s Practise 5.1
1 Fill in the correct physical quantities in the word equation:

momentum = _______________ × _______________

2 What is the SI unit of momentum?

3 Is momentum a scalar or a vector quantity?

LINK TWB
4 Calculate the momentum of a ball of mass 0.4 kg moving at 12 m/s.

​
​
​
​
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
Exercise 5A, pp. XX–XX

this section.

74 Momentum

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 Chapter 5

5.2 Momentum, Impulse and Force

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define impulse as force × time for which force acts.
• Recall and use the equation F Δ t = Δ(mv).
• Define resultant force as the change in momentum per unit time.
Δp
• Recall and use the equation F = __ .
Δt

How is impulse related to change in momentum?

Mass and velocity are physical quantities associated with momentum. Besides these two quantities,
what other physical quantities do you associate with momentum? Do you think of force and time?
Figure 5.4 shows a book being pushed across a table with force F for a period of time Δt.

push F book push F

friction friction

table

HELPFUL NOTES

Force is a derived
Initial state Final state quantity, where
Figure 5.4 Pushing a book across a table top F = ma. The unit of
force (newton, N) can
be written as kg m/s2.
During this period of time Δt when force F acts,
the velocity of the book changes. Therefore, its Thus, the unit of
momentum changes. We can write the change in F Δ t = kg m/s2 x s
= kg m/s.
momentum
as Δ(mv). The SI unit for impulse
(N s) is equivalent to
The change in momentum can be shown to be the SI unit for
equal to the product of the force and the period of momentum (kg m/s).
time for which the force acts.
F Δ t = Δ(mv) or F Δ t = Δp
Impulse is the product of force and the period of
time for which force acts.
Its SI unit is newton second (N s).
Impulse = force × time = F Δ t
The force applied to an object may not be constant WORD ALERT
throughout the motion of the object. The force F
in the equation in such a situation is the average Constant: stay the same
resultant force acting for a period of time Δt.

Figure 5.5 The force on the ball by the batter may not
be constant from the moment the bat touches the ball
to the moment the ball leaves the bat.

Momentum 75

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 Chapter 5
Worked Example 5C
HELPFUL NOTES 5 m/s
Figure 5.6 shows a boy kicking a stationary ball of mass
Momentum and impulse 0.4 kg with an average force of 100 N. The ball moved at 5 m/s
100 N
are useful concepts for immediately afterwards. Calculate
analysing collisions or (a) the impulse of the force exerted on the ball; 0.4 kg
interactions between Figure 5.6
(b) the time of contact between his boot and the ball.
two objects.
Solution
Given: F = 100 N, m = 0.4 kg, v1 = 0 m/s, v2 = 10 m/s
(a) Impulse = change in momentum = Δ(mv)
= (0.4 kg × 5 m/s) − (0.4 kg × 0 m/s)
= 2 kg m/s = 2 N s
Δ ( mv ) 2 N s = 0.02 s
(b) Using F Δ t = Δ(mv), Δt = _____ = _____
F 100 N
The time of contact between his boot and the ball is 0.02 s.

How is resultant force related to change

HELPFUL NOTES

Δp
in momentum?
F = __ is the same as
Δt We have learnt that the impulse of a resultant force equals the change in momentum of the object,
F = ma for special cases i.e., F Δ t = Δp.
when the mass of the
object does not change. Change in momentum, Δp = F Δ t
Δp
∴ F = ___
Δt
Resultant force F on an object is the change in momentum per unit time.

The three quantities momentum, impulse and resultant force are all related as shown in Table 5.1.
ENRICHMENT
INFO
Table 5.1 A summary of momentum, impulse and resultant force
Symbol for Momentum
Have you Physical quantity Symbol Defining equation SI unit
wondered why the
symbol used for Momentum p p = mv kg m/s
momentum is p?
Impulse – Impulse = F Δ t Ns
The symbol p is
likely to be derived Resultant force F Δp N
F=
from the Latin word Δt
petere, which means
“to go”. The symbol The quantities momentum, impulse and force are vector quantities. When these quantities are used
m is not used even in calculations, their directions are indicated as ‘+’ and ‘–‘ signs. To perform calculations with vector
though momentum quantities, assign one direction as positive. The opposite direction is then negative and you can add
starts with the letter them like you do for finding forces along the same straight line.
“m” as the same
symbol was already
in use for mass.

76 Momentum

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 Chapter 5
Worked Example 5D
ENRICHMENT
Suppose a car of mass 1250 kg crashes into a concrete wall. The speed of the car is 7.2 m/s just THINK
before it hits the wall. Calculate the average force on the car as it hits the wall if it takes Suppose you board a
(a) 0.1 s for the car to come to a complete stop; bus. All the seats are
(b) 0.4 s for the car to come to a complete stop. taken. You and a few
others have to stand.
Solution The bus picks up
The momentum of the car just before the crash = mass × velocity = 1250 × 7.2 = 90 000 kg m/s speed and continues
in the forward direction its journey. Suddenly,
all the standing
After the crash, the car stops moving. The momentum of the car after the crash = 0 kg m/s. passengers are jolted
Change in momentum of the car, Δp = 0 − 90 000 = −90 000 kg m/s out of position when
the bus reaches the
= −90 000 N s traffic light.
Δp
(a) Average force acting on the car, F = ___ = −90 000 N s
__________ = −900 000 N 1 Why do you think
Δt 0.1 N that happens?
The negative sign means the force is in the backward direction. 2 What would you
−90 000 N s expect the bus
(b) Average force acting on the car, F = __________ = −225 000 N
0.4 N driver to do to give
passengers a more
comfortable ride?
Worked Example 5D (b) shows that the
force is much smaller with a longer stopping concrete wall
time. In order to increase the stopping time PHYSICS WATCH
during a crash, a car is designed with a
‘crumple zone’. This allows the front of the car Scan this page to watch
to collapse when a collision occurs. The car a clip on the effect of the
can then come to a stop with a slightly crumple zone crumple zone of a car.
longer time (Figure 5.7).
Figure 5.7 The crumple zone is a safety feature to reduce the
Safety features, such as seat belts and safety force on the car.
helmets, reduce the force by increasing the
time taken for the momentum to change to
zero. This helps to reduce the disastrous
impact of collisions.

Worked Example 5E
A ball of mass 0.625 kg hits the ground at 4 m/s. It bounces back from the ground at 3.8 m/s. QUICK CHECK
Calculate the impulse on the ball.
Impulse on an object can
Solution
be reduced by decreasing
Take moving away from the ground (i.e. upwards) as the positive direction. stopping time.
Given: m = 0.625 kg, u = −4 . 0 m/s, v = 3.8 m/s True or false?
Impulse = change in momentum = Δp
= (0.625 kg × 3.8 m/s) − (0.625 kg × −4 . 0 m/s)
= 4.88 kg m/s = 4.88 N s
The ground pushes up on the ball with an impulse of 4.88 N s.

Momentum 77

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 Chapter 5
Let’s Practise 5.2
1 Fill in the correct physical quantity in the word equation:

Impulse = _______ × _______

​
​
2 What is the SI unit for impulse?

3 Is impulse a scalar or a vector quantity?

4 The resultant force is the change in _____________________ per unit _____________.

5 A boy kicks a ball, which is resting on the ground. The boy’s boot is in contact with the

ball for 0.040 s. The average force on the ball is 150 N. Calculate the impulse of the boot

​
​
​
​
LINK on the ball.
TWB
6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

Exercise 5B, pp. XX–XX this section.

5.3 The Principle of Conservation


of Momentum
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Apply the principle of the conservation of momentum to solve simple problems.

What happens to the momentum of moving objects
when they collide?
When two moving objects collide, the total momentum of the two objects just before the collision is
the same as the total momentum of the objects immediately after the collision. This is also known as
the principle of conservation of momentum.

The momentum of ball A is

transferred through the stationary
balls to ball E. The momentum
pushes and lifts ball E upwards.
PHYSICS WATCH
When ball A is lifted and released, it
Scan this page to watch a hits ball C. Only ball E at the other end
clip on how the Newton's is pushed upwards, while the others
remain stationary. E
cradle works. Newton's cradle
A B CD

Figure 5.8 Newton’s cradle is a device used to show the principle of conservation of momentum.

78 Momentum

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 Chapter 5
Worked Example 5F
ENRICHMENT
Trolley A of mass 2 kg travelling at 2 m/s collided with a stationary trolley B of mass 3 kg. ACTIVITY
The two trolleys stuck together after the collision. Figure 5.9 shows what happened before and 1 Take two identical
after the collision. balls of the same
(a) Calculate mass and size. Place
(i) the velocity of the two combined trolleys immediately after they collided; one ball at rest.
Launch one ball at
(ii) the impulse experienced by trolley B; a speed such that
(iii) the change in momentum experienced by trolley A. it collides with the
other ball.
(b) Comparing your answers to (ii) and (iii), what do you observe?
2 Take two balls of
Before: After: different masses
and sizes. Place the
2 m/s at rest v heavier ball at rest.
Launch the lighter
ball at a speed such
A B A B that it collides with
the heavier ball.
2 kg 3 kg 2+3 kg Describe what happens
Figure 5.9 Collision of two trolleys in a straight line in each case. Share
your findings with
Solution the class.
(a) Given: Mass of trolley A, m1 = 2 kg, mass of trolley B, m2 = 3 kg
velocity of trolley A, v1 = 2 m/s, velocity of trolley B, v2 = 0 m/s
Total momentum before collision = m1 v1 + m2 v2 = 2 kg × 2 m/s + 3 kg × 0 m/s
= 4 kg m/s
Total momentum after collision = (m1 + m2)v = 2 + 3) kg × v m/s = 5v kg m/s
(
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum,
Total momentum after collision = total momentum before collision
5v = 4
v = 4_ = 0.8 m/s
5
The speed of the combined trolleys was 0.8 m/s.
(b) After the collision, momentum of trolley B = 3 kg × 0.8 m/s = 2.4 kg m/s
Impulse = change in momentum = 2.4 N s − 0 N s
= 2.4 N s in the forward direction
The impulse experienced by trolley B is 2.4 N s in the forward direction.
(c) Before the collision, momentum of trolley A = 2 kg × 2 m/s = 4 kg m/s
After the collision, momentum of trolley A = 2 kg × 0.8 m/s = 1.6 kg m/s
Change in momentum = 1.6 kg m/s − 4 kg m/s = −2.4 kg m/s
(d) Impulse experienced by trolley A = change in momentum of trolley A = −2.4 N s
Therefore, trolley A experienced a backward impulse of 2.4 N s, while trolley B experienced
a forward impulse of 2.4 N s.

Momentum 7

05_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 79 24/09/20 5:23 PM

 Chapter 5
Worked Example 5G
QUICK CHECK
Ball A of mass 0.12 kg is moving forward at a speed of 0.40 m/s in a straight line on a smooth

​
​
​
​
The total momentum surface. It collides with a stationary ball B of mass 0.09 kg. Ball B moves forward at a velocity of

​
​
​
of a system is 0.40 m/s. Figure 5.10 shows the balls before and after the collision. What is the velocity of ball A

​
always conserved. after the collision?
True or false?
Ball A Ball B

0 m/s
0.40 m/s

Before
m = 0.12 kg m = 0.09 kg
?

0.40 m/s
After
m = 0.12 kg m = 0.09 kg

Figure 5.10

Solution
Let the speed of ball A after the collision be v m/s.
Total momentum before collision = 0.12 kg × 0.40 m/s + 0.09 kg × 0 m/s
= 0.048 kg m/s in the forward direction

Total momentum after collision = 0.12 kg × v m/s + 0.09 kg × 0.40 m/s
= (0.12v + 0.036) kg m/s in the forward direction

​
​​
​
​​
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum,
Total momentum after collision = total momentum before collision
(0.12v + 0.036) kg m/s = 0.048 kg m/s
​
​
LINK (0.048 − 0.036) kg m/s
PWB v = _________________ = 0.10 m/s
​
0.12 kg

​​
 
 
  
 
​​
Practical 5, pp. XX–XX

Let’s Practise 5.3

1 What is the principle of conservation of momentum?
LINK

TWB
2 A car of mass 1200 kg is travelling at 8.0 m/s. It collides with a lorry of mass 2800 kg travelling

​
​
​
​
​
​
Exercises 5C–5D, at 2 m/s in the same direction. After the collision, the two vehicles stick together. Calculate
​
​
pp. XX–XX their speed immediately after the collision.
Exercise 5F Let’s Reflect, 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

p. XX this section.

80 Momentum

05_IGCSE
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 Chapter
Chapter55
Let’s Map It

MOMENTUM p
SI unit: kg m/s
Vector quantity
is conserved in
is defined as collisions between
objects governed by

The principle of
The product of mass
is related to conservation
and velocity
of momentum

which states that

p = mv When objects collide,

the total momentum
where of the objects before a
p = momentum collision is the same as the
m = mass total momentum of the
v = velocity objects after the collision,
provided there is no
external force acting.

Impulse Force

where where

Impulse = change in momentum

Resultant force F = ∆p
F∆t = ∆p ∆t

Momentum
Momentum ˜°81

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05_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 81 24/09/20 5:23 PM
 Chapter 5

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
1 Which statement defines momentum? 1 (a) Complete the word equation:



A Momentum = mass × velocity momentum = _________ × __________

B Momentum = mass × velocity × velocity (b) Figure 5.11 shows an empty freight car moving at 8 m/s

​
​

mass towards a stationary loaded car as shown. It collides
C Momentum = _______
 
velocity with the loaded car and the cars stick together after

​ 
 
 
​
velocity the collision.
D Momentum = _______
mass

​
 
 
 
​
moving empty freight car stationary loaded car
2 A truck of mass 10 000 kg is moving at

​
​
5.0 m/s. Calculate the momentum of the truck.
​
​
A 5.0 × 10 –4 kg m/s

​
​​ 
​
Figure 5.11
B 2.0 × 10 3 kg m/s

​
​​ 
​
C 5.0 × 10 4 kg m/s The mass of the empty freight car is 2000 kg.

​
​​ 
​

​
​
D 2.5 × 10 5 kg m/s (i) Calculate the momentum of the empty freight

​
​​ 
​


3 Which statement defines impulse? car before the collision.

A Impulse = mass × velocity (ii) The mass of the loaded car is 8000 kg. With

B Impulse = mass × acceleration what speed do the combined cars start

C Impulse = force × distance to move?

D Impulse = force × time for which force acts 2 A resultant force of 16 N acts for 5 s on an object.

​
​
​
​

4 A bullet of mass 0.05 kg was fired into a wooden block The mass of the object is 2 kg. Calculate

​
​
(a) the change in momentum of the object;

of mass 1.95 kg resting on a frictionless horizontal

surface. Upon collision, the bullet and the block were (b) the impulse of the force;

stuck together. Immediately after the collision, the (c) the change in speed of the object.

bullet and the block moved at a constant velocity of 3 Two ice skaters A and B are stationary on a skating rink.

15 m/s. With what speed did the bullet hit the block? The mass of skater A is 80 kg. The mass of skater B is
A 15 m/s 50 kg. They face each other and push each other off.

B 30 m/s Skater A moves off in a straight line with velocity of

C 585 m/s 0.5 m/s. Calculate

D 600 m/s (a) the momentum of skater A;


5 A basketball player is bouncing a ball on the ground. (b) the momentum of skater B;


The ball hits the ground 10 times in 20 seconds. (c) the velocity of skater B.

The average change in momentum for each collision is
15 kg m/s. What is the force that the ground exerts on
the ball?
A 0.75 N


B 2N

C 7.5 N


D 20 N

82 Momentum

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 CHAPTER
Energy, Work
6 and Power

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip of

a roller coaster ride.
What energy conversions take place?

QUESTIONS

• Why is a powerful motor needed to

launch the roller coaster cars to their
starting positions?
• How do you think the speeds of the

roller coaster cars will vary as they move
Standing at 42.5 metres, the Battlestar Galactica at the Universal Studios, along the high points and low points of
Singapore, is the tallest duelling roller coaster in the world. It’s Human the tracks?
versus Cyclon. By means of a powerful motor, these two roller coaster • If you were to ride the roller coaster, at

which point would you feel the greatest
cars are launched towards their high starting positions at high speeds. thrill? Why do you think so?
Once ready, they will move along tracks designed to produce near
misses. Are you game for some adventure? Let the duel begin.

83

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 Chapter 6

6.1 Energy
In this section, you will learn the following:
• State that energy may be stored in different forms.
•

Describe how energy is transferred between stores during events and processes.
1

• Recall and use the expressions kinetic energy = mv2 and
2

change in gravitational potential energy = mgDh.
•

​
​
Know and apply the principle of conservation of energy to simple examples using flow diagrams.
•

Apply the principle of conservation of energy to complex examples involving multiple stages

including the interpretation of Sankey diagrams.

WORD ALERT What is energy?

Capacity: ability
What does the term energy bring to mind? Someone exercising vigorously? Tidal waves crashing
against the shore? You would probably relate energy with strong forces that produce motion.
In physics:
Energy is the capacity to do work. The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
LINK Work usually means making a body or an object move to achieve a purpose. For example, when
a person rows a boat, work is done. In order to do work, energy is transferred between objects or
You will learn more about converted from one form to another. Figure 6.1 shows the different forms of energy.
work done in Section 6.2
of this chapter.

Potential energy Kinetic energy

Potential energy is the Kinetic energy is the energy of

stored energy in a system. a body due to its motion. Thus,
This form of energy is wind has kinetic energy and so
due to the state, shape
or position of the system.
Different do sea waves, a spinning frisbee
and a rolling soccer ball.
There are different types Forms of
Kinetic energy can be used to
of potential energy. Each
of these types of potential
Energy do work. For example, wind and
energy can be converted sea waves can be used to turn
into other forms of energy. turbines, which convert kinetic
energy to electrical energy.

Chemical potential energy Elastic (strain) energy Gravitational Electrostatic

potential energy potential energy
Chemical potential energy Elastic (strain) energy is the
is the energy stored in a energy stored in a body due Gravitational potential energy Electrostatic potential energy
substance due to the position to its elastic deformation. is the energy stored in a is the energy stored in the
of the atoms or electrons in A spring or rubber band body due to its height from electric fields of static charges.
the substance. The food possesses elastic potential the ground. An object has A capacitor is a common
that we eat, fossil fuels and energy when it is compressed gravitational potential energy device that stores electrostatic
batteries contain chemical or stretched. This energy when it is raised to a height potential energy in the flash
potential energy. can be converted to kinetic above the ground. When unit of a camera. When the
energy when the spring or the object is released, its flash is used, the electrostatic
rubber band is released. gravitational potential energy potential energy from the
is converted to kinetic energy capacitor is converted to light
as it falls. energy to brighten up the
Figure 6.1 The different forms of energy scene .

84 Energy, Work and Power

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 Chapter 6

LINK
Electrical energy
How is electrical energy
Electrical energy is the energy of an electric related to electricity?
charge due to its motion and position. It is Find out more in
used extensively in our everyday lives. Chapter 16.

Lightning has electrical energy.

ENRICHMENT
INFO
Solar Wind Power
Internal (thermal) energy You have probably heard of solar
power and wind power. But what is
Internal or thermal energy is the energy solar wind power?
stored in a body due to its temperature.
Solar wind is a stream of energised
The particles of a hotter body possess charged particles that flow out from
more internal energy than those of a the Sun. In theory, it is possible to
colder body. Internal energy is transferred capture this stream of particles using
from the hotter body to the colder body. satellite and transmit it back to Earth.
The potential is huge. It is believed
A hot metal has a high internal energy. that solar wind power could meet our

energy needs more than a hundred
billion times compared to solar power
or wind power alone.

Electromagnetic, sound and other waves Figure 6.2 An aurora, a natural light
display, as seen in the Earth’s sky
Light is an electromagnetic wave that is visible near the polar regions is caused by
to the eye. It is made up of electric solar wind.
and magnetic fields oscillating at a
Low res image certain range of frequency within the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Sound is a mechanical wave that travels
through a medium. It is caused by vibrating
particles. We hear sound when the vibrating
particles cause our ear drum to vibrate.
LEDs are used to convert electrical energy

to light energy to light up the streets.

Nuclear energy
Low res image ENRICHMENT
Nuclear energy is the energy released
THINK
during a nuclear reaction. It can be found
Nuclear energy is
in the nuclei of atoms of radioactive
useful, but it can
substances such as uranium. be very dangerous.
Should we promote
Nuclear power plants generate
the use of nuclear

electricity from nuclear energy.
energy? Discuss.

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 Chapter 6
We can use formulae to calculate the amount of energy a body has.
To find out the amount of kinetic energy, we use the following equation:
1
Ek = mv2 where Ek = kinetic energy (in J)
2

m = mass of the body (in kg)

v = speed of the body (in m/s)
To find out the amount of gravitational potential energy, we use the following equation:
DEp = mgDh where Ep = gravitational potential energy (in J)
m = mass of the body (in kg)
g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)
h = height (in m)

Worked Example 6A
A bullet of mass 0.02 kg travels at a speed of 1200 m/s.
Calculate its kinetic energy.
Solution
1 2
Kinetic energy of bullet = mv
2
1
= (0.02)(1200)2
2

= 14 400 J

Worked Example 6B
A package of 5 kg is lifted vertically through a distance of 10 m
at a constant speed (Figure 6.3). Taking the acceleration due to m = 5 kg
gravity to be 10 m/s2, calculate the gravitational potential
energy gained by the package.
Solution
h = 10 m
Gravitational potential energy of the package = mgh
= (5)(10)(10)

= 500 J

Figure 6.3

What is the principle of conservation of energy?

If you strike a match, you will get a burning flame. The chemical energy found in the substance of
the match head is converted to thermal and light energy. When work is done, energy is converted
from one form to another. The total amount of energy before and after the conversion is the same as
shown in Figure 6.4.

20 J energy in 20 J energy
one form
20 J work done in other form(s)

Figure 6.4 When energy is converted from one form to another, the total amount remains constant.

The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can
be converted from one form to another or transferred from one body to another. The total amount
of energy remains constant.

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 Chapter 6
Examples of energy conversions
(a) An ideal pendulum swinging

WORD ALERT
Figure 6.5 illustrates what happens when an ideal pendulum is swinging. The energy conversions

taking place is shown by the flow diagram. An ideal pendulum will swing forever, with its
Vice versa: the other
gravitational potential energy converting to kinetic energy and vice versa. Since the total amount way round (in this case:
of energy is conserved, energy is not lost from the pendulum, and hence it does not stop swinging. kinetic energy changing
back to gravitational
Figure 6.5 Energy conversion in an ideal pendulum
potential energy)
1 The pendulum bob is 2 When the bob is released, 3 As the bob swings to Conserved: kept the same



displaced to position A it swings downwards, and the other side, its kinetic
at height x above the the gravitational potential energy is converted
horizontal level. energy is converted to back to gravitational
It gains gravitational kinetic energy. potential energy.

potential energy as it is at Since energy cannot be The gravitational potential


a height above its original created or destroyed, the energy gained is converted
position, B. kinetic energy gained must from the kinetic energy
have been converted from lost. Thus, the pendulum
the gravitational potential bob slows down as it
energy lost. gains height.
The swinging pendulum At position C, where the


bob has maximum kinetic height is maximum, it only
energy when it reaches B. has gravitational potential
energy. This gravitational
potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy
when it swings to its original
position again at B.

A x

B ENRICHMENT
THINK
1 Using the principle

of conservation of
x
C energy, work out an
equation to show
B that the maximum
Low res image speed of a swinging
ideal pendulum
is independent of
the mass of the
pendulum. What
does the maximum
speed depend on?
2 In the real world,

a swinging
pendulum will
Flow diagram:
eventually come to
a stop. Explain what
Gravitational potential Gravitational potential happens in terms of
Kinetic energy at B
energy at A energy at C energy conversion.

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 Chapter 6
Worked Example 6C
QUICK CHECK Figure 6.6 shows a pendulum of mass 0.4 kg oscillating in
a vacuum. If P is the lowest position of the pendulum where
In Worked Example 6C, its maximum speed is 1.5 m/s, calculate
the energy changes of (a) the maximum kinetic energy of the pendulum; Q

the pendulum between
points can be explained
(b) the maximum gravitational potential energy of the m = 0.4 kg P h

by the principle of pendulum as it rises to its greatest height at Q;
conservation of energy. (c) the greatest height, h.

v = 0.5 m/s
True or false? (Take g = 10 N/kg)
Figure 6.6

Solution
1 2 1
(a) Maximum kinetic energy at P = mv = (0.4)(1.5)2 = 0.45 J
2 2

(b) Loss of kinetic energy at P = gain in gravitational potential energy at Q.

Therefore, maximum gravitational potential energy at Q = 0.45 J
(c) Maximum gravitational potential energy = mgh = 0.45 J

0.45 0.45
∴h= = = 0.113 m
mg (0.4)(10)

​
​
ENRICHMENT
THINK
Refer to Figure 6.7. One (b) A robot waiter on the move
of the explanations is

Have you been to a restaurant and had your food served by a robot waiter? Figure 6.7 shows
scientifically correct.

a singing robot waiter with flashing lights moving across the floor. It is carrying a food tray.
In what way(s)
The robot uses electrical energy to perform its functions. What happens to the electrical energy
are the other two
inside the robot?
explanations not
scientifically correct? The three restaurant guests give their own explanations.

Which explanation is scientifically correct?

The electrical energy is

converted to: kinetic energy
of the robot and the food tray; The electrical energy is
sound; light; and gravitational converted to: kinetic energy
potential energy of the tray due of the robot and the food
to its height above the ground. tray; sound; light; and thermal
energy, which is lost to
the surroundings.

The electrical
energy is used up
gradually as the
robot moves.

Figure 6.7 What happens to the electrical energy used by the robot waiter?

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 Chapter 6
(c) Hammering a nail

Figure 6.8 shows the energy conversion when a nail is hammered. We can use a Sankey
diagram to represent the energy conversion involving multiple stages. A Sankey diagram
begins with the energy input on the left and branches out into useful energy output and
wasted energy. The useful energy output branch points to the right and wasted energy branch
points downwards.

1 A person possesses 2 The kinetic energy 3 As the hammer falls,

chemical potential is converted to

the gravitational
energy. This energy is gravitational potential potential energy
converted to kinetic energy of the hammer is converted to
energy as the person in its raised position. 4 The kinetic energy
kinetic energy.

lifts up the hammer. is used to do work
(drive the nail into the
wooden block). In the
process, sound and
thermal energy are
also produced.

kinetic
chemical kinetic gravitational energy
Sankey diagram: potential energy potential 36 J
energy 50 J energy
50 J 50 J

thermal sound
energy energy
4J 10 J

Figure 6.8 Hammering a nail involves several energy conversions

In the Sankey diagram above, chemical energy is the energy input which is first converted into
kinetic energy, then into gravitational potential energy before being converted into other forms of
energy. The final kinetic energy branch is the thickest since most of the energy is converted into it as
useful output energy. The other two branches are much thinner because only small amounts of the
WORD ALERT
energy are converted to sound and thermal energy as wasted energy.
In any event or processes that occur in the real world, not all the energy can be fully converted from Dissipated:
one form to another. The energy tends to be dissipated, i.e., become more spread out among the scattered, dispersed
objects and surroundings.

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 Chapter 6
Let’s Practise 6.1
1 State the energy conversions that take place when

(a) water is boiled using an electric kettle;

(b) a light bulb is connected to a dry cell.

2 A ripe mango hangs from the branch of a tree. Using the principle of conservation of

energy, explain what happens to the mango’s gravitational potential energy when it falls to
the ground.
3
A softball player throws a ball into the air and catches it on the way down. Ignoring the air
resistance that acts on the ball, state the energy conversions that take place by means of a
flow diagram.
4 A 2.0 kg flower pot accidentally falls from a height of 45 m towards the ground.

What is the
(a) gravitational potential energy of the flower pot before the fall;


(b) speed of the flower pot just before it hits the ground assuming negligible air resistance?


(Take g = 10 N/kg)
WORD ALERT


5 When a roller coaster is set in motion from a high place, its gravitational potential energy

Perpetually: continue is converted to kinetic energy and other forms of energy.
without stopping (a) How does the roller coaster first obtain its gravitational potential energy?


(b) Since energy is conserved, why could the roller coaster not continue its


motion perpetually?
LINK (c) Use a Sankey diagram to show how the principle of conservation of energy can be


TWB
applied from the launching station of the roller coaster to the highest starting position.
Exercises 6A–6B, 6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

pp. XX–XX this section.

6.2 Work
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Understand that mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy transferred.
• Recall and use the equation for mechanical working, W = Fd = DE.
​ ​

LINK
What is work done?
Recall the concept of
force that you have learnt Look at Figure 6.9. What is the lady doing? What is
in Chapter 4. the boy doing?
Both the lady and the boy are exerting force on objects.
Is work being done in both situations?
Figure 6.9 Who is doing work?
The lady, the boy or both?
F tree remains
stationary

F
stroller moves in the
direction of the force F

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 Chapter 6
In physics, work is done only when an object moves under the influence of a force. Therefore,
in Figure 6.9, the lady is doing work, but the boy is not.
Work done by a constant force on an object is the product of the force and the distance moved by
the object in the direction of the force.

A B
direction of motion
force F

distance s moved in the direction of the force

Figure 6.10 Illustrating work done

Using Figure 6.10, we can represent the work done W by the force F in moving the object from
point A to point B with the following equation: ENRICHMENT
W=F×s where W = work done by a constant force F (in J) INFO

F = constant force (in N) Another Real-world

s = distance moved by the object in the direction of the force (in m) Example of No
Work Done

The SI unit of work is the joule (J). Both work done and energy have the same unit — joule. This is
A student is queuing
because work done is equal to energy transferred. The work done by the lady in Figure 6.9 is equal to at the library counter
the energy transferred into kinetic energy of the stroller with the baby. to borrow some
Recall the example of the robot waiter on page 88. Similarly, the work done by the robot is the books. He holds the
measure of electrical energy which is transferred into kinetic energy, sound, light and thermal energy, books in a stationary
which is lost to the surroundings. position. While doing
so, he balances the
From the equation, we can deduce the following: weight W of the
One joule is the work done by a force of one newton, which moves an object through a distance of books by exerting
one metre in the direction of the force. an upward force F
of magnitude W. To
check out the books,
Worked Example 6D the student walks
across a horizontal
floor to the counter
A librarian pushes a trolley of books for shelving (Figure 6.11). The horizontal force F exerted over a distance s.
by the librarian on the trolley is 8 N and the trolley moves a distance of 5 m in the direction of
Using the definition
the force. of work done, there
(a) Calculate the work done on is no work done by

the trolley. the upward force F.
(b) Explain what happened to the This is because the
distance moved in

mechanical work done.
the direction of force
Solution force F = 8 N F is zero.
(a) Given: Force F = 8 N


Distance moved s = 5 m direction of motion
d
Work done

W = F × s = 8 N × 5 m = 40 J
(b) The mechanical work done

by the force F in moving
the trolley is transferred into
kinetic energy of the trolley.
distance s = 5 m
Figure 6.11

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 Chapter 6
Worked Example 6E
The trolley of books pushed by the librarian in Worked Example 6D has a mass of 80 kg. After
pushing the trolley over a horizontal distance, he reaches the bottom of a gentle incline with a
certain speed v. The vertical height of the incline is 0.5 m. In order to maintain the same speed v
up the incline, the librarian exerts a much larger force of 40 N to push the trolley over a distance
of 10 m along the incline.
Assuming negligible air resistance and frictional effects at the moving parts of the trolley,
(a) calculate the work done by the 40 N force on the trolley along the incline;

(b) calculate the gain in gravitational potential energy of the trolley.

(Take g = 10 N/kg)
QUICK CHECK

Solution
Refer to Worked Example Given: Mass m = 80 kg

6E. Work is done by the Vertical height h = 0.5 m
force of 40 N to push the Force F = 40 N
trolley over a distance of
Distance moved along the incline, s = 10 m
10 m up the incline at
a constant speed. This
10 m
work done is transformed
v
into gain in gravitational
v
potential energy of
the trolley. F = 40 N 0.5 m
True or false? m = 80 kg

Figure 6.12

(a) Work done W = F × s = 40 N × 10 m = 400 J

​
​
​
​
(b) Gain in gravitational potential energy = mgh = 80 kg × 10 N/kg × 0.5 m = 400 J

​
​
​
​
Let’s Practise 6.2
1 A mother carrying her baby in a stationary position does no work. Explain.

2 Define the joule.

3 A box is placed on a smooth floor. A force of 8.0 N acts horizontally on the box.

The distance moved by the box in the direction of the force is 3.0 m.
(a) Calculate the work done by the force.


(b) Calculate the gain in the kinetic energy of the box.


5 A 50-N package is lifted 10 m vertically at a constant speed.

(a) Calculate the work done by the force of 50 N on the package.


LINK TWB
(b) Calculate the gravitational potential energy gained by the package.


6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
Exercise 6C, pp. XX–XX

this section.

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 Chapter 6

6.3 Energy Resources

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe how electricity or other useful forms of energy may be obtained.
•

Describe advantages and disadvantages of the methods for obtaining energy.
•

Show an unde rstanding that energy is released by nuclear fusion in the Sun.
•

Know that research is being carried out to investigate how energy released by nuclear fusion can

be used to produce electrical energy on a large scale.
• Understand that the Sun is the source of energy for most of our energy.
•

Show a qualitative understanding of efficiency.
•

Recall and use the equations:

useful energy output
Efficiency = × 100%
energy input
​
​
useful energy output
Efficiency = × 100%
power input
​
How can we obtain energy?
We consume large amounts of energy every day to improve the quality of our lives.
For example, we need electrical energy to run machines and to light up the lamps.
We need chemical potential energy in petrol and diesel to drive cars and buses, and Low res image
we need gas to cook food and heat water. A lot of energy is used to light up buildings
and streets at night (Figure 6.13).

Examples of major energy resources

Major energy resources Figure 6.13 Jakarta looks beautiful at night.
Large amounts of energy is used to light up the city.
We depend on some major energy resources to produce electricity and other
useful forms of energy (Table 6.1). These energy resources have some advantages
and disadvantages.

Table 6.1 Major energy resources

Energy resources and how useful forms of energy are produced Advantages Disadvantages

Fossil fuels
• Examples of fossil fuels are petroleum, natural gas, coal and wood. • Widely available • Environmental
•
•
•
• Chemical potential energy is stored in the structure of the atoms at a large scale pollution from
•
and molecules. • Relatively the gases,
•
• When the fuel is burnt in air, the atoms and molecules are cheaper in cost produced
•
regrouped due to a chemical reaction. of production during burning,
• The chemical potential energy is converted mainly to thermal contributes to
global warming
•
energy and light for cooking and heating purposes.
• Non-renewable
•
energy resource

Figure 6.14 Mining for coal

Low res image

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 Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Major energy resources [continued]

Energy resources and how useful forms of energy are produced Advantages Disadvantages

Biofuels
• Examples of biofuels are ethanol, biodiesel and biogas, which are • Widely available • Environmental
•
•
•
derived from biomass. Biomass comes from living materials such as at a large scale pollution from
corn, sugar cane, vegetable oils, animal fats and animal manure. • Relatively the gases

•
• Chemical potential energy is stored in the biofuels. cheaper in cost produced
•
• The chemical potential energy is converted mainly to thermal of production during burning
•
energy and light for cooking and heating purposes. • Renewable contributes to

•
energy source global warming

Figure 6.15 Biofuel plant

on a farm processing cow
dung to produce biogas

Hydropower
• Water movement provides power to spin turbines to generate • Clean method • High cost
•
•
•
electricity. This hydropower or water power can be obtained from of producing of building
ocean waves, tides and water behind hydroelectric dams. cheap electricity dams, turbines
• Water behind hydroelectric dams has gravitational potential • Renewable and generators
•
•
energy. This energy is converted to kinetic energy by releasing energy resource • Damming a river

•
the water and letting it flow downwards. The flowing water will as the water for hydroelectric
cause the turbines to spin. movement can power station
• As the turbines spin, the kinetic energy of the turbines is be continually may cause
•
converted to electrical energy by the generators connected to regenerated damage to the
the turbines. environment
surrounding
the river
Low res image
PHYSICS WATCH
Figure 6.16 Kurobe dam
in Japan Scan this page to watch a
clip on how hydroelectric
power is generated.
Geothermal energy

• In certain areas, such as volcanic regions, geological forces push • Clean source of • Environmental
•
•
•
large amounts of hot molten rocks near the Earth’s surface. These naturally available pollution caused
places are known as geothermal hotspots. thermal energy by the release of
• Water that makes its way to these geothermal hotspots is heated • Renewable poisonous gases
•
•
and subjected to great pressure. energy resource such as hydrogen
• This heated water contains a large amount of thermal energy. It is sulphide into
•
forced to the surface as boiling water and steam to drive turbines. the atmosphere
• Electricity is produced by generators connected to the turbines. • Not widely
•
•
available as they
are found only
in certain areas
around the world

Figure 6.17 Geothermal

power station in Iceland

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 Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Major energy resources [continued]

Energy resources and how useful forms of energy are produced Advantages Disadvantages

Solar energy
• Solar energy comes from the Sun. This energy is released in the • Less polluting • Not always

•
•
•
Sun by nuclear fusion, where hydrogen atoms combine to form than fossil fuels available as there
helium atoms. • Renewable is no sunlight

•
• Solar energy can be converted directly to electricity. Solar cells energy resource at night, and
•
are used to change solar energy to electrical energy by means of it is weather-
photovoltaic effect. dependent
• The infrared electromagnetic waves in the solar energy can • Uses a lot of space

•
•
be converted to thermal energy, by means of a solar panel or
collector with a blackened surface, for heating water.
• Solar energy is the source of wind energy. The uneven heating of
PHYSICS WATCH
•
the Earth’s surfaces (land, sea and air) results in the movement of
warm and cold air. This produces wind. By means of wind electric
Scan this page to watch
generators, wind energy can be converted to electrical energy. a clip about how a food
seller came out with an
innovative idea to harness
the Sun's energy.
Figure 6.18 Solar cells

on a roof top harness
energy from the Sun.

Nuclear energy
• Nuclear fuels such as uranium are used to produce large amounts • A low carbon • Risk of accidents
•
•
•
of thermal energy. energy resource and pollution
• The thermal energy is used in boilers to heat up water into steam, which helps from the
•
which drives the turbines in the nuclear power station. to reduce improper disposal
• Electricity is produced by generators connected to these turbines. greenhouse of radioactive
•
gas emissions wastes
that cause • Non-renewable
•
global warming energy resource
• Higher reliability as the amount
Low res image
•
Figure 6.19 Uranium in supplying of nuclear fuel
fuel rods inside a uninterrupted is limited
nuclear reactor
power

Nuclear fusion reactors for the future

Nuclear fusion is a process where atomic nuclei of light elements combine
to form heavier elements. The light elements are deuterium and tritium
(isotopes of hydrogen).
Nuclear fusion is relatively safer than nuclear fission and there is plenty of
deuterium in seawater. These have encouraged experimental research for Low res image
many years to make a fusion nuclear reactor on a commercial scale. The
energy released from nuclear fusion can be used to produce electrical
energy on a large scale.
One promising multi-nation project is the International Thermonuclear
Experimental Reactor (ITER) in southern France, to be launched in 2025.
Figure 6.20 Model of ITER reactor

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 Chapter 6
The Sun as our main source of energy
ENRICHMENT Based on Table 6.1 on pages 93 to 95, why is radiation from the Sun considered to be the main source
THINK
of energy for many of the energy resources?
Refer to Table 6.1. Why is
it most useful to produce Other than geothermal, nuclear and tidal energy resources, the other energy resources can be traced
electrical energy from the to the important role of solar energy from the Sun.
major energy resources? • Solar energy is the source of wind energy (see Table 6.1).

•
• Solar energy is converted to chemical potential energy in plants through photosynthesis. The
•
survival of animals depends on the transfer of this energy through food chains. Fossil fuels come
from the remains of plants and animals.
• Solar energy plays an important role in the water cycle. It evaporates water to bring fresh water in
•
the form of rain and snow. These in turn are the sources for hydropower.

What is efficiency?
By the principle of conservation of energy, the total energy output of an ideal machine is equal to its
total energy input. However, in reality, the useful energy output of a machine is always less than the
energy input. Some energy is dissipated during the energy conversion due to friction. This energy
usually takes the forms of thermal and sound energy. The energy that is lost to the surroundings is
considered wasted energy output.
Based on the principle of conservation of energy,
total energy input = useful energy output + wasted energy output.
The efficiency of a machine can be calculated using the following formulae:

Efficiency = useful power output × 100% , Efficiency = useful power output × 100%
energy input power input
​
​
​
​
QUICK CHECK

Refer to Worked
Example 6F. Worked Example 6F
The principle of
conservation of energy A power station uses fossil fuel to generate electricity. What does it mean to say that the
can be used to explain efficiency of the power station is only 30%?
the 70% of wasted
energy output, namely
Solution
thermal energy and The chemical potential energy in the fossil fuel makes up 100% of the total energy input.
sound energy. Out of this 100%, only 30% is converted to useful energy output in the form of electrical energy.
True or false? The remaining 70% is wasted energy output.

Let’s Practise 6.3

1 Give an example of a major source of energy that converts chemical potential energy into

thermal energy.
2 Nuclear power stations are less polluting.

(a) What is the name of the process in the production of nuclear energy?


(b) State one disadvantage of using nuclear energy.


3 What does it mean to say that a solar cell has an efficiency of 45%?

4 A machine produces 35 J of useful output energy for every 50 J of total energy input.
LINK

TWB Calculate the efficiency of the machine.
Exercise 6D, pp. XX–XX 5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

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 Chapter 6

6.4 Power
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define power.
• Recall and use the equation P = W = DE in simple systems.

t t

WORD ALERT
What is power? Scenarios:
To explain what power is, we consider the two scenarios in Figure 6.21. settings, situations

Two boys have to climb up the stairs as the lift is out of order.

boy A
Scenario 1 Scenario 2

• Boy A and boy B have equal mass;

   • Boy A has a larger mass than boy B;
 

• Boy A reached the fourth storey

  • Boy A and boy B reached the fourth
 

before boy B. storey at the same time.

boy B

The two boys are of equal mass and Since boy A has a larger mass, he has
travel the same distance. Therefore, to do more work to carry himself up
they do the same amount of work. the four storeys.

• However, since boy A took a shorter

  • In other words, boy A is able to do
 

time to reach the fourth storey as more work than boy B in the same
compared to boy B, we say that amount of time as boy B.
boy A has more power. • Therefore, we say boy A has
 

• Boy A has more power than boy B

 
more power.
because he can do the same Scenario 1
amount of work more quickly.
Figure 6.21 The amount of work done by the boys and the time taken to do the work determine who has more power.

Power is defined as the work done or energy transferred per unit time.
The SI unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is defined as the work done or energy transferred of
one joule per second, i.e., 1 W = 1 J/s.
In equation form, P = W = DE where P = power (W)
t t

W = work done (J)

DE = energy converted (J)
LINK

​
​
PWB
t = time taken (s)

Note that the product of power P and time taken t tells us the amount of work done or the amount Practical 6A, pp. XX–XX
of energy being converted from one form to another.

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 Chapter 6
Worked Example 6G
ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Eugene, who weighs 450 N, runs up ten steps. Each step is 0.20 m high. Calculate Eugene’s
Flying Wheel Toy power if he takes five seconds to run up the steps at a constant speed.
This activity will help you
visualise the concept of Solution
W F×s The upward force F exerted by Eugene’s muscles to balance his weight = 450 N
power P = =
t t The upward distance s moved by Eugene = height of steps = 0.20 m × 10 = 2.0 m

​
​
twisted Using W = F × s, work done W by Eugene = 450 N × 2.0 m = 900 J

​
​
​
​
rod
Using P = W, Eugene’s power = 900 J = 180 W
t 5s
wheel

adapter Worked Example 6H

A filament lamp, rated at 40 W, converts 10% of its electrical energy supply to light energy.
Figure 6.23 Wheel toy
Calculate the quantity of light energy given off in five minutes.
Experiment A
Solution
1 Launch the wheel by
Given: Power P = 40 W

pushing the adapter

vertically upwards Time t = 5 × 60 s = 300 s

​
​
across the length Energy used by lamp in five minutes = P × t = 40 W × 300 s = 1.2 × 104 J
​
​
​
​
​
​
of the rod as hard
as possible. Since 10% of this energy is converted to light energy, the amount of light energy given off in
2 Observe the five minutes
= 10 × 1.2 × 104 J
But the principle of

maximum height that
100 conservation of energy
​
​
​
​
the wheel is able to fly states that energy cannot
up to. = 1.2 × 103 J It is converted to
be destroyed! What
​
​
thermal energy. The
Experiment B = 1.2 kJ happens to the other 90% of
electrical energy? lamp becomes hot!
1 Cut the twisted length

of the rod into half.
2 Repeat the steps in

Experiment 1.
Questions
1 Which of the

maximum heights is
higher?
2 Which experiment

shows that a greater
amount of work
is done?
3 In which experiment Figure 6.22

is the launching
power greater,
assuming the time
taken is the same? Let’s Practise 6.4
1 Define the terms power and watt.

2 Calculate the power involved when a force of 50 N moves an object through a distance of

10 m in 5 s.
LINK TWB 3 An electric motor in a washing machine has a power output of 1.0 kW.

Calculate the work done in half an hour.
Exercises 6E-6G,
4 The same amount of water was poured into two electric kettles, one rated at 500 W and the
pp. XX–XX

other at 1000 W. Compare the time taken for both kettles to boil the water.
Exercise 6F Let’s Reflect,
p. X 5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

98 Energy, Work and Power

06_IGCS
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 Chapter 66
Chapter
Let’s Map It

is the capacity to do
ENERGY E WORK W
(SI unit: J) are related to (SI unit: J)

is governed by is defined as

POWER P W=Fxs
The principle of (SI unit: W)
conservation of energy where
F = force
s = distance moved in
the direction of the force

states that is defined as

Energy cannot be • Fuel

created or destroyed • Biofuel
but can be converted P=W=E • Water
from one form to t t • Geothermal resources
another. where • Nuclear fission
W = work done • Sun
E = energy converted – energy release by nuclear fusion
– source of most of our energy
examples of forms • Wind
of energy
produced from
major energy
resources
converted into useful energy by
machines depending on their
• Potential energy
- Chemical potential energy
- Elastic (strain) energy
- Electrostatic potential energy
- Magnetic potential energy
- Nuclear energy
- Gravitational potential energy Efficiency
Ep = mgh • Where some of the energy input is converted
• Kinetic energy to useful energy and some into wasted energy
Ek = 1 mv2 such as heat and sound
2 • S Can be calculated using the following
- Electrical energy formulae:
- Thermal energy
- Light useful energy output
Efficiency = × 100%
- Sound total energy input
useful power output
Efficiency = × 100%
total energy input

Energy,
Energy, Work
Work and
and Power
Power 99
33

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 Chapter 6

Let’s Review
(Take g = 10 N/kg) 2 Energy cannot be created or destroyed.

(a) State one example to show this and explain.
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions

(b) (i) Name three sources of non-renewable energy.
1

A car screeches to a stop to avoid colliding with a van. (ii) Suggest two things that you can do to help

Assuming that the road is level, what energy changes

reduce the use of non-renewable energy.
have occurred?
3 A simple pendulum consists of a string of length
A Kinetic energy ¦ thermal energy

50.0 cm and a pendulum bob of mass 10 g. The

B Kinetic energy ¦ sound energy string hangs vertically from a fixed point O with the

C Kinetic energy ¦ light and sound energy pendulum bob attached to its lower end at point P

D Kinetic energy ¦ sound and thermal energy (Figure 6.24).

2 A 0.8 kg brick is accidentally dropped from a

building. It reaches the ground with a kinetic energy of O
240 J. How tall is the building?
A 19 m B 30 m



C 192 m D 300 m R



50.0 cm
3 What is the work done by a force of 6.0 N acting

horizontally on a body of mass 4.0 kg if the distance Q
2.0 cm
moved in the direction of the force is 3.0 m?
A 2J B 12 J 0.5 cm



C 18 J D 24 J P



4 Which of the following energy resources is the odd Figure 6.24

one out?
A Nuclear energy B Geothermal energy The pendulum bob is displaced to point R, 2.0 cm




C Wind energy D Solar energy above P and released from rest. Assuming air resistance



5 A machine is able to lift 200 kg of bricks vertically up to is negligible, calculate the
(a) gain in potential energy of the pendulum bob at

a height of 30 m above the ground in 50 s. What is the

power of the machine? point R;
A 0.12 kW B 1.2 kW (b) kinetic energy of the bob at point Q, 0.5 cm above P.




C 6.0 kW D 300 kW 4 A model car of mass 1.5 kg, with a string attached to




its front end, is placed on a slope (Figure 6.25). A force
Section B: Short-answer and of 10 N is applied on the string to move the car up the
Structured Questions slope at a constant velocity. The force is applied in a
1 A cyclist pedals up to the top of a hill. direction that is parallel to the slope.

(a) What kind of energy is being used to do work

against gravity? table
stri
(b) State the type of energy the cyclist has when he ng 1.2 m

stops at the top of the hill. 0.6 m
(c) When the cyclist moves downhill without pedalling,
floor

what type of energy does he gain?
Figure 6.25

100 Energy, Work and Power

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 Chapter 6

(a) With the aid of a diagram, describe how the force in 6 The energy input and useful energy output


the string can be measured. (i.e. electricity) for five power stations were measured.
(b) Calculate The results are listed in Table 6.2.

(i) the gain in the car’s potential energy as it
Table 6.2


moves from the floor to the table;

(ii) the work done by the force as it moves the car Power Energy Useful energy
station input/1014J output/1013J


up the slope from the floor to the table;
P 10.8 32.8
(iii) the efficiency of this arrangement to raise Q 17.1 21.3


the car. R 2.5 10.1
5 A roller coaster train at an amusement park has a S 2.1 7.5

mass of 1500 kg. It descends from point P, which is 30 m T 2.0 4.1
above ground, to point Q, which is 10 m above ground.
(a) Calculate the loss in the gravitational potential (a) Each of the stations uses a different method to

produce electricity.

energy of the train when it moves from point P to
point Q. (i) Calculate the efficiency of each power station.

(b) If 20% of the gravitational potential energy lost is (ii) If you had to build a power station, which



dissipated, calculate the power station would you choose to base the
(i) kinetic energy of the train at point Q; design of your power station on? Why?
(b) Assuming that the values in Table 6.2 are the energy


(ii) speed of the train at point Q.

outputs of each power station per day, what is the


(c) By means of a Sankey diagram, show the energy
power generated by power station S?

conversion between point P and point Q.
(c) Why is there a difference between the energy input

and useful energy output?

Energy, Work and Power 101

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 CHAPTER

7 Pressure

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip of everyday

examples that are related to pressure.

The phrase ‘to walk on eggs’ means to be extra careful. Well, you QUESTIONS

certainly need to be extra careful in order not to break the eggs when • How do you think pressure is related
walking on them. Yes, it is possible to stand or walk on eggs without to area?
breaking them. Have you ever tried it yourself? • Is the pressure you feel when taking
an exam the same kind as the pressure
The picture shows a person wearing sports shoes stepping on some exerted onto the eggs?
eggs. The eggs did not break. The eggs would break easily if a person
wearing high-heeled shoes were to step on them. This is because the
pressure that acts on the eggs is much greater for a person wearing
high-heeled shoes compared to a person wearing sports shoes.

102

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 Chapter 7

7.1 Pressure
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define pressure.
• Recall and use the equation p = _F_.
A
• Describe how pressure varies with force and area using everyday examples.

What is pressure?
In Chapter 4, you have learnt about the effects of forces. Pressure is an effect of a force on a surface.
When a force presses onto a surface, it exerts a pressure on the surface. To measure this effect, we WORD ALERT
define it using quantities that we can measure.
Exerts: applies, puts
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Its SI unit is pascal (Pa).
In equation form, p = _F_ where p = pressure (in Pa)
A F = force (in N)
A = area (in m2) ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
When the force is measured in newton (N) and the area in square metres (m2), the pressure is newton
Psi and bar are two
per square metres (N/m2). The unit N/m2 is known as pascal (Pa) in the SI system of units. Square
common units used to
metres (m2) is a big quantity. Often, the smaller unit square centimetres (cm2) is used. When the area measure pressure.
expressed is in cm2, pressure is measured in N/cm2.
Use the Internet to
find out
(a) the difference
Worked Example 7A between the
two units;
Figure 7.1(a) shows a woman weighing 600 N (b) the situations
standing in high heeled shoes. Low res image in which they
(a) If the total area of her soles and the heels in are used.
contact with the floor is 0.03 m2, calculate
the pressure the woman exerts on the floor.
(b) The area of each heel is 0.00030 m2.
Calculate the pressure the heel exerts on the
floor when the woman is standing on one (a) (b)
leg as shown in Figure 7.1(b).
Figure 7.1
(c) Compare the two values of pressure in (a)
and (b). How is pressure related to area?
Solution
(a) Given: Weight of the woman, F = 600 N
Area of contact, A = 0.03 m2
By definition, pressure exerted by the woman on the floor
p = _F_ = 600 N2 = 20 000 N/m2 = 2.0 × 104 Pa
A 0.03 m
(b) Given: When balancing on one heel, area of contact, A = 0.0003 m2
p = _F_ = ______ = 2 000 000 N/m2 = 2.0 x 106 Pa
600
A 0.0003
(c) The pressure in (b) is 100 times larger than in (a) due to the vastly different contact areas
with the ground. When the same force is applied due to a smaller area, the pressure exerted
is greater.

Pressure 103

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 Chapter 7
Figure 7.2 shows how pressure varies with force and pressure.

Low res image A tractor has wide tyres. The large

surface area of the tyres reduces
the pressure exerted on the
ground. This prevents the tractor
from sinking in a muddy field.

Area Placing a carpet under a chair

increases the area under the chair
that is in contact with the floor. The
Low res image pressure on the floor is decreased,
protecting the floor from damage.

Pressure
depends
on
Which basket will exert a greater
pressure on the fingers — the empty
basket or the basket full of fruit? The
Low res image basket full of fruit, of course! The
Force Low res image
heavier load exerts a greater force on
the same contact area (the fingers).

Figure 7.2 Pressure depends on area and force.

LINK
The examples of a woman wearing high-heeled shoes, a tractor with wide tyres, and placing a carpet
Recall the definition of under a chair shows that the force on a surface is due to the weight of objects resting on the surface.
weight from Chapter 3. However, force can also be exerted by our hands.
Study Figure 7.3 and Figure 7.4. Why does a sharp knife cut more easily than a blunt one? Why is it
easy to drive a nail into wood using a hammer?
A sharp knife has a smaller contact surface compared to a blunt one. So, a smaller force is required
to exert the same amount of pressure to cut the tomato. Similarly, the head of the nail has a surface
area many times bigger than the pointed end of the nail. The force exerted by the hammer is
transferred to the pointed end. The pressure at the pointed end is many times bigger than at the
head. The high pressure pushes the nail into the wood.

Low res image

Low res image

Figure 7.3 Cutting tomatoes using a sharp Figure 7.4 Driving a nail into a wood
kitchen knife using a hammer

10 Pressure

07_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 104 24/09/20 5:22 PM

 Chapter 7
Worked Example 7B
QUICK CHECK
Figure 7.5 shows a block of dimensions
20 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm. The density of the The greater the force
A
block is 2.0 g/cm3. C exerted on the same
(a) What is the weight of the block? 10 cm contact surface area, the
(Take g = 10 N/kg.) B greater the pressure.
5 cm
(b) On which face must the block rest to exert the True or false?
20 cm
greatest pressure? Calculate this pressure.
(c) On which face must the block rest to exert the Figure 7.5
least pressure? Calculate this pressure.
Solution
(a) Volume of the block, V = 5 cm × 10 cm × 20 cm = 1000 cm3
Mass of the block, m = density × volume = 2.0 g/cm3 × 1000 cm3 = 2000 g = 2 kg
Weight of the block = mg = 2 kg × 10 N/kg = 20 N
(b) The force exerted by the block is its weight, i.e., F = 20 N.
The pressure is the greatest when the area is the smallest.
So the block exert the greatest pressure when it is resting on face C.
Area of face C = 5 cm × 10 cm = 50 cm2
∴ Pressure exerted by face C = _F_ = 20 N 2 = 0.4 N/cm2
A 50 cm
(c) The pressure is the least when the area is the largest. This is when the block is resting on face A.
PWB LINK
(d) Area of face A = 10 cm × 20 cm = 200 cm2
∴ Pressure exerted by face A = _F_ = 20 N 2 = 0.1 N/cm2 Practical 7,
A 200 cm p. XX–XX

Let’s Practise 7.1

1 Write out the word equation for pressure.
2 Complete Table 7.1.

Table 7.1
Force /N Area /m2 Pressure / Pa
1200 0.5
0.08 2000
800 50 000

3 A polystyrene cube of mass 5.0 kg is

placed on a horizontal surface. The
Low res image
pressure due to the cube is 89 N/m2.
(a) What is the force exerted on the
surface? (Take g = 10 N/kg.)
(b) What is the area of contact between
the cube and the surface? Figure 7.6
(c) What is the length of the sides of the cube?
 Look at Figure 7.6. Would the table make a deeper mark on the carpet if it is standing
upright, or if it is turned upside-down? Explain your answer.
TWB LINK
 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
this section. Exercise 7A, pp. XX-XX

Pressure 10

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 Chapter 7

7.2 Pressure in Liquids

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe qualitatively how the pressure beneath the surface of a liquid changes with depth and
density of the liquid.
• Recall and use the equation Δp = ρgΔh for the change in pressure in a liquid.

A diver experiences pressure from the seawater (Figure 7.7). The deeper the diver dives, the greater
the pressure. Why?
You have learnt that pressure is force per unit area. The force acting on the diver is due to the weight
of the seawater pushing down on the diver. As the diver goes deeper, there is more water above the
diver. When the diver dives deeper, the weight of the water pressing on the diver increases. The force
on the diver increases. And so, the pressure increases.

Low res image

ENRICHMENT
INFO
How Do Deep-sea Fish
Survive Under Pressure?
Figure 7.7 A scuba diver experiences pressure from the seawater.
Fish that live deep
under the sea
experience great
pressure. At 3000 m or
How does depth affect water in

more below the sea

surface, the amount of pressure in a liquid?
pressure would crush a
body that contains air. In Figure 7.8, a tall container with holes at different
This is because air can depths is used to show that water pressure
be compressed. increases with depth. The water spurts out furthest
Fish that live nearer and fastest from the bottom hole. This shows
the sea surface have that the pressure is greatest at the bottom of
air sacs to help them the container.
float up or sink down
in the water. Deep-
sea fish do not have
air sacs, so they do
not get crushed
under pressure. Figure 7.8 Apparatus to show that water
pressure increases with depth

10 Pressure

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 Chapter 7
How does the density of a liquid affect the pressure
it exerts? LINK

Recall how density of a

Recall that for a fixed volume of substance, mass, and therefore, weight increases with density. substance depends on its
Figure 7.9 shows two fishbowls, each containing a fish and an equal volume of water. One fishbowl mass and volume from
is filled with seawater and the other is filled with tap water. Seawater is more dense than tap water. Chapter 5.
Which fish experiences a greater pressure?

fish A fish B

Fishbowl filled with seawater Fishbowl filled with tap water

Figure 7.9 Two liquids of different densities will exert different amounts of pressure.

The two fish experience different amounts of pressure depending on the density of the water.
For the same volume, the weight of seawater is greater than the weight of tap water. Thus, fish A
experiences a greater pressure compared to fish B.
We have seen how depth and density affects pressure in a liquid. Therefore, we can conclude
the following:
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth and density.

Worked Example 7C QUICK CHECK

Figure 7.10 shows four identical containers filled with the same amounts of liquids. Two of the
Figure 7.11 shows two
containers contain liquid X and the other two contains liquid Y. beakers containing water.
(a) At which point, A or B, is the pressure greater? Explain. The pressure at point P is

(b) The pressure at C is greater than the pressure at B. What can you conclude from this? greater than the pressure
at point Q.

(c) Compare the pressure at A and the pressure at D.
True or false?

liquid X liquid Y

h
P

A D h
Q
B C
Figure 7.11

Figure 7.10
Solution
(a) The pressure at B is greater than at A. Liquid pressure increases with depth.

(b) Liquid pressure increases with density. This means liquid Y is more dense than liquid X.

(c) The pressure at A is lesser than the pressure at D.

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 Chapter 7
Calculating liquid pressure
Figure 7.12 shows a column of liquid. How can we calculate the change in liquid pressure from
depth h1 to depth h2?
As we go deeper down the liquid column, the pressure increases because there is more liquid
pressing down. This increase or change in pressure can be calculated by considering the additional
force due to the additional weight of liquid.
Based on Figure 7.12,
Volume of the liquid = base area × height = AΔh
Mass of the liquid = density × volume = ρAΔh
HELPFUL NOTES
The additional force, ΔF, exerted by the additional liquid on area A, is the same as the weight W of
• Depth is measured the liquid. This weight is given by W = mg.

Earlier, you have learnt that p = _F_.

as height from the
surface of the liquid. A
• The Greek letter ρ mg
So, Δp = ΔF W_ = ___ = ρAΔhg = ρgΔh
___ = _
(pronounced as rho)
A A A A
is used to represent
density of a liquid. Thus, the change in pressure in a liquid is given by the following equation:
Δp = ˜g Δh
Based on the equation above, it is clear that the pressure due to a liquid increases with
density and depth.

h1

increasing
w depth
∆h = h1 – h2

h2 A
Figure 7.12 Liquid column of height h, base area A and density ρ

Worked Example 7D
surface of seawater
Figure 7.13 shows a small submarine submerged
WORD ALERT below the surface of the sea. The density of seawater is
1030 kg/m3 and the gravitational field strength is 10 N/kg.
Submerged: made (a) The submarine moves from the surface of the sea to a seawater
to sink 3.0 × 103 m
depth as shown in the diagram. Calculate the change
in pressure experienced by the submarine.
(b) The submarine changes its depth. This causes
the pressure exerted on it to change by 0.10 MPa.
Calculate the change in depth of the submarine.

Figure 7.13

10 Pressure

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 Chapter 7
Solution
(a) Change in depth of the submarine, Δh =3.0 x 103 m
QUICK CHECK
Change in pressure, Δ p = ρgΔh
= 1030 kg/m3 × 10 N/kg × 3.0 × 103 m Consider a column of
liquid. The pressure at any
= 3.09 × 107 Pa or 30.9 MPa
point in the liquid depends
(b) From Δp = ρgΔh, change in depth is Δh = Δp only on the height of the
ρg liquid above it.
When Δp = 0.10 MPa = 0.10 × 106 Pa,
True or false?
Δh = 0.10 × 106 N/m2
1030 kg/m3 × 10 N/kg
= 9.7 m
Note that the actual pressure acting on the submarine is the sum of the pressure due to the
seawater and the air pressure at the surface of the water.

Let’s Practise 7.2

1 When an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid exerts pressure on the object. Give two
factors that affects this pressure. WORD ALERT
2 Fill in the blanks with the word greater or less.
Immersed: dipped
(a) The pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool is ________ than the pressure near the
surface of the pool.
(b) Oil is less dense than water. The pressure at the bottom of a bottle of oil is ________
than the pressure at the bottom of an identical bottle of water.
3 Write the equation for the change in pressure beneath a liquid surface.
 A marine biologist dives into the sea to observe marine life. What change in pressure does
TWB LINK
she experience when she is 5 m below the surface of the sea?
(Take density of seawater = 1025 kg/m3 and g = 10 N/kg.) Exercises 7B–7C,
pp. XX–XX
 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
this section. Exercise 7D Let’s Reflect,
p. XX

Pressure 10

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 Chapter 7

Let’s Map It

PRESSURE
is defined as (SI unit: Pa) example

depends on
Force per unit area

p = AF Force
• For the same area, the
where greater the force, the
p = pressure (Pa or N/m2) greater the pressure.
F = force (N) Area
A = area (m2)
• For the same force, the
smaller the area, the
greater the pressure.

Pressure in liquids

increases with

Change in pressure is given by • Depth (height measured from

∆p = ρg∆h surface of liquid)
• Density
where
ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3)
g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
h = height of liquid column (m)

110
˜˜° Pressure

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 Chapter 7

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 2 Figure 7.15 shows a ball bearing sinking in oil inside a

1 Which of the following statements define pressure? measuring cylinder.

A force × depth B force × area

​
​


​
​
force force
C _____ D _____
area depth

​​
 ​​
 
 

​​ 
 
 
​​
2 Figure 7.14 shows a box on a table. The weight of the
oil

box is 50 N. What is the pressure exerted on the table
by the box?

0.2 m ball bearing

0.1 m

Figure 7.16
0.4 m
(a) Describe how the pressure on the ball bearing

Figure 7.14 changes as it sinks in the oil.
(b) The oil in the measuring cylinder is replaced with
A 0.4 Pa B 5 Pa
an equal volume of water. Water is more dense



C 500 Pa D 625 Pa than oil. Would the change in pressure exerted on



3 A diver dives deeper into the sea. She experiences the ball bearing be greater in water than in oil as it

a change in pressure of 1.03 × 105 Pa exerted by the moves down the container? Explain your answer.
​
​
seawater. What is her change in depth? (Take density of 3 Figure 7.17 shows a container of liquid on a table. The

seawater = 1030 kg/m3 and g = 10 N/kg.) density of the liquid is 880 kg/m3. The base area of the
A 1m B 5m container is 0.02 m2. The total mass of the container



C 10 m D 50 m with the liquid inside is 5 kg. Gravitational field strength



is 10 kg/N.
Section B: Short-answer and
Structured Questions
1 Figure 7.15 shows a girl exercising. The pressure she
0.08 m

exerts on the floor in position A is different to that in
A
position B. Explain why.
0.25 m

B
0.06 m

Figure 7.17

(a) Calculate the pressure exerted on the table by the

Position A Position B container of liquid?

Figure 7.15 (b) An object is lowered into the liquid. Calculate the

change in pressure experienced by the object
when it is lowered from A to B.

Pressure 111

0 4:44 AM
07_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 111 24/09/20 5:22 PM
 CHAPTER
Kinetic Particle
8 Model of Matter

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on the three

states of water.

QUESTIONS
A geyser shooting out steam and hot water, a mountain covered • What are the three states of matter?
in snow and a river flowing into the ocean—these are part of our

• Look at the photo. Identify examples
natural world. Since long ago, people have been curious about

of matter in the different states.
the natural materials around them. They tried to classify these • What properties did you use to

materials to understand their properties. The ancient Indians classify these examples?
classified matter into five basic elements—earth, water, fire, air and
empty space. The ancient Greeks believed there were four basic
elements—earth, water, fire and air. Today, most people are familiar
with the three states of matter.

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 Chapter 8

8.1 The States of Matter HELPFUL NOTES

In this section, you will learn the following: Matter in the solid state is
• Know the properties of solids, liquids and gases. usually more dense than
•
• Know the terms for the changes in state between solids, liquids and gases. in the liquid state. Water
•
is an exception. Ice is less
dense than water.

What are the properties of the three states of matter?

All matter can exist in three states — solid, liquid and gas. Water is an example of matter. Figure 8.1
shows the three different states of water.

Gas
Steam, the gaseous state of water, is
invisible to the naked eye. The mist we
see when water boils is actually tiny
water droplets formed by steam that has
condensed in the cool air.
Properties
• No fixed shape or volume
•

• Low density
•

• Compressible
•

• Can flow and take the shape and volume

•

of the container

WORD ALERT

Compressible: can
decrease in size
Low res image Incompressible: cannot
decrease in size

Liquid Solid
Water in the liquid state is found in water bodies Ice, the solid state of water, exists QUICK CHECK
such as oceans and rivers. Only 1% of the Earth’s in many forms, such as snow,
water is suitable for drinking. glaciers, icebergs and ice cubes. The density of oxygen
gas is 0.000 14 g/cm3.
Properties Properties The density of liquid
• Fixed volume but no fixed shape
• • Fixed shape and volume
•
oxygen would be greater
• High density
• • High density
• than this.
• Incompressible
• • Incompressible
•
True or false?
• Can flow and take the shape of the container
• • Cannot flow
•

Figure 8.1 Water exists in three states with different properties.

From Figure 8.1, we can see that the properties of water depend on the state it is in. What happens in
each state of water? How does water change from one state to another?

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 Chapter 8
How does matter change from one state to another?
HELPFUL NOTES
The state of matter depends on the temperature and the pressure the matter is under. Changing the
temperature of matter can change it from one state into another.
Changing state is a
physical change as When a solid is heated, it melts into a liquid at its melting point. A liquid that is heated will boil
no new substances and become a gas at its boiling point. The red arrows in Figure 8.2 show how ice melts into water
are formed. and boils into steam.
When a gas is cooled to its boiling point, it will condense into a liquid. A liquid will freeze/solidify
into a solid when cooled to its melting point. The blue arrows in Figure 8.2 show how steam
LINK condenses into water and freezes/solidifies into ice.

How is evaporation
related to boiling?
Find out more in
boiling
Chapter 9.
steam

melting

condensing

freezing/
ice solidifying water

Figure 8.2 The changes of state between solid, liquid and gas

Let’s Practise 8.1

1 Use the properties of the objects learnt in page 113 explain why

(a) a gold ring is a solid;


(b) milk is a liquid;


(c) air is a gas.


2 (a) Explain what is meant by melting point.


LINK TWB (b) Explain what is meant by condensation.


3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
Exercise 8A, pp. XX–XX

this section.

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 Chapter 8

8.2 The Particle Model

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the particle structure of solids, liquids and gases, and represent these states using simple
•
particle diagrams.
• Know that the forces and distances between particles and the motion of the particles affects the
•
properties of solids, liquids and gases.
• Describe the relationship between the motion of particles and temperature, including the
•
lowest possible temperature (–273°C), known as absolute zero, where the particles have least
kinetic energy.
• Know that the random motion of microscopic particles in a suspension is evidence for the kinetic
•
particle model of matter.
• Describe and explain Brownian motion.
•
• Know that microscopic particles may be moved by collisions with light, fast-moving molecules
•
and correctly use the terms atoms, molecules and particles.

Low res image

What is the kinetic particle model of solids, liquids
and gases?
All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms or molecules. Most atoms join together to make
molecules. A water molecule is formed from two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom (Figure 8.3).
The kinetic particle model of matter states that the tiny particles that make up matter are always
in continuous random motion. This model is used to help us understand the properties of each state Figure 8.3 A model of a
of matter (Figure 8.4). water molecule

Solids Liquids Gases

State of matter
Particle arrangement

• Particles are closely • Particles are slightly further apart than • Particles are far apart from
and movement

packed together. in solids. one another.

• Usually in a regular pattern • Randomly arranged • Randomly arranged
• Large number of particles per • Slightly smaller number of particles per • Small number of particles per
unit volume unit volume unit volume
• Particles vibrate about a • Particles are free to move within • Particles move randomly at
fixed position. the liquid. high speeds.

Figure 8.4 Kinetic particle model of the three states of matter WORD ALERT

Random: without
a pattern, cannot
be predicted

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 Chapter 8
How does the kinetic particle model explain the
properties of solids, liquids and gases?
SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES
Distance Distance Distance
The distance between the The distance between the The distance between the
particles is small, so solids particles in liquids is slightly particles in gases is much
have a high density and greater than in solids. That greater. That is why gases
are incompressible. is why liquids are slightly have low density and
less dense but are still are compressible.
Force
incompressible and have a
As they are close together, Force
fixed volume.
the particles in solids have As the particles are far apart,
strong attractive forces Force there is very little attractive
between them. That is why As the particles are slightly force between them. That
solids have a fixed volume further apart, the attractive is why gases have no fixed
and a fixed shape. forces are not as strong as volume or shape.
The strong attractive forces the particles in solids. The The particles move around
hold the particles in fixed particles in liquids can move at high speed, so gases can
positions. That is why solids around freely. That is why flow and fill the space they
cannot flow. liquids can flow. They do not are put into.
have a fixed shape but take
the shape of their container.

Low res image

solid gas
liquid

Low res image

close together distance between particles far apart

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch

a clip on the kinetic strong force of attraction between particles weak
models of solids, liquids
and gases.

Figure 8.5 The forces and distances between particles affects the properties of solids, liquids and gases.

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 Chapter 8
What happens to the particles when
temperature increases?
When an object is heated, the temperature of the object increases. The average kinetic energy of the
particles in the object increases and the particles move or vibrate faster.
When an object is cooled, the temperature of the object decreases. The average kinetic energy of the
particles in the object decreases and the particles move more slowly.
The lowest temperature where the particles have the least kinetic energy occurs at –273°C.
This temperature is also known as absolute zero.
HELPFUL NOTES
What evidence is there to support the kinetic Brownian motion occurs
particle model of matter? only in fluids. A fluid is any
substance that has the
ability to flow because the
The tiny particles that make up matter cannot be seen with the naked eye. Is there evidence to show
particles can move freely
that these tiny particles are in continuous random motion? (e.g. liquids and gases).
Robert Brown was a botanist who first observed the continuous, random motion of pollen grains
suspended in water. He did not know why the pollen grains were moving (Figure 8.6). Many years
later, it was found that the random motion of the pollen grains was due to the motion of the water
molecules. This constant random motion of the pollen grains in water was named Brownian motion. PHYSICS WATCH

Brownian motion refers to the random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid due to the Scan this page to explore
collisions by the molecules of the fluid. We can only see microscopic particles under the microscope Brownian motion.
as the molecules are too small to be seen. Examples of microscopic particles are pollen grains and

smoke particles.

Why are the pollen grains from dead plants

jiggling around in the water? They can’t ENRICHMENT
be alive. There must be other reasons that INFO
cause the pollen grains to jiggle around. Tea Brewing
Have you ever observed
a cup of hot water
changing colour when
we place a tea bag in?
The spreading of the
golden-brown colour of
the tea is an example of
Brownian motion.
The temperature of
the water is important
to how fast the tea
spreads. The higher the
temperature of the water,
the faster the spreading
of the tea.

Low res image

Figure 8.6 The discovery of the constant random motion of particles by Robert Brown

Brownian motion is also displayed by smoke particles in air (Let’s Investigate 8A).

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 Chapter 8
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 8A
10A eye
Objective
To study Brownian motion of smoke particles
Materials
Microscope, torchlight, glass cell containing smoke glass cell
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 8.7.

2 Seal a glass cell containing some

smoke and place it under
the microscope. glass lid
3 Focus the microscope such

that the smoke particles in
the glass cell appear as bright
dots. The smoke particles torchlight Figure 8.8 Smoke
particles moving in a
appear as bright dots because random manner
smoke
they scatter the light that
particles
shines on them.
LINK PWB 4 Observe the motion of the Figure 8.7 Experimental set-up to

smoke particles (Figure 8.8). observe Brownian motion
Practical 8,
Observations
pp. xx–xx
1 The smoke particles moved in a random manner.

2 The larger the particles, the less vigorous the motion.

WORD ALERT Discussion and conclusion
The smoke particles moved randomly because air molecules were colliding with them
Vigorous: moving with a randomly. Air molecules are too small to be seen under the microscope. This random motion of
great force smoke particles in air is an example of Brownian motion.

QUICK CHECK How does Brownian motion occur?

Brownian motion occurs Air consists mainly of nitrogen molecules, N2, and oxygen molecules, O2. These molecules are too small
in solids. to be seen under the microscope. A smoke particle is a solid lump of many carbon atoms. When light is
True or false? shone on a mixture of smoke particles in air, the smoke particles can be seen as tiny specks of reflected
light. How can a larger, more massive particle be affected by smaller lighter molecules in the air?
There are millions of molecules in the air moving at high speeds in all directions. This means that
there are many collisions on each smoke particle happening all the time. The smoke particle is
constantly pushed one way and then another. As we cannot see the molecules, the smoke particles
appear to be constantly moving small distances in a random path.

Let’s Practise 8.2

1 Describe the particle structure and arrangement of ice, water and steam.
2 Using the kinetic particle model of matter, explain
(a) why a liquid takes the shape of its container;

(b) why the density of a gas is less than that of a solid;

LINK TWB
(c) why the smell of the perfume spreads throughout the room.

3 (a) Explain what Brownian motion is.

Exercise 8B,
pp. XX–XX
(b) How would Brownian motion change if the temperature is increased?

4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 8

8.3 Gases and the Absolute Scale


of Temperature
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the pressure and the changes in pressure of a gas.
•
• Describe the pressure and changes in pressure of a gas as force per unit area.
•
• Describe qualitatively, the effect on the pressure of a fixed mass of gas with changing temperature
•
at constant volume and changing volume at constant temperature.
• Recall and use the equation pV = constant for a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature,
•
including a graphical representation of this relationship.
• Convert temperatures between kelvin and degrees Celsius.
•
• Recall and use the relationship T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273.
•
How do gases exert a pressure?
The kinetic particle model also explains how a gas exerts a pressure. Figure 8.9 is a diagram of gas
particles in a container.

Figure 8.9 The constant collision of air particles on the walls of the container exerts a pressure on the container.

The gas particles are moving randomly in all directions. They collide with one another and with the
walls of the container. The pressure on the container is caused by the constant collisions of many
particles with its walls.
When the particles collide with the walls of the container, they exert a force on the wall (Figure 8.9).
The force from one collision is small but as there are many particles colliding all of the time, the force LINK
exerted is large.
From Chapter 7, we learnt that pressure is force per unit area. Hence, the force exerted by the Recall what you have
collisions of gas particles on the container gives rise to the pressure on the container. learnt about pressure in
Chapter 7.
What do you think will happen to the pressure of the gas in the container if the temperature is
increased but the volume stays the same?

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 Chapter 8
How does the pressure of a gas vary with
its temperature?
When the temperature of the air in the tyres increases, the pressure of the air in the tyres also
increases. Can the kinetic particle model be used to explain this relationship? Let us consider what
happens to a fixed mass of air inside a tyre of fixed volume (Figure 8.10).

1 When the car is moving, the tyres get heated. This causes the
temperature of the air in the tyres to rise.

2 The air particles collide with the inner surface of the tyres
more vigorously and more frequently.

3 Using the kinetic particle model of matter, a rise in the

temperature of the air causes an increase in the average
speed of the air particles.

4 The average force per collision between the air particles

and the wall of the tyre increases, and since the volume of
the tyres is fixed, the pressure inside the tyres increases.
Figure 8.10 Heat generated in an overinflated car tyre after a long journey could burst the tyre because of
increased pressure.
ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY For a fixed volume and mass of gas, increasing its temperature results in an increase in the speeds of
Make a bottle crumple the gas particles (Figure 8.11). This increases the rate at which the particles collide with the walls of
using air pressure! the container.
Pour very hot water
into a plastic bottle
until it is half full.
slower–moving faster–moving
(Note: Be careful not gas particles at gas particles at
to burn yourself with temperature T temperature 2T
the water!)
Swirl the water around
in the bottle for about
a minute. Pour the
water out and quickly
screw the cap tightly
onto the bottle. Figure 8.11 The speed of the gas particles increases as temperature increases.
Pour cold water
over the sides of the
From Figure 8.12, we can see that the gas pressure of a gas Pressure/Pa
bottle. The bottle will at fixed volume and mass increases with temperature.
suddenly crumple. What do you think will happen to the pressure of the gas in
Can you use the kinetic the container if the volume is increased but the temperature
particle model of is constant?
matter to explain why
the bottle crumples?

PHYSICS WATCH
Figure 8.12 Pressure–temperature
graph of a gas at constant volume 0 Temperature/K
Scan this page to
explore the pressure–
temperature relationship
of a gas.

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 Chapter 8
How does the pressure of a gas vary with its volume?
Have you noticed how bubbles in a fish tank increase in size as they rise from the bottom of the
tank to the top? Do you know why this happens? Using the apparatus in Figure 8.13, let us study the
relationship between the pressure and the volume of a gas when its temperature remains constant.
The gas to be studied is trapped in the syringe. Pressure is measured by the pressure gauge, and
volume is read from the syringe’s scale when the gas is at the same temperature as its surroundings.
When the piston is pushed inwards, the pressure registered by the pressure gauge increases. Why?

Using the kinetic particle model pressure gauge

of matter, a decrease in the 1
volume of gas means that the
number of particles per unit syringe
volume increases. gas piston

Therefore, the gas particles collide 2

more frequently with the inner
surface of the syringe and this
results in a greater pressure as
shown on the pressure gauge.

Figure 8.13 Experimental set-up to study the volume and

pressure of a gas at constant temperature

For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, a decrease in volume results in particles having less
space to move in (Figure 8.14). Hence, this increases the rate at which particles collide with the walls
of the container.

QUICK CHECK

When the volume

Gas particles at Gas particles at of the gas in Figure 8.14
volume 2V volume V increases, the
pressure decreases.
Figure 8.14 The amount of space that the particles can move in decreases as volume decreases.
True or false?
The gas pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature increases when the volume decreases.

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 Chapter 8
From Figure 8.14, when the volume of the gas is halved, the pressure of the gas is doubled.
The decrease in the volume resulting in a proportional increase in pressure is known as inverse
proportionality. Figure 8.15 is a graph showing the inverse proportion relationship between
pressure and volume.

p
p

1
Plotting p against
V
gives a straight line

1
V V
HELPFUL NOTES
Figure 8.15 Pressure-volume Figure 8.16 Pressure-1/volume
graph of a gas at graph of a gas at constant temperature
µ is a symbol used constant temperature
to represent that a
physical quantity is For an inverse proportionality,
proportional to another
physical quantity.
p µ 1 or p = k where p = pressure
V V

k = proportionality constant
V = volume

Rearranging the equation p = k , we will get pV = k or pV = constant

ENRICHMENT V
 

THINK If we have a gas at pressure p1, volume V1, and we change the pressure and the volume of the gas to
A balloon is tied to the p2 and V2 at constant temperature, we can write the equations like this:
top of a jar. A vacuum
pump then pumps
Initial p1V1 = k
air out of the jar and Final p2V2 = k
the balloon expands
As k is the same for both equations, we can combine the two equations.
(Figure 8.17).
\ p1V1 = p2V2
Using the above equation, we can find the change in the pressure and/or the volume of a gas at
constant temperature.

Worked Example 8A
Before After

Figure 8.17 A balloon in

A gas cylinder contains 600 ml of carbon dioxide at a pressure of 2 × 107 Pa. Assuming that
a jar expands when air the temperature of the gas does not change, calculate the volume of the gas at atmospheric
in the jar is removed. pressure, 1 × 105 Pa. ​ ​

1 Explain why the Solution

Given: p1 = 2 × 107 Pa

balloon expands ​ ​

when air is removed p2 = 1 × 105 Pa

​ ​

from the jar.

2 Describe what will

V1 = 600 ml
happen when air is p1V1 = p2V2
let back into the jar.
2 × 10 × 600 = 1 × 105 × V2
7
3 Which relationship is
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

this demonstrating? V2 = 1.2 × 10 ml ​ ​

5

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 Chapter 8
How did absolute zero lead to a new
temperature scale?
Most countries use degrees Celsius, °C, to measure temperature. On the Celsius scale, 0°C is the
temperature of pure melting ice and 100°C is the temperature of pure boiling water at standard
100°C
pressure. The scale between these two temperatures is divided into 100 ticks with equal spacing,
where the difference between each tick equals to 1°C change (Figure 8.18).
Temperature can also be measured using kelvin, K , which is the SI unit for temperature. The
Kelvin scale of temperature has absolute zero as 0 kelvin, or 0K. One degree change on the Kelvin
scale is the same as one degree change on the Celsius scale. This makes it easy to convert from one
temperature scale to another (Figure 8.19).

change in temperature = 100°C

Celsius
–273°C 0°C 100°C scale
0°C
change in temperature = 100K

Kelvin
0K 273K 373K scale

Figure 8.19 Celsius scale and Kelvin scale

From Figure 8.19, can you see how to convert a temperature (θ) measured in °C into a temperature (T) Figure 8.18 A glass
thermometer with a
in K? Celsius scale
T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

LINK
Worked Example 8B
Recall that absolute zero
The temperature in a room is 20°C. What is the temperature of the room in kelvin? = –273°C in Section 8.2 of
this chapter.
Solution
T (in kelvin) = θ (in °C) + 273
T = 20 + 273
= 293K HELPFUL NOTES

T is usually used to refer

to temperature in kelvin
Let’s Practise 8.3 and θ is usually used to
refer to temperature in
degrees Celsius.
1 Using the kinetic particle model of matter, explain

(a) how the air particles in a container exert pressure on the walls of the container;


(b) why the pressure of the air increases as the temperature increases.


2 (a) Describe how the pressure of a gas changes with volume when the temperature of the


gas is constant.
(b) Give the equation for the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas when TWB LINK


the temperature of the gas is constant. Exercises 8C–8D,
3 Describe one similarity and one difference between the Celsius and Kelvin pp. XX–XX

temperatures scales. Exercise 8E Let's Practise,
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section. p. XX

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 Chapter 8

Let’s Map It
KINETIC is
proven

PARTICLE MODEL
by Brownian
motion

states that OF MATTER

Particles have greater
kinetic energy at 0K in kelvin
Matter is made of higher temperature
tiny particles that where
converted using the
are in continuous equation
random motion. Particles have which T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273
least energy at
which exist absolute zero
–273°C in
in three degree Celsius
states
known as

Solids Liquids Gases

• Particles are • Particles are • Particles
closely packed melting slightly further apart boiling are far apart
• Arranged in a • Randomly arranged • Randomly arranged
regular pattern • Slightly smaller • Small number of particles
• Large number of number of particles per per unit volume
particles per unit volume unit volume • Particles move randomly
freezing/ condensing
• Particles vibrate about • Particles can move at high speeds
fixed positions
solidifying freely within the liquid
• Attractive forces
• Attractive forces • Attractive forces between particles
between particles are between particles are are negligible
very strong moderately strong

where

Gas pressure is due to the collision

of gas particles with the walls of
the container

which which
increases decreases
with with

Temperature Volume
at constant at constant
volume temperature

its equation
is given by

pV = k

124
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 Chapter 8

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Section B: Short-answer and
1 Which states of matter are fluids? Structured Questions

A Liquids and gases only 1 (a) What is seen moving in a Brownian



B Solids and liquids only motion experiment?

C Solids, liquids and gases (b) Why is a microscope necessary to observe

D Solids and gases only Brownian motion?

2 Which of the following statements about Brownian (c) Explain how Brownian motion provides evidence

for the kinetic particle model of matter.

motion is correct?
A It applies to gases only. 2 Figure 8.20 is a diagram of a bicycle pump.

B The motion of smoke particles in air is due to the handle oiled leather washer

smoke particles colliding with one another.
C The smoke particles in air can be observed to dance trapped air

in a regular pattern.
D The smoke particles in air will slow down when the nozzle
shaft barrel

air temperature is decreased.
3 A gas is heated in a sealed container of constant Figure 8.20

volume. Which of the following will not increase?
A The average speed of the gas particles When the nozzle of the pump is blocked and the

handle is slowly pushed to the right, the temperature

B The number of particles per unit volume
of the air in the barrel remains constant, while the

C The pressure of the gas
pressure of the air rises.

D The temperature of the gas
(a) Using the motion of the air particles, explain how


4 Which statement is not correct? the trapped air creates pressure on the washer.

A 300K is equal to 27°C. Assume that there is no leakage of air past

B –273°C is the coldest temperature possible. the washer.

C Ice melts at 273K. (b) Why does the pressure of the air in the barrel


D The lowest temperature on the Celsius scale is 0°C. increase when the handle is slowly pushed in?

5 Which statement is not needed to explain why a gas 3 A sample of gas at atmospheric pressure of 1 × 105 Pa

​
​

exerts a pressure on the walls of its container? has a volume of 100 cm3.
A Gas particles cause a force on the walls of the (a) Determine the pressure of the gas when its volume


container as they collide. is halved.
B Gas particles collide with one another. (b) Determine the pressure of the gas if the volume is


C Gas particles collide with the walls of the container. reduced to 85 cm3.

(c) Determine the volume if the pressure is reduced to
D Pressure, p = force

area 6 x 104 Pa.

Kinetic Particle Model of Matter 125

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 CHAPTER
Thermal Properties
9 and Temperature

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to take a short quiz.

QUESTIONS

• Why do you think the railway track

shown in the photo has buckled?
• How can you tell from this photo that

large forces have acted?
• Why is it important to prevent buckling

of railway tracks?
• Can you think of ways to prevent this
The railway track shown in the photo was originally built to be

from happening?
a straight-line track. However, tracks such as this often buckle
or bend during hot weather. Engineers need to apply their
understanding of thermal properties of matter to reduce the
problem of track buckling.

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 Chapter 9

9.1 Thermal Expansion

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe qualitatively the thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases at constant pressure.
•

Describe some of the everyday applications and consequences of thermal expansion.
•

Explain, in terms of the motion and arrangement of particles, the relative order of magnitudes of

the expansion of solids, liquids and gases as their temperatures rise.

What happens when materials are heated?

Solids, liquids and gases increase in volume or expand when heated. The greater the temperature
rise, the greater the expansion. When cooled, the volume will decrease, i.e., it will contract.
The amount that solids expand is so small that it cannot be detected visually. In Figure 9.1 the
metal ball just passes through the metal ring at room temperature. After heating, the metal ball has
expanded. It is now too big to pass through the metal ring.

after
heating
PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch

an experiment on
thermal expansion and
contraction of a solid.

Figure 9.1 Expansion of a metal

Liquids expand more than solids for the same temperature rise. This is the principle behind liquid-in-
glass thermometers (Figure 9.2).

bulb capillary tube

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

alcohol
expansion of liquid
-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

Figure 9.2 Expansion of a liquid in a thermometer

When the bulb of alcohol is heated, you can see the liquid expanding along the thin
capillary tube inside.
Gases expand much more than liquids. The warmth of your hands is enough to make air
expand by a large amount. As shown in Figure 9.3, the air in the test tube expands and
bubbles of air are seen escaping from the tube.

Figure 9.3 Expansion of air

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 Chapter 9
Why do solids, liquids and gases expand by
LINK
different amounts?
Recall what you have
learnt in Chapter 8 about Heating materials gives the particles more kinetic energy. In
the effect of particles in solids, the particles vibrate more vigorously. Strong forces
matter when it is heated. between them results in a small expansion.
In liquids, the particles move around faster. The forces
between the particles are weaker as compared to solids, so
the expansion is greater.
QUICK CHECK liquid
Gas particles move about the fastest as compared to solid
and liquid particles. Gases have the greatest expansion Before heating After heating
Solids expand
because their particles because there is little force between the particles. Figure 9.4 The volume of a liquid expands
become bigger. when heated, while the size of the particles
When materials are heated, the particles themselves do not remains the same.
True or false? expand, but the volume that they occupy does (Figure 9.4).

What are the applications and consequences

of expansion?
As shown in the chapter opener, if there is no space to expand, large forces may act. Engineers must
take expansion into account when designing structures.

Railway lines
Some railway lines have expansion gap
expansion gaps to allow
for expansion when the
lines get hot. (Figure 9.5)
Modern railway lines do
not have gaps. This is to
allow the trains to move
more smoothly. The lines
are designed to fit tightly
on a hot day. On cold
days, the lines contract, Low res image
but they are still held
in place by supporting
structures underneath.

Figure 9.5 Expansion gaps in a length of rail

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 Chapter 9
Bridges
Bridges also expand and contract with changes in temperature. Figure 9.6 shows an expansion gap
at one end of a concrete bridge. Another way of allowing for expansion is to put one end of the
bridge on rollers (Figure 9.7).

Low res image

Low res image

Figure 9.6 Expansion gaps in a bridge roadway Figure 9.7 Rollers supporting one end of a bridge

Shrink fitting
Expansion can be used to fix two metal parts together using shrink fitting.
An example is fitting a metal axle into a metal train wheel (Figure 9.8). The metal axle is first made
too large for the hole in the metal train wheel. Then, the axle is cooled to shrink so it will fit into the
wheel. When the axle warms up and expands, the two metals are firmly held together.

metal train wheel

metal axle

Before

After

Figure 9.8 Shrink fitting two metal parts together using thermal expansion

Let’s Practise 9.1

1 What evidence is there that the forces caused by expansion are large?

2 Explain why overhead telephone wires hang more loosely on a hot day.

3 Explain using the kinetic particle model of matter why solids contract when they LINK
TWB

are cooled.
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 9A,

this section. pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 9

9.2 Specific Heat Capacity

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that a rise in the temperature of an object increases its internal energy.
•

Describe an increase in temperature in terms of an increase in the average kinetic energies of all

of the particles in the object.
• Recall and use the equation c = DE .

mDθ
•
Describe experiments to measure the specific heat capacity of a solid and a liquid.

What is internal energy?

The internal energy of a substance is the total energy of all of its particles. When the temperature
of a substance is above 0 Kelvin, there is internal energy. In Figure 9.9, thermal energy is transferred
from the flame of the Bunsen burner to the water. The internal energy of the water increases because
the particles have gained kinetic energy. The water becomes hotter. Therefore, the higher the
temperature, the greater the internal energy.
The higher the temperature of a substance (measured in °C or K), the greater the internal energy of the
substance (measured in J).
The thermal energy from the Bunsen burner causes the water molecules to move faster. Molecules
that move faster have greater kinetic energy. The internal energy of the water has increased because
the total energy of all of the molecules has increased.

1 Thermal energy from the 2 The internal energy of

flame is transferred from the water increases.
the base of the beaker into
the water.

water

Bunsen burner
Figure 9.9 Heating a beaker of water

Temperature is a measure of
the average kinetic energy of
the particles. The higher the
temperature, the greater the
internal energy.

Figure 9.10 The molecules have higher kinetic energy when heated up.

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 Chapter 9
What is specific heat capacity?
It is useful to be able to calculate how much energy is needed to heat things. What do you think this
depends on?
When you boil water for a drink, the more water you heat, the longer it takes to boil. This shows that
• the thermal energy needed depends on the mass of water being heated.
•
If the water is colder to begin with, it takes longer to boil. This shows that
• the thermal energy needed depends on the temperature change.
•
Water takes a lot of thermal energy to heat up compared with other substances. This is why sand on
a beach heats up — and cools down — more quickly than the sea. This shows that
• the thermal energy needed depends on the material being heated.
•
Specific heat capacity c is defined as the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass (e.g. 1 kg) of a substance by 1°C (or 1 K).
The definition gives us the equation for specific heat capacity:
DE QUICK CHECK
c = mD q
​
 
where DE = thermal energy required (in J) Refer to Table 9.1. It
requires more energy to
​
​
Dθ = temperature change (in K or °C) raise the temperature of

m = mass of substance (in kg) 1 kg of sea water by 1 K
than 1 kg of tap water.

The SI unit of specific heat capacity is the joule per kilogram per kelvin, J/(kg K), or the joule per
True or false?
kilogram per degree Celcius, J/(kg°C).
The equation can be rearranged as DE = mcDθ.
Table 9.1 shows that the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/(kg K). This tells us that it takes
4200 joules of energy to change the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.

Table 9.1 Specific heat capacity of some common materials

Methylated
Material Lead Mercury Brass Zinc Copper Iron Glass Aluminium Seawater Water
spirit
Specific heat
capacity 130 140 380 390 400 460 670 900 2400 3900 4200
J/(kg K)

Worked Example 9A HELPFUL NOTES

Calculate the temperature change of 1 kg of copper when it is supplied with 4200 J of Remember that a
thermal energy. temperature change
of 1 K is the same as a
Solution temperature change
Using ∆E = mcDθ of 1°C.
​
​
4200 = 1 x 400 x (Dθ)

Dθ = 10.5 K

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 Chapter 9
How is specific heat capacity determined?
Let’s Investigate 9A shows how the specific heat capacity of solid can be determined using a
cylindrical block of metal. The block has a hole bored for the heater and another for the temperature
sensor (Figure 9.11).

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 9A
10A
Objective
To determine the specific heat capacity of a solid
Apparatus and materials
Metal block with holes drilled in for heater and temperature sensor, temperature sensor
and data logger, electrical heater, d.c. power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting
leads, insulating felt cloth for metal block, electronic balance, stopwatch
Procedure
1 Measure and record the ammeter
A

mass, m, of the solid with an
electronic balance.
2 Wrap the block with felt cloth.
temperature V d.c. source

This is to reduce heat loss to
sensor
the surroundings. voltmeter
3 Connect the d.c. power

LINK source to the heater and put insulation
the heater into one of the
Investigations 9A and
holes of the block. Place the
9B use the equation for
temperature sensor into the cylindrical
electrical power, which is
explained in Chapter 16. other hole (Figure 9.11). block with
4 Connect the temperature two bores

sensor to the data logger.
Set the data logger to heater
ENRICHMENT record temperature. solid
THINK 5 Start recording the

Not all of the thermal temperature. Note the initial
energy from the heater Figure 9.11
temperature θ1.
will go into the solid.
6 Switch on the power supply for t seconds.
1 Explain why.

7 After t seconds, switch off the heater. Continue recording the temperature for a while. Note

2 What does this

the highest temperature θT reached.

mean about the
value used for DE
​
​
in this experiment? Calculation
3 How will it affect Power P of heater = current I × voltage V
​
​

the result of Since it is used for t seconds, the thermal energy DE provided by the heater = IVt
the experiment?
​
​
4 Will the value for Assuming all of the thermal energy provided by the heater is absorbed by the solid block,

c be higher or ∆E = mcDθ
​
​
lower than the
expected value? IVt = mcDθ
where Dθ= θT – θ1
Therefore, the specific heat capacity of aluminium is given by
LINK PWB IVt
c =
mDθ
​
 
Practical 9A, Note: Since we assume that no heat is lost to the surroundings in the calculation above, good
pp. XX–XX insulation is important in this experiment.

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 Chapter 9
Worked Example 9B
An electric heating coil supplies 50 W of power to a metal block of 0.60 kg. In 90 s, the
temperature of the block is raised from 20°C to 45°C. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the
metal. State the assumption you made to arrive at your answer.
Solution
Given: Power P of heater = 50 W

Time taken t = 90 s
Mass m of block = 0.60 kg
Change in temperature D θ = 45°C − 20°C
 
​
​
= 25°C

Thermal energy supplied by heater = P × t = 50 W × 90 s = 4500 J
​
​
​
​
Assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings,
thermal energy supplied by the heater = thermal energy absorbed by the block
Pt = mc(Dθ)

​
Therefore, the specific heat capacity c of the metal = Pt
mDθ
= 4500 J
0.60 kg × 25

= 300 J/(kg K)

Worked Example 9C
Some liquid in a copper calorimeter was heated using an electrical heater in order to find its
specific heat capacity. The results are given below. WORD ALERT
Mass of calorimeter = 270 g Time = 360 s
Calorimeter: an


Mass of liquid = 260 g Initial temperature = 18°C apparatus used to


Potential difference = 12.0 V Final temperature = 30°C measure heat


Current = 3.4 A

(a) Use the results to find

(i) the energy in joules supplied by the heater;


(ii) the energy in joules absorbed by the calorimeter;


(iii) the specific heat capacity of the liquid.


(b) State the assumptions that have been made in your answer to (a)(iii).

Copper has a specific heat capacity of 400 J/(kg K).
Solution
(a) (i) Energy supplied by heater = IVt = 3.4 A × 12.0 V × 360 s = 14 688 J


​
​
​
​
(ii) Energy absorbed by calorimeter = mcDθ = 0.27 kg × 400 J/ (kg K) × (30 – 18)°C = 1296 J


​
​
​
​
​
​
(iii) D E = energy supplied by heater – energy absorbed by calorimeter


​
 
​
​
​
= 14 688 J – 1296 J HELPFUL NOTES


​
​
= 13 392 J


The principle of
Specific heat capacity c = DE = 13 392 J = 4292 J/(kg K) conservation of energy,
mDθ 0.26 kg × (30 − 18)°C


covered in Chapter 6,
(c) The assumption is that all of the energy from the heater is absorbed by the calorimeter is useful for solving

and water. problems in this chapter.

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 Chapter 9
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 9B
10A
Objective
To determine the specific heat capacity of a liquid
Materials
Polystyrene cup and polystyrene lid with holes for heater and temperature sensor, liquid e.g.
water or oil, electronic balance, temperature sensor and data logger, electrical heater, d.c. power
supply, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting leads, stopwatch
Procedure
1 Measure and record the mass of d.c. source A

liquid m. +
V
2 Pour the liquid, whose specific heat –

capacity c we want to determine, into
the polystyrene cup.
temperature
3 Place the heater and the temperature sensor

sensor in the liquid (Figure 9.12).
polystyrene
4 Connect the temperature sensor to
lid

the data logger. Set the data logger to
record temperature.
polystyrene
5 Start the recording of temperature. liquid beaker

Note the initial temperature θ1.
6 Switch on the power supply for
Figure 9.12

t seconds.
7 After t seconds switch off the heater. Continue recording the temperature for a while. Note

the highest temperature θ2 reached.

Calculation
Thermal energy supplied by heater, D E = IVt
​
 
​
Thermal energy absorbed by liquid = mcDθ = mc(θ2 – θ1)
Assuming all the thermal energy supplied is absorbed by the liquid, (i.e. no heat loss to
the surroundings),
thermal energy supplied by heater = thermal energy absorbed by liquid
LINK PWB
IVt = mc(θ2 – θ1)
IVt

Practical 9B, Therefore, the specific heat capacity c of the liquid is given by c =
pp. XX–XX m(θ2 − θ1)

Let’s Practise 9.2

1 A beaker contains 100 cm3 of water at 20°C. State whether the following changes would

cause the internal energy of the water to increase, decrease or stay the same.
(a) Heating the water to 40°C


(b) Boiling the water to 100°C


(c) Removing 50 cm3 of water from the beaker


(d) Adding 50 cm3 of water at 20°C to the beaker


2 Explain why on a hot sunny day the sand at the beach is hotter than the water in the sea.

LINK TWB 3 100 g of a metal needs 1000 J to raise its temperature by 9°C. Calculate the specific heat

capacity of the metal.
Exercise 9B,
pp. XX–XX 4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

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 Chapter 9

9.3 Changes of State

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe melting and boiling in terms of energy input without a change in temperature.
•

Know the melting and boiling temperatures for water at standard atmospheric pressure.
•

Describe condensation and solidification in terms of particles.
•

Describe evaporation in terms of the escape of more energetic particles from the surface of a liquid.
•

Know that evaporation causes cooling of a liquid.
•

Describe the differences between boiling and evaporation.
•

Describe how temperature, surface area and air movement over a surface affect evaporation.
•

Explain the cooling of an object in contact with an evaporating liquid.

What happens to the temperature when materials
change state?
Remember from Chapter 8 that melting occurs when a solid changes into a liquid upon
being heated. Boiling occurs when a liquid turns into a gas upon being heated. You can find out
using the apparatus shown in Figure 9.13 what happens to the temperature of a substance when it
changes state.
Start with very cold crushed ice from the freezer. Heat it and record the temperature every minute
until the melted ice boils.

retort stand Temperature/°C

laboratory
thermometer D E
100
4 boiling (liquid + gas)
80
beaker
60
crushed
3 liquid water
ice 40
slow
20 2 melting
flame
B (solid + liquid)
Bunsen 0
–10 C Time/min
burner A 1 ice
tripod stand

Figure 9.13 Heating ice Figure 9.14 Graph of heating curve of water

Figure 9.14 shows a graph of temperature against time.

From A to B, the graph is a curve. The temperature of the ice rises from –10°C to 0°C. There is a change
of temperature. The thermal energy is being taken in to increase the temperature.
From B to C, the graph is a horizontal straight line. The temperature remains constant at 0°C.
Thermal energy continues to be supplied from the Bunsen burner but there is no change
in temperature. There is a change of state — the ice is melting into water. The thermal energy is being
taken in to change state.
From C to D, the temperature rises from 0°C to 100°C. There is a change of temperature. The thermal
energy is being taken in to increase the temperature.
From D to E, the temperature remains constant at 100°C. There is no change in temperature even
though thermal energy is still being absorbed. There is a change of state — the water is boiling and
changing into steam. The thermal energy is being taken in to change state.

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 Chapter 9
Why is energy needed when a substance changes its state? The kinetic model of matter can
explain this.
During melting:
The particles in a solid are held in fixed positions by strong bonds. Energy is needed to break the
bonds. When the bonds are broken, the particles can move out of their fixed positions and are
slightly further apart from each other. The solid has melted. Melting takes place at the melting point
without a change in temperature. From Figure 9.14, you can see that the melting point of pure water
is 0°C.
The melting point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure of 1 atmosphere is 0°C.
During boiling:
The particles in a liquid have strong forces between them. Energy is needed to break the bonds
and separate the particles further apart. Energy is also required for the particles to overcome the
atmospheric pressure in order to escape into the air. When these happen, the liquid has boiled.
Boiling takes place at the boiling point without a change in temperature. From Figure 9.14, you can
see that the boiling point of water is 100°C.
The boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure of 1 atmosphere is 100°C.
We have seen how energy is absorbed when a solid melts and a liquid boils. What do you think
happens to this energy when a liquid solidifies (i.e. freezes) and a gas condenses?
During condensation:
The reverse of boiling occurs. When a gas condenses into a liquid, forces pull the particles closer and
energy is released.
During solidification (freezing):
The reverse of melting occurs. Strong forces pull the particles in a liquid into fixed positions to form a
solid. Energy is released.
Figure 9.15 shows the graph for condensation and solidification.

Temperature/°C
boiling point/
ENRICHMENT condensation
INFO point of substance 90 A
The higher you go
1 gas
above sea level, the
lower the atmospheric 80 B C
pressure becomes. This 2 condensation
causes water to boil at (gas and liquid) 3 liquid
a lower temperature. 70 D E
On Mount Everest,
water boils at about 4 solidification
70°C. (liquid and solid) 5 solid
60 melting point/freezing
In cold countries, the
point of substance
air warms up before it
snows. This is because F
thermal energy is 50
Time/min
released by water as
it freezes. Figure 9.15 Graph showing the changes of state as matter loses heat
A burn from steam at
100°C is more painful
than a burn from
What is evaporation?
boiling water. This is
because the steam
If you observe a floor that has just been mopped, you will notice that the wet surface of the floor
releases more thermal soon dries up. The thin layer of water on the surface of the floor has evaporated. Evaporation, like
energy on condensing boiling, involves a change of state from liquid to gas.
than water cooling
from its boiling point.

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 Chapter 9
The kinetic theory of matter explains how evaporation occurs (Figure 9.16).

1
The molecules in a liquid are
always moving randomly
at different speeds (i.e.
they have different 3 The less energetic molecules
kinetic energies).

are left behind. The average
kinetic energy of the
2 At the surface, the molecules in the liquid
decreases, and therefore the

liquid molecules that
have enough energy to average temperature of the
overcome the downward liquid decreases.
attractive forces of the
other liquid molecules and
the atmospheric pressure
escape into the atmosphere.

Figure 9.16 How evaporation occurs

Evaporation causes cooling

When you step out of a swimming pool on a windy day, you feel cold. This is because the water is
evaporating from your skin surface, which results in a decrease in temperature.

ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Drinking bird toy
The drinking bird is a
toy that rocks to and
fro, repeatedly dipping
its beak into a glass
of water.
In groups, use the
Internet to research the
Figure 9.17 The girl feels cold due to the cooling effect of evaporation.
drinking bird. Use the
key phrases ‘drinking
Why does evaporation cause cooling? bird’, ‘dipping bird’ or
On a hot day, your body perspires. The sweat evaporates from the surface of your skin. ‘drinking duck’.
During the evaporation process, water molecules with enough kinetic energy escape into Write a series of steps
the air. These water molecules have to overcome the attractive forces among themselves as to explain how it works.
well as the pressure of the atmosphere. Your report should
include the process
The fastest moving molecules escape into the air, leaving behind the molecules with lower of evaporation.
kinetic energy. The average kinetic energy of the water molecules in the perspiration thus Share your findings to
decreases, resulting in a lower temperature. The evaporated water molecules carry away the the rest of the class.
body’s latent heat into the air, cooling the body down.

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 Chapter 9

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 9C
10A
Objective
To demonstrate that evaporation causes cooling
Materials
A laboratory thermometer (or a temperature sensor connected to a data logger), some
absorbent tissue paper, a beaker of water at room temperature, retort stand and clamp, some
adhesive tape or a rubber band, a cold air fan

Figure 9.18 Evaporation causes cooling

Procedure
• Cover the thermometer bulb in tissue paper and attach it with adhesive tape or a
•
rubber band.
• Dip the thermometer bulb covered with tissue paper into the water.
•
• Clamp the thermometer on a retort stand so the bulb is in front of the fan.
•
• Note the initial temperature.
•
• Blow cold air over the thermometer bulb for three minutes.
•
• Note the final temperature.
•
Observation and discussion
LINK PWB
After three minutes the temperature drops by several degrees. The water evaporates into water
vapour. This change of state requires thermal energy which is removed from the thermometer,
Practical 9C, causing it to cool. The cold air fan increases the rate of evaporation. This shows that the
pp. XX–XX evaporation of the water causes cooling.

What is the difference between evaporation

and boiling?
Boiling and evaporation both involve a liquid becoming a gas and require thermal energy. Boiling
occurs throughout the liquid when it reaches its boiling point, while evaporation occurs at all
temperatures. The differences are summarised in Table 9.2.

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 Chapter 9
Table 9.2 Differences between boiling and evaporation

Boiling Evaporation
QUICK CHECK
• Occurs at a particular temperature • Occurs at any temperature


• Relatively fast • Relatively slow Thermal energy is
given out when a gas


• Takes place throughout the liquid • Takes place only at the liquid surface condenses into a liquid


and taken in when a
• Bubbles are formed in the liquid • No bubbles are formed in the liquid
liquid changes into a gas.


• Temperature remains constant • Temperature may change True or false?


• External thermal energy source required • External thermal energy source not required


Factors that affect the rate of evaporation are shown in Figure 9.19.

Temperature
Although evaporation can occur
at any temperature, raising the
temperature of the liquid will increase
the rate of evaporation. A warmer
liquid means that a greater number
of molecules at the surface layer are
energetic enough to escape.

Surface area of the liquid

The rate of evaporation increases
Rate of when a larger area of liquid is
evaporation is exposed. This is because evaporation
only takes place at the exposed
affected by surface of a liquid. A larger exposed
surface area means more molecules
can escape from the liquid.

Movement of air
Moving air removes the liquid
molecules as soon as they escape
from the liquid surface. This makes
the air surrounding the liquid drier.
Therefore, the rate of evaporation
increases when the surrounding air
is moving.

Figure 9.19 What affects the rate of evaporation?

Let’s Practise 9.3

1 Explain why spraying perfume on the skin produces a cooling effect. LINK
TWB

2 Explain why energy is needed to turn a solid into a liquid.

3 Explain why puddles evaporate more quickly on a warm day than a cold day. Exercises 9C–9D,
pp. XX–XX

4 Give two factors that make wet clothes on a washing line dry more quickly.
Exercise 9E Let’s Practise,

5 Give one similarity and one difference between evaporation and boiling. p. XX

6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

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 Chapter 9

Let’s Map It

THERMAL Internal energy

causes ENERGY increases

causes
Thermal expansion
• Particles move further apart
• Gases expand more than liquids
• Liquids expand more than solids
Temperature rise
• which depends on the specific
heat capacity of a substance:
c = ΔE
mΔθ
Applications can be
• Shrink fitting to join metals used to
• Liquid-in-glass thermometers
E˜ ects Measure specific
• Expansion of bridges heat capacity of
solids and liquids
• Expansion of rails

Melting
• Solid to liquid
• Requires energy
• Melting point
of pure water =
Changes of state
0°C (at standard
(when there is no
atmospheric pressure)
temperature
change)

Boiling
• Liquid to gas
• Requires energy
• Occurs at boiling point
Condensation Solidiÿ cation Evaporation
• Boiling point
of pure water = • Gas to liquid • Liquid to solid • Liquid to gas
100°C (at standard • Gives out energy • Gives out energy • Requires energy
atmospheric pressure) • Occurs at any temperature
• Causes cooling

affected by

• Temperature
• Surface area
• Air movement
over a surface

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 Chapter 9

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 90
80 A
1 When a solid is melting, the temperature remains

temperature/°C
70 B C

constant even though thermal energy is being 60
50
supplied. Which of the following explains 40
this observation? 30 D
20
A The energy is used to break the bonds between 10

the particles. 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
B The solid is not absorbing any thermal energy.
time in minutes

C The solid molecules are moving faster.

D The solid is giving out thermal energy. Figure 9.20

2 Which statement is true about internal energy?
(a) Explain what is happening to the wax during

A The internal energy of an object is zero at 0°C.

(i) A to B;

B When thermal energy is supplied to an object, its

(ii) B to C;

internal energy decreases.

C An object at a high temperature has less internal (iii) C to D.

(b) Deduce the melting point of wax from this result.

energy than the same object at a low temperature.

D The internal energy of an object is the total energy 3 An electric kettle is rated at 25 W. Calculate the


of all of the particles of the object. (a) quantity of thermal energy generated in 2 s;

3 Which statement is correct? (b) rise in temperature of 150 g of water if the electric


A When a liquid is heated, the molecules kettle is switched on for five minutes and the
specific heat capacity of water is 4000 J/(kg K).

move slower.
B When a liquid is heated, the molecules expand. 4 The experimental set-up shown in Figure 9.21 was


C When a liquid is cooled, it contracts. used to determine the specific heat capacity of an
unknown metal block.

D When a liquid is heated, its volume decreases.

4 When a 0.24 kg brass cylinder is heated using a 2.0 thermometer

kW heater, its temperature increases from 30°C to 100°C voltage supply
V
in 3.2 s. What is the specific heat capacity of brass?
A 125 J/(kg K) B 169 J/(kg K) A



C 381 J/(kg K) D 400 J/(kg K)



5 Which statement is correct? heater

A Evaporation causes cooling.

B Evaporation occurs at the boiling point.
metal block

C Evaporation occurs when a gas turns into a liquid.

D Evaporation occurs more slowly at higher

temperatures. Figure 9.21

Section B: Short-answer and The circuit is switched on for a time interval of

500 seconds and the following readings were obtained:
Structured Questions
Change in temperature = 50°C
1 (a) Outline a demonstration you could do to show that



gases expand when they are heated. Mass of metal block = 1 kg

(b) Describe one use of the fact that liquids expand Ammeter reading = 5 A


when they are heated. Voltmeter reading = 8 V

(c) Explain how bridges can be built to withstand Using the above data, calculate the specific heat

damage from expansion in hot weather.

capacity of the unknown metal block.
2 Some solid wax at room temperature was heated until

it melted. Then, its temperature was taken every minute
as it cooled down back to room temperature.
Figure 9.20 shows a graph of the results.

Thermal Properties and Temperature 141

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 CHAPTER
Transfer of
10 Thermal Energy

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on how

emperor penguins conserve thermal energy.

QUESTIONS

• Observe the body covering, body

shape, body size and behaviour of the
penguins and discuss how penguins
Emperor penguins live in the Antarctic, where temperatures can have adapted for a very cold climate.
drop below –50°C. Their bodies have several adaptations to allow • Which other animals live in

cold countries and how have
them to survive in this extreme cold climate. These adaptations they adapted?
reduce thermal energy transfer from the bodies of the penguins to • How do Arctic explorers or skiers
their surroundings, allowing them to keep warm. They also huddle

protect themselves in icy weather?
together and take turns to be in the middle of the huddle. The
ways in which thermal energy is transferred will explain how these
adaptations work.

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 Chapter 10

10.1 Transfer of Thermal Energy

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that thermal energy is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of

lower temperature.

Why does an object feel hot or cold?

1 Prepare three small pails of water

labelled P, Q and R at 10°C, 37°C and
50°C respectively.

2 Place both your hands in pail Q.

Do your hands feel warm or cold?

3 Now, place your right hand in pail P

and your left hand in pail R. Do your
hands feel warm or cold?

P Q R
10°C 37°C 50°C

Figure 10.1 In which pail would your hand feel warm? In which pail would it feel cold?

Try the activity shown in Figure 10.1. Your hands would feel neither hot nor cold in pail Q. This is
because the water in pail Q is at the same temperature as your body temperature — your hands
and the water are at thermal equilibrium. There is no net gain or loss of thermal energy between your
hands and the water.
However, since the temperature of the water in pail R is higher than your body temperature, thermal
energy flows from the water to your left hand. Your left hand gains thermal energy from the water,
and hence feels warm. Can you now explain why your right hand feels cold?
Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature. Net
flow of thermal energy occurs only when there is a difference in temperature.
Thermal energy may be transferred through three processes: conduction, convection and radiation.
Which of these processes is involved in the thermal energy transfer between your hand and
the water?

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 Chapter 10

10.2 Conduction
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of good thermal conductors and bad thermal

conductors (thermal insulators).
• Know that there are many solids that conduct thermal energy better than thermal insulators but

do so less well than good thermal conductors.
• Describe thermal conduction in all solids.
•

Describe why thermal conduction is bad in gases and most liquids.

How good are different materials at conducting
thermal energy?
Have you ever touched a metal spoon that has been left in very hot water?
If you have, you will find that the metal spoon feels hot. This is because thermal energy travels well
through metals. This transfer of thermal energy through a solid from the hotter region to the colder
region is known as conduction.
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through solids.
Some materials are better thermal conductors than others. Let us find out what materials are good
thermal conductors and what materials are bad thermal conductors in Let’s Investigate 10A.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 10A
10A
Objective
To investigate the transfer of thermal energy through solids
Materials
Bunsen burner, tripod stand, four rods of the same dimensions but made of different materials
(copper, steel, aluminium and glass), stopwatch, wax, drawing pins
Procedure
1 Drip a few drops of melted wax on one end

of the copper rod. copper aluminium rod
2 Place a drawing pin on top of the melted rod

wax and allow the wax to harden. steel rod
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the other rods.
wax

Take note to place the drawing pins at the
same position for each rod. tripod
stand glass rod
4 Place the rods on a tripod stand. Ensure that drawing

the ends of the rods are aligned. pin
5 Place the Bunsen burner under the

ends of the rods without the drawing
pin (Figure 10.2). Bunsen
6 Record the time taken for the drawing pin burner

to fall from each rod in the Table 10.1. Figure 10.2 Comparing conduction in different materials

Table 10.1

Rod Copper Steel Aluminium Glass

Time taken / s

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 Chapter 10
Observation
The time taken for the drawing pin to fall was the shortest for the copper rod, and the longest
for the glass rod.
Discussion and conclusion
1 For the drawing pins to fall, the wax on the four rods must melt. The wax melted because

thermal energy was transferred from the ends of the rods heated by the Bunsen burner
(the hotter region) to the ends of the rods at room temperature (the cooler region). The
transfer of thermal energy through the rods occurred without any flow of the material the
rods were made of. This means that thermal energy was transferred by conduction.
2 The time taken for the drawing pin to fall for each of the four rods was different. This shows PWB LINK

that different materials conduct thermal energy at different rates. The time taken is the
shortest for copper and longest for glass. From this, we can conclude that copper is the best Practical 10,
and glass is the worst thermal conductor among the four materials. pp. 67–72

The thermal conductivity of a material is dependent on how quickly thermal energy is transferred
from the hotter end to the colder end (Figure 10.3). Materials that can transfer thermal energy
quickly are good thermal conductors, while materials that transfer thermal energy slowly are bad
thermal conductors.

direction of thermal energy transfer

hotter colder
region region

wax
solid rod drawing pin

Bunsen
burner PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to explore

factors affecting the rate of
thermal conduction.

Figure 10.3 Thermal energy is conducted from the hotter end to the colder end.

In general, metals are good thermal conductors. Non-metals such as glass plastic, wood, ENRICHMENT
wool, air and water are bad thermal conductors. Bad thermal conductors are also known as ACTIVITY
thermal insulators. Touch the surface of a
metal frying pan and an
There is a big difference between the thermal conductivity of metals and non-metals. However, empty plastic lunch box.
there are also materials that conduct thermal energy not as well as thermal conductors but better Do the temperatures feel
than thermal insulators. Examples of such materials can be found in Table 10.2. the same?
Table 10.2 Comparing the thermal conductivity of different materials Now place a similar-sized
ice cube on top of each
Best conductor Worst conductor surface. Predict which
ice cube will melt first.
Diamond Copper Steel Ice Polythene Fibreglass Polystyrene Air Were you right in your
Worst insulator Best insulator prediction? Explain your
observations to the class.
Fibreglass and polystyrene are good thermal insulators because they contain air.

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 Chapter 10
How does conduction work?
LINK
Why is the rate of conduction much faster in metals than in non-metals?
Recall from Chapter 8 Both metals and non-metals are made up of tiny particles (atoms or molecules). The difference is
that matter is made up of that metals contain many free electrons, while non-metals do not. These free (or delocalised) electrons
tiny particles. are not firmly attached to one atom but can move randomly among the atoms of the metal.
We have learnt that particles vibrate about a fixed position in solids. This vibration is also known as
lattice vibration.
Figure 10.4 describes the process of conduction in non-metals and metals. Note that in metals,
HELPFUL NOTES thermal energy is transferred through lattice vibrations of particles and movement of free electrons.
In non-metals, only lattice vibrations of particles takes place. This explains why metals are better
An atom contains thermal conductors.
electrons within it. The
electrons in most non-
metals are attached to Non-metals
one atom. In metals, particles vibrate most vigorously particles vibrate least vigorously
however, some electrons
are free to move.
heat
supply

non-metallic rod

1 • The particles (atoms 2 • They collide with neighbouring particles, 3 • Eventually, the



or molecules) making them vibrate more vigorously. particles at the
at the hot end (The kinetic energy of the vibrating cooler end of the rod
vibrate vigorously particles at the hot end is transferred to vibrate vigorously.
about their fixed the neighbouring particles.) • The cooler end of the
positions.

• The neighbouring region of the rod rod becomes hot.

becomes hot.
• Thermal energy has been transferred

without the transfer of particles.
LINK
(a) Thermal transfer in non-metals occurs via lattice vibrations of particles.
Metals are good
conductors of thermal
energy as well as Metals
electricity. The presence free electron
of free electrons in metals
allow current to flow. You
will learn more about this
in Chapter 16. heat
supply
metallic rod
QUICK CHECK
1 • In addition to the process that 2 • The free electrons that gain kinetic energy move at

A stone floor feels colder greater speeds, and move to the cooler regions of the rod.

takes place in non-metals,
to bare feet than a cloth
another (much faster) mechanism • As these electrons move, they collide with the atoms in
rug because stone is a

of thermal transfer takes place in the cooler parts of the rod, making them vibrate more
better thermal conductor
metals: free electron diffusion. vigorously. (Some of the kinetic energy of the moving
than cloth.
• The free electrons at the heated electrons is transferred to the atoms.)
True or false?

end absorb thermal energy, and • Thermal energy is transferred via the motion of the free

hence gain kinetic energy. electrons. The cooler end of the rod becomes hot.

(b) Thermal transfer in metals occurs via lattice vibrations of particles and free electron diffusion.
Figure 10.4 Transfer of thermal energy in metals and non-metals

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 Chapter 10
Why are liquids and gases bad thermal conductors?
QUICK CHECK
Thermal energy can also be conducted from a hotter region to a colder region in liquids and gases
by conduction. But it is not efficient. Can you think why?
Gases are better thermal
We have learnt in Chapter 8 that the particles in liquids and gases are spaced further apart than conductors than liquids.
those in solids. The collisions between the particles are therefore less frequent in liquids and gases. True or false?
This means that the transfer of kinetic energy from the fast-moving particles (in the hotter region)
to neighbouring particles (in the colder region) is slower. This explains why air and water are bad
thermal conductors. In the next section, we will learn that how thermal energy is transferred in
liquids and gases.

Let’s Practise 10.1 and 10.2

1 How is thermal energy transferred?

2 Why is copper a good material for making a cooking pot?

3 Why do copper cooking pots have plastic handles?

4 Explain why metals are better thermal conductors than non-metals.
TWB LINK

5 Why is water a bad thermal conductor?

6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercises 10A–10B,

this section. pp. XX–XX

10.3 Convection
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that convection is an important method of thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases.
•

Explain convection in liquids and gases in terms of density changes.
•

Describe experiments to illustrate convection.
•

Describe experiments to demonstrate the properties of bad thermal conductors (thermal insulators).

How do liquids and gases transfer thermal energy?
Liquids and gases get hotter by convection.
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy in a fluid (liquid or gas) by means
of convection currents due to a difference in density.

Convection in liquids convection

current
Water is a transparent liquid and hence, it is difficult to observe convection
currents in pure water. Figure 10.5 demonstrates convection currents in water
through the help of potassium permanganate crystals, which are purple in
colour. These crystals dissolve in the water to form a purple stream. potassium
When the bottom of the flask is heated, the purple streams (shown as purple permanganate
arrows) rise to the top of the flask. Then, they fan out before sinking back down
the sides. The circulating purple arrows represents the convection currents
in water.
Convection currents form because of the difference in density in water when
heated. When the water at the bottom of the flask is heated, it expands.
The expanded water is less dense than the surrounding water because there
is more space between the molecules. The warmer, less dense water rises.
It cools down at the top of the flask, become denser and sinks down again. Figure 10.5 Convection in water
This process repeats until the whole flask of water is heated up.
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 Chapter 10
Convection in gases incense stick smoke
particles
Figure 10.6 demonstrates convection
currents in air. The incense stick is
used to produce smoke that trace the
convection currents.
PHYSICS WATCH
The candle below the chimney on
scan this page to watch the right is lit. The incense stick is held
a clip on convection in over the left chimney. As shown by
water and air. the black arrows, the smoke is drawn
down the left chimney, across to
the right chimney, and then rises up
above the candle. The black arrows
show the circulating convection
currents in air.
Figure 10.6 Convection in air candle
Convection currents form because of
QUICK CHECK the difference in density in air when heated. When the air above the candle is heated, it expands.
As the warm air is less dense than the surrounding air, it rises out of the right chimney. Cooler denser
Hot air balloons rise air sinks down the left chimney to take the place left by the warm air, carrying the smoke from the
because hot air is less incense stick along. The movement of air forms the smoke trails (indicated by the black arrows) that
dense than cold air. we observe.
True or false?
Convection currents occur only in fluids (liquids and gases). They do not occur in solids. This is
because convection involves the bulk movement of the fluid that carries the thermal energy. This
means that for convection currents to occur in a substance, the substance must be able to flow.
In solids, the particles are in fixed positions. Hence, solids cannot flow. They can only transfer thermal
energy from one particle to another through lattice vibrations (and free electron diffusion in metals)
without any bulk movement of the particles (i.e. via conduction).

Conduction in liquids steam

water boils at the top
ENRICHMENT boiling tube
THINK Thermal energy transfer through conduction still
occurs in liquids, but it is much slower compared ice wrapped in metal
Still air can be formed by
to convection. To show that liquids are bad thermal gauze melts very slowly
stopping air from moving.
Still air is an excellent conductors, you have to prevent convection currents
thermal insulator. from forming. To produce convection, a liquid has to
1 Why does the air have be heated from the bottom, like in Figure 10.5.
Bunsen


to be still? In Figure 10.7, the water in the boiling tube is heated burner
2 Give an example of

at the top. The only way that the water at the Figure 10.7 Slow thermal energy
something that uses bottom can get hot is by conduction because hot transfer by conduction in liquid
still air for insulation. liquids, being less dense, will rise instead of sink to
the bottom. An ice cube is wrapped in metal gauze to make it sink to the bottom of the boiling tube.
The result is that the water at the top boils while the ice cube at the bottom remains frozen. The
transfer of thermal energy by conduction from the hot water at the top of the boiling tube to the ice
at the bottom is slow. This shows that water is a bad thermal conductor.

Let’s Practise 10.3

1 (a) What happens to the density of a material when it is heated?


(b) Explain your answer in (a).


2 Describe the formation of convection currents in a liquid.

LINK 3 Why does convection occur when gases and liquids are heated but not when solids
TWB

are heated?
Exercise 10C, 4 Use an experiment to describe why liquids and gases are bad thermal conductors.

pp. XX–XX
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 10

10.4 Radiation
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that thermal radiation is infrared radiation and that all objects emit this radiation.
• Low res image

Know that thermal energy transfer by thermal radiation does not require a medium.
•

Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad emitters of infrared radiation.
•

Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad absorbers of infrared radiation.
•

Describe the effect of surface colour and texture on the emission, absorption and reflection of Figure 10.8 infrared

infrared radiation. radiation emitted by a
• Describe how the rate of emission of radiation depends on the surface temperature and human face

surface area of the object.
• Know that for an object to be at a constant temperature it needs to transfer energy away at the

same rate that it receives energy. WORD ALERT
• Know what happens to an object if the rate at which it receives energy is less or more than the

rate at which energy is transferred away. Absorb: take in
• Know how the temperature of the Earth is affected by factors controlling the balance between Emit: give out

incoming radiation and radiation emitted from the Earth’s surface.

What is thermal radiation? ENRICHMENT

INFO
Thermal radiation is also known as infrared radiation. All objects absorb and emit infrared radiation, Infrared Thermometer
which is an invisible radiation that carries thermal energy. An infrared thermometer
measures the temperature
Infrared cameras can be used to detect infrared radiation. Figure 10.8 shows the infrared radiation of a surface using the
emitted by a human face. The image has been colour-coded. The colours range from white infrared radiation the
indicating the hottest part, through yellow, orange, red, violet, blue and then black, indicating the surface emits. As shown
coldest part. in Figure 10.10, the
Thermal radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the form of invisible waves thermometer is pointed
near a person’s forehead.
called infrared radiation which can travel through a vacuum.
Infrared radiation
Unlike conduction and convection, infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum. It does not emitted by the person is
require a medium to travel through. The Earth receives a lot of infrared radiation from the Sun as measured and shown as
space is a vacuum (Figure 10.9). a temperature reading on
the thermometer.
The advantage of using
infrared this thermometer is that
radiation it works from a distance.
This reduces the chance
of transferring harmful
bacteria or viruses from
one person to another
vacuum when the thermometer
is shared.

Earth

Low res image

Sun

Figure 10.9 Thermal energy from the Sun is transferred to the Earth by thermal radiation only.

Figure 10.10 An officer

measuring the temperature
of the girl using an
infrared thermometer

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 Chapter 10
How can we investigate emission and absorption of
different surfaces? to data logger to data logger

A B
Emission 

When objects emit infrared radiation, the temperature of the object temperature
decreases, and the object cools down. Good emitters will give out sensors
infrared radiation at a faster rate and cool down more quickly than
bad emitters. Let us investigate the emission of infrared radiation
through different surfaces (Figure 10.11).
Figure 10.11 shows two tins which were filled with boiling water at
the same time.The temperature sensors record the temperature
change inside the respective tin. dull black tin shiny silver tin
Figure 10.12 shows the temperature–time graph recorded by Figure 10.11 Comparing emission of
the data logger. The temperature of the dull black tin fell at a infrared radiation
faster rate than that of the shiny silver tin. They would
Temperature/°C
eventually both reach room temperature. This shows that dull
and black surfaces emit infrared radiation at a faster rate than
shiny and silver surfaces.
B – Shiny silver tin
Absorption
A – Dull black tin
When objects absorb infrared radiation, the temperature of the
object increases and the object heats up. Good absorbers will Time/min
absorb infrared radiation at a faster rate than a bad absorber Figure 10.12 Temperature–time graph
and heat up more quickly. Let us investigate the absorption of
infrared radiation through different surfaces (Figure 10.13).
Figure 10.13 shows two temperature sensors at equal distances from a light bulb. Temperature sensor A
WORD ALERT is wrapped with aluminium foil. Temperature sensor B is wrapped with aluminium foil painted matte
black. When the light bulb is switched on, it emits infrared radiation. This radiation will then be absorbed
Matte: dull and not shiny by the two types of foil. The temperature rise in each type of foil is then recorded in a data logger.

A B
to data to data
logger logger

temperature
sensors Temperature/°C

B – Dull black foil

A – Shiny silver foil

shiny silver dull black

foil foil

Time/min
Figure 10.13 Comparing absorption of infrared radiation Figure 10.14 Temperature–time graph
Figure 10.14 shows the temperature–time graph recorded by the data logger. The temperature rise
PHYSICS WATCH more quickly for the dull black foil as compared to the shiny silver foil. This shows that the dull black
foil absorbs infrared radiation at a faster rate than the shiny silver foil.
Scan this page to watch
a clip on absorption and From the two experiments, we can conclude that dull black surfaces emit and absorb infrared
emission of radiation. radiation at a faster rate than shiny silver surfaces. Shiny silver surfaces absorb less and reflect more
infrared radiation.

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 Chapter 10
What factors affect the emission and absorption of
thermal radiation?
The amount of infrared radiation absorbed by or emitted from a surface depends on three factors:
surface colour and texture, surface temperature and surface area. Low res image

Surface colour and texture

Have you wondered why at the end of a marathon, the runners wrap themselves in what looks like a
sheet of tin foil (Figure 10.15)? This foil, also known as a space blanket, was developed by the National Figure 10.15 A marathon
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). After a marathon, the body temperature of marathon runner using a space blanket
runners drops drastically. This can cause hypothermia, a serious medical emergency in which the to keep himself warm
body rapidly loses heat. Space blankets can help to keep them warm by reducing thermal energy
emission via infrared radiation. Figure 10.15 shows a marathon runner covered with a space blanket. QUICK CHECK
Using what you have learnt previously in the chapter, can you explain how the space blanket keeps
the marathon runner warm? Rooftop solar water heater
are painted black because
The space blanket has two shiny surfaces. The shiny outer surface reduces emission of infrared
black is a better absorber
radiation from the runner to the surroundings. The shiny inner surface reflects the infrared radiation of infrared radiation.
back to the runner. These allow the marathon runner to keep himself warm.
True or false?
From what we have learnt in the earlier section, the amount of infrared radiation absorbed by or
emitted from a surface is dependent on the colour and texture of the surface.
Dull and black surfaces emit and absorb infrared radiation at a faster rate than shiny and silver
surfaces. Shiny and silver surfaces reflect more infrared radiation.

Surface temperature
The higher the temperature of an object’s surface relative to the surrounding temperature, the
LINK
higher the rate of emission of infrared radiation (Figure 10.16).
Recall from Section 10.1
Temperature/°C that thermal energy
Initially, when the temperature of the
always flows from
surface is high, the rate of temperature
1 a region of higher
decrease is high (i.e the rate of emission temperature to a region
of infrared radiation is high). of lower temperature.

As time passes, the temperature of

the surface decreases, and the rate of
temperature decrease becomes lower
2 (i.e. the rate of emission of infrared
radiation is lower). This phenomenon
was also observed in Figure 10.12.

Room
temperature

0 Time/min
Figure 10.16 The surface temperature of an object affects its rate of emission of infrared radiation.

Surface area
If we compare two objects of the same mass and material, but with different surface areas, the object
with the larger surface area will emit or absorb infrared radiation at a higher rate.

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 Chapter 10
How does the emission and absorption affect the
temperature of an object?
All objects continuously emit and absorb infrared radiation. How will the rates of emission and
absorption compare if the object is warming up, cooling down or staying at the same temperature?
If an object absorbs energy at a greater rate than it emits energy, then it is warming up. This will
happen if the object is cooler than its surroundings (Figure 10.17 (a)).

• An ice cream outside on a hot day

• Temperature of ice cream = 0°C

• Temperature of surroundings = 30°C

• Infrared radiation absorbed > infrared radiation emitted

• The ice cream warms up.
Low res image

Figure 10.17 (a) An ice cream warms up as it absorbs more infrared radiation than it emits.

If an object emits energy at a greater rate than it absorbs energy, then it is cooling down. This will
happen if the object is hotter than its surroundings (Figure 10.17 (b)).

• A cup of hot coffee in an air-conditioned room

• Temperature of coffee = 80°C

• Temperature of surroundings = 20°C

• Infrared radiation absorbed < infrared radiation emitted

• The coffee cools down.

Figure 10.17 (b) A cup of hot coffee cools down as it emits more infrared radiation than it absorbs.

If the rates of emission and absorption of an object are the same, then the temperature of the
object will not change. This will happen if the object is at the same temperature as its surroundings
(Figure 10.17 (c)).

• A glass of orange juice at 20°C in a room at 20°C

• Temperature of orange juice = 20°C

• Temperature of surroundings = 20°C

• Infrared radiation absorbed = infrared radiation emitted

• The orange juice is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.

Figure 10.17 (c) A cup of orange juice does not change in temperature as the infrared radiation emitted is the
same as the infrared radiation absorbed.

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 Chapter 10
The temperature of the Earth is maintained at around 15°C due to the greenhouse effect. The
greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface through a balance of
absorption and emission of infrared radiation. This is shown in Figure 10.18.

3 4
The Earth emits The atmosphere contains greenhouse
infrared radiation. gases. Carbon dioxide, methane and
water vapour are some examples
of greenhouse gases. Some of the
infrared radiation from the Earth is
absorbed and re-emitted by the
greenhouse gases.

1
The solar radiation
from the Sun
reaches the Earth.
Some of this
radiation is reflected
back into space.

2
Most of the
solar radiation
is absorbed
by the Earth.

Figure 10.18 The greenhouse effect is needed to keep the temperature of the Earth suitable for life.

However, human activity has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. For
example, the use of fossil fuels has increased the amount of carbon dioxide gas. Agriculture, such as
rearing of cattle, has increased the amount of methane. The increase in greenhouse gases results in
more thermal energy being radiated back to the Earth. This is causing the temperature of the Earth
to increase, causing global warming.

Let’s Practise 10.4

1 Identify how thermal energy is transferred from the Sun to the Earth. Explain why thermal

energy from the Sun cannot reach the Earth by other processes.
2 Why would you feel hot if you wore dark-coloured clothes on a hot day?

3 Describe an experiment to find out how surface colour and texture affects the absorption

and emission of infrared radiation.
4 State three factors that affect the rate of transfer of thermal energy by radiation.

5 Using thermal energy transfer(s), explain what causes the change in the following objects:

(a) A piece of ice cube from the freezer melts when placed on the table.
TWB LINK


(b) A car heats up after being parked under the hot Sun.


6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section. Exercise 10D,

pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 10

10.5 Applications and Consequences of


Thermal Energy Transfer
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Explain some of the basic everyday applications and consequences of conduction, convection

and radiation.
• Explain some of the complex applications and consequences of conduction, convection

and radiation.

One method of thermal energy transfer

Consequence of conduction
Have you noticed that a metal object feels colder to the touch than a
plastic object even if they are at the same temperature (Figure 10.19)?
The metal pole is a good thermal conductor. It conducts thermal
energy away from your warm hand, making it feel cold. Plastic is a
good thermal insulator and does not conduct thermal energy away
from your hand.

Applications of good thermal conductors

To transfer thermal energy quickly through a substance, good Figure 10.19 Your hand feels cold
thermal conductors are used. Metals are examples of good thermal when you touch a metal pole.
conductors. They are commonly used to make the items shown
in Figure 10.20.

Cooking utensils
Saucepans, woks and pots are usually
made of aluminium or stainless steel.

Soldering irons
Soldering irons are used to build and
repair electronic circuits. The tips are
made of copper as it is a very good
thermal conductor and quickly transfers
thermal energy from the soldering iron
to the electronic circuit.

Figure 10.20 Examples of items that make use of the good thermal conductivity of metals

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 Chapter 10
Applications of bad thermal conductors (good thermal insulators)
To reduce thermal energy from being transferred quickly, good thermal insulators are used.
Figure 10.20 shows some common uses of good thermal insulators.

Handles of cooking utensils Double-glazed window

Handles of cooking utensils A double-glazed window has a
like saucepans are made of glass layer of still air trapped between
wood or plastics. two panes of glass. Still air is
This protects our hands from still air a good thermal insulator and
getting hurt from touching a reduces the thermal energy
hot saucepan on the stove. passing through the window.

Figure 10.21 Examples of items that use good thermal insulators to reduce thermal energy transfer

Consequence of convection
There is often a breeze near the sea when there is no wind inland. The direction of the breeze is
dependent on the time of the day as shown in Figure 10.22.

Day
warm air

During the day, the sand on the beach

heats up more quickly than the sea. The
warmer air above the sand rises as it is
cool sea breeze
less dense than its surroundings. Cooler
air from the sea will be drawn in to
take its place. This sets up a convection
current, creating a sea breeze.
land warmer

sea cooler

Night

warm air In the evening, the sand cools more

cool quickly than the sea. The warmer air
land breeze
above the sea rises as it is less dense
than its surroundings. Cooler air from
the land will be drawn in to take its
place, setting up convection currents
in the opposite direction. This creates a
land breeze.
land cooler
sea warmer

Figure 10.22 Convection currents near the sea

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 Chapter 10
Applications of convection
Figures 10.23 and 10.24 show some examples of appliances that use convection to function.

1 When the power is switched on, the

water near the heating coil heats up,
expands and becomes less dense.
Electric kettles
Have you noticed that the
2 The heated water therefore rises, heating coils of electric

while the cooler water at the upper kettles are always placed at
part of the kettle sinks to replace the the bottom of the kettle?
heated water. This enables the transfer of
thermal energy in water by
convection.
3 Convection currents are set up.

to convection current
power water
supply
heating coil

Figure 10.23 The convection currents in the electric kettle enable the water in the kettle to be heated up more quickly
and evenly.

Air conditioners
Air conditioners are used to cool houses in warm weather.
An air conditioner is always installed near the ceiling of
a room. It sends cool, dry air into the room. As cool air is
denser, it sinks. The warm air below, being less dense, rises
and is drawn into the air conditioner where it is cooled.
Hence, the circulating convection currents cool the room.

Hot water radiators

Hot water radiators are often used to heat houses in cold
weather. Even though they are named “radiators”, they
heat the air in the room mainly by convection. The air
around a radiator is heated up by the radiator and rises.
Low res image
The surrounding cold air is drawn into the radiator, where
it is heated up. The circulating convection currents heat up
the room.

Figure 10.24 The convection currents by an air conditioner and a radiator help to control the temperature of a room during
different parts of the year.

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 Chapter 10
Consequence of radiation
Infrared radiation from the Sun travels through the vacuum of space and the atmosphere to warm
the Earth. The Earth’s surface absorbs the radiation, warms up and emits infrared radiation back into
space (Figure 10.25).

Snow, being white,

is a good reflector.
So it will reflect
most of the infrared
radiation away from
the Earth.

Low res image

Darker areas
like rocks and
earth will absorb
more radiation.

Figure 10.25 Snow on mountains help to reflect radiation from the Sun.

Due to global warming, snow is melting at an increasing rate. This can reduce the amount of
radiation reflected from the Earth, causing the Earth to warm up even more.

Application of radiation
Greenhouses are used in cold climates to trap thermal energy (Figure 10.26). The temperature of
a greenhouse is higher than the temperature outside. This enables plants to grow when it would
normally be too cold for them.

1 During the day, infrared radiation from the

Sun passes through the glass roof of the
greenhouse. This warms up the soil and
plants in the greenhouse.
1

2 The soil and plants in the

greenhouse get warm and
3
emit infrared radiation with
2 longer wavelengths.

3 The infrared radiation

with longer wavelengths
is unable to pass
through the glass
roof. It gets trapped in
the greenhouse.

Figure 10.26 Infrared radiation gets trapped in the greenhouse.

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 Chapter 10
Multiple methods of thermal transfer
Low res image
Cooking on a wood fire
Wood burns and releases thermal energy. Thermal energy is then transferred via conduction,
convection and radiation to the surroundings. Figure 10.27 shows a pot of water being boiled over
burning wood.
The bottom of the metal pot is in contact with the fire so thermal energy will be transferred to
the bottom of the metal pot through conduction. The ground underneath the fire will also get hot
by conduction.
The flames will emit infrared radiation. If you place your hands close to the fire (be careful not to
touch the flames), you will be able to feel the infrared radiation from the flames warming your hands.
The thermal energy from the burning wood will heat the air around it. The hot air rises up above the
fire, as shown by the smoke. Surrounding cold air will be drawn in, forming convection currents. The
water inside the pan will also heat up by convection.

Figure 10.27 Boiling water

over a campfire Car radiator
Combustion engines in petrol-driven cars and motorbikes burn fuel to allow the vehicle to move.
During the process, the engine becomes hot and has to be cooled to prevent overheating. One
way of doing this is to pump a liquid coolant in metal pipes through the engine and into a radiator.
Figure 10.28 explains how thermal energy from the engines is transferred away using a coolant. The
arrows represent the movement of the coolant across the engine and the radiator.

1 Metal tubes carry the hot coolant from

1
metal tube

the engine to the radiator.

airflow fan engine

2 The radiator contains many thin metal coolant

fins. Thermal energy is conducted
2
through the metal tube into the fins. The
fins have a large surface area, so they are
in contact with a lot of air. The fins heat
up the air around it, and a fan blows the
warmer air away, replacing with cooler
air, forming convection currents.

3 The tubes and fins are painted black to

increase the amount of infrared radiation
emitted from the hot tubes and fins. 33 metal fins

Figure 10.28 Cooling system of a petrol-driven car

Let’s Practise 10.5

1 A copper saucepan containing water is placed on a flat electric hot plate.

(a) State the process by which thermal energy is


LINK (i) transferred from the hot plate to the water;



Exercises 10E–10F, (ii) spread throughout the water.


pp. XX–XX (b) The sides of the saucepan are well polished. How does this reduce thermal energy loss?


Exercise 10G Let’s Reflect, 2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

p. XX this section.

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 Chapter 10

Let’s Map It

THERMAL
ENERGY

is transferred from

A region of higher temperature to a region of lower

temperature until thermal equilibrium is reached.

by the processes of

Conduction Convection Radiation

• Through contact between two • Through transfer of thermal

• Through bulk movement of fluids
surfaces energy in the form of
(liquid or gas), forming convection infrared radiation
• Requires a medium
currents
• Does not require a medium
• In non-metals, by the lattice • Requires a medium
vibration of particles • Absorbed and emitted
• Convection currents
by all objects
• In metals, by the form due to changes
vibration of particles in the density of
and free electron the fluid
diffusion

which can be applied in where the

rate of thermal
energy transfer
is affected by
• Cooking utensils
• Soldering irons
• Double-glazed windows
• Electric kettle
• Air conditioners
• Hot water radiators • Surface colour and texture
• Greenhouse • Surface temperature
• Car radiators • Surface area

Transfer of Thermal Energy 159

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 Chapter 10

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 2 Explain the following:

1 According to the kinetic theory of matter, thermal (a) A stone floor feels colder to the bare feet

energy is transferred from the hot end of a glass rod than a carpet even though they are at the
to the cold end when the molecules from the hot same temperature.
end _____. (b) The freezing compartment is at the top of

A emit infrared radiation to the cold end a refrigerator.

B move from place to place so that they collide (c) A double-glazed window reduces thermal energy

with the colder molecules and transfer the energy transfer through it.
to them (d) The hot pipes at the back of a fridge are

C move to the cold end painted black.

D vibrate more vigorously and pass on the energy to (e) Both the inside and outside of a space blanket are

the neighbouring molecules made of a shiny, silvery material.
2 In a hot water tank, the heating element should be 3 A vacuum flask is used to keep hot liquids hot or cold

placed at the bottom because _____. liquids cold. It is designed to reduce thermal energy
A conduction cannot take place when the heater is at from entering or leaving from inside (Figure 10.29).

the top of the tank
B infrared radiation travels faster in the plastic

upward direction stopper
C the heated water will rise and this will form

convection currents Low res image
D the heater must be covered by water at all times

3 In a vacuum flask, the vacuum prevents thermal

energy transfer by _____.
A conduction vacuum

B conduction and convection

C convection

D radiation

Section B: Short-answer and
silvered
Structured Questions surfaces
1 A cup of hot tea is left on a table. Explain how thermal cork

energy escapes from the tea by support
(a) conduction;

(b) convection; Figure 10.29

(c) radiation.

Suggest a function of the following parts of the

vacuum flask:
(a) The vacuum between the double walls of the

glass container
(b) The silvered surfaces of the glass container

(c) The plastic stopper

(d) The cork supports between the inner glass

container and outer flask

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 CHAPTER
General Properties
11 of Waves

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a stadium wave

in action.

QUESTIONS

• Why can the motion created by the people

be described as a wave?
Have you seen sports fans doing ‘the wave’ inside a stadium? This wave • How could you measure the speed of
has many names depending on the location of the stadium. It is popularly this wave?
known as the Mexican wave after soccer fans in many parts of the world • How is the motion of the people related to
the motion of wave?
watch it for the first time during the 1986 World Cup in Mexico. Some
people call it la ola, which means wave in Spanish. We can refer to it in
general as the stadium wave.
When you find yourself with thousands of people in a major sporting event,
have some fun. Start the la ola. You don’t need water to do it!

161

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 Chapter 11

11.1 Introducing Waves

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe what is meant by a wave motion.
• Know that waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
• Know that for a transverse wave, the direction of vibration is at right angles to the direction
of propagation.
• Understand that electromagnetic radiation, water waves and seismic S-waves (secondary) are
known as transverse waves
• Know that for a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration is parallel to the direction
of propagation
• Understand that sound waves and seismic P-waves (primary) are known as longitudinal waves
PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a When we think of the word waves, what often comes to mind is sea waves. Besides sea waves,
clip on wave motion. there are other types of waves, such as sound waves and radio waves. What do all these waves
have in common? What are the characteristics of a wave?

What is wave motion?

ENRICHMENT
INFO Wave motion is made up of periodic motion or motion repeated at regular intervals.
Wave Energy For example, the swinging motion of a pendulum bob (Figure 11.1),
Have you ever from the extreme left to the extreme right and back to its starting
experienced being hit position, is said to be periodic. One complete cycle of such motion
by a huge wave while is known as an oscillation or a vibration. The source of any wave
floating at sea? You is an oscillation or a vibration.
would find yourself
displaced when you are
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy from one place to
hit. Work is done by the another. It does not transfer matter during the energy transfer (Figure
wave in applying force 11.2).
to move you over some
distance.
A B
Thus, the energy carried
by waves can be used
to do useful work such
as generating electricity Figure 11.1 An oscillation is
and pumping water. completed when the pendulum
bob moves from A to B, and then
Wave power has not back to A.
been utilised as much
compared to solar
power, wind power and
hydropower. However, it
is able to generate more Figure 11.2 As ripples spread outwards, any object on the water surface (e.g. an empty bottle) will only bob up and
down. This shows that waves transfer energy without transferring matter.
power per unit area.

Low res image

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 Chapter 11
How are waves formed?
We can produce waves using a rope, a ripple tank or a Slinky spring. From each of these cases, we
can learn how energy is transferred from one point to another.

Waves in a rope
We can produce waves along a rope by fixing one end of the rope to a wall and moving the other
end up and down rapidly (Figure 11.3).

1 One end of the rope is fixed.

at rest
P Q

2 The kinetic energy (KE)

from the moving hand
P Q (i.e. source) is transferred to
moving up
the rope particles (e.g. P) by
a rope wave.

3 The rope particles at/near

P the free end move up and
Q down (i.e. vibrate) as the
moving down wave passes through them.

4 The rope wave moves

towards the wall.
direction of vibration direction of wave

5 The KE of the rope

moving particles near the source is
P Q transferred to rope particles
down
further away (e.g. Q) as the
wave progresses.

6 The rope particles further

away vibrate up and down.
Moving up Q
P 7 The rope wave continues to
move towards the wall.

Moving
down
8 Note that the rope particles
P vibrate up and down about
their rest positions.
Q
(Not drawn to scale)
Figure 11.3 The rope particles vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the wave motion.
WORD ALERT

Note that the rope waves move towards the wall, while the rope particles only vibrate up and down Medium: substance,
about their rest positions (Figure 11.3). The energy from the hand is transferred by the rope waves matter
towards the wall. The rope is the medium through which the waves move.

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 Chapter 11
Water waves in a ripple tank
We can use a ripple tank to observe waves. In such a tank, there is a small dipper set near the water
surface (Figure 11.4).

water particles dipper

at the surface at rest
1 The dipper is set near the water surface. tank tank
edge edge

2 The kinetic energy (KE) from the vibrating dipper

dipper (i.e. source) is transferred to the water moving down
particles directly below it by a circular ripple
(i.e. wave). tank tank
edge edge
3 The water particles move up and down (i.e.
vibrate) as the ripple passes through them.

4 The circular ripple spreads outwards

towards the tank edges. direction of vibration direction of wave

5 The KE gets transferred to the adjacent water dipper

particles and eventually to water particles at moving up
the tank edges as the ripple progresses.

6 The water particles at other parts also tank tank

vibrate up and down as the ripple passes edge edge
through them.

7 The circular ripple continues to spread dipper

outwards towards the tank edges. moving down

8 tank tank
Note that the water particles vibrate up and edge edge
down about their rest positions.

Figure 11.4 The water particles vibrate in a direction

perpendicular to the wave motion (Not drawn to scale)

Note that the circular ripples (i.e. waves) spherical

move towards the tank edges, while the dipper
QUICK CHECK water particles only vibrate up and down
(Figure 11.5). The energy from the dipper
In Figure 11.5, the medium is transferred by the ripples towards circular ripples
through which the waves the tank edges. are produced
move is air. on the water
True or false? surface

Figure 11.5 A small dipper in a ripple tank

produces circular ripples (waves).

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 Chapter 11
Waves in a spring
Stretch out a coiled spring or Slinky on the floor and keep one end fixed.
Left-to-right motion
Move the free end of the Slinky left and right (Figure 11.6). Viewing this from the top, we can see the
individual coils move perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

left
fixed end
hump

right hollow

Figure 11.6Left-to-right motion of the hand generates waves in a Slinky (top view)

Push-and-pull motion
Next, push and pull the free end of the Slinky rapidly (Figure 11.7). We can see the individual coils
move parallel to the direction of the wave. Dark bands, where the coils are compressed, are seen
travelling along the Slinky towards the fixed end.

pull push dark band where coils compress fixed end

Figure 11.7Push-and-pull motion of the hand also generates waves in a Slinky (top view)

From Figures 11.6 and 11.7, we can observe that the individual coils are restricted to oscillating motion.
The individual coils do not move from one end to the other. The waves, however, move from the free
end of the Slinky to the fixed end.
As the waves move, energy is transferred from one end of the Slinky to the other. Can you identify
the medium in this case?
From our observations of waves produced by the rope, ripple tank and Slinky, we can deduce that
waves have the following properties:
• The source of a wave is a vibration or an oscillation.
• Waves transfer energy from one point to another.
• Waves transfer energy without transferring the medium.

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 Chapter 11
How many types of wave motion are there?
WORD ALERT
There are two types of wave motion: transverse and longitudinal waves. We can produce them using
Propagate: to spread, a stretched Slinky that is fixed at one end.
move or travel
through something
Transverse waves
Move the free end of the Slinky up and down repeatedly (Figure 11.8). Do you notice that the
up-and-down movement (i.e. vibration) of the individual coils is perpendicular to the wave motion?
LINK
We call this type of wave a transverse wave. Water waves, electromagnetic waves and seismic S-waves
Electromagnetic waves (secondary waves) are transverse waves (Figure 11.9).
include light waves. You Transverse waves are waves that propagate perpendicular to the direction of the vibration. We can
will learn more about also say that the direction of the vibration is perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
light waves in Chapter
12 and electromagnetic
waves in Chapter 13.

direction of vibration of the coils in direction of the wave motion Low res image
the stretched Slinky along the Slinky

Water particles in water waves vibrate up and

down as the waves travel horizontally.
direction of vibration fixed end
(wall)
direction of wave motion

Low res image

hump

An earthquake can cause seismic S-waves to

form. The S-waves travel through the Earth as layers
of rocks vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of
the wave.

laser light source

Electromagnetic waves such as light waves are

produced by charged particles vibrating at right
hollow angle to the direction of the wave.
Figure 11.9 These are examples of transverse waves.
The red arrows ( ) show the direction of vibration and the
blue arrows ( ) show the wave motion.

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a

Figure 11.8 For transverse waves, the vibration of the coils ( ) is perpendicular to clip on transverse wave.
the wave motion ( ).

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 Chapter 11
Longitudinal waves
Push the free end of the Slinky forward to compress it and pull it backwards to stretch it (Figure 11.10).
LINK
Do you notice that the forward-and-backward movement (i.e. vibration) of the coils is parallel to
the wave motion? This type of wave is called a longitudinal wave. Sound waves and seismic P-waves You will learn more
(primary waves) are longitudinal waves (Figure 11.11). about sound waves in
Longitudinal waves are waves that propagate parallel to the direction of the vibration. We can also Chapter 14.
say that the direction of vibration is parallel to the direction of propagation.

direction of vibration of the coils in direction of the wave motion

the stretched Slinky along the Slinky

air particles

direction of wave motion

direction of Sound waves are produced by air particles vibrating

vibration parallel to the direction of the wave motion.

rock layers

compression

The seismic P-waves are the first type of waves to

be detected during an earthquake. They travel through
the Earth as layers of rocks vibrate parallel to the
direction of the wave motion.
Figure 11.11 These are examples of longitudinal waves.
The red arrows ( ) show the direction of vibration and the
blue arrows ( ) show the wave motion.

compression
QUICK CHECK

For longitudinal waves,

the particles do not
vibrate along the
same direction as the
movement of the wave.
Figure 11.10 For longitudinal waves, the vibration of the coils ( ) True or false?
is parallel to the wave motion ( ).

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 Chapter 11
Let’s Practise 11.1
1 State whether each of the statements about rope waves is correct or incorrect.
(a) Rope waves travel up and down, while the rope moves sideways.
(b) Rope waves provide a mechanism for the transfer of energy from one point to another.
(c) Rope waves travel sideways, while the rope moves up and down.
2 (a) State one similarity and one difference between transverse waves and longitudinal waves.
LINK TWB
(b) Give an example of each type of wave.
Exercise 11A, 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
pp. X–X this section.

11.2 Properties of Wave Motion

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the features of a wave.
• Recall and use the equation for wave speed, v = f λ.

How can we precisely describe waves?

Figure 11.12 shows transverse rope waves that are formed when we move the free end of a rope
up and down rapidly. Six ribbons, P, Q, R, S, T and U, are tied at different points along the rope.
By observing the movement of these ribbons, we can find out how points along the rope vibrate as
the waves move from left to right.

The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum Points along a wave are in phase if they have the same direction of
displacement of a point from its rest position. Its SI motion, same speed and same displacement from their rest position.
unit is the metre (m). For example,
We can find the amplitude of a transverse wave by • P, S and V (i.e. all crests along a wave are in phase);
measuring the height of its crest or the depth of its
• R and U (i.e. all troughs along a wave are in phase);
trough from the rest position.
• Q and T (i.e. all alternate points at the rest position along the wave
are in phase).
A crest is the
P (crest) highest point of S (crest) V (crest)
a transverse wave. The wavelength λ of
a wave is the shortest
distance between any two
points in phase. Its SI unit is
amplitude
wavelength the metre (m).
(height of
crest) To find the wavelength
up Q T of a transverse wave,
we can measure the
rest position
distance between
down
amplitude • two successive crests
(depth of (e.g. P and S, S and V);
trough) • two successive troughs
(e.g. R and U);
A trough is the
lowest point of • any other two nearest
a transverse wave. R (trough) U (trough) points in phase
(e.g. Q and T).
Figure 11.12 Transverse rope wave and
some terms related to waves wavelength

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 Chapter 11
Displacement–distance graph
Figure 11.13 shows a displacement–distance graph of the rope wave in Figure 11.12. A photograph of
the rope at an instant is equivalent to a displacement–distance graph. A displacement–distance
graph describes the displacements of all particles at a particular point in time.

Displacement/cm

wavelength λ
6
P S V

amplitude A
2
Q T
0 Distance/cm
20 40 60 80 100 120
–2

–4
R U

–6
(a) At time t = 0 s
5
Figure 11.13 Displacement-distance graph of the rope wave at a certain instant
Q
Points above the rest position are shown as positive displacements. Points below the rest rest
position are shown as negative displacements. position

According to the graph, the amplitude and wavelength of the wave are 5 cm and –5
40 cm respectively. (b) At time t = 0.25 s
5
Q
Displacement–time graph
Figure 11.14 shows the displacement–distance graphs captured at different instants during the
flicking of the rope in Figure 11.12. –5
By tracking the displacements of ribbon Q and plotting them against time, we obtain the (c) At time t = 0.5 s
displacement–time graph of Q over one second (Figure 11.15). A displacement–time graph 5
describes the displacement of one particle over a time interval.

Displacement/cm Q

period T –5

5 5 (d) At time t = 0.75 s

amplitude A

0 Time/s Q
0.25 0.5 0.75 1.0 –5
amplitude A
5 (e) At time t = 1.0 s
–5
Q

Figure 11.15 Displacement-time graph of Q over one second

–5
According to the graph, the amplitude and the period of the wave are 5 cm and
1.0 s respectively.
Figure 11.14 Displacement-distance
graphs at different instants over
one second

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 Chapter 11
The period T of a wave is the time taken to produce one complete wave. Its SI unit is the second (s).
The period is equivalent to the time taken for the wave to travel through a distance equal to
QUICK CHECK its wavelength.

A dipper is moved up and The frequency f of a wave is the number of complete waves produced per second. Its SI unit is the
down to produce waves hertz (Hz).
in water. Increasing the The frequency of a wave is also the number of crests (or troughs) that go past a point per second.
frequency of the dipper
will increase the speed of In Figure 11.15 on page 169, one complete wave is produced per second — the frequency of the
the waves. wave is 1.0 Hz. We can relate frequency to period by the equation f = _1_ . The higher the frequency,
T
True or false? the greater the number of waves produced in one second. A higher frequency also implies that the
period is shorter.
Since a crest (or any point on a wave) travels a distance of one wavelength in one period,
the wave speed is given by:
v = _λ where v = wave speed (in m/s)
T
λ = wavelength (in m)
T = period (in s)
QUICK CHECK
Since f = _1_ ,
Refer to pages 168 to 169. T
The speed of the wave v=fλ
shown in Figures 11.12 to Wave speed v is the distance travelled by a wave per second. Its SI unit is the metre per
11.15 is 0.4 cm/s.
second (m/s).
True or false?
A wavefront can be drawn by joining all the adjacent wave crests. Depending on how the waves are
produced, the wavefronts can be straight lines (Figure 11.16), concentric circles (Figure 11.17), or any
other shape.
A wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all adjacent points that are in phase.

straight
dipper
plane dipper moved
wavefront up and down

direction of
waves

Figure 11.16 A straight dipper produces plane waves that give rise to
plane wavefronts. circular dipper moved
wavefront up and down

direction of
spherical waves
dipper

Figure 11.17 A spherical dipper produces circular waves that give rise to
circular wavefronts.

17 General Properties of Waves

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 Chapter 11
Worked Example 11A
Figure 11.18 shows a displacement–distance graph of a wave.

Displacement/cm

6
4
2
0 Distance/cm
25 50 75 100
–2
–4
–6

Figure 11.18

(a) What is the wavelength of the wave?

(b) The period of the wave is 1.0 s. What are its frequency and speed?

(c) What will be the wavelength of the wave if its frequency is increased to 5.0 Hz, with no

change in speed? Sketch the resulting wave profile with its wavelength marked clearly.
Solution
(a) Wavelength λ = 50 cm

(b) Given: Period T = 1.0 s

1
Frequency f = __
T

​​ 
 
​​
 
= 1.0 Hz

Using the wave speed equation,

Wave speed v = frequency f × wavelength λ

​
​
= 1.0 Hz × 50 cm

​
​
= 50 cm/s

(c) Given: Wave speed v = 50 cm/s

Frequency f = 5.0 Hz

Using the wave speed equation,

v=fλ

λ = v_ = _______ = 10 cm
50 cm / s
 
 
 
f 50 Hz

​​
 ​
​
 
 
​​
 ​​
 
 
 
Displacement/cm

6 wavelength

0 Distance/cm
5 10 15 20 25
–2

–4

–6

Figure 11.19

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 Chapter 11
Worked Example 11B
(a) Figure 11.20 shows a wave along a Slinky with a frequency of 3 Hz and a wavelength of 0.3 m.

What is the wave speed?

0.3 m
direction of wave

direction of
vibration

Figure 11.20

(b) Given that in a vacuum, the speed c and wavelength λ of green light are

3.0 × 10 8 m/s and 0.6 μm respectively, calculate the frequency of the green light.

​
​
(c) Compare the waves in (a) and (b) and comment on them, in terms of speed and frequency.

Solution
(a) Given: Frequency f = 3 Hz

Wavelength λ = 0.3 m

 
Using v = f λ,

v = 3 Hz × 0.3 m = 0.9 m/s

​
​
(b) Given: Wavelength λ = 0.6 μm = 0.6 × 10–6 m

​
​
Speed c = 3.0 × 108 m/s

 
​
​
Using c = f λ, where f is the unknown frequency of the green light:

f = c_
λ

​​
 ​​
 
 
3.0 × 10 8 m / s
LINK PWB = ____________ = 5.0 × 1014 Hz
 
 ​
 ​​ 
​ 
 
 
0.6 × 10 −6 m

​​
 
 
​​
​
 ​
 
​
​​ 
​ 
Practical 11A, (c) The speed and frequency of green light are much greater than the speed and frequency of

pp. XX–XX the waves in the Slinky.

Let’s Practise 11.2

1 Figure 11.21 shows the displacement–time graph of a periodic motion. Determine the

(a) period; (b) frequency; (c) amplitude?






2 State the relationship between the
Displacement/cm

speed, frequency and wavelength
of a wave.
0.15
3 A wave has an amplitude of

0.4 m and a wavelength of 10.0 m. 0.1
It is travelling at a speed of 5.0 m/s. 0.05
Sketch a graph to show how the
displacement of a particular point 0 Time/s
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
on the wave changes with time. –0.05
Label the amplitude and period on
LINK –0.1
TWB the graph clearly.
–0.15
4 Mind Map Construct your own
Exercise 11B,

pp. X–X mind map for the concepts that Figure 11.21
you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 11

11.3 Common Features of


Wave Behaviour
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe how waves can undergo reflection, refraction and diffraction.
•

Describe the use of a ripple tank to show reflection, refraction and diffraction of waves.
•

Describe how wavelength and gap size affects diffraction through a gap.
•

Describe how wavelength affects diffraction at an edge.

How do the wavefronts relate to the direction of travel of the waves? The ripple tank can be used to
show how water waves behave differently in different situations. Note that in all the wave diagrams LINK
in this section, all wavefronts are at 90° to the direction of propagation of the wave. For clarity, the
ripple tank itself is not shown. Most of these wave
behavior are looked at

What happens when waves hit a straight barrier? in the context of light in
Chapter 12.

A straight edge is used to create ripples with plane wavefronts. A straight barrier with a plane surface
is inserted into the water. When the water waves hit the barrier, they undergo reflection. The waves
bounce off the plane surface without changing shape.

incident
wavefronts
normal
direction of
incident waves HELPFUL NOTES
i
r
The distance between
two adjacent wavefronts
straight barrier is equivalent to the
wavelength. Notice in
Figure 11.22 that this
distance remains the
reflected same before and after
wavefronts reflection. This means
direction of
reflected waves that the wavelength does
not change.
Figure 11.22 Reflection of water waves in a ripple tank

Figure 11.22 shows how the water waves hit the barrier at an angle i and get reflected at
an angle r. Notice that both angles are equal. This is similar to light waves hitting a plane mirror LINK
and sound waves hitting a wall.
You will learn more about
light and sound reflection
in Chapters 12 and
14 respectively.

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 Chapter 11
What happens when waves pass from one medium
WORD ALERT
to another?
Boundary: frontier where
two areas meet A translucent plate is placed inside a ripple tank so that a portion of the water is deep and another
portion is shallow. Figure 11.23 shows plane water waves travelling from the deep water to the
shallow water. The wave is said to have crossed the boundary between the deep and shallow water.
Notice the wavefronts in the shallow water are closer together than those in the deep water.
This shows that the waves travel faster in the deep water. Given that v = f λ and that the frequency
is constant, this means that when the waves are in the shallow water, their wavelength must
also decrease.
It is also observed that the waves undergo refraction when the they pass from one medium to
another. In Figure 11.23, we see the waves change direction or bend when they cross the boundary
between the deep and shallow waters at an angle. If the angle i is zero, angle r will also be zero,
i.e., no refraction occurs.

Deep water Shallow water

refracted
wavefronts
QUICK CHECK

If the waves are travelling incident

slower in the shallower wavefronts normal r direction
water, then they must also of refracted
i
have a smaller amplitude. waves
True or false?

direction
of incident
waves

Figure 11.23 Refraction of water waves in a ripple tank

What happens when waves encounter a gap or

an edge?
Small barriers are placed inside a ripple tank to create gaps of different widths through which plane
water waves can pass. Notice that the wavefronts spread out after passing through the gaps
(Figure 11.24). This is called diffraction.

Note that the wavelength

of the waves before and
after entering the gaps
does not change.

(a) Waves entering a narrow gap (b) Waves entering a wide gap
Figure 11.24 Diffraction of water waves arriving at gaps of different widths

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 Chapter 11
Place a barrier inside a ripple tank to let plane water waves pass over one edge of the barrier.
In this case diffraction still occurs. The waves appear to curve around and spread behind the barrier
(Figure 11.25).

(a) Long wavelength (b) Short wavelength

Figure 11.25 Diffraction of water waves arriving at a single edge

In summary, diffraction involves the spreading out of waves when they encounter gaps and edges. WORD ALERT
How does gap size and wavelength affect diffraction? As gap size increases relative to the
Curvature: curved or
wavelength, the curvature at the ends of the wavefronts becomes smaller.
rounded shape
Compare the two diagrams in Figure 11.24. When the wavelength is longer than the gap size, the
waves spread out more (Figure 11.24(a)). When the wavelength is shorter than the gap size, the waves
spread out less (Figure 11.24(b)). The wavefronts are mostly unchanged and only affected at the ends.
ENRICHMENT
How does wavelength affect diffraction at an edge? This time, the longer the wavelength, the greater THINK
the curvature effect. This means a greater proportion of the wave will curve around and spread A house is located
behind the barrier (Figure 11.25). at the foot of a hill
on the opposite side
of a transmitter. The
transmitter emits both
Let’s Practise 11.3 TV and radio signals.
Explain why it is more
1 Figure 11.26 shows some concrete sea barriers and an area of beach at the sea shore.
difficult to receive
(a) The water waves have carved out near semi-circular areas from the sand. Suggest how TV signals in the
straight plane water waves have done this. house compared to
(b) The gaps between the barriers are approximately 20 m wide. Suggest possible values for radio signals.
the wavelength of the waves.
(c) Explain how the patterns in the sand would be different if
(i) the wavelength of the water waves was shorter;
(ii) the gaps were wider.

Low res image

TWB LINK

Figure 11.26 Beach area with sea barriers Exercise 11C–11D,

pp. XX–XX
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 11E Let’s Reflect.
this section. p. XX

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 Chapter 11

Let’s Map It
Transfer
energy without
transferring matter

Wave motion
is made up of Wave
periodic motion or behaviour
motion repeated at
regular intervals.

WAVES Refle tion

Transverse wave • Waves bounce off the plane
• Direction of vibration surface without changing shape.
is perpendicular Refraction
to direction • Waves change direction when
of propagation pass from one medium to
Longitudinal wave another; usually accompanied by
• Direction of vibration a change in speed of the waves.
is parallel to direction Diff action
of propagation Wave • Waves spread out when they
features encounter gaps and edges.

wavefront
crest

amplitude A

trough

wavelength λ

Can be plotted on a
• displacement–distance graph
• displacement–time graph

Frequency f is the number Period T is the time Wave speed is the distance
of complete waves taken to produce one travelled by a wave per
produced per second. complete wave. second and given by:
v=fλ

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 Chapter 11

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 5 A vibrating dipper of frequency 3 Hz produces water

1 What does a wave transfer? waves in a ripple tank. Which of the following is a
possible wavelength and speed of the waves?

A Molecules B Energy



C Matter D Force
Wavelength/cm Speed/cm/s



2 As a transverse wave passes, the particles of the
A

medium oscillate 3 1

A in phase with one another. B 3 6

B with different frequencies. C 4 12

C parallel to the direction of the wave travel.
D 15 5

D perpendicular to the direction of travel of wave.

3 Which of the following is an example of
6 From the sea to the shore, the depth of the water

longitudinal waves?

decreases. Which of these statements describes waves
A Waves in a ripple tank
coming in from the sea to the shore?

B Light waves in air
A Speed increases and amplitude decreases.

C A vibrating guitar string

B Speed increases and amplitude increases.

D Sound waves produced by a vibrating
C Speed decreases and amplitude increases.

guitar string

D Speed decreases and amplitude decreases.

4 Figure 11.27 shows the displacement–time graph

7 A beam of light was shone through a gap. Diffraction

of a particle in a transverse wave. If its speed is

of light was not observed. What does this suggest
2 cm/s, which of the following pairs of amplitude and
about the wave nature of light?
wavelength is correct?
A Light is not a wave.

Displacement/cm B The speed of light is very large.

C The wavelength of visible light is much larger than
+0.006

the width of the gap.
D The wavelength of visible light is much smaller than

Time/s the width of the gap.
0 0.01 0.02 0.03
Section B: Short-answer and Structured
–0.006 Questions
1 (a) What is meant by a frequency of 2 Hz?
Figure 11.27


(b) (i) Draw a labelled diagram to show the


Amplitude/cm Wavelength/cm
waveform in a rope with a wavelength of 5 cm
and an amplitude of 3 cm.
A 0.02 0.006 (ii) Assuming the rope wave is travelling from left


B 0.003 0.02 to right at a speed of 0.50 m/s, calculate the
frequency of the wave.
C 0.003 0.04
2 Water waves enter a dock at a rate of 120 crests per
D

0.006 0.04 minute. At the dock are two poles 12 m apart. A worker
watches a particular wave crest pass from one pole to
another in 4 s. Calculate the
(a) frequency of the wave motion;

(b) wavelength of the waves.

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 Chapter 11

Let’s Review
3 Draw the displacement–distance graphs for the 6 Figure 11.30 shows water waves about to encounter


following waveforms: deeper water. Complete the diagram to show
(a) Two waves that have the same amplitude and qualitatively the path and wavelength of the waves in

speed, but one has a frequency that is twice that of the deeper water.
the other
(b) Two waves that have the same speed and Shallow water Deep water

frequency, but one has an amplitude that is twice
that of the other
4 Figure 11.28 shows the instantaneous position of some i

particles in a medium through which waves are passing
continuously in the direction indicated by the arrow.

A B C D Figure 11.30

7 Explain how a conversation in a corridor can be

Figure 11.28
heard around a corner in the corridor.

Describe the motion of the particles A, B, C and D if the

wave is
(a) longitudinal;

(b) transverse.

5 Figure 11.29 shows a displacement–distance graph and

a displacement–time graph of a wave.
Displacement/m

0.6

0 Distance/m
0 5 10
–0.6

Displacement/m

0.6

0 Time/s
0 2.5
–0.6

Figure 11.29

(a) State the amplitude of the wave.

(b) State the wavelength of the wave.

(i) State the time taken for one


complete oscillation.
(ii) Calculate the frequency of the wave.


(iii) Calculate the speed of the wave.


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 CHAPTER

12 Light

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on how

a musical fountain works.

QUESTIONS

• How do our eyes see the colourful

musical fountain?
Have you ever seen a musical fountain? • How do the colours get into the water?

There is one in Sharjah, in the United Arabs Emirates. The Sharjah • How does the light and water interact?

Musical Fountain, as shown in the photo, is one of the biggest and
most spectacular in the region. Many people enjoy watching how
the fountain dances with the music. What is more interesting is the
colourful jets of water. The elegant and complex fountain uses the
interaction between light and water to create the stunning effects.
Don’t just enjoy the show — get to know the science behind it!

179

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 Chapter 12

12.1 Reflection of Light

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define and use the terms normal, angle of incidence and angle of reflection.
•

Describe the formation of an optical image by a plane mirror, and give the characteristics of

the image.
• State that for reflection, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection; recall and use

this relationship.
• Use simple constructions, measurements and calculations for reflection by plane mirrors.

How do we represent light?
You have learnt that light is a form of electromagnetic wave. The wave nature of light enables it to
undergo reflection. This explains how we see things. We can see objects around us only if light from
them enters our eyes. Luminous objects, such as a lamp or a fire, can be seen because they give out
their own light. Non-luminous objects, such as a wall picture, are visible to us because they reflect
light from a light source into our eyes (Figure 12.1).

lamp
(luminous object)
light from
the lamp

light from
the lamp

picture on the wall

light reflected (non-luminous object)
off the picture

eye

Figure 12.1 We are able to see objects because they give out light or reflect light.

In physics, we use straight lines with arrows to represent paths of light. The arrows indicate the
direction in which the light travels. Such lines are called light rays. A beam of light is actually a bundle
of light rays.
A light beam can be a bundle of parallel rays, convergent rays or divergent rays (Figure 12.2).
We use parallel lines to represent light rays from a distant object (e.g. the Sun), and divergent lines
to represent light rays from a nearby object.

Parallel light rays Convergent light rays Divergent light rays

Figure 12.2 Different types of light rays

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 Chapter 12
Below are some terms that are used to describe the reflection of light:
• Reflection is the rebounding of light at a surface.
•

• Incident ray is light ray that hits the reflecting surface.

•

• Point of incidence is the point at which the incident ray hits the reflecting surface.
•

• Reflected ray is light ray that bounces off the reflecting surface.
•

Can you identify the incident ray, point of incidence and reflected ray in Figure 12.1?

What is the law of reflection?

LINK
We can carry out Let’s Investigate 12A to learn about the law that governs the reflection of light.
Recall the reflection of
waves that you have
Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 12A
10A learnt in Chapter 11.

Objective O
To investigate the law of reflection mirror

Apparatus r i
Plane mirror, ray box and power
supply, paper reflected ray incident ray

Precautions
A ray box with a filament lamp may
get hot. PWB LINK
normal
Procedure
ray box Practical 12A,
1 Figure 12.3 shows the reflection of Figure 12.3
pp. XX–XX

light by a plane mirror. Note that the
mirror needs to be placed vertically
upright (i.e. at right angle to the sheet of paper).
2 Mark out a dotted line perpendicular to the mirror on the paper. This line is the called

the normal.
3 Label the intersection of the mirror and the normal, ‘O’.

4 Switch on the ray box and direct a ray of light at point O.

5 Measure and record the angle of incidence i and the corresponding angle of reflection r.

6 Repeat steps 4 and 5 for different angles of incidence i.

Results and discussion
1 Every angle of incidence i is equal to its corresponding angle of reflection r.

2 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same

plane (i.e. a flat surface).
ENRICHMENT
THINK
Our finding from Let’s Investigate 12A is consistent with the law of reflection:
Explain why the
• the angle of incidence i is equal to the angle of reflection r (i.e. i = r).
shoes (Figure 12.4)
•
Below is a summary of a few more terms you need to know for reflection of light: shine after they have
• Normal is the imaginary line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence. been polished.
•
• Angle of incidence i is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
•
• Angle of reflection r is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.
•
Low res image

Figure 12.4 Polished shoes

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 Chapter 12
Worked Example 12A
Figure 12.5 shows a ray of light incident on a mirror.
(a) State the relationship between the angle of incidence

and the angle of reflection.
(b) Complete the diagram to show the reflected ray.

(c) What is the angle of incidence? 50°

(d) What is the angle of reflection?
Figure 12.5

Solution
(a) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

(b) Refer to Figure 12.6.

(c) Angle of incidence i = 90° – 50° = 40°

(d) Based on the law of reflection, i r

angle of reflection r = i = 40°. 50°

Figure 12.6

What are the properties of a mirror image?

We can carry out Let’s Investigate 12B to learn the characteristics of an image formed in a
plane mirror.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 12B
10A
Objective mirror
To investigate the characteristics
of an image formed in a plane mirror
Apparatus
Plane mirror, three pins,
graph paper, wooden holder,
softboard d1
d2
Precautions
The pins are sharp.
Procedure
wooden holder
1 Set up the apparatus shown
softboard

in Figure 12.7.
2 Observe the images formed. graph paper
Figure 12.7

3 Find the distances d1 and d2 by

counting the number of squares between one of the pins and the mirror surface, and
between its image and the mirror surface. Compare these two distances.
4 Repeat step 3 for the two other pins and their images.

Observations
The following observations were made regarding the mirror images.
LINK 1 The image of each pin is the same size as the pin, upright and virtual.
PWB

2 The distances of the image from the plane mirror, d1, is equal to the distance of the object

Practical 12B, form the plane mirror, d2.
pp. XX–XX
3 Taking the figure formed by the pins as an object, its image is laterally inverted.

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 Chapter 12
Characteristics of a plane mirror image
From Let's Investigate 12B, we can conclude the following
characteristics of a plane mirror image:
• The image is of the same size as the object.
•
• The image is laterally inverted. The left-hand side of
•
the image appears as the right-hand side of the object
and vice versa.
• The image is upright.
•
• The image is virtual. It cannot be captured on a screen
•
and the light rays do not meet at the image position. This
is opposite to a real image.
• The image has the same distance from the mirror as
•
the object.
Note: A real image can be captured on a screen and the light rays
meet at the image position.

Worked Example 12B

(a) There are seven letters in the word PHYSICS.

(i) Hold the word up in front of a plane


mirror as shown in Figure 12.8. Write
S
down how these letters appear in SIC ?
PHY
the mirror.
(ii) How many of these letters appear
mirror


to be different when the word
Figure 12.8
is reflected?
(iii) Write down the letters that appear to be the same.


(b) The driver of car A saw car B behind him from his rear-view mirror. If the registration

number of car B is SDE 789H, write down the number, as seen by the driver of car A in his
rear-view mirror.
Solution
(a) (i) S C I S Y H P


(ii) 4 (iii) H, Y, I



 
(b) H987 EDS

Ray diagrams for plane mirrors
We cannot capture a mirror image on a screen because it is a virtual image. However, we can locate
its position by drawing ray diagrams. Figure 12.9 shows a point object O in front of a plane mirror M.
The point object O is represented by a dot. The mirror is represented by a straight line, with shading
to show its silvered back.

point object O

Figure 12.9

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 Chapter 12
Ray diagram for a point object
Figure 12.10 shows how a ray diagram for a point object is drawn.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Locate the position of the image I Draw the reflected rays. Draw the incident rays.
behind the mirror.
M M
I O I O
M i
I O

i
ii points of
i incidence
ii

distance of distance of
mirror image object in front Join the image I to the eye using i Join the object O to the points of
=
behind mirror of mirror straight lines. incidence on the mirror surface.
Note that, for each ray, the angle
Measure the perpendicular distance Draw dotted lines for the rays behind of incidence is equal to the angle
i i
from object O to the mirror surface. the mirror. of reflection.

ii Mark off the same distance behind ii Draw solid lines with arrowheads for rays
the mirror to locate the image I. reflected off the mirror. The arrowheads
indicate the direction that light is
travelling in.

Figure 12.10 Drawing a ray diagram for a point object

By measuring the distances IM and OM, it can be seen that the distance from the object to the mirror
and the mirror to the image are the same.

Ray diagram for an extended object

An extended object can be seen as many points. To draw the ray diagram for the extended
object (Figure 12.11), we need to select several of these points and apply the same steps in
Figure 12.10 to them.

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

Locate the position of the image I Draw the reflected rays from the Draw the incident rays to the points
behind the mirror using the two selected points. of incidence.
extreme points.

mirror mirror mirror

image I object O object O image I object O

Figure 12.11 Drawing a ray diagram for an extended object

By measuring the length of the image and the length of the object, it can be seen that the size of the
image and the size of the object are the same.

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 Chapter 12
Worked Example 12C
Two point objects P and Q are placed at different positions
in front of a plane mirror, as shown in Figure 12.12. P
(a) Draw a single ray to locate the position of the image of P

as seen by the eye at E.
E
(b) The eye at E is also able to see the image of Q.

Draw a single ray to show how this is possible.
Solution Q
Refer to Figure 12.13.
Figure 12.12
(a) P’ is the image of P. P P'

(b) Q’ is the image of Q. (a)

E
WORD ALERT
(b)
Q Q' Optical: relating to sight
Figure 12.13 or the ability to see

Some applications of mirrors

Figure 12.14 shows some applications of mirrors. eye chart
6.5 m
3.0 m 0.5 m

Vision testing
Before you can get a pair of spectacles at an optical shop, you have
to go through a vision test. You need to read letters and numbers
off an eye chart from a standard distance during the test. To allow
a vision test to be carried out in a small room, mirrors are used to
make the numbers on the eye chart appear further away.

mirror
Periscope Blind corner mirror
A periscope comes with two Fitting curved mirrors at the corners of
Applications
plane mirrors inclined at 45°. shops allows shopkeepers to keep a
It helps a person look over of mirrors
lookout for shoplifters. Such mirrors are
obstacles such as a high also used to help drivers see around
wall or other spectators in blind corners before making a turn.
a game or an event!

Instrument scale
A mirror placed below the
pointer of a scale can help
us avoid parallax error when
taking readings. To avoid
parallax error, we need to
make sure that the pointer
is aligned with its mirror
image.
reflection of
the pointer

Figure 12.14 Applications of mirrors

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 Chapter 12
Let’s Practise 12.1
1 With the help of a diagram, state the law of reflection.

2 What are the characteristics of an image formed in a plane mirror?

3 Figure 12.15 shows an arrow placed above a mirror.

(a) On the diagram,

(i) draw its image formed by the mirror;

(ii) show how light rays from the object are reflected at the mirror to form the image

for the eye.
(b) Describe the image.


eye
arrow

mirror
Figure 12.15

4 A person is looking at the image of an eye chart in a mirror placed 3.0 m in front of

LINK TWB him. Given that the actual eye chart is positioned 0.5 m behind his eyes, find the distance
between the image of the chart and his eyes.
Exercise 12A, 5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
pp. XX–XX

this section.

12.2 Refraction of Light

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define and use the terms normal, angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
• Describe an experiment to show refraction of light.
• Describe the passage of light from one medium to another through a transparent material.
• Define refractive index, n.
Recall and use the equation n = sin i .

•
sin r

LINK
Light can travel through transparent materials such as glass and water. This is why we can see a
pencil in a glass of water. But why does the pencil appear bent at the water surface (Figure 12.16)?
Recall the refraction of Light travels at different speeds in different transparent materials (i.e. optical media). For example, its
waves that you have speed is 3.0 × 108 m/s in air and 2.0 × 108 m/s in glass. When light travels from air to glass, it undergoes
learnt in Chapter 11. a change in speed at the boundary of the two optical media. The change in speed causes light to
bend (i.e. change its direction). This called refraction.

WORD ALERT

Media: (plural of
medium), matter,
substances
Figure 12.16 We can see
Boundary: interface the pencil in a glass of
where two areas meet water because it reflects
light through the water
and glass into our eyes.
But why does the pencil
appear bent?

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 Chapter 12
Light travels the fastest in vacuum. It slows down in an N
optically denser medium (e.g. glass, water). Figure 12.17 shows refracted ray
normal
a ray of light striking and refracting at a surface, PQ. B
Below are some terms that are used to describe the r
refraction of light: glass
• Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one P Q
•
optical medium to another. O
air
• Incident ray is light ray that hits the refracting surface. A i
•
• Point of incidence is the point at which the incident ray incident ray
•
hits the refracting surface. Figure 12.17 Refraction of light at a surface
• Normal is the imaginary line perpendicular to the
•
refracting surface at the point of incidence.
• Angle of incidence i is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
•
• Angle of refraction r is the angle between the refracted ray and the normal.
•
What is the law of refraction?
We can carry out Let’ s Investigate 12C to learn the law that governs the refraction of light.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 12C
10A
emergent ray ray box 1
Objective glass
To investigate the law of refraction block air

Apparatus normal refracted ray

Translucent rectangular block, ray box and r normal
power supply, paper i
incident ray
Precautions
A ray box with a filament lamp may get hot. ray box 2
Procedure
1 Place the glass block on a piece of paper. Figure 12.18 a piece of paper

2 Using ray box 1, shine a light ray through the glass block along the normal (Figure 12.18), and

observe the path of the light ray.
3 Using ray box 2, shine a light ray through the glass block at an angle (Figure 12.18), and

observe the path of the light ray.
4 Vary the angle of incidence i and measure the corresponding angles of refraction r.

Tabulate the results as shown in
Table 12.1 and plot the graph of sin i sin i
against sin r as shown in Figure 12.19. 1.000
×
Table 12.1 Recorded data and 0.800 ×
calculated values ×
0.600 × gradient of slope
sin i
i/° r/° sin i sin r = constant ratio
sin r ×

0.400
× of sin i
20.0 13.0 0.342 0.225 1.52 sin r
30.0 20.0 0.500 0.342 1.46 0.200

40.0 25.0 0.643 0.423 1.52

sin r
50.0 31.0 0.766 0.515 1.49 0 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.600 0.700







60.0 35.0 0.866 0.574 1.51 Figure 12.19
70.0 39.0 0.940 0.629 1.49

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 Chapter 12
Observations and results
1 For ray box 1, the light ray passes through the glass block in a straight line. There is no

LINK PWB change in its direction.
2 For ray box 2,
Practicals 12C–12D,

• the light ray bends towards the normal as it enters the block;
pp. XX–XX

•
• the light ray bends away from the normal as exits the block. The emergent ray is parallel

•
to the incident ray;
• the graph of sin i against sin r is a straight line the goes through the origin with a

•
constant gradient (Figure 12.19).
WORD ALERT
Discussion and conclusion
Conversely: on the 1 A light ray that travels from one medium to another along the normal is not refracted.

other hand, in the 2 A light ray bends towards the normal when it enters an optically denser medium at an angle
opposite way

(e.g. air to glass).
3 Conversely, a light ray bends away from the normal when it enters an optically less dense

medium at an angle (e.g. glass to air).
HELPFUL NOTES 4 The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.

5 From Figure 12.19, we can deduce that the ratio of sin i to sin r for a particular medium (or
Although a light ray

travelling from one gradient of its straight-line graph) gives us a constant.
medium to another
along the normal is
The conclusion in Let’s Investigate 12C is consistent with the law of refraction discovered by the
not refracted, it still
undergoes a change Dutch scientist, Willebrord Snell:
in speed. • For two given media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence, i, to the sine of the angle of
•
refraction, r is a constant.
sin i = constant
sin r

This is also known as Snell’s Law.

Refractive index and speed of light
The refractive index n is the ratio of the speeds of a wave in two different regions.
Consider light travelling through a medium. The refractive index n of a medium is the ratio of the
QUICK CHECK speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the medium.
n=c where c = speed of light in vacuum
In Figure 12.20, medium P v
  
is optically more dense v = speed of light in the medium

than medium Q. The higher the value of the refractive index of a medium, the slower light travels in the medium.
For light travelling from vacuum to an optical medium, the constant ratio sin i is also known as the
True or false?
refractive index n of that medium. sin r
incident ray
air
n = sin i where i = angle of incidence in vacuum
sin r
  
refracted ray P r = angle of refraction in the medium

air The higher the value of the refractive index of a medium, the smaller the angle of refraction r (i.e.
Q the more the light bends towards the normal). This is can be seen when we compare refraction in
diamond to refraction in water (Figure 12.21).

emergent
ray
Figure 12.20

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 Chapter 12

vacuum vacuum

diamond water

WORD ALERT

Indices: plural of index

n = 2.42 n = 1.5

Figure 12.21 The angle of refraction is smaller in diamond than in water

Table 12.2 Refractive indices of and speed of light in some materials HELPFUL NOTES

Medium Refractive index n Speed of light (× 108 m/s) A transparent material

Diamond 2.40 1.25 of higher refractive
index is an optically
Glass 1.50* 2.00 denser medium.
Perspex 1.50 2.00 However, optical density
is different from mass
Water 1.33 2.25
density. For example,
Ice 1.30 2.30 liquid paraffin is optically
denser than water, but its
Air 1.000 293 2.999 mass density is lower.
* For glass, the refractive index varies between 1.48 and 1.96, depending on the composition of the glass.

From Table 12.2, we can see that the speed of light in air is very close to that in vacuum. Hence, for
most practical purposes, we can find the approximate value of the refractive index even though we
use the speed of light in air instead of vacuum.
speed of light in vacuum speed of light in air
n= ≈
speed of light in medium speed of light in medium

Worked Example 12D

Given that the speed of light in vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m/s, calculate the speed of light in crown
glass of refractive index 1.52.
Solution
Given: Speed of light in vacuum c = 3.0 × 108 m/s

Refractive index of crown glass n = 1.52

Using n = c where v = speed of light in crown glass,
v
v= c
n

3.0 × 108 m/s
=
1.52

= 1.97 × 108 m/s

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 Chapter 12
Worked Example 12E
HELPFUL NOTES
Figure 12.22 shows a ray of light passing through a rectangular P R
A light ray will travel glass block of refractive index 1.5.
i = 60°
along the same path if If the ray strikes the surface PQ at an angle of incidence i of 60°, r
its direction of travel is calculate the
reversed (Figure 12.23).
This is the principle (a) angle of refraction r at the air-to-glass boundary (PQ); x

of reversibility and it (b) angle of incidence x in the glass block; y
air glass

applies to the reflection (c) angle of refraction y at the glass-to-air boundary (RS).
and refraction of light.

Solution Q S
Given: Refractive index of the glass n = 1.5 Figure 12.22
vacuum (a) At the air-to-glass boundary (PQ):

n = sin i (Snell’s law)
sin r

glass
sin r = sin i = sin 60°
n 1.5

r = 35.3°

(b) Since x and r are alternate angles, x = r = 35.3°

(a) When light shines
(c) At the glass-to-air boundary (RS):

from top to bottom

In this case, we cannot write n = sin x as the angle of incidence x is not in air. However, since
sin y

a light ray travels along the same path if its direction is reversed, we can solve for angle of
vacuum
refraction y by reversing the direction of the light ray.

glass n = sin x (Snell’s law)

sin y

sin y = n sin x = 1.5 sin 35.3°

y = 60°

(b) When the direction of

light is reversed, the
angles it makes with Worked Example 12F
the normal are the
same as in (a). Figure 12.24 shows a ray of light being partially reflected
Figure 12.23 and refracted at the surface of a glass block of refractive air glass
index 1.6.
Determine the value of 30°
(a) x; (b) y. x y

Solution
Given: Angle of incidence = 30°

Refractive index of glass block = 1.6
Angle of reflection = x Figure 12.24

Angle of refraction = y
(a) By the law of reflection, angle of incidence i = angle of reflection r

∴ x = 30°

(b) Using Snell’s law,

n = sin i
sin r

1.6 = sin 30°
sin y

y = 18.2°

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 Chapter 12
Daily phenomena and applications of refraction
HELPFUL NOTES
‘Bent’ objects rod
light rays as seen
Objects in water or other optically denser by the eye The refractive index n of a
media appear bent because of refraction. medium is also given by
In Figure 12.25, we can see the rod because the ratio of the real depth
it reflects light to our eyes. It appears to be of an object in a medium
bent because the reflected light from the to its apparent depth in
immersed part of the rod refracts when it the same medium.
travels from water to air. i.e. n = real depth
actual paths of apparent depth
liquid light rays

Figure 12.25 A partially immersed rod appears bent because light

bends away from the normal when it travels from water to air.

Misperception of depth ENRICHMENT

INFO
Swimming pools appear shallower than they actually are because of refraction (Figure 12.26).
The Archer’s Fish Secret
The archer fish uses a
unique way to catch
its prey. It shoots a jet
light rays as seen of water with pinpoint
by the eye accuracy, knocking its
prey off a branch or a
apparent leaf. How is it able to
depth hit its target with such
real
high accuracy despite
depth
the visual distortion
caused by refraction?
actual paths of Biologists are still trying
light rays to establish an answer
to this question. If
Figure 12.26 A swimming pool is deeper than it seems.
you were an archer
fish, how would you
overcome distorted
Worked Example 12G vision due to refraction
so that you could
Figure 12.27 shows a thin rod partially immersed in a beaker always hit your target?
of water. Given that the refractive index of water is 1.33,
determine the value of rod q
(a) θ; (b) x. x
Solution
(a) We can solve for θ by reversing the direction 10.0 cm
30°

of the light ray.
water
n = sin θ (Snell’s law)
sin 30° Figure 12.27

1.33 = sin θ
sin 30°

θ = 41.7°
x
(b) Since angle AOB and the angle of ∴ tan 30° =
10 cm


incidence are alternate angles,
x = 5.77 cm
angle AOB is 30°.

Figure 12.28 An archer

fish spitting a jet of
water at its prey resting
on a leaf

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 Chapter 12
Let’s Practise 12.2
1 Draw a clearly labelled diagram to show the refraction of light when it travels from air

to water.
2 How is the speed of light in glass related to the angle of incidence and angle of refraction

of light?
3 At what angle of incidence will light pass from air to another transparent material without

being refracted?
LINK TWB
4
Draw a diagram to show how a coin at the bottom of a bucket of water appears to a viewer.
Exercise 12B, 5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

pp. XX–XX this section.

12.3 Total Internal Reflection

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State the meaning of critical angle.
•

Describe internal reflection and total internal reflection using both experimental and

everyday examples.
• Recall and use the equation n = 1 .
sin c

• Describe the use of optical fibres, particularly in telecommunications.

Figure 12.29 shows the reflection of a turtle under water. This
reflection is at the water–air boundary and occurs due to the total
internal reflection of light.
Total internal reflection can only occur when light passes from
an optically denser to a less dense medium. To understand this Low res image
unique behaviour of light, we need to first understand what critical
angle is.

What is a critical angle? How can

we find it for a material?
Figure 12.29 The reflection of
the turtle can be clearly seen
underwater at the water–
air boundary.
We can carry out Let’s Investigate 12D to demonstrate critical angle.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 12D
10A
Objective normal
To investigate the critical angle in total
midpoint
internal reflection
0
Apparatus
Transparent semi-circular block, ray box and power
supply, paper semi-circular
glass block
LINK Precautions
PWB
A ray box with a filament lamp may get very hot.
Practical 12E, ray box
pp. XX–XX Figure 12.30

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 Chapter 12

Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 12.30.

HELPFUL NOTES
2 Direct a light ray through the semi-circular
In Investigation 12D, a

block at the midpoint O such that it is
semi-circular glass block
perpendicular to the flat surface of the glass
midpoint is used, and the light ray
block. Observe the path of the light.
is always directed towards
3 Direct the light ray at an angle i at O. 0 the midpoint O of the

Vary angle i and observe the corresponding diameter of the block.
change in the path of the light ray. Recall that a tangent to a
semi-circular
circle is perpendicular to
Observation, discussion and conclusion glass block
the radius at the point of
1 When the light ray was directed through the contact (Figure 12.34).

midpoint O such that it was perpendicular ray box
to the flat surface of the block, the light ray
passed straight through, without any deviation Figure 12.31
(Figure 12.31).
2 When the light ray was directed at a point O refracted away midpoint
of circle

at an angle i, it refracted away from the normal from the normal
upon emerging from the glass (Figure 12.32).
0 r
This is because it was travelling from an
weak
optically denser medium (e.g. glass) to an reflected
tangent
optically less dense medium (e.g. air). A small i i ray Figure 12.34
amount of light is reflected off the flat surface
of the glass block. semi-circular Therefore, a light ray
3 As the incident angle is increased, glass block directed towards the

the refracted ray bends further away from midpoint O will always
the normal until the angle of refraction r enter the curved surface
Figure 12.32 of the glass block at an
becomes 90° (Figure 12.33). When the angle
angle of incidence of 0°
of refraction is 90°, the corresponding refracted
90° (i.e. it passes through the
angle of incidence is known as the 0 ray
surface without bending).
critical angle c. This makes the study of
c c
The critical angle c is defined as the critical angle at the flat
weak surface of the glass block
angle of incidence (in an optically denser reflected
medium) for which the angle of refraction ray more convenient.
(in the optically less dense medium) is 90°.
Figure 12.33

Critical angle and total internal reflection

ENRICHMENT
When the angle of incidence in the glass block is larger than the critical angle c, the light ray reflects THINK
off the flat surface of the glass block. There is no refraction at the flat surface (i.e. glass–air boundary) Radio waves
(Figure 12.35). This phenomenon is known as total internal reflection. This explains why we can see the transmitted from the
reflection of the turtle underwater in Figure 12.29 on page 192. ground can undergo
Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a light ray inside an optically denser medium total internal reflection
at its boundary with an optically less dense medium. from the sky. The waves
are reflected off the
No light passes through if the incident ionosphere, an upper
angle i is more than the critical angle c. layer of the Earth’s
air 0 atmosphere, and can
glass be received many
i>c i
hundreds of kilometres
reflected ray away. Explain how the
ionosphere causes the
total internal reflection
of the waves.
Figure 12.35

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 Chapter 12
In summary, two conditions that must be satisfied in order for a light ray to undergo total internal
reflection are:
PHYSICS WATCH 1 The light ray in an optically denser medium strikes its boundary with an optically less

dense medium.
Scan this page to watch a
2 The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle of the optically denser medium.
clip of an experiment on

total internal reflection.
Determining critical angle
Given the refractive index n of a transparent material, we can find its critical angle c. Consider a light
ray travelling from air into a semi-circular glass block before exiting into air at O (Figure 12.36).

refracted
air 0 r = 90° ray
glass
c c
weak angle of incidence i = critical angle c
reflected angle of refraction r = 90°
ray

Figure 12.36
With reference to page 188, when the light is travelling from vacuum to the medium, the refractive
index of the medium is given by the ratio sin (angle of incidence) . However, in Figure 12.36, the
sin (angle of refraction)
light is travelling from glass to air. We can visualise the same path of light in Figure 12.36 but with the
directions reversed (refer to Figure 12.23 on page 190). This will give the following:

n = sin 90° = 1
sin c sin c
1
∴ sin c =
n

Worked Example 12H

Figure 12.37 shows a light ray entering a right-angled glass C
prism of refractive index 1.5.
(a) Calculate the critical angle of the prism.

(b) Complete the path of the light ray until it emerges into

the air.
Solution
(a) Given: Refractive index n = 1.5

sin c = 1 = 1 45°
n 15 A B

c = 41.8° Figure 12.37

(b) Since the ray enters the prism at a right angle, it does not

bend and hits surface AB at 45° (i.e. angle of incidence i). C
Since the angle of incidence (45°) is greater than the

critical angle of 41.8°, total internal reflection occurs.
Similarly, total internal reflection also occurs at surface AC.
The light ray exits at a right angle to surface BC. 45°
45°

45° 45°
45°
A B
Figure 12.38

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 Chapter 12
What are the applications of total internal reflection?
Glass prisms
Glass prisms (Figure 12.39) are used to reflect light in some optical
instruments such as binoculars and periscopes. They reflect light by total Low res image
internal reflection.

Figure 12.39 Glass prism

right-angled prism
object

prisms

lens

light path

Binoculars
virtual upright image
Using prisms to reflect light can
reduce the size of binoculars.
Prisms also rectify the inverted
image, produced by the lenses in Periscopes
binoculars, to an upright image. Prisms can be used in place
of plane mirrors to give
clearer images. They reflect
light to allow us to see an
Total Internal Reflection upright image.
in Glass Prisms

Single Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras

viewfinder pentaprism Prisms in SLR cameras allow
photographers to see the exact
translucent screen image to be captured. A five-sided QUICK CHECK
prism (pentaprism) helps to make this
feature possible in an SLR camera. The diagram of the
light binoculars in Figure 12.40
sensor shows total internal
light path reflection occurring twice.
shutter mirror True or false?
lens compartment

Figure 12.40 Use of total internal reflection in glass prisms

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 Chapter 12
Optical fibres
The transmission of data using optical fibres is an important application of total internal reflection.
Optical fibres are long, thin and flexible. They are made of glass or plastic and can transmit light over
long distances through total internal reflection (Figure 12.41).

total internal reflection coating (low refractive index)

core (high refractive index)

Figure 12.41 An optical fibre has a core of a high refractive index. The core is coated with another material of a lower
refractive index.
Even when the fibre is bent, light rays entering it will still be internally reflected at the boundary
between the two refractive materials. These flexible fibres have innovative uses in many industries
such as telecommunications and medicine (Figure 12.42).

Telecommunications industry Medical industry

Today, telephone conversations and The high flexibility of optical
Internet data are transmitted across fibres makes them ideal for
continents using optical fibres, and medical applications such
not copper wires. Advantages of as endoscopes. Doctors use
optical fibres over copper wires in
Total Internal endoscopes to see inside
telecommunications are as follows: Reflection in hollow organs, such as
• Higher carrying capacity: An the intestines.
Optical Fibres

optical fibre can carry much more
information over long distances
than a copper wire.
• Less signal degradation: A signal

transmitted via optical fibres
experiences much less signal loss
as compared to copper wires.
• Lightweight: Optical fibres are

lighter than copper wires.
• Lower cost: Optical fibres

are becoming cheaper to
manufacture as compared Low res image
to copper wires of
equivalent lengths.

Low res image

Figure 12.42 Use of total internal reflection in optical fibres

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 Chapter 12
Let’s Practise 12.3
1

Explain what is meant by term critical angle. TWB LINK

2 Draw a clearly labelled diagram to show total internal reflection. Exercise 12C,

3 The refractive index of a glass prism is 1.9. Calculate its critical angle. pp. XX–XX

4 State two applications of total internal reflection.

5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

12.4 Refraction by Thin Lenses

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the action of thin converging and thin diverging lenses on a parallel beam of light.
•

Define and use the terms focal length, principal axis and principal focus (focal point).

A lens is a piece of clear plastic or glass with curved surfaces. Lenses are widely used in cameras,
spectacles, projectors and many other optical instruments.

Low res image

Low res image
WORD ALERT

Figure 12.43 Camera with interchangeable lenses Figure 12.44 How are spectacles for long-sightedness Converge: heading

different from those for short-sightedness?
towards a point

What determines the path of light through a lens? Diverge: spread out

A typical lens can be thought of as a set of small prisms (Figures 12.45). As the surface of a lens is
curved, parallel light rays hitting different parts of its surface have different incident angles. Converging lenses
This causes the individual rays to refract by different angles. The angle of refraction is the largest
at the outermost part of the lens, while no refraction occurs in the middle. As a result, depending
on the curvature of the lens, light rays either converge or diverge after passing through the lens
(Figure 12.44).

light rays
converge
light rays Diverging lenses
diverge

Path of light through a Path of light through

converging lens a diverging lens
Figure 12.45 A typical lens can be thought of as a set of small prisms.

A converging lens causes light rays to converge to a point. It is thicker in the centre. Figure 12.46 Different
types of converging and
A diverging lens causes light rays to diverge from a point. It is thinner in the centre. diverging lenses

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 Chapter 12
Thin converging lens
We will learn what focal length is and other terms that are used to describe a thin converging lens
(Figure 12.47).

focal
parallel length f Focal length f
The principal axis is the rays is the distance
ENRICHMENT horizontal line passing focal
ACTIVITY plane between the
through the optical optical centre
In this activity, you will centre of the lens. It is F C and the focal
use the rays of the Sun perpendicular to the principal C
axis point F.
to find the focal length vertical plane of the lens.
of a magnifying glass.
focal point
Precaution
(or principal focus)
Be careful! The bright
spot may cause the The optical centre C is the The focal plane
paper (or anything midpoint between the is the plane that
else) to burn. surfaces of the lens on its passes through the
1 Hold a magnifying principal axis. Rays passing The principal focus (or focal focal point F and
point) is the point at which all

glass above a piece through the optical centre perpendicular to
of paper under are not refracted. rays parallel to the principal axis the principal axis.
the Sun. converge after refraction by the
2 Adjust the distance lens. A lens has two focal points,
one on each side of the lens.

between the lens
and the paper until
you can observe a
small bright spot. Figure 12.47 Parallel beam of rays parallel to the principal axis
This distance is its
focal length. When the parallel beam of rays incident on parallel
a thin converging lens is not parallel to the beam focal
At its focal length,
principal axis, the rays are refracted to a point plane
a magnifying glass
focuses the Sun’s rays (not the focal point F) on the focal plane f
onto one small spot (Figure 12.48).
on its focal plane
(Figure 12.49).
C F
principal
axis
P

Figure 12.48 Parallel beam of rays not

parallel to the principal axis

Let’s Practise 12.4

Figure 12.49
1 With the help of a diagram, describe how a converging lens is
Can you think of

other ways to find

different from a diverging lens in terms of their structure and
the focal length of a their effect on light.
magnifying glass? 2 Figure 12.50 shows a diagram of light rays passing through a
thin converging lens. Explain whether the diagram is correct?
3 With the help of a diagram, define the focal length of a thin
converging lens. Figure 12.50
LINK TWB
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts
Exercise 12D, that you have learnt in this section.
pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 12

12.5 Ray Diagrams for Thin


Converging Lenses
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the characteristics of an image.
•

Know how a virtual image is formed.
•

Draw and use ray diagrams to show how a real image is formed.
•

Draw and use ray diagrams to show how a virtual image is formed.
•

Describe the use of a single lens as a magnifying glass.
•

Describe the use of converging and diverging lenses to correct long-sightedness and

short-sightedness.

From Section 12.4, we know that

• any light ray passing through the optical centre C of a lens is not refracted;
•
• any light ray parallel to the principal axis of a lens will converge at the focal point F (Figure 12.51).
•
focal
parallel length f
rays
focal
plane

principal F
C
axis

focal point
(or principal focus)

Figure 12.51

With this, we can identify three particular light rays that behave in a predictable way whenever they
pass through any thin converging lens (Table 12.3).

Table 12.3 Behaviour of three particular light rays when passing through a thin converging lens

Ray 1 passes through Ray 2 parallel to Ray 3 passing through

optical centre C principal axis focal point F

C F
C C
F F F

An incident ray through the optical centre An incident ray parallel to the principal An incident ray passing through the
C passes without bending. axis is refracted to pass through F. focal point F is refracted parallel to the
principal axis.

Where is the image made by a thin converging lens?

The image of a lens is determined by the relative positions of the focal point and the object distance.
Using any two of the three rays mentioned in Table 12.3, we can draw a ray diagram to locate the
position of an image produced by a thin converging lens.

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 Chapter 12
Object distance longer than the focal length (i.e. f < u < 2f)
Figure 12.52 shows how a real image is formed when the distance of the object is longer than the
focal length.

Step 1: Set up the ray diagram ii

i Draw a horizontal line to represent the principal axis. iii i

ii Draw a double-headed arrow perpendicular to the horizontal

line to represent the converging lens.
F
iii The intersection point of the principal axis in (i) and the lens in C
2F F

(ii) is the optical centre of the converging lens. Label the point C.
iv f iv
iv Label the focal point F of the lens on the principal axis.

The distance CF is the focal length f of the lens.

Step 2: Place the object on the left of the lens O
C
i Draw a vertical arrow on the left of the lens to represent an 2F F F

object. Label the object O. i u
ii Label the distance OC u. Note that f < u < 2f.

ii

ray 2 i

Step 3: Trace the rays and locate the image

i Select and draw any two of the three rays, e.g. ray 1 and ray 2, O F

from the tip of the object. I ii
C
2F ray 1 F
ii The intersection point of the two rays represents the real image

of the tip of the object. Complete the real image by drawing an
arrow and labelling it I.
Figure 12.52 Formation of a real image (f < u < 2f )

Object distance shorter than the focal length (i.e. u < f)

Place the same object at a distance less than the focal length and draw the ray diagram (Figure 12.53).
We can see that the light rays diverge and the intersection point of ray 1 and ray 2 can be found only
if the rays are extended backwards.
When the diverging rays enter our eyes, they appear to come from a point on the same side as
the object. The point represents the virtual image of the tip of the object and the broken arrow
represents the virtual image of the object.

image

object F
F C
u f
v

Figure 12.53 Formation of a virtual image (u <2f )

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 Chapter 12
The distance of an object from a thin converging lens determines the type of image that is formed.
Table 12.4 shows the types of images formed when an object is placed at different distances from
the lens.

Table 12.4Types of images formed by a thin converging lens with different range of values of u

Object Type Image

Ray diagram Uses
distance (u ) of image distance (v )

u=∞ parallel • inverted v=f • object lens of

 
 
rays from • real • opposite a telescope

 
a distant

 
side of
object • diminished
the lens

 
v F
F image

u > 2f • inverted f < v < 2f • camera

 
 
object • real • opposite • eye
F 2F

 
 
 
side of
• diminished
2F F image the lens

 
u v

u = 2f • inverted v = 2f • photocopier

 
 
• real • opposite making
object F 2F

 
 
side of same-sized copy
• same size
F image the lens

 
2F
u v

f < u < 2f • inverted v > 2f • projector

 
 
• real • opposite • photograph
object F 2F

 
 
 
• magnified side of enlarger
2F F the lens
 
image

u v

u=f image at • upright • image • eyepiece lens of

 
 
 
infinity • virtual at infinity a telescope
 
• magnified • same side
 
 
of the lens
object

F F
u
paralle l
rays

u<f • upright • image is • magnifying glass

 
 
 
• virtual behind
 
the object
image • magnified
•
 
same side
 
of the lens
object F
F
u
v

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 Chapter 12
From Table 12.4, we can see that
• when u > f, the image formed is real, inverted and on the opposite side of the lens as the object;

•
PHYSICS WATCH • when u ≤ f, the image formed is virtual, upright and on the same side of the lens as the object.

•
Scan this page to explore
a simulation on formation
of images by lenses.
Worked Example 12I
An object 2 cm high is placed 7.5 cm from a thin converging lens. The focal length of the lens is
5 cm.
(a) Find, by scale drawing, the position of the image formed.

(b) State the characteristics of the image.

Solution
(a) Horizontal scale: 1 unit square represents 1 cm

Vertical scale: 1 unit square represents 1 cm

lens

0' ray 2
ray 1
I
2F 0 F F 2F

I'

LINK PWB Figure 12.54

Practical 12F, From Figure 12.54, the image distance is 15 cm from the lens.
pp. XX–XX
(b) The image formed is real, inverted and magnified. It is on the opposite side of the lens.

What can lenses be
used for?
Magnifying glass
A magnifying glass is a thin converging
lens. It is used to make objects look
bigger (Figure 12.55). In order to get a
magnified image, the lens should be
positioned at a distance less than a focal
length f from the object (i.e. u < f).

Figure 12.55 In comparison to the rest of the

textbook cover, the letters under the magnifying
glass are magnified.

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 Chapter 12
Visual correction for long-sightedness
People who are long-sighted are unable to see objects close to their eyes clearly. The lenses in their
eyes are unable to focus a clear image of a close object on the retina (Figure 12.56).

retina

light from lens

close object

light rays not focused

on retina
Figure 12.56 Long-sightedness — the eye lens is unable to focus the light rays onto the retina

Spectacles with converging lenses can be used to partially converge the light rays before they enter
the eyes (Figure 12.57). This way, the light rays coming from the object can be focused on the retina to
produce a sharp image.

light from
close object

converging lens helps eye lens to

converge beam onto the retina
Figure 12.57 Correcting long-sightedness using a converging lens

Visual correction for short-sightedness

PHYSICS WATCH
A person is short-sighted when his or her eyeball is longer than normal along the horizontal axis
from the lens to the retina. The eye can still focus on near objects. However, parallel light rays from Scan this page to explore
distant objects are focused in front of the retina, forming a blurred image (Figure 12.58). a simulation on short-
Short-sightedness can be corrected by wearing spectacles with concave lenses. The concave lenses sightedness and long-
sightedness.
diverge the rays from distant objects before they reach the eye. The diverged rays can then be
focused onto the retina and this will enable the person to see distant objects clearly (Figure 12.59).

focus (corrected)

rays from distant rays from

object distant object
concave
lens
image formed in focus lies in front of
front of retina retina (uncorrected)
Figure 12.58 Short-sightedness — image forms in front Figure 12.59 Correcting short-sightedness with
of the retina a concave lens

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 Chapter 12
Worked Example 12J
Figure 12.60 shows a small object of height L
1.0 cm placed 1.4 cm away from a thin
converging lens L of focal length 1.9 cm.
object
By drawing a suitable ray diagram,
(a) find the position and height of the image; F

(b) describe the characteristics of the

image formed. Figure 12.60

Solution
Given: Size of object OO’ = 1.0 cm, object distance u = 1.4 cm, focal length f = 1.9 cm
(a) By scale drawing, the image distance v is 5.8 cm and the height of image I’ is 3.9 cm.

(b) The image formed is upright, magnified, virtual and on the same side of the lens as

the object.

I'

f
O'
F C F
I O u
v

Figure 12.61

Let’s Practise 12.5

1 Describe how far an object should be placed from a thin converging lens to produce

(a) a magnified real image;


(b) a magnified virtual image.
LINK


TWB
2 State two applications of converging lenses.

Exercise 12E, 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

pp. XX–XX this section.

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 Chapter 12

12.6 Dispersion of Light

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the dispersion of light as illustrated by the refraction of white light by a glass prism.
•

Know the traditional seven colours of the visible spectrum in order of frequency and in order

of wavelength.
• Recall that visible light of a single frequency is described as monochromatic.

We have seen in this chapter that light can be refracted when it travels from one medium to another.
So far, we have assumed that all wavelengths of light travel at the same speed. This is true in the HELPFUL NOTES
vacuum of space, yet it is merely an approximation in all other media.
Isaac Newton performed a famous experiment where he placed a glass prism in the path of a thin To help you remember
the seven colours of
beam of white light from the Sun (Figure 12.62).
the visible spectrum,
Sun remember this acronym:
ROYGBIV

white light
dispersed light showing
the spectrum of colours QUICK CHECK

Red light has the longest

wavelength in the
visible spectrum.
single slit True or false?
frame
glass prism green

orange
violet
indigo
blue
yellow

red
increasing
frequency increasing
wavelength

Figure 12.62 Newton’s dispersion experiment to show the spectrum of visible light

The different colours that Newton observed is called a spectrum. The spectrum is shown in Figure LINK
12.62 from red to violet in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength. Red light has the
lowest frequency and violet light has the highest. The spectrum of
It arises because the refractive index for each of the colours in the spectrum have a slightly different visible light is part of
refractive index. The refractive index for red light is the lowest of all the visible colours, whereas violet the electromagnetic
light has the highest of the visible colours. This change in refractive index across the spectrum is spectrum. Find out more
in Chapter 13.
known as dispersion.
Although there are traditionally seven colours in the visible spectrum, there are an infinite number of
different frequencies between red light and violet light. Any single frequency of light is described as
monochromatic.

Let’s Practise 12.6 TWB LINK

Exercise, 12 F–12G,
1 State the order of colours of the visible spectrum, starting with the shortest wavelength.
pp. XX–XX

2 Explain which of the colours of the visible spectrum travels fastest in glass. Exercise 12H Let's Reflect,

3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in p. X

this section.

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 Chapter 12

Let’s Map It

undergoes undergoes
LIGHT Dispersion
produces
Seven colours of
the visible spectrum
causes

Reflection Refraction

Law of refraction (Snell’s law)

is governed by
of which image sin i
= constant
position can be sin r
located by
defines

Ray diagrams
Refractive index
n = sin (angle of incidence in vacuum)
sin (angle of refraction in medium)

described = (speed of light in vacuum)

(speed of light in medium)
by terms
is governed by such as
apply to
Law of re˜ ection • Incident ray refraction in
explains
Angle of incidence i • Reflected/
= angle of reflection r refracted ray Thin converging lens
• Point of incidence
Total
by a plane • Normal internal re˜ ection described by
mirror • Angle of incidence terms such as
• Angle of reflection/
occurs when
refraction
• focal length
• principal axis
• Light travels • optical centre
Image formed from an optically • focal point
• is the same size as denser medium
to an optically less • focal plane
the object
dense medium.
• is laterally inverted
• Angle of incidence
• is upright
in the optically
• is virtual denser medium is
• has the same greater than the
distance from the critical angle c.
mirror as the object sin c =
1
n Applications
• magnifying
glass
• spectacle
lenses

Applications
• glass prism
• optical fibre

°˛˝
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 Chapter 12

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 5 A light ray in air is incident at an angle on one side of a

1 Which characteristics best describe an image formed in rectangular glass block (Figure 12.65).

a plane mirror?
A Diminished and virtual

B Same size and virtual

C Same size and real

D Magnified and virtual

2 Which statement about the size of an image formed in Figure 12.65

a plane mirror image is false?
A The image can be taller than the mirror. Which ray diagram correctly describes the complete


B The image height depends on the object distance. path of the light ray?

C The image height depends on the object height. A B




D The width of the image is the same as that of

the object.
3 A girl stands at point P as shown in Figure 12.63.

A wall separates her from four other persons standing
at points W, X, Y and Z. It blocks her direct line of sight
to them. If a mirror is placed as shown in the diagram, C D



how many persons can she see reflected in the mirror?
mirror

P W X Y Z
6 Which diagram correctly describes the critical angle c

wall for an air–water surface?
Figure 12.63 A B



c
A 1 B 2 c
air air



C 3 D 4
water water



4 Figure 12.64 shows the complete path of a light ray

travelling from air to a liquid.

C D



60°
air c
air air
50° liquid
water water
c

Figure 12.64
7 The fish in a pond appears to be

A deeper in the water than it really is because light

The refractive index of the liquid is given by reflected from the fish will refract towards the normal.

B deeper in the water than it really is because light
A sin 60° B sin 30°

sin 50° sin 50° reflected from the fish will refract away from the normal.



sin 60° sin 40° C nearer to the surface than it really is because light
C D

sin 40° sin 50° reflected from the fish will refract towards the normal.



D nearer to the surface than it really is because light

reflected from the fish will refract away from the normal.

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 Chapter 12

Let’s Review
8 The critical angle for an air–glass interface is 42°. Which distance is the focal length of the lens?


Which diagram shows the incorrect path of a light ray A X B Y

passing through a glass prism? C Z D X+Y

A 45° B 45° 12 An object is placed in front of a converging lens of focal




length f, as shown in Figure 12.68.
At which position will the image be formed?

45° 45° object lens

C A B D
C 45° D 45°



f f f f f

Figure 12.68
45° 45°
13 The image formed by a slide projector on the

screen is
9 A thin converging lens is used to focus the rays from A real, inverted and diminished.

the Sun onto a piece of paper. When the rays burn a

B real, inverted and magnified.
hole in the paper, the distance between the lens and

the paper is ___________ the focal length of the lens. C virtual, upright and diminished.

A less than half B equal to half D virtual, upright and magnified.




C equal to D equal to twice 14 Which of the following is the correct term for the

splitting up of light when it passes through a medium?



10 Figure 12.66 shows the position of an object relative to a
A Diffraction B Dispersion

lens. At which position should a viewer’s eyes be to see



a magnified and clear image of the object? C Interference D Reflection



15 Which of the following is the correct term for light of
lens

a single colour?
B
A Achromatic B Dichromatic



A C Monochromatic D Polychromatic
C



image object Section B: Short-answer and Structured
D Questions
1 (a) Figure 12.69 shows a large letter F placed in front of


a plane mirror with two incident rays.
Figure 12.66

11 A person attempts to measure the focal length of a

lens, as shown in Figure 12.67.

mirror lens
image

nail Figure 12.69

X Y Z
Figure 12.67

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 Chapter 12

(i) Using the law of reflection, locate the position (c) Given that the speed of light in crown glass is



and draw the image of F. 200 000 km/s and the speed of light in air is
(ii) State the characteristics of the image of F. 300 000 km/s, what is the refractive index of


(b) Figure 12.70 shows a person looking at the image of crown glass?

a test card in a plane mirror. Find the distance from 4

his eyes to the image of the card. (a) Given that the refractive index of water is 1.33, find


test card
the angle of refraction of a light ray at the water–air
plane mirror
boundary in Figure 12.72.
eye air

400 cm 1300 cm 42°

water
Figure 12.70
light source
2 (a) What is refraction?


(b) Figure 12.71 shows the path of a light ray from air Figure 12.72

through a glass block and into air again.
(b) Calculate the critical angle of water. Then draw,

in Figure 12.72, the refracted ray and the reflected ray
when the critical angle is reached.
30° glass block
20° 5

x (a) Figure 12.73 shows a light ray incident on a right-


y angled prism of refractive index 1.5. Using Snell’s
law, calculate the angle of refraction of the ray
within the prism.
Figure 12.71
(i) Determine the refractive index of the glass. A


(ii) State the angles x and y.


3 The refractive indices of some transparent materials

are shown in Table 12.5.
45°
Table 12.5
45°
Medium Refractive index n B

Diamond 2.4 Figure 12.73

Perspex 1.5
(b) Determine whether this ray within the prism will
Water 1.33

undergo total internal reflection when it hits the
Air 1.000 293 face AB of the prism.
(a) For the same angle of incidence, 6 A converging lens is used to project a 250-mm image

of a square slide onto a screen 1000 mm away. The

(i) which medium will cause light to bend
focal length of the lens is 200 mm. By means of a scale


the most?
drawing, determine
(ii) which medium will cause light to bend the
(a) the distance of the slide from the lens;


least? Explain your choice in each case.

(b) the size of the slide.
(b) Given that the refractive index of flint glass is 1.7 and


the speed of light in air is 300 000 km/s, what is the
speed of light in flint glass?

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 Chapter 12

Let’s Review
7 Figure 12.74 shows a lady of height 1.5 m looking into 9 Figure 12.75 shows the behaviour of a light ray passing


a vertical plane mirror GH. Her eyes are 10 cm below the through an optical fibre from one end A to the other
top of her head. end B.
G R
S
P
Q
45°
A

P T
B
H Figure 12.75
Figure 12.74
(a) (i) Explain why the light ray changes direction

(a) By drawing a ray diagram, determine at Q.

(i) the minimum length of the mirror that allows (ii) Explain why the light ray undergoes total

the lady to see a full-length image of herself; internal reflection at R and S.
(ii) the height of the bottom of this mirror above (b) If the refractive index of the glass that is used to

the floor. make the optical fibre is 1.5, calculate the angle of
(b) Suppose that the mirror is moved away from the refraction at Q.

person at a speed of 1 m/s. Determine the speed (c) On Figure 12.75, draw the path of the light ray after

at which the image appears to move and state the refraction at T.
direction of its movement. (d) State two advantages of using optical fibres

8 (a) A sheet of white paper and a polished metal surface instead of copper wires in telecommunications.


each reflects a parallel beam of light. With the help 10 Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how a rainbow is

of diagrams, explain how the reflections by the formed in the sky.
paper and the metal differ.
(b) A bus driver has placed the centre of a

20-cm-wide plane mirror 50 cm in front of him. The
rear of the bus is 500 cm directly behind the plane
mirror. How wide is the driver’s rear field of vision
whenever he looks into the mirror while driving?

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 CHAPTER
Electromagnetic
13 Spectrum

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about

electromagnetic waves around us.

QUESTIONS

• Name a few examples of wireless

electronic gadgets.
We live in a technologically advanced world, where more and more • Where does the information come from?
electronic gadgets are going wireless. It seems like these gadgets are able • How does information travel through air?
to detect and receive information out of thin air!
More people around the world are accessing the information in the Internet
using their mobile phones. Asia has the highest population growth in the
world. In just a few years’ time, it is expected that countries such as China,
Indonesia, India, and Pakistan will see the highest growth rate in mobile
phone usage.

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 Chapter 13

LINK 13.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

Recall the traditional In this section, you will learn the following:
seven colours of visible • Know the main regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of frequency and wavelength.
light that you have learnt • Know that all electromagnetic waves travel at the same high speed in a vacuum.
in Chapter 12.

What light is invisible?

PHYSICS WATCH
You have learnt in Chapter 12 that sunlight produces a spectrum of colours when passed through
Scan this page to watch
a prism. These colours are part of visible light that can be seen by the human eye.
a clip of an experiment Suppose you place thermometers to measure the temperature of different parts of the visible
on searching for invisible spectrum and beyond (Figure 13.1). What do you think you will observe?
electromagnetic waves.

shade
visible spectrum

just beyond red

red

white light
green

violet
prism
shade

Figure 13.1 Will the temperature just beyond the red be the same as in the shade?

WORD ALERT The astronomer Sir Frederick William Herschel did the above experiment. His experiment showed
that there are some parts of the spectrum just beyond the red that are invisible to our eyes
Invisible: cannot be seen
(Figure 13.2).
As it turns out, later scientists learnt that the spectrum of light from the Sun consists of more than
the colours of light that we can see. There are invisible parts that can only be detected
by instruments.

I did the
experiment in 1800. I found
What are the main regions of an
that the thermometer placed just
after the red light showed the highest electromagnetic spectrum?
reading. I was surprised because
there was nothing visible there! When Light from the Sun travels as electromagnetic waves.
I moved the thermometer further These waves are of different types and they make up the
out, I did not observe this higher electromagnetic spectrum. Our eyes can only detect the
temperature. visible light waves which is only a small part of the spectrum.
Hmmm … there was clearly something Other waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared
just beyond the red light. radiation, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays and gamma rays. Some
of these waves can be generated using electricity.
Figure 13.3 shows the main regions of the
electromagnetic waves.

Figure 13.2 Sir Frederick William Herschel

212 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 Chapter 13
increasing wavelength /m

104 103 102 101 1 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5 10–6 10–7 10–8 10–9 10–10 10–11 10–12
visible light
gamma
radio waves microwaves infrared ultraviolet X-rays rays

104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020

increasing frequency /Hz

Figure 13.3 Main regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of frequency (increasing from left to right) and
wavelength (increasing from right to left) HELPFUL NOTES

Each type of electromagnetic wave has different ranges of wavelengths and frequencies. To recall electromagnetic
For example, visible light ranges from violet with the shortest wavelength to red with the waves in order
longest wavelength. of frequency (or
wavelength), remember
this line:
Electromagnetic waves travel at high speed in a vacuum Rugby (Radio waves)
Look at Figure 13.3. What do you notice about the wavelength and frequency? Match (Microwaves)
Waves with higher wavelength have lower frequencies. Recall the equation for wave speed and see Is (Infrared)
the inverse relationship between wavelength λ and frequency f: Very (Visible light)
v=f×λ Unlike (Ultraviolet)
∴λ= v Xylophone (X-rays)
f
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same high speed in a vacuum. Game (Gamma rays)

Infrared, visible light, ultraviolet and all the other electromagnetic waves travel from the Sun to the
Earth with the same high speed. This is also true for electromagnetic waves coming from faraway
stars and galaxies, i.e., they travel with the same high speed. WORD ALERT

Inverse: opposite effect

Let’s Practise 13.1 (in this case, when one
variable increases, the
other decreases)
1 Which region of the electromagnetic spectrum has
(a) the shortest wavelengths; (b) the longest wavelengths?
2 Which region of the electromagnetic spectrum has
(a) the lowest frequencies; (b) the highest frequencies?
3 Arrange regions of the electromagnetic spectrum according to wavelengths from the
highest to the lowest.
visible light, microwaves, infrared, gamma rays, ultraviolet, X-rays, radio waves
4 The speed of radio waves from far away stars is smaller than the speed of visible light from LINK
TWB
the Sun. True of false? Explain your answer.
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 13A,
this section. pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 13

13.2 Electromagnetic Radiation

In this section, you will learn to:
• Describe some uses of the different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
•

Describe some harmful effects of electromagnetic radiation.
•

Know that communication with artificial satellites is mainly by microwaves.

What is electromagnetic radiation?
Electromagnetic waves transfer energy as they move. The term radiation is usually used to refer
to the energy being transferred. The energy carried by electromagnetic radiation depends on the
frequencies. Higher frequency radiation has more energy for the same intensity of radiation.
The different types of electromagnetic radiation have different uses and harmful effects.

What are some uses of Uses of

Electromagnetic
electromagnetic radiation? Radiation
Figure 13.4 shows some uses of
electromagnetic radiation.

Gamma rays
• They are produced when radioactive nuclei
•
decay. (You will learn more about radioactivity
and gamma rays in Chapter 20.)
• They can kill living organisms such as bacteria,
•
and are therefore used to sterilise food and X-rays
medical equipment. • They can penetrate soft tissues in
•
• They can be used to treat cancer by destroying the human body but are blocked by
•
cancer cells. Gamma rays can penetrate body bones and tumours. They are useful for
tissues. Very small amount of radioactive medical scanning.
chemicals that emit gamma rays can be • Their ability to pass through most
•
placed inside specific body parts. A gamma materials make them useful as security
camera outside the body captures images scanners to locate hidden weapons. The
that show the inside of the human body. Such metal in guns and knives absorbs the
images can be used to detect cancer. X-rays. Baggage scanners at airports
use X-rays.

Ultraviolet light
• It has frequencies just above the higher end
•
of visible light. Although we cannot see
ultraviolet light, what we see is the violet-
blue end of the visible spectrum. However,
some animals such as birds can detect
ultraviolet light.
• It can damage the cells of microorganisms. So,
Lo
•
it can be used to sterilise water and other objects
such as a mobile phone.
• Some chemicals that appear transparent can Low res image
•
be made to glow under ultraviolet light. This
Low res image
fact is used to make invisible security marking
and for detecting fake banknotes.

Figure 13.4 Some uses of electromagnetic radiation

214 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 Chapter 13
Visible light
• It consists of wavelengths that can be
•
detected by our eyes. Microwaves
• We rely on this light for vision • They have wavelengths that are longer than infrared.
•
•
and illumination. • They cause water molecules in food to vibrate and heat up quickly. This

•
• In photography, sensors that are effect is used in microwave ovens for cooking.
•
sensitive to visible light are used in • Some microwaves can penetrate clouds. Artificial satellites high above the

•
cameras for taking photographs. Earth receive and retransmit microwave signals. These signals from the
satellites carry image and sound data which can be received by the antenna
of a satellite television. Direct broadcast television, on the other hand, uses
geostationary satellites to beam the television signals directly to homes.
• Satellite phones can receive microwave signals from geostationary satellites,

•
which are about 36 000 km above the equator. Due to the great distance, the
signals are not very strong. So some satellite phones use signals from low
Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, which are at about 1500 km above the Earth.
• A mobile (cell) phone convert sound energy to microwave signals. The

•
microwaves are sent out to the nearest cell tower. The receiver on the mobile
phone converts the microwaves back to sound.

Infrared light
• It has wavelengths longer than red light.
•
• It causes heating and is used to generate heat. Some people use infrared
•
lamps for warmth or for pain relief.
• An electric grill converts electrical energy to infrared, which is used to heat
•
and cook food.
• In thermal imaging, thermal scanners have detectors that convert infrared
•
to electrical signals. These electrical signals are in turn converted into
Low res image
thermal images. Thermal images use colours to display the temperatures
of objects.
• Infrared can be easily generated and detected. This is used in short-range
•
communications. For example, a simple LED (light emitting diode) is the
infrared source for the television remote controller.
• An infrared transmitter and detector can be used to detect intruders. The
•
alarm will sound when the direct path between the transmitter and
detector is blocked.
• Like visible light, some infrared can pass through glass. When used in
•
optical fibres, infrared signals can transmit data over long distances with
minimal loss in signal strength.

Low res image

Radio waves
• They have the lowest frequencies and the lowest energies.
•
• They are used in radio and television transmissions. Tall broadcast
•
towers send radio waves out into the air. The radio waves are
converted to sound in radios, and to sound and images in
televisions. Having long wavelengths (as long as 1 km and longer),
radio waves can diffract around most objects such as buildings
Low res image and hills, and can pass through walls. In order for radio waves to
travel very far (e.g. across oceans), the broadcast signals have to be
very strong.
• In astronomy, large radio telescopes detect radio waves emitted by
•
astronomical objects far out in space. This enables astronomers to
learn about stars, comets and galaxies.
• In radio frequency identification (RFID), radio waves are used to transfer
•
data for tracking. Items are given RFID tags that contain data. The data can
be read by an RFID reader to track and identify the items.

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 Chapter 13
What are some harmful effects of electromagnetic radiation?
Figure 13.5 shows some harmful effects of electromagnetic radiation.

Infrared radiation
Harmful Effects of
• Excessive exposure to
Electromagnetic

•
Radiation infrared radiation can
Low res image cause skin burns.

Microwaves Low res image

• Excessive exposure to
•
microwaves can cause
X-rays Ultraviolet radiation
internal heating of
body cells. • They can damage body cells. • It is the invisible part of sunlight that

•
•
• Excessive exposure to X-rays cause damage to the surface cells in
•
can cause cancer. our skin and eyes.
• Excessive exposure to ultraviolet

•
Gamma rays radiation can cause skin cancer and
• They can harm living cells. eye conditions such as cataracts and
•
• The human body must be macular degeneration. Remember
•
shielded from gamma rays not to stare at the UV sterilising
to protect against damage to lamp to avoid damaging your eyes.
body cells.
Low res image

Figure 13.5 Some harmful effects of electromagnetic radiation

Low res image

Let’s Practise 13.2

1 (a) Complete Table 13.1 by filling in one typical use and one harmful effect due to excessive


exposure for each electromagnetic radiation.

Table 13.1
Harmful effect to our
Electromagnetic radiation Typical use
body from over exposure
Infrared

Ultraviolet

Microwaves

X-rays

Gamma rays

(b) What regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are missing from the table?


What are their typical uses?
2 Which part of the electromagnetic spectrum is usually used to communicate with

artificial satellites?
3 For each of the following, state one use in communication:

LINK TWB (a) Geostationary satellites


Exercise 13B, (b) Low Earth orbit satellites


pp. XX–XX 4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

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 Chapter 13

13.3 Electromagnetic Radiation

in Communication
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know how fast electromagnetic waves travel in a vacuum/air.
• Know that many important systems of communications, such as mobile phones, wireless Internet,
Bluetooth and optical fibres, rely on electromagnetic radiation.
• Know the difference between a digital signal and an analogue signal.
• Know that a sound can be transmitted as a digital or an analogue signal.
• Explain the benefits of digital signaling.

What do remote controllers, optical fibres, mobile phones, wireless Internet and Bluetooth have in
common? They are important parts of the communication systems that we have today. They all rely
on electromagnetic radiation, which enables fast communication.

How fast do electromagnetic waves travel? ENRICHMENT

INFO
All electromagnetic waves travel at the same high speed of 3 × 1 8 m/s in a vacuum. They also travel Looking Back in Time
at approximately this same speed in air. A supernova is a violent
explosion that occurs
You use a television remote controller to change your television channel. The channel changes when a star is dying.
immediately when you click the remote controller. The infrared signal (or wave) travels from the
In 1987, astronomers
remote controller to the receiver on the television at approximately 3 × 108 m/s. It is so fast that we
spotted a supernova
feel the change happening in an instance. named SN1987A. The
Microwave signals travel to and from our mobile phones at approximately 3 × 108 m/s. light emitted travelled
See Worked Example 13A below to find out how long a microwave signal takes to travel over a very 1.66 × 1021 m before
long distance. reaching the Earth.
Using the formula
distance
Worked Example 13A speed = ________,
time
we know that the light
How long does it take a microwave signal to travel from Earth to a geostationary satellite took about 175 000
3 000 km away and back? years to reach us!

Solution No wonder
Total distance = 3 000 km + 3 000 km = 2 000 km or 2 × 10 m astronomers say that
viewing a supernova
Speed of microwaves in air/vacuum = 3.0 × 108 m/s. is like looking back
2 × 10  m in time!
So, time taken for microwave signal to travel = __________ = 0.24 s
3 × 10 8 m / s

Low res image

Figure 13.6 A satellite dish

transmits microwave signals
to a geostationary satellite in Figure 13.7 Blue
outer space. arrow pointing to
Supernova SN1987A

Electromagnetic Spectrum 21

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 Chapter 13
How do communication systems rely on
electromagnetic radiation?
Wireless communication made possible
The invisible radio waves and microwaves allow us to
QUICK CHECK communicate wirelessly — there is no need to use a
physical cable to link the transmitter and the receiver.
In wireless
Microwaves for mobile phones and wireless Internet Low res image
communication,
information is transported can pass through some walls. You can use your mobile
without the need of free phone in different rooms of your house. You can use
space. your computer in the bedroom even though your
True or false? wireless router is in the living room (Figure 13.8).
You may have seen aerials such as the one shown in
Figure 13. on the roofs of houses. The rods on the
aerial transmit and receive electromagnetic signals Figure 13.8 A wireless router in the living room can
of a certain wavelength. To ensure a good reception, connect to a computer in the bedroom using microwaves.
the length of the rods needs to be approximately
the same size as the wavelength of the signals.
The wavelengths of microwaves used in mobile
phones are much shorter than radio waves used
for television and radio broadcasts. So, by using
suitable microwaves, a mobile phone only requires a
short aerial for transmission and reception. From the
calculation below, we can compare the wavelengths.
To calculate wavelength, use the wave equation
c = f λ. The speed of electromagnetic waves in air
c is approximately 3 × 108 m/s.
Radio waves at 0 MHz,
λ = 3 × 10 m/s
8

 × 10 1/s
= 3.3 m
Mobile phone microwaves at 1800 MHz,
Low res image
λ = 3 × 10 m/s
8

1800 × 10 1/s

= 0.1 m or 1 cm
Bluetooth technology uses radio waves to allow
for wireless connection between two devices. For Figure 13.9 Different length of rods on this aerial
example, you may connect your mobile phone to a allows it to receive signals of different wavelengths.
speaker using Bluetooth (Figure 13.10).
QUICK CHECK
Radio waves and microwaves can be weakened
Wireless connection as they travel and pass through walls. As a result,
is strongest when the you may encounter poor connection when Low res image
transmitter and the your Bluetooth devices are in different rooms in
receiver are in view of your house.
each other.
True or false?

Figure 13.1 Two devices can be connected

wirelessly over short distances using Bluetooth.

21 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 Chapter 13
Optical fibres for long distances and high data rates
Optical fibres are more often being used for cable television and high-speed broadband Internet
LINK
access. What makes them more advantageous compared to copper wires? Optical fibres are long
thin glass fibres that can carry and transmit light over long distances. Visible light undergoes total Recall how data is
internal reflection and travels from one end to the other with little loss in energy. transmitted through
Infrared waves with wavelengths slightly longer than red light can also pass through glass. optical fibres by total
These infrared waves have shorter wavelengths than other infrared waves. Optical fibres can transmit internal reflection.
both visible light and invisible short wavelength infrared pulses. You have learnt this in
Chapter 12.
The wavelengths of visible light and infrared used in optical fibres are very short (between 50 nm to
100 nm). The frequencies of the waves are very high. Many pulses can be transmitted in short time
intervals. So, optical fibres can carry high rates of data.
HELPFUL NOTES
What are digital and analogue signals? Within the
electromagnetic
Electromagnetic radiation can be used to communicate in two ways: analogue signaling (using
spectrum, short
analogue signals) and digital signaling (using digital signals). wavelength infrared
An analogue signal has continuous values in time. The information is transmitted using waves with occurs just beyond the
varying frequencies and amplitudes. red light.

A digital signal has fixed values. For example, it can have two values of 1 and 0. The information is
transmitted as ‘on’ and ‘off’ pulses. The ‘on’ pulses have a value of 1 and the ‘off’ pulses have a value of 0.
Figure 13.11 shows graphs of analogue and digital signals. ENRICHMENT
THINK
Value Figure 13.12 shows an
analogue signal analogue clock. Explain
how the clock is similar
to analogue signals?

Time Low res image

Value
digital signal
‘on’ 1

‘off’ 0 Time

Figure 13.11 Graphs showing an analogue signal and a digital signal Figure 13.12 Analogue
clock

Sound can be converted into electrical signals by a microphone. The converted signals are analogue
signals. These analogue signals can be encoded and transmitted by radio waves or through a
telephone line. However, the analogue sound signals can also be further converted into digital WORD ALERT
signals before transmission. This is the preferred method of transmission.
Encoded: convert
When you speak into a mobile phone, your continuous sound signals are converted into digital
into another form
signals. The phone encodes these digital signals and transmits the signals as microwaves.
using symbols

Low res image

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 Chapter 13
What are the benefits of digital signals?
Digital signals can be represented as numbers, which can be added and multiplied.
Using mathematics, these numbers can be transformed and later recovered by processors.
The transformed data take less numbers to encode the same information. This means more data can
be transmitted and the rate of data transmission is increased. Since more information can be carried,
video and sound transmitted digitally have higher quality compared to when they are transmitted
WORD ALERT using analogue signals.
When signals are transmitted, two unwanted effects take place: noise and loss in power. Noisy signals
Regenerated: created
are not very smooth as shown by the graphs (Figure 13.13).
again, reproduce
Value
noisy analogue signal

Time
Compare the graph of
Value this noisy digital signal to
noisy digital signal the graph of the digital
‘on’ 1 signal in Figure 13.11.
The ‘on’ and ‘off ’ values of
ENRICHMENT a noisy digital signal can
ACTIVITY
‘off’ 0 Time still be distinguished.
Do a survey on
electronic devices Figure 13.13 Graphs showing a noisy analogue signal and a noisy digital signal
in your home. Make
a list of devices that For digital signals, only ‘on’ and ‘off’ (e.g. 1’s and 0’s) values are expected. So, if the noise is not too big,
use analogue signals the signals can be regenerated accurately. This is especially important when signals are transmitted
and those that use over long distances because signals lose power. Amplifiers are used to increase the strength of
digital signals.
analogue signals. However, in the process, noise is also increased. The result is poor quality signals.
Share your list with For digital signals, repeaters are used along the transmission path. Repeaters recover the digital
the class. signal and retransmit it. In this way, digital signals can be accurately regenerated and transmitted
over very long distances.

Let’s Practise 13.3

1 For each of the following, state its speed of travel in air:
(a) radio waves; (b) gamma rays; (c) ultraviolet; (d) infrared.
2 State two properties of microwaves that are important for their use in mobile phones.
LINK TWB 3 Which regions of the electromagnetic spectrum are used in optical fibres? Why?
Exercises 13C–13D, 4 Compare a digital signal and an analogue signal. How are they different?
pp. XX–XX 5 State two benefits of digital signaling.
Exercise 13E Let’s Reflect, 6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
p. XX this section.

22 Electromagnetic Spectrum

13_IGCS
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 Chapter 13

Let’s Map It
consists of ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
the following
main regions

has
• Radio waves
• Microwaves

Increasing λ
• Infrared radiation Increasing f
• Visible light
• Ultraviolet radiation
Harmful effects
• X-rays has • Damage to body cells
• Gamma rays leading to cancer
• Damage to eyes
• Skin burns
with the
following
common Uses relied
property • In medical field: sterilisation, medical upon by
diagnosis, scanning, treatment
All electromagnetic • In communications: radio and TV
waves travel at the same transmissions, remote controllers,
high speed in a vacuum. optical fibres, mobile phones
• In security: security marking, baggage Communication systems
scanners, detection of fake notes • Involve the use of
• In other applications: heating, cooking, mobile phones,
thermal imaging, photography wireless Internet,
Bluetooth and
The speed of optical fibres
electromagnetic waves in a
vacuum is 3.0 × 108 m/s and is
approximately the same in air.

transmit signals
in two forms

Analogue signals
• Have continuous values

Digital signals
• Have fixed values

• Increased rate of
transmission of data
• Increased range
of transmission

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 Chapter 13

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Section B: Short-answer and
1 Which statement about electromagnetic waves Structured Questions

is correct? 1 Figure 13.14 shows the regions in the

A All electromagnetic waves are harmful to people. electromagnetic spectrum.

B All electromagnetic waves have the

same wavelengths. radio waves microwaves A visible light B X-rays C
C In vacuum, all electromagnetic waves travel at the

same high speed. increasing D
D In vacuum, visible light travels faster than all the
Figure 13.14

other electromagnetic waves.
2 Which of the following regions of electromagnetic (a) State what each of the labels A, B, C and


spectrum can be used to cook food? D represents.
A Infrared only (b) What could happen to someone who is excessively


B Microwave only exposed to B?

C Infrared and microwave only (c) Describe one use for the waves in region C.


D No region can be used 2 To determine the distance of the Moon from the Earth,


3 Which region of the electromagnetic spectrum is used the time taken for a radio wave signal to travel from the

to communicate with artificial satellites? Earth to the Moon and back is 2.5 s.
A Radio waves Given that the speed and frequency of the radio waves


B Microwaves are 3.0 × 108 m/s and 10 MHz respectively, calculate the
​
​

C Infrared (a) distance of the Moon from the Earth;


D Visible light (b) wavelength of the radio waves used.


4 A lamp is used to sterilise water in an aquarium. 3 Figure 13.15 shows two signals corrupted by noise.


What light is used? A B

A Infrared Value Value

B Red light

C Green light

D Ultraviolet

5 Which statement about microwaves is correct?

A Microwaves travel at approximately 3 × 108 m/s

​
​
in air. Time Time
B Microwaves are not used to communicate with Figure 13.15

satellites because they are blocked by clouds.
C The wavelengths of microwaves are shorter than (a) Which signal, A or B, is a digital signal?


visible light. (b) Explain the benefits of digital signaling.

D The frequencies of microwaves are lower than

radio waves.
6 Which statement about optical fibres is correct?

A Optical fibres carry microwave signals.

B Optical fibres cannot be used to transmit

television signals.
C Only visible light is used in optical fibres

because only visible light can undergo total
internal reflection.
D Visible light and infrared are used because glass is

transparent to these waves.

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 CHAPTER

14 Sound

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about how

sound travels.

QUESTIONS

• Imagine a battle scene taking place on

Earth. What sounds would you expect to
hear and why would you be able to hear
these sounds?
Have you watched any of the Star Wars movies or one that is similar
• What misconception about sound in space
to it? If you have, you would probably find the battle scenes in space

do people have?
most thrilling. The scenes are made exciting with dazzling sights and • Why do you think we cannot hear sound
sounds. But, can we hear sound in outer space? The answer is ‘No’. Movie

in space?
producers ignore this law of physics and go for ‘effects’.
Often, there is a misconception about sound in space. This is mostly due
to the sound effects used in sci-fi movies.

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 Chapter 14

LINK 14.1 What Is Sound?

Recall the characteristics In this section, you will learn the following:
of longitudinal waves • Describe the production of sound by vibrating sources.
•

that you have learnt in Describe the longitudinal nature of sound waves.
•

Chapter 11. Describe compression and rarefaction.
•

State the approximate range of frequencies audible to humans.

Sound is a form of energy that is transferred from one point to another.
Since sound is a type of wave. It has amplitude, frequency and wavelength. Sound waves travel
parallel to the direction of vibration of a medium. Therefore, sound waves are longitudinal waves.

How is sound produced?

PHYSICS WATCH How do guitar players produce sounds from their guitars? They strike the guitar strings causing the
strings to vibrate. Sometimes, guitar players place their palms on the strings. This mutes the guitar
Scan this page to watch because it stops the guitar strings from vibrating.
an experiment on Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium. The medium is usually air, but it can
producing sound. be any gas, liquid or solid.

How does a sound wave propagate?

An object vibrating in air causes the layers of air particles around it to be displaced. This displacement
of particles causes sound waves to propagate. We cannot see the displacement of air particles.
However, if we dip a vibrating tuning fork in water, we will see that the water is displaced (Figure 14.1).

1 A vibrating tuning fork is

dipped into a glass of water. prongs

ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Use your mouth and
2 Water is displaced because
try to produce the

sound /s/ (as in the the vibrating tuning fork
hissing sound of a displaces the surrounding
snake). While doing molecules, which then
that, place your thumb displace their neighbouring
and your index and molecules, and so on.
middle fingers near
the middle of your
throat. Do you feel any
vibrations of your vocal
cords?
Repeat the above Figure 14.1 A vibrating object displaces the particles in a medium.
while producing
another sound /z/ As sound is a longitudinal wave, the direction of vibration of air molecules is parallel to the direction
(as in the buzzing of in which the wave travels. This is similar to the longitudinal waves produced when a Slinky spring is
a bee). What do you made to vibrate parallel to its length (Figure 14.2).
notice this time?
Share your
observations with
your classmates.

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 Chapter 14

direction of hand motion compression rarefaction

Figure 14.2 Longitudinal wave in a Slinky spring

Like all longitudinal waves, sound waves propagate as a series of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R).
• Compressions are regions where air pressure is higher than the surrounding air pressure.
•
• Rarefactions are regions where air pressure is lower than the surrounding air pressure.
•
Figure 14.3 shows how sound waves are produced by a vibrating tuning fork.

1 Layers of air are in undisturbed

positions.

C
2 A compression (C) is produced as the

prongs push outward.

R C 3 A rarefaction (R) is produced as the

prongs move inward.

C R C 4 Another compression (C) is created as

the prongs move outward again.

R C R C R C R 5 After a while, a series of C and R is set

up in the air.

magnified to show
rarefactions (R) air particles QUICK CHECK

There are less air

particles in a region of
compression than in a
region of rarefaction.
True or false?

compressions (C) motion of particles propagation


associated with of sound
sound
Figure 14.3 As a tuning fork vibrates, it shifts layers of air inward and outward, creating a series of compressions
and rarefactions

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 Chapter 14
What sounds are audible?
WORD ALERT
We can only hear sounds that are audible to us. The human ear is only capable of detecting sounds
in a certain range of frequencies. The range of frequencies in which a person can hear is known as
Audible: can be heard
the range of audibility. For humans, this range is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
The top and bottom values of the range are known as the limits of audibility. For the human ear, the
lower limit is about 20 Hz and the upper limit is about 20 000 Hz.
Figure 14.4 shows examples of the range of audibility and the range of frequency of sounds.

Vibrating ruler Dog whistle

Human ears cannot hear low frequency Human ears cannot hear high frequency sounds called ultrasound.
sounds called infrasound. A vibrating If you blow a dog whistle, a dog may bark in response, even though
ruler can be seen but not heard. This you do not hear any sound. This is because the frequency of the
is because the frequency of the sound sound produced by the whistle is above the upper limit of audibility
produced is below the lower limit of of humans but within that of dogs.
audibility of the human ear.

frequency of a audible range

vibrating ruler of a bat
audible range
of a dog

audible range frequency of a

of a human dog whistle

20 Hz 20 000 Hz
Infrasound Ultrasound
Frequency/Hz
1 10 100 1000 10 000 1 00 000 1 000 000
Figure 14.4 Spectrum of sound frequencies

Let’s Practise 14.1

1 Read each sentence and state the meaning of each underlined term.
(a) Sound is a longitudinal wave.

(b) Sound is transmitted as a series of compressions and rarefactions in air.

LINK TWB
2 A vibrating source produces ultrasound at a frequency of 40 kHz. Is this frequency within the
audible range of the human ear? Give your reason.
Exercise 14A, 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
pp. XX–XX

this section.

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 Chapter 14

14.2 Transmission of Sound

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that a medium is needed to transmit sound waves.
•

Know that the speed of sound in air is approximately 330–350 m/s.
•

Know that, in general, sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and faster in liquids than in

gases.
• Describe a method involving a measurement of distance and time for determining the speed of

sound in air.

Can sound be transmitted through a vacuum?

Unlike electromagnetic waves, sound waves need a medium to travel from one point to another. The
bell jar experiment demonstrates this (Figure 14.5).

2 • Electric bell on 3 • Electric bell on

• Vacuum pump off • Vacuum pump on

You can see the movement to power Air is drawn out of the bell jar.

of the striker and hear the supply The sound of the bell becomes
sound of the bell. faint and disappears, even
though the striker is still hitting
the bell.
connecting
wires

1 In this experiment, an 4 • Electric bell on

electric bell is suspended striker
bell • Vacuum pump off
in a sealed bell jar.

As air flows back into the

bell jar, the sound of the
bell jar air bell can be heard again.

to vacuum pump

Figure 14.5 The bell jar experiment shows that sound cannot travel through a vacuum. QUICK CHECK

We can hear sound in

Medium of transmission a vacuum.
Any medium which contains particles that can vibrate will transmit sound. However, sound waves True or false?
travel at different speeds in different media:
speed of sound < speed of sound < speed of sound
in gas in liquid in solid



Table 14.1 shows the approximate speed of sound in different media.
Table 14.1 Speeds of sound in different media
Medium Air Water Iron Granite
Approximate speed of
300 1500 5000 5400
sound/m/s

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 Chapter 14
How can we measure the speed of sound in air?
Let’s Investigate 14A demonstrates one method of measuring the speed of sound in air. This method
involves the measurement of distance and time.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 14A
10
Objective
To measure the speed of sound in air by a direct method
Apparatus
Electronic starting pistol with light flash, electronic starting pistol stopwatch
stopwatch, measuring tape A B

Procedure open field

1 Using a measuring tape, observers A and B are

positioned at a known distance d apart in an distance d
open field (Figure 14.6).
Figure 14.6
2 Observer A fires an electronic starting pistol.

3 On seeing the flash of the starting pistol, observer B starts the stopwatch and then stops it

when he hears the sound. The time interval t is then recorded.
Results and discussion
A typical set of data: d = 800 m, t = 2.4 s

The speed of sound in air v = distance d travelled by sound

time taken t
800 m
=
2.4 s

= 333 m/s

The accuracy of the speed of sound in air v can be increased in two ways:
1 Repeat the experiment a few times, and calculate the average value of the speed of

LINK sound in air. Taking the average minimises the random errors that may occur while timing
PWB
the interval.
Practical 14, 2 Repeat the experiment but with the positions of observers A and B interchanged.

pp. XX–XX This cancels the effect of wind on the speed of sound in air.

Let’s Practise 14.2

1 Can sound travel directly from one spaceship to another one nearby? Why?

LINK TWB 2 A woman standing 1.00 km away from a storm hears the sound of thunder 3 s after she sees

a flash of lightning. Calculate the speed of sound in air in m/s.
Exercise 14B,
pp. XX–XX 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

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 Chapter 14

14.3 Echoes and Ultrasound

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe an echo as the reflection of sound waves.
•

Define ultrasound as sound with a frequency higher than 20 kHz.
•

Describe the uses of ultrasound.

Echoes
What is an echo?
Figure 14.7 illustrates what an echo is.

wall

2 The sound is reflected by

1 Stand 50 m from a large direction of

the wall, and you hear

unobstructed wall and incident sound
the sound of the clap
clap your hands once. repeated after a moment.
direction of The repetition of the clap is
reflected sound known as an echo.

open space

one clap WORD ALERT

Unobstructed:
not blocked
Figure 14.7 Forming a single echo

An echo is a reflection of sound waves.

How are echoes formed?

An echo is formed when a sound is reflected off hard, flat surfaces, such as a large wall or a distant cliff.
The law of reflection of light also applies to sound waves. Figure 14.8 shows a simple experiment to
illustrate the reflection of sound.

hard, flat surface

(such as a wall)

cardboard tube cardboard tube

i r

ear detects loudest reflected

sound when angle of
source of sound
barrier to incidence i equals angle of
(such as a
prevent sound reflection r
ticking clock)
from source
travelling directly
to the ear

Figure 14.8 Sound reflected off a surface

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 Chapter 14
Ultrasound
HELPFUL NOTES
What is ultrasound?
The word sonar is Ultrasound is sound with a frequency higher than 20 kHz.
an acronym for the
term sound navigation In other words, ultrasonic frequencies are frequencies above the upper limit of the human range.
and ranging. Ultrasound has many uses. Bats and dolphins use ultrasound in echolocation (i.e. detecting the
location of objects using echoes). Most sonar technologies also use ultrasound.

What are the uses of ultrasound?

WORD ALERT
Testing materials for quality control
Cavities: holes or gaps Manufacturers of concrete use ultrasound to check for cracks or cavities in concrete slabs
Foetuses: unborn babies
(Figure 14.9). Ultrasound can also be used to inspect metal pipes and measure the thickness of
wooden boards.

1 Ultrasound transmitter

emerges from
3 By comparing
a transmitter.

the ultrasound
concrete emitted and
slab ultrasound received, the
presence and
2 Ultrasound location of

passes through defects can
the concrete be identified.
sensor (receiver)
slab and is
received by
a sensor.

Figure 14.9 Inspecting a concrete slab using ultrasound

Medical scanning
Ultrasound can be used to obtain images of
structures in the body. It is commonly used to
examine the development of foetuses (Figure 14.10).
Ultrasound is used instead of X-rays because it is less
hazardous due to its lower energy.
Ultrasound pulses are sent into the womb of a
pregnant woman via a transmitter. The time taken Low res image
for the ultrasound pulses to be reflected is measured.
From this, the depth of the reflecting surface within
the womb can be derived, and an image is formed.

Figure 14.10 A doctor scans the womb of a pregnant

woman. The monitor shows an ultrasound image of
the foetus inside the womb.

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 Chapter 14
Sonar
Sonar is a type of technology that works based on echolocation. It is used by ships for navigation at
sea and to detect the position of other vessels. ENRICHMENT
INFO
For example, we can find the depth of the sea or the position of shoals of fish using sonar. This is How Do Dolphins Navigate
done by sending out a signal (a pulse of sound) and noting the time interval before the reflected in Water?
signal (the echo) arrives (Figure 14.11). Dolphins emit a series of
clicks at about 100 kHz
through their foreheads
and receive the echoes
through their lower jaws.
sound From the frequencies
returning echo
generator and direction of the
pulse of sound echoes, dolphins can
deduce the nature and
depth location of objects in
of sea their paths.

pulse progress

a shoal of fish Low res image

seabed Figure 14.12 Dolphins

navigate underwater
using echolocation.
Figure 14.11 A ship sends out a pulse of sound to determine the depth of the sea.

ENRICHMENT
Worked Example 14A THINK
Some bats use
A ship uses a sonar as a depth sounder to measure the depth of a seabed. It sends a pulse of echolocation to help
sound downwards into the sea. An echo from the seabed is received 0.3 s after the pulse is sent. them find their prey in
If the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s, determine the depth of the sea. the dark. Others rely more
on their sight to find food.
Solution The common Asian ghost
Given: Time for sound to travel to and back from seabed, t = 0.3 s bat (Figure 14.13) can
Speed of sound in water, v = 1500 m/s be found in South and
Southeast Asia. From the
Using v = 2d , where d is the depth of the sea, photo, how do you think
t this bat find its food?
we get d = vt = 1500 m/s × 0.3 s = 225 m What would be an
2 2
effective way to catch this
bat? Explain how your
method will work.

Let’s Practise 14.3 Low res image

1 A pulse of sound is transmitted from a ship towards the seabed. If the echo is received after
1 s, calculate the depth of the sea, given that the speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s.
2 Why is ultrasound preferred to X-rays for prenatal scanning, although both types of waves
can be used to obtain images of internal organs?
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Figure 14.13 Common
this section. Asian ghost bat

TWB LINK

Exercise 14C,
pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 14

14.4 Pitch and Loudness

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe how changes in amplitude and frequency affect the loudness and pitch of sound waves.

We experience a great variety of sounds every day. Some sounds are pleasant, whereas some are
not. Pitch and loudness are among the characteristics of sound that help us determine whether a
QUICK CHECK sound is pleasant.

The pitch of a sound

depends on its frequency.
What affects the pitch of a sound?
True or false? We often describe sounds as being high-pitched or low-pitched. Do you know what causes a sound
to be high-pitched or low-pitched?
Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave — the higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.
Pitch is relative. For example, a 200 Hz sound has a higher pitch compared to a sound of 100 Hz.
However, the 200 Hz sound has a lower pitch compared to a sound of 400 Hz.
Two tuning forks of different lengths produce sounds of different pitch (Figure 14.14). This is because
the tuning forks generate sound waves of different frequencies.

tuning fork C R R C R tuning fork

C R C
with long with short
prongs set prongs set
into vibration into vibration
l l

Sound waves of long Sound waves of short

wavelength are produced. wavelength are produced.

This gives a low-pitched This gives a high-pitched

sound. sound.

different frequencies
Figure 14.14 Tuning forks with prongs of different lengths produce sounds of different pitch.
To observe the waveforms of sound waves, we use a microphone and a cathode-ray oscilloscope
(c.r.o.) (Figure 14.15).

1 Sound waves 2 Sound waves 3 The waveform is displayed

are directed to are converted to on the c.r.o. screen as a
the microphone. electrical energy by displacement–time graph.
the microphone.

3
microphone displacement
2
1
longitudinal sound waves
time
cathode-ray
leads connect microphone input oscilloscope
sound source to Y-inputs of oscilloscope

Figure 14.15 A c.r.o. can be used to visualise sound waves.

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 Chapter 14
If the sound waves produced by the tuning forks in Figure 14.14 are channelled into a c.r.o.,
the resulting waveforms will look like the ones shown in Figures 14.16 and 14.17. Note that the same
time base is used. ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Displacement Displacement
Get several glass
bottles of the same
size and shape. Fill the
Time Time bottles with different
0 Ta 0 Tb levels of water. Now,
blow across the
Figure 14.16 The waveform for the tuning fork Figure 14.17 The waveform for the tuning fork top of each bottle
with long prongs. with short prongs. (Figure 14.18).
Why is there a
From Figures 14.16 and 14.17, the period Ta of the long tuning fork is longer than the period Tb of the difference in the pitch
short tuning fork. of each note?
In groups, try to play
Recall that frequency f is related to period T by the equation T = 1 . Since Ta >Tb, the frequency fa = 1 a simple song using
f Ta

 
1 bottles filled with
of the long tuning fork is lower than the frequency fb = of the short tuning fork. Hence, the tuning
Tb different levels of
fork with long prongs produces a sound with a lower pitch or frequency compared to the tuning water. Record which
fork with short prongs. note each bottle plays.
Then, explain how you

What affects the loudness of a sound? managed to do this.

To the human ear, the loudness of a sound is subjective. For a particular volume of sound,
some people may find it loud, whereas others may find it soft.
Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave — the larger the amplitude, the louder
the sound. Figures 14.19 and 14.20 show two waveforms of the same frequency but with different
amplitudes of vibration.
Figure 14.18

amplitude
amplitude

Figure 14.19 A loud sound has a large Figure 14.20 A soft sound has a small
wave amplitude. wave amplitude.

Let’s Practise 14.4

1 Of these quantities — speed, frequency, wavelength, and amplitude — which is associated
with the
(a) loudness of a sound; (b) pitch of a sound?
 
TWB LINK

2 Compare in terms of loudness and pitch the sounds made by a mosquito flying near your Exercises 14C–14D,
ear and the croaking of a bullfrog. pp. XX–XX
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 14E Let’s Reflect,
this section. p. XX

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 Chapter 14

Let’s Map It

SOUND

production
transmission

Produced by Requires Can be reflected Known as

vibrating sources a medium off a hard surface ultrasound if
for propagation as echoes frequency > 20 kHz

has

• The speed of Uses in

propagation
• Testing of materials
depends on
the medium: • Medical scanning
vgas < vliquid < vsolid • Sonar
has

Travels in air
at a speed of
~ 330–350 m/s.

Pitch Loudness
• is related to the • is related to the
Can be determined
by using a method frequency of a amplitude of a
involving measurement sound wave sound wave
of distance and time

direction of
vibration shows
that sound is a

Audible range of
frequencies for humans:
Longitudinal wave 20 Hz–20 kHz
• Air molecules vibrate parallel to the
wave motion
• Transfers energy from one
point to another via a series of
compressions and rarefactions

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 Chapter 14

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 4 A guitar plays a louder note but at a lower pitch

1 A spaceship with astronauts on board orbits the compared to a violin. Which of the following is correct?

Moon. The astronauts see an asteroid crashing onto Violin’s amplitude Guitar’s frequency
the surface of the Moon. Why do they not hear the
explosion caused by the crashing of the asteroid? A Higher Higher
A All the sound waves are absorbed by the surface of B Higher Lower

the Moon.
C Lower Higher
B The sound waves are reflected from the surface of

the spaceship. D Lower Lower
C The sound waves are unable to travel from the

Moon’s surface to the spaceship. Section B: Short-answer and Structured
D All the sound waves are absorbed by the surface of Questions

the spaceship. 1 A bell is struck by a hammer.

2 Based on the information in Table 14.2, which statement (a) Briefly describe how sound is produced by the bell.


correctly describes the speed of sound? (b) Describe how the sound travels through air to reach

the ear of the person striking the bell.
Table 14.2
2 In an experiment, a ringing electric bell is suspended

Density/ Speed of sound/ inside a bell jar by a thin string. A vacuum pump is then
Substance g/cm3 m/s
used to draw air out of the bell jar.
Lead 11.3 1200
(a) When the vacuum pump is not switched on, the
Iron 7.87 5000

ringing of the bell can be heard. When the vacuum
Oxygen 0.001 43 320 pump is switched on, the loudness of the bell
 
Air 0.001 29 330 decreases until only a very faint sound can be
 
heard. Explain this observation.
A The denser the substance, the lower the speed (b) Describe and explain what will happen if the

of sound.

electric bell is not suspended by the string but rests
B As the density of the substance decreases, the on the base supporting the bell jar instead.

speed of sound decreases.
3 In an attempt to determine the speed of sound in
C The speed of sound is greater in metals than

air, observer A stands 500 m from observer B in an

in gases. open space. Observer A starts the experiment by
D The speed of sound increases as the density of the firing a flashgun towards the sky. Observer B starts

substance increases. the stopwatch when he sees the flash and stops the
3 Figure 14.21 shows two boys, A and B, standing in front stopwatch when he hears the sound of the gun.

of a tall building. Both boys are facing the building. They repeat the experiment three times and the
When boy A claps his hands once, boy B hears two timings recorded are 1.51 s, 1.55 s and 1.50 s.
claps that are 2 s apart. (a) Calculate the average speed of sound in air.

(b) Suggest why the observers A and B should not

stand 100 m apart for this experiment.
tall 4 The approximate range of frequencies that the

building A B average human ear can detect is 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
340 m 200 m (a) Dogs can detect ultrasound. Explain what

this means.
Figure 14.21 (b) One application of ultrasound is medical diagnosis,

where images of internal body parts are obtained.
Based on the information given, what is the speed of Describe how ultrasound is used to obtain the

sound in air? images of internal body parts.
A 300 m/s B 340 m/s



C 350 m/s D 500 m/s



Sound 235

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 Chapter 14

Let’s Review
5 (a) Describe how an echo is formed. (i) Based on the data in Figure 14.23, calculate the



(b) Figure 14.22 shows a ship as it moves from depth of the seabed at each of the positions A to F.

positions A to F above a seabed. At each spot, (ii) On Figure 14.24, draw the rough depth profile of the

the ship transmits sound pulses to the seabed to seabed. Clearly label the depth of the seabed for
determine its depth profile. The speed of the sound each of the positions A to F.
pulses in the seawater is 1500 m/s.
surface of
surface ofwater
water surface of water
B A C D E F

A B C D E F distance distance
distance
from from
from
surface surface
surface

Figure 14.24
Figure 14.22
(iii) Calculate how long it takes to detect an echo from
Figure 14.23 shows the time interval between

the seabed if the depth is 60 m.

each transmitted pulse and the reflected pulse
received by the ship. Each thick line represents the 6
(a) Two properties that are used to distinguish one


transmitted pulse, while each thin line represents musical sound from another are pitch and loudness.
the corresponding reflected pulse. State the physical characteristic of sound waves
to which
Intensity (i) pitch is related;


A B C D E F (ii) loudness is related.


(b) A student tries to produce notes of higher

frequency by blowing a trumpet harder. Discuss
whether the student will succeed.
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.2 2.4 3.0 3.2 3.4 4.0 4.2 Time/s
Figure 14.23

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 CHAPTER
Simple Phenomena
15 of Magnetism

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on how a

maglev train works.

QUESTIONS

This Shanghai Transrapid magnetic levitation (maglev) train is one of • Imagine yourself sitting in a maglev train.
the fastest trains in the world. It has a top speed of 431 km/hr! It takes

Compared to a traditional train, what would
passengers from the airport to the city centre in merely seven minutes. be some differences?
Many passengers take pictures of the speed indicator as it climbs higher • How does an object float?

and higher. • What do you think allows the train to float?

• How does floating help the train to move at
The train floats above the track using magnets placed on the tracks and

a very high speed?
under the train. The floating of the train reduces frictional force acting on
the wheels, thus allowing it to move at very high speeds and very quietly.
To move the train forward, the poles of the magnets can be switched.
Compared to burning fuel in a traditional train, the maglev train is a more
environmentally-friendly vehicle.

237

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 Chapter 15

15.1 Magnets and Their Properties

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the forces between magnets, and between magnets and magnetic materials.
•

State the difference between magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
•

Describe induced magnetism.

How were magnets discovered?
Long ago, people observed that special types
of stone, known as lodestone (Figure 15.1),
attracted iron objects. Around 800 years ago,
it was discovered that objects made from
lodestone pointed in the same directions
when hung freely. Those directions were
later known as the North and South poles of
the Earth. Due to this property of showing
the direction, lodestones are very useful
navigation tools.
Lodestone is a naturally occurring magnet.
Magnets and magnetic materials are Figure 15.1 A lodestone attracting iron clips
found everywhere. They are used in many
applications where two things are required to
stick together or push away from each other.
LINK

Find out what causes

What are the properties of magnets?
magnets to exert a
A magnet is an object that exerts a magnetic force. The magnetic force of a magnet causes it to
magnetic force in
display certain properties.
Section 15.3 of
this chapter.
Magnets attract magnetic materials
The magnetic force exerted by a magnet can attract magnetic materials. The difference between
LINK magnetic and non-magnetic materials is the ability to be attracted by a magnet.
Magnetic materials are materials that can be attracted to a magnet.
Recall how forces change
the motion of an object Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be attracted to a magnet.
in Chapter 4. Table 15.1 lists some examples of magnetic and non-magnetic materials.

Table 15.1 Examples of magnetic and non-magnetic materials

Magnetic materials Non-magnetic materials

Steel Copper
Iron Wood
Cobalt Plastic
Nickel Brass
LINK

Find out how magnetic

This property of magnet is useful when we are separating magnetic materials from non-magnetic
materials can be
materials in a metal scrapyard.
separated from
non-magnetic materials
in Section 15.2 of
this chapter.

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 Chapter 15
The poles of magnets have the strongest magnetic force
The ends of a magnet are also known as poles.
When we move a magnet close to a pile of iron
nails, the iron nails are attracted to the poles of Low res image
the magnet (Figure 15.2). The poles are where the
magnetic force is the strongest.

Figure 15.2 The iron nails are attracted to the

poles of the magnet.

A freely suspended magnet points to the north–south direction

When a magnet is left suspended freely, it always points to the North and South Poles of the Earth
(Figure 15.3).

geographic
wooden support (ruler or pencil) North Pole
of the Earth

N
cotton thread

paper stirrup
N

bar magnet LINK

S
Find out how the Earth
Figure 15.3 A bar magnet always points to the north–south direction when suspended freely. affects the direction
of a freely suspended
This is because the Earth behaves like a giant magnet and the magnetic force exerted by the Earth magnet in Section 15.3 of
causes a freely suspended magnet to point in the north-south direction of the Earth. The poles of this chapter.
magnets are also known as north pole (N pole) and south pole (S pole) due to this property.

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 Chapter 15
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract
ENRICHMENT When we bring two like poles (two north poles or two south poles) of two magnets together, the
ACTIVITY magnetic force between the poles of the magnets causes them to repel each other. When we
Design your own repeat this with two unlike poles, the two magnets attract each other (Figure 15.4).
levitating toy using the
properties of magnets.
What property allows
the toy to levitate?
Share your findings
cotton thread cotton thread
with the class.

QUICK CHECK

The N pole of a magnet

will attract the S pole of
attraction repulsion
another magnet.
True or false? Unlike poles attract. Like poles repel.
Figure 15.4 Attracting and repelling magnets

What is induced magnetism?

Magnets are made by magnetising
magnetic materials. The process of
WORD ALERT magnetising a magnetic material is also
known as magnetic induction.
Levitate: float When an unmagnetised paper clip is
Magnetising: making brought near a bar magnet, it is attracted
something to have the to the magnet. When this happens,
properties of a magnet we say the paper clip has become an
Induced: made to induced magnet. In turn, this induced
become, caused magnet is able to attract other paper
to happen clips (Figure 15.5).

induced magnet

other paper clips

attracted to the
Figure 15.5 Paper clips attracted by a magnet induced magnet
become induced magnets that attract other
paper clips.

The process of induction does not require physical contact. As shown in Figure 15.6, the magnet can
induce magnetism in the iron bar by simply being near it. The N pole of the bar magnet induces an
S pole in the nearer end of the iron bar and an N pole in its farther end.

iron bar becomes an

induced magnet

S S N
N
this end becomes
an induced S
pole
Figure 15.6 A magnetic material is induced when a magnet is placed close to it.

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 Chapter 15
Magnetic materials can be magnetised because of the presence of magnetic domains. Each domain
behaves like a small magnet, and we can represent them using arrows (Figure 15.7). The arrowhead
shows the N pole and the back of the arrow shows the S pole. ENRICHMENT
tiny magnet magnetic domains INFO
Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (MRI)
S N
An MRI machine can
take images of a patient’s
body by using very strong
magnets. This is because
Figure 15.7Magnetic domains in a magnetic material we have many protons
in our body, which act
like tiny magnets. The
Figure 15.8 explains how a magnetic material is magnetised.
movement of these tiny
magnets caused by the
unmagnetised bar
1 The magnetic domains in strong magnets in the MRI

an unmagnetised bar point machine can be studied
in random directions. There to find out more about
1 what is happening in
is no net magnetisation
because the domains our body.
cancel one another out.

2 The N pole of a magnet is

placed on the left side of 2
the unmagnetised bar.
Low res image

4
magnetised bar
3 The magnetic force from

the magnet causes the An MRI image of the
S N blood vessels in the brain
S poles of the domains,
nearest to the magnet, to
be attracted to the magnet. 3 S N 6
All other domains rotate
and point in the same S N
direction, producing a
net magnetisation.
5

4 Each arrow is arranged 5 The tiny magnets at 6 The tiny magnets QUICK CHECK



directly behind the arrow in both the ends are ‘free’. at the ends tend
front of it. Therefore, the This produces the to fan out due to
An S pole of a magnet
N poles are cancelled out effect of N or S poles repulsion between
was brought close to an
by the adjacent S poles. at the ends. This allows the like poles.
iron bar. The iron bar was
the magnetised bar to
repelled by the magnet.
behave like a magnet.
The N pole of the same
Figure 15.8 The alignment of the domains causes a magnetic bar to be magnetised. magnet was brought
close to the iron bar. The
iron bar was attracted to
the magnet.
PHYSICS WATCH
True or false?
Scan this page to
explore a simulation on
magnetic induction.

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 Chapter 15
Let’s Practise 15.1
1 Give three examples of
S

magnet
(a) magnetic materials;

(b) non-magnetic materials.

2 State the properties of magnets. N

wood
3 In an experiment, a piece of wood is held between the N pole of a

magnet and two iron nails (Figure 15.9).
iron nail
(a) Although wood is a non-magnetic material, the two nails are


still attracted to the magnet when the piece of wood is held
between the magnet and the nails. Suggest a reason for this. Figure 15.9
LINK TWB (b) It is observed that the pointed tips of the iron nails point away from each other. Why?


Exercise 15A, 4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

pp. XX–XX this section.

15.2 Temporary and Permanent Magnets



In this section, you will learn the following:

• State the differences between the properties of temporary and permanent magnets.
• Describe the uses of permanent magnets and electromagnets.

What are temporary and permanent magnets?

WORD ALERT Both iron and steel are magnetic materials. Magnets made from iron are known as temporary
magnets, while magnets made from steel are known as permanent magnets. This is because iron
Temporary: lasting for and steel have different magnetic properties.
a short time
Most types of iron are magnetically soft. A magnetically soft material can be easily magnetised
Permanent: lasting for and also lose its magnetism easily. Iron that is magnetically soft is also known as soft iron. Steel is
a long time
magnetically hard. A magnetically hard material is difficult to magnetise, but once magnetised,
retains its magnetism afterwards. The properties of soft iron and steel can be observed in
Let’s Investigate 15A.
ENRICHMENT
THINK Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 15A
10A
What are some
instances where a
temporary magnet
Objective
is preferred over a To compare the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel
permanent magnet? Materials
How about the other Bar magnet, soft iron and steel bars of equal dimensions (20 cm in length), iron paper clips
way around?
Procedure
1 Let the N pole of the bar magnet attract one end of the soft iron bar. Dip the other end of

the soft iron bar into a tray of paper clips. Record the maximum number of paper clips that
are attracted to it.
2 Pull the magnet away from the soft iron bar. Observe what happens to the paper clips.

Record the number of paper clips still attracted to the soft iron bar.
3 Now repeat steps 1 and 2 using the steel bar.

4 Repeat steps 1–3 and observe whether there are consistent differences in the observations

between the two metal bars.

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 Chapter 15

Observation and results

Figure 15.10 summarises what happens when we conduct the investigation.

S S

Many paper Fewer paper

N N
clips were clips were deduction Iron is a stronger
attracted to attracted to induced magnet
the iron bar. iron the steel bar. than steel.
steel

S S
lifted away lifted away

All the paper Some paper

N N
clips dropped clips were still Iron loses its
off when the attracted to the deduction magnetism
PHYSICS WATCH
magnet was iron steel bar when steel easily, but steel
lifted from the the magnet was does not.
iron bar. lifted away. Scan this page to explore
a simulation on temporary
and permanent magnets.

Figure 15.10
Conclusion
The different magnetic properties of soft iron and steel are summarised in the table below.

Table 15.2 Magnetic properties of soft iron and steel

Magnetic properties of soft iron Magnetic properties of steel

• It is easily magnetised to become a stronger • It is difficult to magnetise. Hence, it becomes a PWB LINK


induced magnet. weaker induced magnet.
Practical 15A,
• It loses its magnetism easily. • It does not lose its magnetism easily.
pp. XX–XX


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 Chapter 15
What can we do with permanent magnets
LINK
and electromagnets?
An electromagnet is
a type of temporary Magnets are used in many parts of our lives. Permanent magnets are used when a constant
magnet. Placing a magnetic force is needed. Electromagnets are used when a changing magnetic force is needed.
magnetically soft material Figure 15.12 shows how magnets are used in our daily lives.
within an electromagnet
produces a stronger Figure 15.12 Uses of magnets
temporary magnet. You
will learn more about this
in Chapter 17. Magnetic door catches
Magnetic strips made of
permanent magnets are
fitted to the door of a
refrigerator. When the door
Uses of is closed, the attraction
permanent between the magnetic strip
and the steel frame keeps
magnets the door closed.

Maglev trains
Magnetic levitation (maglev)
trains use magnetic Low res image
attraction and repulsion
to levitate and move
forward. As the trains are
not in contact with the
tracks, friction is reduced
and the trains can move at
high speeds.

Uses of
Electromagnets
temporary
Electromagnets are magnets that
form when a current flows through magnets
a coil. This magnetic field can induce
magnetism in a soft magnetic material
to produce a temporary magnet.
Cranes use electromagnets to separate
magnetic materials from non-magnetic
materials in metal scrapyards.

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 Chapter 15
Let’s Practise 15.2
1 Figure 15.13 shows an experiment in which identical magnets are clamped to the ends of TWB LINK
three metal bars. Each metal bar is made of a different metal — brass, iron and steel. The Exercise 15B,
number of iron tacks picked up by each metal bar is shown. Identify metals 1, 2 and 3, and pp. XX–XX
explain your answer.

N N N
clamp clamp clamp

S S S
metal 1 metal 2 metal 3

iron
tacks
Figure 15.13
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
this section.

15.3 Magnetic Field

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe a magnetic field as a region in which a magnetic pole experiences a force.
•

Draw the pattern and direction of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
•

Describe the plotting of magnetic field lines with a compass and the use of a compass to determine

the direction of the magnetic field.
• State that the direction of a magnetic field at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole of a

magnet at that point.
• Explain that magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields.
•

Know that the relative strength of a magnetic field is represented by the spacing of the magnetic

field lines.

What is a magnetic field?

Every magnet has a region of space
around it called a magnetic field.
Earth behaves like a giant magnet rotation axis
and has its own magnetic field magnetic North Pole
geographic North Pole
(Figure 15.14).
A magnetic material or magnetic
pole placed in the magnetic field will
experience a force. We have learnt in S
Section 15.1 that a freely suspended
magnet points in the north–south HELPFUL NOTES
direction. As the freely suspended
We can use a compass to
magnet is placed in the magnetic N determine the direction
field of Earth, the magnet experiences of the magnetic field
a magnetic force from Earth. easily. The arrowhead of
magnetic South Pole geographic South Pole the compass shows the
direction of the magnetic
field at that point.

Figure 15.14 Earth’s magnetic field

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 Chapter 15
The arrangement of a group of magnetic field lines is called a magnetic field pattern.
The magnetic field pattern of a magnet shows us the magnetic force acting on a magnetic material
QUICK CHECK or magnet placed in the field:
• The direction of the magnetic field lines at a point is the direction of the force on the N pole of a
•

A piece of wood placed magnet at that point.

in the magnetic field of ••
The relative strength of the magnetic force is dependent on how closely packed the magnetic
a magnet experiences field lines are.
magnetic force.
True or false?
How can we visualise the magnetic field of
a magnet?
A magnetic field is invisible. To visualise the pattern and direction of the magnetic field around a
bar magnet, we can use a plotting compass, which is a small magnet. When a plotting compass is
placed near a bar magnet, their opposite poles will attract each other. The procedure is described in
Let’s Investigate 15B.

Let’s
Let’s Investigate
Investigate 15B
10A
Objective
To determine the shape and direction of the magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
Materials
Bar magnet, plotting compass, plain paper, pencil
Precautions
• Perform this experiment away from other magnetic materials such as
N
•
steel, iron and nearby electrical cables.
• Check that the compass needle is free to rotate about the pivot at N
•
its centre.
Procedure
1 Put the bar magnet at the centre of a piece of paper. Ensure that its N
S

pole points to the north (Figure 15.15). Use a compass to help you
determine the north direction. Figure 15.15
2 Trace the outline of the magnet, and indicate its N pole and S pole.

3 Starting near one pole of the magnet, mark the positions of the ends, plotting compass

S and N, of the compass needle with pencil dots X and Y respectively.
Move the compass so that the S end is at Y and mark the new position
X
of the N end with a third dot Z (Figure 15.16). Y
N
4 Repeat the process of marking the dots until you reach the other pole. Z

Join the dots and this will give a single magnetic field line.
5 Determine the direction of the field line by checking the arrow of the

compass needle. The compass needle should point to the S pole of S
the magnet as shown in Figure 15.15.
Figure 15.16
6 Repeat steps 3 to 5, starting at different points near the N pole

until several field lines have been drawn. Try to keep the field lines
symmetrical by going above and below the magnet on the piece of paper.

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 Chapter 15
magnetic field line
Observations and conclusion
• The magnetic field lines appear to leave the North
•
pole and end at the South pole of the magnet, with a
pattern similar to that in Figure 15.17.
• The direction of the magnetic field lines can be
•
determined using a compass.
• The field lines are more concentrated at the poles. N S
•
This is because the field lines are closest together on
the diagram at the poles. We learnt that the magnetic
force is the strongest at the poles. Hence, we can
PWB LINK
conclude that the closer the magnetic field lines, the
stronger the magnet. Figure 15.17 Field lines around a Practical 15B,
bar magnet pp. XX–XX

We learnt that every magnet has a magnetic field. The plotting compass is a tiny magnet. The
interaction of the magnetic fields of the bar magnet and the plotting compass results in a magnetic force.
This magnetic force exerted by the bar magnet on the plotting compass needle rotates the needle
to point along one of the bar magnet’s field lines. This explains why we can use a plotting compass
to plot the magnetic field lines around a magnet.

Let’s Practise 15.3

1 Figure 15.18 shows a plotting compass placed at a position near a bar magnet.

N S
Figure 15.18

(a) Draw the magnetic field lines around the bar magnet.


(b) Determine the direction of the arrow in the plotting compass at that position. TWB LINK


(c) The bar magnet is then replaced with a stronger bar magnet. Draw the magnetic field Exercise 15C–15D,


lines around the stronger bar magnet. pp. XX–XX
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 15E Let’s Reflect,

this section. p. XX

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 Chapter 15

Let’s Map It

MAGNETISM

Magnetic
Magnet materials

have
the following
properties

Hard magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials

• Attract magnetic materials
• Have a north pole and a south pole,
with the strongest magnetic force
• When suspended freely, rest in which are difficult to which are easy to
north-south direction magnetise through magnetise through
• Obey the laws of magnetism
(like poles repel, unlike poles attract)
Induced magnetism

to form
due to

Permanent Temporary
Magnetic force
magnets magnets

caused by
used in used in

Interactions between
magnetic fields Magnetic Maglev trains Electromagnets
door catches

which is where

Visualised using
plotting compass
• The direction of the
magnetic field line magnetic field lines at a
point is the direction of
the force on the N pole of
a magnet at that point.
• The relative strength
of the magnetic force is
dependent on how closely
packed the magnetic field
lines are.

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 Chapter 15

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Section B: Short-answer and
1 In which of the following set-ups will all three magnets Structured Questions

repel one another? 1 Steel is known as a magnetically hard material. It

A S N S N N S can be made into a permanent magnet through
induced magnetism.
B N S S N S N
(a) State what is meant by the term

C S N N S S N “magnetically hard”?
D N S N S N S (b) Explain how magnetism is induced in a steel.

(c) Other than steel, name a magnetic material that is

2 Figure 15.19 shows a small compass placed near the magnetically soft.

centre of a bar magnet. 2 Describe an experiment to determine the shape

compass
and direction of the magnetic field lines around a
bar magnet.
3 Explain what causes magnetic forces

S N (a) between magnets;

(b) between magnets and magnetic materials.
Figure 15.19

4 Figure 15.21 shows a rod of unmagnetised steel placed
In which direction will the compass needle point?

inside a solenoid. When the switch is closed, current

A B C D flows through the solenoid and the steel rod is
magnetised.
solenoid
N N
S unmagnetised
3 Figure 15.20 shows part of a magnetic relay. M is the steel

magnet located inside the coil. L is the armature that is
compass
attracted to M when a current flows through the coil. needle
 
S is the stopper that cushions the impact of L on M switch
during attraction. It prevents L and M from being Figure 15.21
damaged during collision.
(a) Describe the motion of the compass needle when the

switch is closed and then opened some time later.
(b) Describe how the experimental set-up in

Figure 15.21 can be used to distinguish a steel rod
 
L from an iron rod. List any additional materials that
will be used.
5 Figure 15.22 shows a soft iron bar placed near a

M S bar magnet.
coil
N S
Figure 15.20
Which of the following gives the best combination of Figure 15.22

materials for M, L and S?
(a) Draw the magnetic field pattern of the soft iron

M L S bar shown in Figure 15.22. Indicate the poles of the
A Iron Copper Rubber induced magnet and the direction of the field lines.
(b) Using a diagram, outline how you can check
B Iron Iron Iron

your answer in (a) with an experiment using a
C Iron Iron Rubber plotting compass.
D Plastic Iron Rubber

Simple Phenomena of Magnetism 249

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 CHAPTER

16 Electrical Quantities

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on lightning

formation.

QUESTIONS

• What do you think causes lightning?

Lightning is a spectacular sight, but be sure to observe it from • Why do you think lightning strikes

a safe place. According to statistics, Asia has the second-most frequently in the Himalayas?
number of lightning hotspots. Very high rates of lightning activity • What precautions should you take to

can be found along the high regions of the Himalayas. avoid being hit by lightning during
a thunderstorm?
Daggar is a small town about 100 km from Islamabad, the capital
of Pakistan. It lies near the north-western ridges of the Himalayas.
Daggar recorded 143 lightning hits per year, making it the top
lightning hotspot in Asia.

250

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 Chapter 16

16.1 Electric Charge

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State that there are positive and negative charges.
•

State that positive charges repel other positive charges, negative charges repel other negative

charges, but positive charges attract negative charges.
• Describe simple experiments to show the production of electrostatic charges by friction and to

show the detection of electrostatic charges.
• Explain the charging of solids by friction involves only a transfer of negative charge (electrons).
•

Describe an experiment to distinguish between electrical conductors and insulators.
•

Recall and use a simple electron model to explain the difference between electrical conductors and

insulators and give typical examples.

WORD ALERT
When you rub a balloon against your hair, the balloon attracts
your hair (Figure 16.1). Why? Static: not moving
Both the balloon and your hair acquire a static electric charge
due to the friction from rubbing. These charges cause the
attraction between the balloon and your hair. How do objects
become charged by rubbing?

Simple electron model

To understand how objects become charged by rubbing,
we must first understand that all objects are made up of tiny
particles called atoms. Let’s use a simple electron model to
understand what makes up an atom.

Figure 16.1 Rubbing a balloon against your hair

charges both the balloon and your hair.

The nucleus consists proton + −

of (positively-charged)
protons and neutral +
(uncharged) neutrons. neutron

nucleus
nucleus

path of electrons
−

(Negatively-charged) electrons
Figure 16.2 An atom and its constituents. move around the nucleus.

In an atom, there is a central nucleus. The nucleus is made up of protons and neutrons. Around the
nucleus are the orbiting electrons. There are positive and negative charges in the atom. Protons are
the positive charges while electrons are the negative charges.
An atom has an equal number of electrons and protons — it is electrically neutral. An atom becomes
charged when the number of electrons and protons is not equal. This occurs when electrons are
removed from or added to the atom. If electrons are removed, the atom becomes positively charged.
If electrons are added, the atom becomes negatively charged. Let us now look at Let’s Investigate
16A to find out how a glass rod can be charged by the movement of electrons.

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 Chapter 16

Let’s Investigate 16A

Objective
To show how a glass rod can be charged by friction

Materials
Rubber mat, two glass rods, silk, a few pieces of paper

Procedure
1 Stand on a rubber mat and hold a glass rod

2 Rub the glass rod with a piece of silk for three minutes. Label this rod A

3 Bring the glass rod close to a few pieces of paper.

4 Observe what happens to the pieces of paper.

5 Label the second glass rod B.

6 Bring the rod B to the pieces of paper. Observe what happens.

Observation
The pieces of paper are attracted to rod A but not rod B.

Discussion
glass rod silk glass rod electron transfer
+ –––
+ +– + silk
+– + +– –
+– – +
+– + + + + +
+– + + + + – – –
– – – – –
–

WORD ALERT
Before rubbing, the glass rod and the • Different materials have different affinities
 
Affinities: natural
piece of silk are electrically neutral, for electrons, i.e. some materials attract
attraction i.e. they each contain an equal electrons weakly, whereas others attract
number of protons and electrons. electrons strongly.
• When the glass rod and the piece of silk
 
are rubbed together, the atoms at their
surfaces are disturbed.
• Some electrons from the atoms at the
 
surface of the glass rod are transferred to
the piece of silk.

glass rod
+
+– + silk
+– –
+
+ + + + +
– – – –
– –
–

LINK PWB
As the glass rod loses electrons, it becomes positively charged. As
Practical 16A, the piece of silk gains electrons, it becomes negatively charged.
pp. XX–XX
Figure 16.3 Charging by friction

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 Chapter 16
Conclusion
A material can become charged when rubbed with another material. This is because rubbing
transfers electrons from one material to the other material.

Interactions between charges

Positive charges repel other positive charges. Negative charges repel other negative charges. Positive
charges attract negative charges.

repulsion
repulsion –
+ –
+
+
–
– Like charges
+ deduction repel.

–
+

–
two charged
+

two charged

–
+

ebonite rods

–
glass rods
+

When two positively-charged glass rods When two negatively-charged ebonite rods
are brought near each other, the glass are brought near each other, the ebonite
rods repel each other. rods repel each other.

When a negatively-charged attraction

ebonite rod is brought near a +
+ Unlike charges
+
+ deduction
positively-charged glass rod, the charged attract.
–

rods attract each other. charged ebonite rod

–
–

glass rod
–

Figure 16.4 Repulsion and attraction between like and unlike charges
PHYSICS WATCH
The glass rod and the ebonite rod are examples of electrical insulators. Electrical insulators are
materials in which electrons are not free to move about. Electrical insulators can be charged by Scan this page to explore
a simulation on how
friction as they gain or lose electrons when they are rubbed together.
friction can cause an
Materials in which electrons are free to move about are electrical conductors. All metals are electric shock.
conductors. Let us check if a material is a conductor or an insulator using Let’s Investigate 16B.

Let’s Investigate 16B

Objective
To check which materials are conductors and which are insulators

Materials
1.5V dry cell, crocodile clips with connecting wires, switch, copper rod, aluminium rod, glass rod,
wooden rod (ideally the same dimensions for all the rods), 1.5V rated lamp

Precautions WORD ALERT

Make sure that you perform this experiment with a low voltage and never use the circuit
Omitted: left out,
without the lamp. If it is omitted, the wires can heat up very quickly and has the capacity to excluded
cause a burn.

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 Chapter 16

Procedure
dry cell
1 Connect the dry cell, crocodile clips with + –

connecting wires, the lamp and the switch as
shown in Figure 16.5.
2 Close the switch. If the circuit has been

built correctly and the components are
functioning, the lamp should light up.
3 Connect the copper rod between the dry cell

and the switch as shown in Figure 16.6.
4 Close the switch. switch

5 Observe whether the lamp lights up. lamp

6 Repeat steps 3 to 5 with the other rods. Figure 16.5

dry cell
Observation + –
The lamp lit up when the copper rod and the
aluminium rod were connected. The lamp
did not light up when the glass rod and the
wooden rod were connected.
sample rod
Conclusion
For some materials, when the switch was
closed, the lamp lit. These materials are called
switch
electrical conductors. Examples of electrical
LINK conductors are copper, aluminium and silver. lamp
PWB
For some materials, when the switch was Figure 16.6
Practical 16A, closed, the lamp did not light. These materials
pp. XX–XX are called electrical insulators. Examples of electrical insulators are plastics, wood and glass.

Let’s Practise 16.1

1 State the two types of electric charges.

2 Two polythene rods are each rubbed with wool. When the two rods are suspended and

brought close to each other.
(a) Describe what is observed.


(b) Explain what is observed.


LINK TWB 3 Explain the difference between an electrical insulator and an electrical conductor.

Exercise 16A, 4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

pp. XX–XX this section.

16.2 Electric Field

In this section, you will learn the following:
• S Describe an electric field as a region in which an electric charge experiences a force.
•

S State that the direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive

charge at that point.
• S Describe simple electric field patterns, including the direction of the field around a point charge,

a charged conducting sphere and between two oppositely charged parallel conducting plates.

Just like the magnetic field that is around a magnet, there is an electric field around every charge,
represented by lines and arrows. An electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences
a force (Figure 16.7).

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 Chapter 16

When another positive charge is

The arrowheads on the lines being placed in the electric field, it LINK
indicate the direction of the will experience an electric force in
electric field. the direction of the arrowheads. Recall from Chapter 15 that
• the direction of the

field lines shows
the direction of a
force; and
• the strength of the

field is dependent on
+Q +Q –Q –Q how closely packed
+ ++ + − − + + the filled lines are.
direction of direction of direction of direction of
electric force electric force electric force electric force

The direction of electric force is away The direction of electric force

from the positive charge. The positive is towards the negative charge.
charge is repelled. The positive charge is attracted.

Figure 16.7 Direction of electric force on a test charge in an electric field

Therefore, the direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of the force on a positive charge
at that point.
HELPFUL NOTES
Figure 16.8 shows the simple electric field pattern around different charged objects.
The field lines around the
Around a Around a charged conducting sphere are
point charge
Electric conducting sphere very much the same as
that for a point charge.
field Consider a sphere of
radius R that the has a
+
+Q
pattern charge of Q on it. The
+ electric field line pattern
outside the sphere is
exactly the same as a
point charge Q at the
centre of that sphere.
The electric field lines of a
positive charge are directed Between two parallel
The electric field lines of a
away from the charge. charged plates ENRICHMENT
charged conducting sphere is
THINK
directed away from the charge
There are no electrical
field lines inside a
+ − sphere of charge Q.
–Q
− + − • The electric field lines start from positive Explain why.
•
+ − plate and end on negative plate.
+ − • The field is uniform near the middle of the
•
+ − plates, where the electric fields are parallel.
+ −
The electric field lines of a
negative charge are directed
towards the charge.

Figure 16.8 Simple electric field pattern around different charged objects.
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 Chapter 16
Let’s Practise 16.2
LINK TWB 1 S Compare the direction of an electric field at a point and the direction of the force on a positive

Exercise 16B, charge at that point.
pp. XX–XX 2 S Sketch the electric field lines due to an isolated negative charge.

3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

16.3 Electric Current

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that electric current is related to the flow of charge.
•

S State that charge is measured in coulombs.

Q
• S Define electric current; recall and use the equation I = .
t

• S State that conventional current is from positive to negative and that the flow of free electrons is

from negative to positive.
• Describe electrical conduction in metals in terms of the movement of free electrons.
•

Describe the use of ammeters, analogue and digital, with different ranges.
•

Know the difference between direct current (d.c.) and alternating current (a.c.).

HELPFUL NOTES What is electric current?
Throughout this book, we An object becomes charged if electrons are added to or removed from it. When the charged object
will refer to conventional is provided with a conducting path, electrons start to flow through the path from or to the object.
current unless When electrons move, we say that an electric current is produced. An electric current is formed by
otherwise stated. moving electrons. Therefore, electric current is related to the flow of charge.
An electric charge, Q, is measured in coulombs (C). The amount of charge carried by an electron or
proton is 1.6 × 10–19 C.
Electric current is the charge passing a point per unit time. The SI unit of electric current is the
ampere (A).
In symbols, electric current is given by:
Q
I= where I = current (in A);
t

 
Q = charge (in C);

t = time taken (in s). conventional
 
current + −

What is conventional current? electron

Before the discovery of electrons, scientists believed flow
that an electric current consisted of moving positive
charges. Although this belief was later proven wrong,
the idea is still widely held. This is because the discovery
of electron flow did not affect the basic understanding electron
of an electric current, which is the movement of flow
charges. This ‘movement’ of positive charges is called
conventional current.
Conventional current is from positive to negative and conventional
current
that the flow of free electrons is from negative to positive.
Figure 16.9 Conventional current versus
electron flow

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 Chapter 16
An electric current is actually caused by the flow of electrons from a negatively charged terminal to
a positively charged terminal. This is because the electrons are repelled by the negatively charged
terminal and attracted to the positively charged terminal. This movement of electrons is known as
electron flow.
Figure 16.9 shows the difference between conventional current and electron flow.

Why are metals electrical conductors?

You have learnt previously that metals are electrical conductors. This is because the electrons in a piece
of metal can leave their atoms and move about in the metal as free electrons. When connected to an
energy source, these free electrons will be drove around the conducting path and a current is formed.

How do we measure electric current?

Since electric current is the flow of electric charges, we can
measure electric current by determining the amount of
electric charges that pass through a conductor per
unit time.
One ampere is the electric current produced when one
coulomb of charge passes a point in a conductor in
one second.
An ammeter (Figure 16.10) is used to measure the +
magnitude and direction of an electric current in an
electric circuit. –
The ammeter should be connected in series with the
component whose current is to be measured (Figure 16.11). Figure 16.10 An analogue ammeter
Conventional current flows into the
ammeter through the positive ‘+’ or
red terminal and leave through the
negative ‘–’ or black terminal. − + LINK

To measure current using the You will learn more

ammeter, we should take note of the about series circuit in
following: − +
Chapter 17.
• It is important to get the correct
•
range for the ammeter. When
the current flowing through the
ammeter is beyond the range ENRICHMENT
of the ammeter, i.e. current is THINK
too large, the ammeter will be Figure 16.11 An ammeter connected in series to measure the current I The ampere is in fact
damaged. Therefore, ammeters defined more officially
have current ratings in which the largest current can be safely read. in terms of a magnetic
• When the ammeter chosen has a rating that is too large for the current, the ammeter will not force. Use the Internet
•
detect the current accurately. The meter reading will likely to be too close to zero for reading to find out how the
ampere is defined
to be effective.
officially.
• Ammeters can be either analogue (with a moving needle) or digital (with a numerical readout
Share your answer with
•
that changes). Essentially, the primary difference between an analogue ammeter and a digital the class.
ammeter is the display.

Alternating current and direct current

Electrical devices are designed to function with either alternating current (a.c.) or direct current
(d.c.). Direct current is used in electronic circuits and is supplied by batteries, cells and solar panels.
Many mains supplies around the world provide alternating current. Direct current flows in a single
direction only, whereas alternating current changes direction frequently.

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 Chapter 16
Worked Example 16A
The current in a lamp is 0.2 A. If the lamp is switched on for two hours, what is the total electric
charge that passes through the lamp?
Solution
Given: Current I = 0.2 A
60 min 60 s
Time t = 2 h × ×
1h 1 min
= 7200 s

Q
I= t

Q
0.2 A =
7200 s
Total electric charge Q = 0.2 A × 7200 s = 1.4 × 10–3 C

Let’s Practise 16.3

1 S State the equation that relates electric charge to electric current.

2 S State the SI unit of current.

3 S Calculate how many electrons make a coulomb.
LINK

TWB
4 Describe how to use an ammeter.

Exercise 16C, 5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

pp. XX–XX this section.

16.4 Electromotive Force and Potential


Difference
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define electromotive force (e.m.f.)
•

Know that e.m.f. is measured in volts (V).

W
• S Recall and use the equation for e.m.f. E = .
Q

• Define potential difference (p.d.)
•

Know that the p.d. between two points is measured in volts (V).

W
• S Recall and use the equation for p.d. V = .
Q

• Describe the use of voltmeters, analogue and digital, with different ranges.

How do currents occur?
In any complete circuit there must be an energy provider, often a battery or dry cell, and an energy
user, such as a lightbulb or resistor.
The energy provider supplies the energy to drive a charge around the circuit. The work done by a
source in moving a unit charge is known as the electromotive force or e.m.f. The e.m.f. is measured
in volts (V).

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 Chapter 16
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a source in moving a unit charge
around a complete circuit.
In symbols, electromotive force is given by QUICK CHECK
W
E= where E = e.m.f (in V); The e.m.f. is a force.
Q

 
W = work done (in J); True or false?

Q = charge (in C).
 
When a charge passes through a particular electrical component in the circuit, there is work done on
the component. This work done per unit charge is known as the potential difference, or p.d. The p.d.
between two points, i.e. across a component, is measured in volts (V).
Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by a unit charge passing through a component.
In symbols, potential difference is given by
W HELPFUL NOTES
V= where V = p.d. (in V); Work done by a unit charge
Q

 
passing through a lamp = p.d. Do not confuse e.m.f.
W = work done (in J);

and p.d., even though
Q = charge (in C). they have the same unit.
 
The e.m.f. is provided
by a source of electrical
a unit energy, but p.d. refers
charge to the electrical energy
converted to other forms
by a circuit component.

dry cell
Figure 16.12 Difference
between e.m.f. and p.d.

Work done by a dry cell to move a

unit charge around the circuit = e.m.f.

How do we measure e.m.f. and p.d.? LINK

A voltmeter (Figure 16.13) is used to measure the e.m.f. of a dry cell or
the p.d. across a component. You will learn more
about parallel circuit in
The voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the dry cell or the Chapter 17.
component that is to be measured (Figure 16.14).
+

–
–
Figure 16.13 An analogue voltmeter

The positive ‘+’ or red terminal of the

voltmeter should be connected to the
positive ‘+’ terminal of the cell.

– +

Similar to ammeters,
The negative ‘–’ or black terminal of the voltmeters can be either
voltmeter should be connected to the analogue or digital. Figure 16.15 A digital multimeter
negative ‘–’ terminal of the cell. can be used to measure current,
e.m.f. or p.d.

Figure 16.14 A voltmeter connected in parallel to measure the p.d. across the lamp

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 Chapter 16
Worked Example 16B
ENRICHMENT The e.m.f. of a dry cell is 1.5 V. What is the energy provided by the cell to drive 0.4 C of charge
INFO
around a circuit?
Useful electric shocks
While electric shocks Solution
can kill, they can also Given: e.m.f. E = 1.5 V
be used to save lives.
Have you ever seen charge Q = 0.4 C

defibrillators in public W
Using E = Q , where W = energy provided by the cell,
places (Figure 16.16)? A
defibrillator is a device W = EQ
that can save the life of = (1.5 V)(0.4 C)
a person who is having
a heart attack. It is = 0.6 J
connected to a power
source and generates a
potential difference so Worked Example 16C
that an electric current
flows through the heart. A charge of 4.00 x 104 C flows through an electric heater. If the amount of electrical energy
The heart is given a converted into thermal energy is 9.00 MJ, calculate the potential difference across the ends of
controlled electric shock the heater.
to 'jolt it back to life' (i.e.
to make it start pumping Solution
blood again).
Given: charge Q = 4.00 × 104 C
energy W = 9.00 × 106 J

W
By definition, potential difference V = Q
9.00 × 106 J
=
4.00 × 104 C
 
= 225 V
 
Figure 16.16

Let’s Practise 16.4

1 Describe the difference between e.m.f. and p.d.

2 S The potential difference across a light bulb is found to be 3.0 V. The current flowing through

it is 0.40 A.
LINK (a) Calculate how much charge flows through the light bulb in 2.0 minutes.


TWB
(b) Calculate how much energy is dissipated by the charge calculated in (a).


Exercise 16D, 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
pp. XX–XX

this section.

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 Chapter 16

16.5 Resistance
In this section, you will learn the following:
V
• Recall and use the equation for resistance R = .
I

 
• Describe an experiment to determine resistance using a voltmeter and an ammeter and do the

appropriate calculations.
• S Sketch and explain the current-voltage graphs for a resistor of constant resistance, a filament

lamp and a diode.
• S Recall and use the relationships for a metallic electrical conductor.
•

State, qualitatively, the relationship of the resistance of a metallic wire to its length and to its cross-

sectional area.

What is resistance? QUICK CHECK

Resistance is the measure of how difficult it is to pass an electric current through a conductor, such The higher the resistance,
as a wire. When resistance is high, it is more difficult for charges to pass through the wire. Therefore, the easier it is for current
current will be reduced. to flow.
The resistance R of a component is the potential difference V across it divided by the current I True or false?
flowing through it.
In symbols, the resistance of a component is given by
V
R= where R = resistance of the component (in Ω)
I

V = p.d. across the component (in V)

I = current flowing through the component (in A)
 
From the definition of resistance, we can see that for a given p.d., the higher the resistance, the
smaller the current passing through.
The SI unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω). One ohm is the resistance of a component when a potential
difference of one volt applied across the component drives a current of one ampere through it.

Worked Example 16D

A potential difference of 240 V applied across the heating coil of an electric kettle drives a
current of 8 A through the coil. Calculate the
(a) resistance of the coil;

(b) new current flowing through the coil if the potential difference applied is changed to 220 V.

Solution
(a) Given: voltage V = 240 V


current I = 8 A


V
By definition, R = = 240 = 30 Ω
I 8


(b) Given: voltage V = 220 V

From (a), resistance R = 30 Ω.

V
Thus, I = = 220 = 7.3 A
R 30

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 Chapter 16
How do we measure resistance?
Circuit components such as wires
and lamps have resistance. We
can measure their resistances by
measuring the current flowing – +
through them and the p.d. across – +
them. Figure 16.17 shows a current, I,
flowing through a lamp and a
potential difference, V, across it.
With these two quantities, we can
calculate the resistance of the lamp.
– +

Figure 16.17 Circuit to determine the resistance of a lamp

Let’s Investigate 16C

Objective
To determine the resistance of an ohmic resistor (which has low resistance) using a voltmeter
and an ammeter

Materials
Voltmeter, ammeter, variable resistor, two 2 V dry cells, resistor R of unknown resistance

Procedure
1 Set up a circuit diagram as shown in Figure 16.18.

2 As a safety precaution, adjust the variable resistor to the maximum resistance. This is so that

the initial current that flows in the circuit is small, to minimise the heating effect of the circuit.
3 Record the ammeter reading I and the voltmeter reading V.

4 Adjust the variable resistor to allow a larger current to flow in the circuit. Again, record the
values of I and V.

5 Repeat step 4 to obtain at least five sets of I and V readings.

6 Plot V/V against I/A. Determine the gradient of the graph.

Figure 16.18

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 Chapter 16
Observation and Discussion
The gradient of the graph gives the resistance of the V/V
resistor R (Figure 16.19). Note that the resistance of a ×
conductor can be found using the gradient of the graph
(I ,V )
only if it is ohmic (i.e. it has a constant resistance). ×

×
gradient
× V
=
I

 
= resistance
×
PWB LINK

×
I/A Practical 16C,
Figure 16.19 pp. XX–XX

Ohm’s Law
In 1826, German physicist Georg Ohm discovered that when physical conditions (such as QUICK CHECK
temperature) are constant, the electric current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it. This relationship is known as Ohm’s Law. Based on Ohm’s law,
Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional current increases
to the potential difference across it, provided that physical conditions (such as temperature) with increasing
remain constant. potential difference.
True or false?
According to Ohm’s Law, the resistance of metallic conductors remains constant under steady
physical conditions. Conductors that obey Ohm’s Law are known as ohmic conductors. Figure 16.20
shows the characteristic I–V graph of an ohmic conductor at a constant temperature.
I/A

The graph
• is a straight line that passes through the origin;
•

• has a constant gradient that is equal to the

•

inverse of the resistance R of the conductor.

Note: Since 1 = constant, R = constant.

R


V/V
Figure 16.20 Characteristic I–V graph of an ohmic conductor

Conductors that do not Ohm’s Law are known as non-ohmic conductors. The current flowing through
non-ohmic conductors does not increase proportionally with the potential difference. In other
words, the resistance R of such conductors can vary.
We can differentiate between ohmic and non-ohmic conductors using their I–V graphs. The I–V
V
graphs of non-ohmic conductors are not straight lines. The ratio is not a constant, as non-ohmic
I
conductors do not have constant resistances.

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 Chapter 16
Table 16.1 shows the characteristic curved I–V graphs of non-ohmic conductors.
Table 16.1 Characteristic I–V graphs of some non-ohmic conductors.
Non-ohmic conductor Function I–V graph Description of graph
Filament lamp The filament I/A • As the currents increase, the

lamp (or the devices generate more heat,
light bulb) and thus their temperatures
converts increase.
electrical energy • As temperature increases,

to light and the resistance of the
heat energy. filament lamp increases.
• The I–V graph of the

V/V filament lamp shows that
the resistance

( )
V
I increases
with temperature.

Semiconductor diode A semiconductor I/A • The I–V graph of a

diode is a device semiconductor diode
that allows shows that when a p.d.
current to flow is applied in the forward
in one direction ~mA direction, the current flow is
only (the relatively large. This means
forward the resistance is low in the
direction). V/V forward direction.
~µA
• When the p.d. is applied

in the reverse direction,
there is almost no current
flow. This means the
resistance is very high in the
reverse direction.

Worked Example 16E I/A

Figure 16.21 shows how the current I in the 0.4

filament of a lamp depends on the potential
difference V across it. 0.3
(a) Calculate the resistance of the filament
0.2

when the potential difference is 1.0 V.
(b) Describe how the resistance of the 0.1

filament changes, if at all, when the p.d.
across it increases. V/V
0 1 2 3 4 5
Solution Figure 16.21
(a) From the graph, when V = 1.0 V, I = 0.16 A

By definition,

V
HELPFUL NOTES resistance R = = 1.0 V = 6.25 Ω ≈ 6.3 Ω
I 0.16 A

V
The SI unit of energy is the (b) The gradient of the graph decreases as the p.d. increases. This means that the ratio ,
I

joule (J). which is the resistance R of the filament, increases when the p.d. across it increases.

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 Chapter 16
Resistivity
QUICK CHECK
According to Ohm’s Law, the resistance R of a metallic conductor is a constant if the physical
conditions remain the same. However, if temperature increases, the resistance of the metallic
The resistance of a
conductor will also increase. Besides temperature, the resistance R of a conductor also depends on
conductor only depends
• its length l; on its length and cross-
•
• its cross-sectional area A (or thickness). sectional area.
•
True or false?
Table 16.2 shows the relationship between resistance and the cross-sectional area and length of a wire.
Relationship between resistance and
Relationship between resistance and length
cross-sectional area

wire S

wire P
wire T

wire Q
• Wires P and Q have the same length and are made of the • Wires S and T have the same cross-sectional area and


same material. are made of the same material.
PHYSICS WATCH
• The cross-sectional area of wire P is larger than that of • Wire S is longer than wire T.


wire Q.
Scan this page to explore
Experiments have shown that when the length of a wire
a simulation on resistivity.
Experiments have shown that when the cross-sectional is increased, its resistance increases proportionally. In
area of a wire is increased, its resistance decreases other words, the resistance R is directly proportional to
proportionally. In other words, the resistance R is the length l when the cross-sectional area and type of
inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area A when material are the same.
the length and type of material are the same.
PWB LINK
From Table 16.2, we can conclude the resistance of a metallic wire is Practical 16D,
• directly proportional to its length; pp. XX–XX
•
• inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.
•
Let’s Practise 16.5
1 S Describe how the resistance of the filament in a lamp varies with temperature.

2 Describe how the resistance of a wire varies with

(a) its length, and
TWB LINK


(b) its cross-sectional area.


3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 16E,

this section. pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 16

16.6 Electrical Energy and Electrical Power


In this section, you will learn the following:
• Understand that electric circuits transfer energy from a source of electrical energy to the circuit

components and then into the surroundings.
• Recall and use the equation for electrical power P = IV.
• Recall and use the equation for electrical energy E = IVt.

•

Define the kilowatt-hour (kW h) and calculate the cost of using electrical appliances where the
energy unit is the kW h.

How does the energy get around?

Electric circuits transfer energy from a source of electrical energy such as the electrical cell or mains
supply to the circuit components and then into the surroundings. Energy is transferred through
the movement of electrons around conducting materials such as the lamps or resistors. In insulating
materials, where electrons are not free to move about, there will not be electrical currents. When
current flows through electrical components, energy will be dissipated in the form of heat, light or
other energy. This energy is then transferred to the surrounding.

Electrical power
The SI unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is equal to one joule per second. To represent large
quantities of power, we often introduce prefixes such as kilo or mega. Therefore, large quantities of
power are expressed in kilowatt or the megawatt.
Since power is the amount of work done per second, power P can be given by
P = (W or E) . . .(1) where P = power (in W)
t

 

 
 

W = work done (in J)

E = electrical energy converted (in J)

 
t = time (in s)

 
Earlier in this chapter, you have learnt the equations relating potential difference, work done, charge
and current.
Q
I= . . .(2) where I = current (in A)
t



 
 
Q = charge (in C)
 
t = time (in s)
    
W
V= V = potential difference (in V)
Q
  
W = QV . . .(3) W = work done (in J)

 
 

Substituting (3) into (1), we get
QV
P= . . .(4)
t

 
 
Q
HELPFUL NOTES Since, I = from (2),
t
P = IV
The SI unit of energy is
the joule (J).
We also know that from (1), the electrical energy E can be expressed as follows:
E = Pt = IVt

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 Chapter 16
Calculating the cost of electricity consumption
QUICK CHECK
An electricity meter measures a household’s electricity consumption. The amount of electrical
energy transferred to an appliance depends on its power, and on the duration of time it is switched
The watt is the SI unit
on for. The joule is a tiny amount of energy and charging for each joule (or large numbers of joules) of power
makes energy bills difficult to understand. Therefore, the kilowatt hour (kWh) is used as a unit of
True or false?
energy for calculating electricity bills.
1 kWh is the electrical energy converted by a 1 kW appliance used for 1 hour.
For example, a common household electrical heater has a power rating of approximately 2 kW. When
it is being used for 1 hour, the energy consumption is 2 kW h. A filament lamp has a power rating of
approximately 0.1 kW. When it is being used for 1 hour, the energy consumption is 0.1 kW h.

Worked Example 16F

If a power supply company charges 27 cents for each kW h of electrical energy used, calculate
the total cost of using a 3 kW electric kettle for 20 minutes and a 100 W filament bulb for 5 hours.
Solution
Electrical energy used by electric kettle,
20
E1 = P × t = 3 kW × h = 1 kW h
60
Power P of the filament bulb = 100 W = 0.1 kW
Electrical energy used by the bulb,
E2 = 0.1 kW × 5 h = 0.5 kWh
Total energy used E = E1 + E2
= 1 kWh + 0.5 kWh
= 1.5 kWh
Hence, the total cost = 1.5 kWh × 27 cents
= 40.5 cents
= $0.41

Let’s Practise 16.6

1 A 240 V mains power supply delivers a current of 9.0 A through an air conditioner. Calculate TWB LINK

the power supplied in kilowatts.
2 The air conditioner in question 1 is used for 1.5 hours each day for 30 days. The electricity Exercises 16F–16G,

tariff is $0.27 per kWh. Calculate the cost of using the air conditioner for this period of time. pp. XX–XX

3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 16H Let’s Reflect.
p. XX

this section.

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 Chapter 16
Chapter 16
Let’s Map It

• Is a region in which
an electric charge
interacts as follows experiences a force
Positive and
negative charges
can be
categorised
into
Electric field

Electric field lines

moving • Directed away from
charges produce
CHARGE Q
a positive charge
• Directed towards
• Like charges repel
a negative charge
• Unlike charges (SI unit: C) generates
attract

Electric current l
Electricity
(SI unit: A) non-moving
charges
produce
where
Static electricity

Electrical Power I=Q

t
energy P = IV
where is due to the build
E = IVt
t = time up of charges on the
surfaces of

Electrical insulators

for
example
through

Friction

related to

Related to
Electromotive force E Resistance R
(SI unit: V) (SI unit: Ω)

Potential difference V
where (SI unit: V) where

where
E=W • Resistance is directly R=V
Q I
proportional to the
where length of the conductor
V=W
W = work done by Q • Resistance is inversely
source to drive a where proportional to the
unit charge around W = work done to drive a unit cross-sectional area of
the circuit charge through a component the conductor

268 Electrical Quantities

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 Chapter 16
er 16

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 5 A small heater has a rating of 15 V, 4 A. How much

1 A resistor converts 350 J of electrical energy to other energy does it consume if it is turned on for 2 minutes?

forms of energy. What is the amount of charge that A 7.5 J

flows through it when a p.d. of 7 V is applied across it? B 120 J

A 0.20 C C 450 J

B 50 C D 7200 J

C 350 C 6 The kilowatt-hour is a unit of ______.


D 2450 C A power


2 Which of the following set-ups cannot be used to B energy

determine the resistance of resistor R? C charge

A A B V D voltage




7 A person uses a 3 kW oven for 1 hour and a 2 kW

R V A air conditioner for 6 hours. Calculate the total cost if
R 1 kWh of electrical energy costs 5.0 cents.
A 15 cents

C D B 30 cents
A



A C 60 cents
R
V

D 75 cents
R

V
Section B: Short-answer and Structured
3 The ammeter reading in the circuit below is 1 A. Which Questions

of the following could be the voltmeter reading and
1 Figure 16.23 shows the electrical information on the
resistance of the resistor?

charger of a laptop computer.
A

V resistor

Figure 16.22

Voltmeter reading Resistance Figure 16.23

A 1V 2Ω (a) Based on the information in Figure 16.23, show that

the output current of this charger is 4.74 A.
B 4V 0.25 Ω
(b) Calculate the amount of electrical energy (in kWh)
C

10 V 10 Ω consumed in one month (30 days), if the laptop is
D 12 V 6Ω connected to the charger 6 hours a day.

4 Which of the following can be used to calculate

electrical power?
A potential difference ÷ current

B potential difference × current

C current × resistance

D potential difference ÷ resistance

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 Chapter 16

Let’s Review
2 Two resistance wires, A and B, are connected in parallel Table 16.3

to a power source of e.m.f. 5.0 V. Figure 16.24 shows the
V/V I/mA
voltage–current relationship of the two wires.
V/V 0 0

1.0 0.5
5.0
2.0 1.1
4.0
A
3.0 1.6
3.0
4.0 2.1
2.0
B 5.0 2.5
1.0

(a) Plot a graph of potential difference against current,
I/A

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 using the values from Table 16.3.
Figure 16.24 (b) Using the graph drawn in (a), determine the

resistance of the bulb when the potential difference
(a) Calculate the resistance of wire A and wire B.
across it is 2.5 V.

(b) If both wires are made of the same material and
(c) The 6.0 V e.m.f. supply is replaced with a 10.0 V

have the same thickness, what can you conclude

e.m.f. supply.
about their lengths? Explain your answer.
(i) Determine the potential difference applied
(c) Calculate the currents flowing through wire A and

across the bulb if the current flowing through

wire B.
it is 0.32 mA.
3 (a) What is the relationship between current I and (ii) Explain how it is possible for a 10.0 V e.m.f.


charge Q? State their respective SI units.


supply to produce a current of 0.32 mA.
(b) A positively-charged sphere carrying a charge of
6 (a) The V–I graphs for two conductors, A and B, at

0.4 mC is earthed using a wire.


a steady temperature are shown in Figure 16.25.
(i) Calculate the average current flowing through Deduce the resistances of A and B.


the wire if the time taken to discharge the V/V
sphere is 0.2 s. 3.0
(ii) Draw a labelled diagram showing the direction A


of conventional current flow.
2.0
4 (a) What do you understand by the terms current and B


potential difference?
(b) A potential difference of 12 V causes 2.0 x 1020 1.0

electrons to pass a point in awire in 1.0 minute.
Calculate the
I/A
(i) amount of charge that passes the point in 0.2 0.4 0.6


1.0 minute, given that the charge of each Figure 16.25
electron is 1.6 x 1019 C;
(b) Both conductors are made of the same material
(ii) electric current in the wire;

and have the same length.


(iii) resistance of the wire.
(i) Which conductor is thicker?


5 A light bulb is connected to a 6.0 V e.m.f. supply. An


(ii) What is the ratio of their cross-sectional areas?

experiment is carried out to measure the current


(c) Do the conductors A and B obey Ohm’s Law?
flowing through the bulb as the potential difference

Explain your answer.
across it is varied. The results are shown in Table 16.3.
(d) Sketch the graphs of current I against p.d. V for a

(i) filament lamp;


(ii) semiconductor diode.


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 CHAPTER
Electrical
17 Circuits and
Electrical Safety

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip on using

electricity to light up our cities.

QUESTIONS

• What electrical components are needed in

The photo shows China’s city of Shenzen at night during a light show.

the electrical circuits to light up the city?
Complex electrical circuits are used to light up the buildings and streets. • What are some causes of power blackout in

How did we progress from the first dim light bulbs to the amazingly a city that are related to electrical circuits?
colourful cityscapes we see today? • What can be done to prevent such a

power blackout?
When the filament lamp was invented in the late 19th century, no one
really knew how it would revolutionise the world the way it did. People
could read, play, work, socialise and travel the streets in more relative
safety. They don’t have to rely on burning material and risk burning
everything down to the ground.

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 Chapter 17

17.1 Circuit Diagrams and Components

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing common circuit components and know how these

components behave in the circuit.
• S Draw and interpret circuit diagrams containing diodes and light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and

know how these components behave in the circuit.

How to draw and interpret circuit diagrams?

Drawing circuit diagrams
To help us solve problems involving electric circuits, it is useful to learn how to draw circuit diagrams. Circuit
diagrams represent electric circuits. Figure 17.1 shows the four main components of an electric circuit.

A power source (e.g. a A Conductors (e.g.

cell) drives the electric copper wires) connect
ammeter shows
charge around the circuit. a reading
the components.
+ switch
cell (closed)
–
A load (e.g. a lamp)
converts electrical energy lamp on A switch opens or
to other forms of energy closes the circuit.
to perform a function.

Figure 17.1 Main components of an electric circuit

Table 17.1 shows the circuit symbols for some other common circuit components.
Table 17.1 Circuit symbols

Device Symbol Device Symbol Device Symbol

Switch or Potential divider Galvanometer

Cell Fixed resistor Ammeter

Battery or Variable resistor (rheostat) Voltmeter

D.c. Light-dependent
Generator G
power supply resistor (LDR)

A.c.
Fuse Motor M
power supply

Lamp NTC thermistor Heater

Magnetising coil
Wires joined or Relay
 
S Diode
 
S Light-
Wires crossed Transformer emitting
diode (LED)

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 Chapter 17
Interpreting circuit diagrams
It is important to be able to understand different arrangements of circuit symbols in circuit diagrams.
Figures 17.2 and 17.3 show how we can interpret two circuit diagrams.

A A

ammeter shows ammeter shows

no reading + a reading
switch
+ cell switch
(open) –
cell (closed)
– lamp off
lamp off
wire X
(bypass)

• The lamp is unable to light up as the switch • The circuit is closed, yet the lamp remains
 
 
is open, i.e., there is a break in the circuit. unlit. This is because there is an alternative
• A break in the circuit means that current path of lower resistance (wire X) for current
to flow through.
 
cannot flow through it.
• Besides open switches, breaks in circuits can • Therefore, the current does not flow through
 
the lamp.
 
occur due to loose connections, or missing
or broken wires. • We call this a short circuit.
 
Figure 17.2 Open circuit Figure 17.3 Short circuit

Circuit components are put to use for diverse purposes. Table 17.2 states the uses of some of these
components. They are further described in various places in this chapter and the next.

Table 17.2 Uses of some circuit components

Component Uses See section

• Provide a fraction of a cell’s e.m.f. to another part of a circuit
Potential divider 17.4
 
• Can be used in sensing circuits
 
NTC thermistors • Used as temperature sensors In temperature controlled circuits 17.4
 
Fuses • For circuit safety 17.5
 
Generator • Converts kinetic energy into electrical energy 18.2
 
Magnetising coil/relay • Electromagnets and associated uses 18.3
 
Motors • Converts electrical energy into kinetic energy 18.5
 
• Transforms a potential difference to either a higher or lower
Transformer 18.6
 
potential difference with high efficiency

S
Why is a diode useful?
Some components, such as filament lamps, work equally well whether alternating current (a.c.) or
direct current (d.c.) flows into them.
Other components, particularly many electronic parts, will only work with specific d.c. voltages and
may break if subjected to a.c. voltages.
Diodes are components that allow current to flow through them in one direction only.
Arrangements of diodes can indicate the direction of current flow so that appropriate action can be
taken or can convert a.c. into d.c.

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 Chapter 17
S Current direction indication Low res image
Consider a dry cell which is connected to a light emitting
diode (LED). Figure 17.4 shows how an arrangement
of two diodes can show which direction the current is
flowing. If the dry cell is connected in the first orientation,
the green LED will light up. If the dry cell is reversed, then
the red LED will light up.

Green Green

Red Red

  Green LED lights up   Red LED lights up

Figure 17.4 LEDs indicate the direction of current flowing in a circuit

A.c. rectification
ENRICHMENT Figure 17.5(a) shows a resistor connected to an a.c. power supply. The current-time graph below it
THINK shows the direction and magnitude of current through the resistor. In Figure 17.5(b)(i), the diode is
This method of a.c. the correct way around to allow current through. In Figure 17.5(b)(ii), the diode will not allow current
rectification is wasteful as to flow as shown by the horizontal lines in the graph below it. If a component in an electrical circuit
the current is only useful is sensitive to current direction, the presence of a diode protects the component.
for 50% of the time. It
is known as half-wave (a) A.c power supply connected to a resistor (b) A.c power supply connected to a resistor
rectification. The rest of


and a diode
the time, the energy is
merely dissipated as heat. current current

How could an
arrangement of four
diodes provide full-wave
rectification, so that the
design is more efficient? I I

t t

WORD ALERT
Rectified: to set right,   A.c. current not rectified   A.c. current rectified
i.e., setting the current to
flow in one direction Figure 17.5 Rectified and unrectified a.c. current

Let’s Practise 17.1

1 Describe what is meant by an open circuit.
2
S Describe the basic function of a diode.

3
S Draw an electrical circuit that lights

(a) a red LED when current is flowing in one direction around the circuit;

(b) a green LED when current flows in the opposite direction.

LINK TWB 4
S Explain a use of diodes in a practical circuit.

Exercise 17A, pp. XX-XX 5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 17

17.2 Series Circuits

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know how to construct and use series circuits.
•

Calculate the combined e.m.f. of several sources in series.
•

Know that the current at every point in a series circuit is the same.
•

S Explain that the sum of the currents into a junction is the same as the currents out of the junction.
•

S Recall and use in calculations, the fact that the total p.d. across the components in a series circuit

is equal to the sum of the individual p.d.s across each component.
• Calculate the combined resistance of two or more resistors in series.

In this chapter, you will learn how series and parallel
arrangements of circuits affect current, potential
difference and resistance.
In a series circuit, the components are connected
one after another in a single loop (Figure 17.6). A series lamps
circuit has only one path through which electric charge
can flow.
Notice that in Figure 17.6 there are two dry cells in series.
When cells are arranged in series, the resultant e.m.f. is Figure 17.6 Two lamps connected in series
the sum of all the e.m.f.s of the cells. For example, if both
cells in Figure 17.6 had an e.m.f. of 1.5 V, then the combined e.m.f. would be 3.0 V.

Does current in a series circuit change?

Table 17.3 shows two electric circuits that can be set up to measure the current at various points in a
series circuit.

Table 17.3 Current in series circuits

Circuit Ammeter reading Conclusion
Single resitor R I1 = I2 The same current flows into
E and out of resistor R.

I1 I2

A1 A2

R
HELPFUL NOTES
Resistors R1 and R2 in series I’1 = I’2 = I’3 The same current flows
E through R1 and R2. The currents in the two
circuits in Table 17.3 are
I¢1 I¢2 not the same. They will
be the same if R = R1 + R2.
A1 A2 You will learn the effect
of combining resistors in
I¢3 series later.
R1 A3 R2

We can see that the current at every point in a given series circuit is the same.

S No charge can escape or be introduced at any point in the circuit. This is known as the conservation
of charge. It explains why the current through components in series must be the same.

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S
How to calculate total p.d across a series circuit?
Table 17.4 shows an electric circuit in which the resistors are arranged in series. It is set up to measure
the potential difference across the resistors in the circuit.

Table 17.4 P.d. across resistors in a series circuit.

Circuit Ammeter reading Conclusion
Resistors R1 and R2 in series VE = V1 + V2 The p.d. VE across the whole
E circuit is equal to the sum of
the p.d.s across R1 and R2.

VE E = VE The e.m.f. E of the electrical

source is equal to VE.

R1 R2

V1 V2

For n resistors placed in series, the p.d. VE across the whole circuit (i.e. across all of the components) is
equal to the sum of the p.d.s across each component.
VE = V1 + V2 + … + Vn

How to calculate combined resistance in series?

Figure 17.7 shows how we can find the combined or effective resistance R of two resistors, R1 and R2,
that are connected in series.

R1 R2
I I

V1 V2 R I
I I
V3
V3 equivalent
to
Resistors in series Equivalent resistor
 
 
• The current I that flows through R1 and R2 is the • The resistors R1 and R2 can be
 
 
same because they are connected in series. replaced by a single resistor R with a
resistance R.
• Since V = IR, V1 = IR1
 
• The resistor R has the potential
V2 = IR2
 
difference or voltage V3 across it and
• From the equation VE = V1 + V2, we know that the current I flowing through it.
 
V3 = V1 + V2 = IR1 + IR2 = I(R1 + R2) V3
=R

V3 I
Therefore, I = R1 + R2.

R = R1 + R2
Figure 17.7 Combined resistance of resistors in series

For n resistors in placed in series, the combined resistance is the sum of all the resistances.
R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn

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Worked Example 17A

Figure 17.8 shows three resistors of values 6V
2 Ω, 4 Ω and 6 Ω connected in series to a
6 V dry cell.
(a) Calculate the combined resistance of A2

the three resistors.
(b) What is the current measured by 2Ω A1 4Ω 6Ω

(i) ammeter A1; (ii) ammeter A2?
(c) Calculate the p.d. across each resistor. Figure 17.8

Solution
(a) Combined resistance R = R1 + R2 + R3 = (2 + 4 + 6) Ω = 12 Ω

(b) (i) Since V = 6 V and combined resistance R = 12 Ω,

V 6V
I= = = 0.5 A
R 12 Ω

The current measured by ammeter A1 is 0.5 A.

(ii) Since the circuit is connected in series, the current measured by ammeter A2 is also 0.5 A. QUICK CHECK

(c) Let V1, V2 and V3 be the p.d.s across the 2 Ω, 4 Ω and 6 Ω resistors respectively. The combined resistance

Using V = IR, of resistors in series is

the sum of all of the
V1 = IR1 = 0.5 A × 2 Ω = 1 V
resistances.

V2 = IR2 = 0.5 A × 4 Ω = 2 V
True or false?

V3 = IR3 = 0.5 A × 6 Ω = 3 V

Note: (1) V1 + V2+ V3 = 6 V = e.m.f. of the cell

(2) The p.d. across a resistor of a larger resistance in a series circuit is greater than the


p.d. across a resistor of a smaller resistance.

17.3 Parallel Circuits

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know how to construct and use parallel circuits.
•

State that, for a parallel circuit, the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch.
•

S Recall and use in calculations, the fact that the sum of the currents into a junction in a parallel

circuit is equal to the sum of the currents that leave the junction.
• S Recall and use in calculations, the fact that the p.d. across an arrangement of parallel resistors is

the same as the p.d. across one branch in the arrangement of the parallel resistors.
• S Calculate the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel.
•

State that the combined resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than that of either resistor by itself.
•

State the advantages of connecting lamps in parallel in a lighting circuit.

In a parallel circuit, the components are
connected to the e.m.f. source in two or more
loops (Figure 17.9). A parallel circuit has more
than one path through which electric charge
can flow.

Figure 17.9 Two lamps connected in parallel

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How does current flow in a parallel circuit?
QUICK CHECK
Table 17.5 shows an electric circuit in which the resistors are arranged in parallel. It is set up to
The current is the same measure the current at various points in the circuit.
at different points of a
parallel circuit. Table 17.5 Currents at various points of a parallel circuit
True or false? Circuit Ammeter reading Conclusion
Resistors R1 and R2 in parallel I = I1 + I2 • The current I flowing from

 
E the cell splits at junction x
into I1 and I2.
• Currents I1 and I2 later

 
recombine into I at
I junction y.

A I
I1
A1 R1

x y
A2 R2
I2

We can see that the current from the source is larger than the current in each branch.
For n branches in parallel, the main current I is the sum of all the currents in each branch.
I = I1 + I2 + … + In
S In other words, in a parallel circuit, the sum of the individual current in each of the parallel branches
LINK is equal to the main current flowing into or out of the parallel branches. This is because charge is
conserved and current is the rate of flow of charge. When a number of electrons enter junction x,
Recall that Q = It and so the same number of electrons must leave junction x. Similarly, when a number of electrons enter
Q
I= . junction y, the same number of electrons must leave junction y.
t
Refer to Chapter 16.
Does p.d across a parallel circuit change?
Table 17.6 shows an electric circuit in which all the resistors are arranged in parallel. It is set up to
measure the p.d across each resistor, and the p.d. across all the resistors in the circuit.
In a parallel circuit, the p.d.s across separate parallel branches are the same.

Table 17.6 P.d across resistors in a paralle circuit

Circuit Ammeter reading Conclusion

Resistors R1 and R2 in series VE = V1 = V2 The p.d. VE across the whole
circuit is equal to the sum of
the p.d.s across R1 and R2.

E VE V1 R1 R2 V2
E = VE The e.m.f. E of the electrical
source is equal to VE.

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S
How to calculate combined resistance in parallel?
Figure 17.10 shows how we can find the combined resistance R of two resistors, R1 and R2, that are
connected in parallel.
I1
R1

I I
I I
x y R

R2
I2 equivalent V
V to

  Resistors in parallel   Equivalent resistor

• The current I is split into I1 and I2 because

  • The resistors R1 and R2 can be
 

R1 and R2 are connected in parallel. replaced by a single resistor R with a

V resistance R.
• Since I = , I1 = V
R R1
 

• The resistor R has the p.d. V across it

 

I2 =
V and the current I flowing through it.
R2 V
I=
• From the equation I = I1 + I2, we know
  R
that
V V
I= +
R1 R2

V V V
= +
R R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
R R1 R2
Figure 17.10 Combined resistance of resistors in parallel

For two resistors in parallel,

1 1 1 WORD ALERT
= +
R R1 R2
1 Reciprocal: the
In other words, the reciprocal of the combined resistance of resistors in parallel, , is equal to the reciprocal of a number is
sum of the reciprocal of all the individual resistances. R
obtained by dividing
1 by that number

Worked Example 17B

Figure 17.11 shows three resistors of values 3 Ω and 6 Ω 6V
connected in parallel to a 6 V dry cell.
(a) Calculate the combined resistance of the two resistors.

(b) What is the p.d. across each resistor?

A2
(c) What is the current measured by ammeters A1 and A2?

Solution 3Ω
1 1 1 1 1 3 A1
(a) = + = + = 6Ω
R R1 R2 3 Ω 6 Ω 6 Ω

\R=2Ω Figure 17.11

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 Chapter 17
S
(b) As the resistors are in parallel, the p.d. across each resistor is equal, i.e., 6 V.

V
QUICK CHECK Using I = ,
R


6V
A circuit with just a resistor Current through the 6 Ω resistor = =1A
6Ω



and a dry cell has a current
of 1.2 A. Current measured by ammeter A1 = 1 A


A second resistor is put in 6V
parallel with the first. The Current through the 3 Ω resistor = =2A
3Ω

current through the dry
Current measured by ammeter A2 = 2 A + 1 A = 3 A
cell remains the same.

Alternatively, since V = 6 V and combined resistance R = 2 Ω , current measured by
True or false?


6V
ammeter A2 = =3A
2Ω

How can two resistors in parallel have less resistance

HELPFUL NOTES
than one resistor? E
When another resistor is added in parallel to a
Parallel connections
can be represented in resistor in a circuit, the combined resistance of
the circuit decreases. It is less than the resistance VE
different ways in a circuit
diagram. For example, of either resistor by itself. We can explain this using
a voltmeter connected Figure 17.12. In a parallel circuit, the p.d. remains the
I1
in parallel with a circuit same across each branch. When R2 is connected in R1
component (e.g. a cell) parallel to R1, as shown in Figure 17.12, the current I
I I
can be represented in the in the circuit increases by I2 (since I = I1 + I2).
two ways shown in I2
Figure 17.13.
æ VE ö R2
The combined resistance R ç = I ÷ therefore
è ø
decreases. Connecting additional resistors in Figure 17.12 Connecting an additional resistor in
parallel to R1 provides an additional path for the current
V parallel to R1 and R2 further increases the current I. to flow. Thus, the combined resistance is lowered.
or Thus, the combined resistance R is lowered.
To understand the flow of current in a parallel circuit better, we can use the water-flow model
V (Figure 17.14), in which the
• flow of water represents current;
Figure 17.13

Representing a • water level in the bathtub represents potential difference;

voltmeter connected in • pump represents an electrical source.
parallel with a cell

• When hole 1 is unplugged, bathtub • When holes 1 and 2 are unplugged,
 
 
water flows out slowly. water flows out of the bathtub faster.
constant water level
• The pump is turned on to • The pump has to work faster to maintain
 
 
maintain a constant level of hole 1 hole 2 the level of water in the bathtub.
water in the bathtub. • This is similar to an electrical source
 
• This is similar to an which is connected to two resistors in
 
electrical source driving a parallel in a circuit. The electrical source
current through a single pump has to provide a larger power to drive a
resistor in a circuit. tank larger current to maintain the p.d.

Figure 17.14 The water-flow model can represent current flow in a parallel circuit.

So, in this model, having two holes in the bathtub means that the flow of water has increased. Thus,
in a parallel electric circuit, the combined resistance must have decreased to cause a larger current
flow for the same e.m.f.

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Connecting lamps in series or parallel
What are the advantages of arranging circuit components in series or in parallel? To answer this
question, let us consider the effects of different lamp arrangements on current (Figure 17.15).
The lamps shown in Figure 17.15 are identical and each have a resistance of R.

E E
Series Parallel

When identical
IS
lamps are
arranged in IP

IP

VE VE

the potential difference across

VE each lamp is VE
each lamp is
2

the effective resistance of

each lamp is R each lamp is R

\ The current flowing through each lamp is

IS =
VE /2 1 VE
R
= 2 R() VE
IP = R

Figure 17.15 Current in series and parallel arrangements

What are the advantages and disadvantages

of parallel circuits?
Advantages
• From Figure 17.15, it can be seen that the current flowing through each lamp in the series circuit

is half that of the current flowing through each lamp in the parallel circuit. Therefore, lamps
connected in parallel glow more brightly than when connected in series.
• When a lamp in a parallel circuit blows, the other lamps in the circuit will still work. This is because
WORD ALERT

each parallel branch forms a complete circuit.

Disadvantages Blows: burns out

Depleted: used up
• From Figure 17.15, it can be seen that the current flowing through the battery in the parallel circuit
is 2IP, which is four times the current Is in the series circuit. This means that the source in a parallel

circuit provides a larger power and is depleted more quickly than in a series circuit.

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S
Resistors in series and parallel in a circuit
The electric circuits in electrical devices typically have resistors in both series and parallel
arrangements. How do we calculate the combined resistance? How do we find the current and
p.d. across each resistor? The following worked examples will show us how.

Worked Example 17C

Calculate the combined resistance of the arrangements in Figures 17.16 and 17.17.

3Ω 3Ω 4Ω

4Ω

6Ω 6Ω

Figure 17.16 Figure 17.17

Solution
For Figure 17.16, the 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are in parallel.
1 1 1 3
Therefore, = + = . Their combined resistance R = 2 Ω.
R 3Ω 6Ω 6Ω
Now, consider the circuit as comprising a 2 Ω resistor and a 4 Ω 2Ω 4Ω
resistor in series (Figure 17.18).
Figure 17.18
Hence, the combined resistance RT = 2 Ω + 4 Ω = 6 Ω.
For Figure 17.17, the 3 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are in series.
Therefore, their combined resistance is R = 3 Ω + 4 Ω = 7 Ω. 7Ω
Now, consider the circuit as comprising a 7 Ω resistor
and a 6 Ω resistor in parallel (Figure 17.19).
1 1 1 13
Hence, = + = . 6Ω
RT 7 Ω 6 Ω 42 Ω
The combined resistance RT = 3.2 Ω. Figure 17.19

Worked Example 17D

6V

The cell in Figure 17.20 has an e.m.f. of 6 V.

Calculate the
I2
(a) combined resistance of the two resistors 6Ω

connected in parallel;
I1
(b) current I1 from the cell; 10 Ω
X Y Z

(c) p.d.s across XY and YZ;
12 Ω

(d) currents I2 and I3. I3

Solution Figure 17.20

(a) Since the 6 Ω and 12 Ω resistors are in parallel, their combined resistance R is

1 1 1
= +
R 6 Ω 12 Ω

-1
æ1 1ö
R=ç + ÷ Ω=4Ω
è 6 12 ø

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 Chapter 17
S (b) Now, consider the circuit as comprising a 10 Ω resistor and a 4 Ω resistor in series (Figure 17.21).

\ The combined resistance RT 6V
= 10 Ω + 4 Ω = 14 Ω
Since the e.m.f. E = 6 V,

V 6V
the current I1 = = = 0.43 A
RT 14 Ω

(c) Let R1 be the 10 Ω resistor. Y
10 Ω 4Ω

X Z
Since I1 = 0.43 A, then p.d. across XY is VXY VYZ

VXY = I1R1 = 0.43 A × 10 Ω = 4.3 V

Figure 17.21
Since the circuit in Figure 17.20 is

connected in series,
e.m.f. E = VXY + VYZ

\ VYZ = E − VXY = 6 V − 4.3 V = 1.7 V

(d) Since VYZ = 1.7 V,

VYZ 1.7 V
I2 = = = 0.28 A
R2 6Ω

VYZ 1.7 V PWB LINK
I3 = = = 0.14 A
R3 12 Ω

Practical 17, pp. XX–XX

Let’s Practise 17.2 and 17.3

1 Figure 17.22 shows a 5 V cell connected to two resistors in parallel. 5V

The current flowing through resistor R is 0.2 A. Calculate
(a) the resistance of resistor R;


(b) the currents I1 and I2; I2


(c) S the combined resistance of resistor R and the 50 Ω resistor; I1
50 Ω


(d) the combined resistance of resistor R and the 50 Ω resistor if


they are arranged in series instead.
0.2 A
2 State one major advantage of connecting lamps in parallel. R

3 S A number of 4 Ω resistors are available. Draw diagrams
Figure 17.22

to show how you can connect a suitable number of these
resistors to give a combined resistance of
TWB LINK
(a) 12 Ω; (b) 2 Ω; (c) 9 Ω.

 

 

 
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section. Exercise 17B, pp. XX-XX

17.4 Action and Use of Circuit Components
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that the p.d. across an electrical conductor increases as its resistance increases for a constant current. LINK

R V
• S Recall and use the equation for two resistors used as a potential divider: 1 = 1
Recall what is Ohm's Law
• R2 V2

S Describe the action of a variable potential divider. which you have learnt in
•

Recall what is Ohm's Law which you have learnt in Chapter 16. Chapter 16.

The p.d. across a conductor (such as a resistor or lamp) increases as its resistance increases, provided that
the current is constant. This is a consequence of Ohm’s Law. The use of potential dividers makes use of
this concept.

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What is a potential divider and how does it work?
Some electronic circuits, such as those found in radios and battery-operated toys, require an e.m.f.
that is much smaller than that provided by a single cell. Potential dividers can be used to adjust
voltages in these circuits.
A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series. It is used to provide a fraction of the
available p.d. from a source to another part of the circuit.
S Figure 17.23 shows a potential divider with two fixed resistors. The cell supplies a voltage VE that is
divided into two potential differences across the resistors R1 and R2. The potential difference Vout
across R2 is then used to drive another part of the circuit.

I The current through the resistors R1 and

R2 is given by
R1 VE
I=
R1 + R2
E VE

Vout is used to
Vout
The potential difference Vout across R2 is
R2 drive another
given by

( )
circuit. VE
Vout = IR2 = × R2
ENRICHMENT R1 + R2
THINK
Show how these two Figure 17.23 Calculating Vout in a simple potential divider
equations:
æ R2 ö The equation for Vout in Figure 17.23 can be rewritten as
Vout = ç ÷ × VE
è R1 + R2 ø æ R2 ö
R1 V1 Vout = ç R + R ÷ × VE or as
è 1 2 ø
 
and = are
R2 V2 R1 V1
equivalent. = where V1 = p.d. across R1 and V2 = p.d. across R2
R2 V2
 
From the above equation, we can see that the output p.d. Vout across R2 is a fraction of the input p.d. VE.

Worked Example 17E

What is the output voltage across the 20 Ω resistor in Figure 17.24?

10 Ω R1

6V

20 Ω R2 Vout

Figure 17.24

Solution
Given: VE = 6 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω
æ R2 ö æ 20 ö
Vout = ç
R + R ÷ × VE = çè 20 + 20 ÷ø Ω × 6 V = 4 Ω
è 1 2 ø

Hence, the output voltage Vout = 4 V.

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How are potential dividers useful?
Potential dividers that are used to vary the output voltage from a source are called variable
potential dividers. They are used in electrical devices, such as stereo systems to vary the output
voltage, and thus control the volume of the sound.
S Variable potential dividers make use of variable resistors. Methods 1 and 2 show how two types of
variable potential dividers are used to obtain a variable output voltage Vout.

Method 1 Method 2

• This type of variable potential • This type of variable potential divider makes use of a potentiometer

 
(Figure 17.26). A potentiometer is a variable resistor that is connected at
 
divider makes use of a rheostat
R1 (Figure 17.25). A rheostat is a three terminals, shown as points A, B and C.
variable resistor that is connected at • Contact C is a sliding contact. Since resistance is proportional to length
(R ∝ I) for a fixed cross-sectional area, the position of C determines the ratio

 
two terminals.
• Since Vout =
( R2
R1 + R2) × VE, this means of resistance of AC to BC.
 
• When C is moved towards B, the resistance across AC (RAC) becomes larger,
that when the resistance R1 increases,
 
and that across BC (RBC) becomes smaller.

( )
the output voltage Vout decreases. RAC
• Vout = × VE where (RAC + RBC) is the total resistance of the resistor R, or
• To obtain a larger output voltage, the RAC + RBC
 
 
( )
resistance R1 should be decreased. AC
Vout = × VE where (AC + BC) is the length of the resistor R.
AC + BC
 
 
R1 B slider contact
C can be moved
E VE along AB
C
R2 Vout E VE R

Vout
Figure 17.25 A rheostat being used in a variable A
potential divider

Figure 17.26 A potentiometer used as a variable potential divider

Low res image

knob for
adjusting sliding
contact
sliding contact
and ring of
resistance wire
enclosed within
the body of the
potentiometer

Low res image

Figure 17.27 A potentiometer is used in a dimmer switch to control the amount of light.

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S
Worked Example 17F
Figure 17.28 shows a 6 V cell connected to a potentiometer
with a maximum resistance of 100 Ω. Calculate the output B
voltage Vout when the sliding contact is at
(a) A; (b) the midpoint between AB; (c) B.
C
     

Solution 6V 100 Ω
(a) When the contact is at A, the resistance across AC

is zero. Vout
Hence, the output voltage Vout = 0 V. A
(b) When the contact is midway between AB, RAC = 50 Ω

and RBC = 50 Ω. Figure 17.28

Hence, the output voltage is

( ) ( )
RAC 50
Vout = × VE = 50 + 50 Ω × 6 V = 3 Ω
RAC + RBC

(c) When the contact is at B, RAC = 100 Ω and RBC = 0 Ω.

Hence, output voltage Vout = input voltage = 6 V.

What components can be present in a variable

potential divider?
Input transducers are electronic devices that respond to changes in physical conditions, such as
temperature and light. They can be used in potential dividers to vary the output voltage. This enables
electronic systems to respond to changes in the physical conditions.
Input transducers are widely used in control systems, electrical instruments and electronic communications.
Examples include thermistors, LDRs, microphones, photocells, thermocouples and pressure sensors.
In this section, we will learn how the thermistor and the light-dependent resistor (LDR) (Figure 17.29)
work. These transducers work in potential dividers to control the output voltage according to
changes in physical conditions.
ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Find out about other actual device
environment-sensitive
resistors. Discuss with actual device
your class how these
resistors work. One circuit symbol circuit symbol
example could be a
pressure-sensitive resistor.

  Thermistor   Light-dependent resistor (LDR)

LINK Figure 17.29 Thermistors and LDRs are examples of input transducers

Recall that the

resistance of a metallic Thermistors
conductor increases with A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. An NTC thermistor has
temperature which you resistance that decreases as its temperature increases. The sensitivity of the thermistor to
have learnt in Chapter 16. temperature allows it to be used in the circuits of appliances that measure or control temperature.
NTC thermistors,
however, behave in the
opposite manner.

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S Figure 17.30 shows the use of an NTC thermistor RTH in a potential divider.
The output voltage is given by
Vout =
R
R + RTH(× VE ) RTH
The resistance RTH of the
NTC thermistor decreases
where RTH = resistance of the as its temperature
VE E

thermistor (in Ω); increases. Hence, the
output voltage Vout also
R = resistance of the Vout R increases with temperature.

fixed resistor (in Ω);
VE = voltage supplied by

electrical source (in V).
QUICK CHECK
Figure 17.30 NTC thermistor in a potential divider
Thermistors are sensitive
By using a voltmeter to measure Vout, we can derive the temperature. The output voltage Vout can also to visible light.
be used for other purposes, such as controlling switches that turn temperature alarms on or off. True or false?

Light-dependent resistors (LDRs)

A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases as the amount of light shining
on it increases, and vice versa. Figure 17.31 in Worked Example 17G shows the effect of an LDR in a
potential divider.

Worked Example 17G

Figure 17.31 shows an LDR, RLDR, in a potential divider with a fixed resistor R of resistance 10 kΩ. The
cell has an e.m.f. of 9 V. The resistance RLDR of the LDR in two rooms, A and B, is given in Table 17.7

RLDR
Table 17.7

Room Resistance of LDR, RLDR / kΩ

9V
A 100
B 5 R Vout
10 k

Figure 17.31
(a) One of the rooms had its lights switched off when the resistance of the LDR was measured.

Based on your understanding of LDRs, which room was it? Why?
(b) S Calculate the output voltage Vout across the fixed resistor R when the LDR is placed in

rooms A and B.
Solution
(a) Room A; the resistance of an LDR increases when the amount of light shining on it

decreases. Since the LDR has a higher resistance in room A, it is likely to be the room with its
lights switched off.
( )
R
(b) S The output voltage Vout across resistor R is given by Vout = R + R ×V

LDR

( ) ( )
R 10
In room A, RLDR = 100 kΩ. Then Vout = R + R × V = 10 + 100 kΩ × 9 V = 0.82 V

LDR
 
( ) ( )
R 10
In room B, RLDR = 5 kΩ. Then Vout = R + R × V = 10 + 5 kΩ × 9 V = 6.0 V

LDR
 
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 Chapter 17
Worked Example 17G shows how the output voltage of a potential divider varies with the amount
of light shining on the LDR. When the light intensity increases, the resistance RLDR decreases. This
results in a higher Vout. The sensitivity of the LDR to light intensity allows it to be used in devices that
measure light intensity (e.g. light meters) and in automatic streetlights (Figure 17.32).

Low res image

Figure 17.32 LDRs are used in streetlights. This enables the streetlights to automatically switch on when it is dark.

Let’s Practise 17.4

1 S Figure 17.33 shows a potential divider with a thermistor and a fixed
RTH

resistor R of resistance 100 Ω connected to a 6 V cell. The resistance
RTH of the thermistor is 500 Ω at 0°C and 50 Ω at 100°C. Calculate the
voltmeter readings at these two temperatures. 6V
R
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you V
100 Ω
LINK

TWB have learnt in this section.
Exercise 17C, pp. XX–XX Figure 17.33

17.5 Electrical Safety

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State the hazards of damaged insulation, overheating cables, damp conditions and excess

current from overloading of plugs, extension leads, single and multiple sockets when using a
mains supply.
• Know that a mains circuit consists of a live wire (line wire), a neutral wire and an earth wire.
•

Explain why a switch must be connected to the live wire for the circuit to be switched off safely.
•

Explain the use and operation of trip switches and fuses, and choose appropriate fuse ratings and

trip switch settings.
• Explain why the outer casing of an electrical appliance must be either non-conducting (double-

insulated) or earthed.
• State that a fuse without an earth wire protects the circuit and the cabling for a

double-insulated appliance.

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 Chapter 17
Electrical hazards
Electrical faults in appliances or circuits can cause fires and electric shocks. Electricity can be a hazard
when electrical insulation is damaged, cables are overheated, or conditions are damp.

Damaged insulation
Figure 17.34 describes how damaged insulation can be dangerous.
wires
• Wires that carry electricity
 
from the voltage supply
to electrical appliances
are wound together to insulation
cable
form cables.
• These cables are enclosed
 
by insulating materials
such as PVC or rubber. Low res image

• The insulating materials can become worn with

 
time and expose the conducting wires inside.
Figure 17.34 Damaged insulation on an electrical cable
• The exposed conducting wires can cause

 
electric shocks if touched.

Overheating of cables
Overheated cables can cause fires. Two common causes of overheated
cables are listed below:

1 Overloaded power sockets

LINK

When a power socket is overloaded with many appliances, an

unusually large current flows through the wires (Figure 17.35). Recall this relationship
between resistance and
2 Use of inappropriate wires
Low res image cross-sectional area

The resistance of a conducting wire is inversely proportional to its which you have learnt in

cross-sectional area. This means that a thin wire has a higher resistance Chapter 16.
and generates more heat, compared to a thick wire. Therefore, when
appliances are being wired, manufacturers must make sure that the
wires are of appropriate thickness. Generally, thin wires are used for
appliances that need less power, such as lamps, while thick wires are
used for appliances that need more power, such as kettles.
Figure 17.35 Overloading a power socket
Damp conditions can damage plugs and appliances.
Many electrical accidents occur in damp conditions.
For example, a hair dryer on a wet sink (Figure 17.36) can cause
electric shocks if the conducting wires are exposed or have
damaged insulation.
Water in contact with the uninsulated electrical wires provides
a conducting path for current. As the human body can only Low res image
withstand an alternating current of about 50 mA, a large
current will cause burns, uncoordinated contraction of the
heart muscles, or even death. Therefore, electrical appliances
should be kept in dry places and handled with dry hands.
Figure 17.36 A hair dryer connected to a socket is
left on a wet sink. This can be very dangerous.

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 Chapter 17
What does a typical mains circuit in the home look like?
Various safety features are installed in the circuits in our homes. Figure 17.37 shows a circuit in the home.

underground Electricity in most homes is supplied

supply cable by a cable containing two wires:
1 live (L) wire

 
neutral wire (N) live wire (L) • usually at 240 V

 
 
2 neutral (N) wire

 
main trip main trip switch • usually at 0 V

 
 
switch box

electricity 12345 • The lamps in a house are

 
meter kWh connected in parallel.
• This allows each lamp to

 
lighting circuit receive the mains voltage
of 240 V. Should any lamp
main switch fail, the other lamps will
5A be unaffected.
two-way switch

15 A
to immersion heater circuit
consumer 30 A
unit to air conditioner circuit

30 A ring power
main sockets
circuit

symbol
for a trip
switch earth wire (E)

The consumer unit trip switch • Water heaters and air conditioners tend • This circuit supplies electricity to all the wall
 
 
box contains to draw more current from the mains sockets in the house.
• a main switch; than other household appliances. • With the ring arrangement, the current can flow
 
 
• several trip switches, which • Therefore, the trip switches connected to any socket.
 
to their circuits have higher
 
lead to the common circuits • Besides the live and neutral wires running a
current ratings.
 
in the house. complete ring around the house, an earth (E)
ring circuit is added for safety reasons.
Figure 17.37 Typical home circuitry
WORD ALERT

Draw: use What features in the mains circuit keep us safe in the
event of a fault?
HELPFUL NOTES Safety features that can be found in our homes are listed below:
1 Trip switches 2 Fuses
Trip switches are also
 

 
known as circuit breakers. 3 Switches 4 Earthing
 

 
5 Three pin plugs 6 Double insulation
 

 
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 Chapter 17
Trip switches
Trip switches are safety devices that can switch off the electrical supply in a circuit when large
currents flow through them. Without trip switches, a surge of current can damage home appliances
or even start a fire.
Figure 17.38 shows the trip switches in a consumer unit. The trip switches are labelled with various
cut-off currents, such as 10 A and 16 A. Trip switches are connected to live wires. Should there be a WORD ALERT
current surge due to a fault, the trip switches will trip and cut off the current to the appliances. This
ensures that the appliances are isolated from the mains, and the users do not get electric shocks. Trip: shut down

Low res image

Figure 17.38 Trip switches in a consumer unit

Trip switches can be reset by switching them on again. This should be done only after the fault in the
circuit has been corrected.

Fuses
A fuse is a safety device added to an electrical circuit to prevent excessive current flow. It has the
same function as a trip switch. However, a fuse must be replaced after it blows, whereas a trip switch
can be reset after it trips.
A fuse consists of a short piece of wire (Figure 17.39). The wire is made thin so that when a large
current flows through it, it heats up and melts. When a fuse blows, a gap is created in the circuit. PHYSICS WATCH
The circuit is opened, and current stops flowing through the circuit.
Scan this page to watch
All fuses have a rated value. This value indicates the maximum current that can flow through a fuse a clip of an experiment
before it blows. In general, fuses with thicker wires can conduct larger currents before blowing, to study the working
and therefore have higher rated values. Typical household fuses are rated at 1 A, 2 A, 3 A, 5 A, 10 A principle of a fuse.
and 13 A.
For safety reasons, the following points should be considered when selecting and
installing fuses:
• The fuse of an electrical appliance should have

a rated value that is slightly higher than the

appliance the electrical appliance draws under
normal operating conditions. QUICK CHECK
• The fuse should be connected to the live wire. This
If a fuse blows, it is safe

is done so that the current to the appliance will be Low res image to just replace the fuse
cut off immediately after a large current melts the and carry on using the
fuse wire inside the cartridge. The appliance will device.
not be at a potential of 240 V.
True or false?
• The mains power supply must be switched off

before replacing a fuse.

Figure 17.39 A cartridge fuse contains a thin
metal wire, which melts when a large current flows
through it.

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 Chapter 17

Worked Example 17H

HELPFUL NOTES
A hot water heater is rated at 2880 W, 240 V. Calculate the operating
Water heaters draw current, and suggest a suitable rating for a fuse to protect the heater
more current than most from overheating.
appliances and therefore
consume more power. Solution Low res image
Save electricity by only Given: Power P of heater = 2880 W
using water heater on
cold days. Voltage V = 240 V
Let I = operating current.
P 2880 W
Using P = VI, I = = = 12 A
V 240 V
A suitable fuse will have a fuse rating that is slightly higher than the Figure 17.40 Water heater
operating current of the water heater. Thus, a 13 A fuse will be suitable.

Worked Example 17I

The following appliances are operating in a kitchen circuit:
• 50 W fruit blender

• 800 W microwave oven

• 400 W refrigerator

• 1.5 kW electric kettle

Electricity is supplied to the kitchen at 240 V. The kitchen circuit is Low res image
protected by a trip switch with a rating of 20 A.
(a) What is the current flowing through the trip switch when all the

appliances are operating at the same time?
(b) Does the trip switch trip?

Solution
(a) Since all the appliances are operating at the same time, the

total power P = 50 W + 400 W + 800 W + 1500 W = 2750 W
P 2750 W
Using P = VI, I = = = 11.5 A
V 240 V

(b) As the current is lower than the rating of the trip switch,

the trip switch does not trip, and all the appliances can
operate safely.

Low res image

Low res image

Low res image

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 Chapter 17
Switches
Switches are designed to break or complete an electrical circuit. They should be fitted to the live
wire of the appliance.
For example, if an electrical fault causes the metal casing of an appliance to be at high voltage,
a switch on the live wire can disconnect the voltage supplied to the metal casing. Figures 17.42 and
17.42 show how a switch fitted to the neutral wire does not prevent electric shocks, while a switch
fitted to the live wire does.

An electrical fault results As the switch is fitted to the

in the live wire touching neutral wire, the metal casing If a person touches the
the metal casing. is still connected to the live metal casing, a large current
wire when the switch is flows through the person
open. The metal casing is at to the earth — the person
high voltage (240 V). gets an electric shock.

1
240 V
live wire (on) fuse
to the mains 3

neutral wire
switch open heater
Figure 17.42 Incorrect position for a switch — the switch should not be fitted to the neutral wire

✓ As the switch is fitted to the live wire, the

metal casing is disconnected from the live
wire when the switch is open. The metal
No current flows through
the person touching
the casing.
casing is at low voltage (almost 0 V).
1

switch open

240 V
live wire (off ) fuse
to the mains 2

neutral wire
heater
Figure 17.43 Correct position for a switch — the switch should be fitted to the live wire

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 Chapter 17
Earthing
There are usually three wires in a home circuit — the live (L) wire, the neutral (N) wire and the
earth (E) wire (Figure 17.44).

The live wire (brown) is connected to a high voltage

and delivers current to the appliance. This is the wire
to which trip switches, fuses and switches are fitted.

The neutral wire (blue) completes the circuit

by providing a return path to the supply for
the current. It is usually at 0 V.

The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire.

It is usually connected to the metal casing of appliances.

Figure 17.44 The three wires in a home circuit

Figures 17.45 and 17.46 show how earthing prevents electric shocks when an electrical fault is present.

Without eathing 2 The metal casing is at

high voltage due to
the electrical fault.
1
An electrical fault results 3 If a person touches the
in the live wire touching
metal casing, a large
the metal casing. 2 3 current flows through the
washing person — the person gets
switch machine an electric shock.
live wire (on) closed

to mains large current 1

supply motor

neutral wire position of live wire

before electrical fault
Figure 17.45 The absence of earthing can cause electric shocks.

With earthing 2
The large current flows to the ground
1
through the earth wire, which has a much The large current flows
lower resistance than the person. Hence, the from the live wire. This
person does not suffer an electric shock. through the metal casing,
An electrical fault results 3 to the earth wire. This
in the live wire touching creates a short circuit. The
the metal casing. sudden surge in current
exceeds the rated value
of the fuse. This causes
the fuse to blow and the
switch circuit is opened. The
live wire (on) closed electricity supply to the
to mains 3
appliance is cut off.
supply 1 motor

neutral wire
large current 2
earth
Figure 17.46 Earthing prevents electric shocks.
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 Chapter 17
Three-pin plugs
A fused plug connects an electrical appliance to the mains supply via the power socket. The fused
plug commonly used in some countries is the three-pin plug (Figures 17.47).
live (L) wire
(brown)
earth (E) wire
(green and yellow)

Low res image cartridge fuse

neutral (N) wire Low res image
(blue)

cord grip

Figure 17.47 Inside parts of a three-pin plug

The fused plug is also known as a safety plug. The cartridge fuse inside the plug protects the appliance
when there is an electrical fault. If excessive current flows in the appliance, the fuse blows. This breaks
the circuit and isolates the appliance with the fault so that overheating does not damage it.

Double insulation
Some household appliances use two-pin plugs instead double insulation
of three-pin plugs. For such appliances, there is no earth symbol
wire. These appliances use double insulation to protect
users from electric shocks. Figure 17.48 shows such an
appliance and the double insulation symbol.
Double insulation is a safety feature that can replace
the earth wire. Appliances that have double insulation
usually use a two-pin plug. This is because only the live
and neutral wires are required.
Double insulation provides two levels of insulation:
1 The electric cables are insulated from the internal
 

components of the appliance.

2 The internal components are insulated from the
 

external casing.
Appliances with double insulation typically have
non-metallic casings, such as plastic. Figure 17.48 Double-insulated appliances carry the double insulation symbol.

Let’s Practise 17.5

1 State three safety precautions that someone operating electrical devices should take to
avoid an electric shock
2 State the function of the following safety features, and how they should be connected in
a circuit: TWB LINK
(a) Trip switch
       (b) Fuse
       (c) Earth wire
 

Exercise 17D–17E,
3 Explain why do some appliances use a three-pin plug, while others use a two-pin plug?
pp. XX–XX

4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 17F Let’s Reflect,
this section. p. X

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 Chapter 17

Let’s Map It
Cells, batteries, power supplies,
Circuit generators, potential dividers, switches,
diagrams resistors (fixed and variable), heaters,
NTC thermistors, light-dependent
resistors (LDRs), lamps, motors,
ammeters, voltmeters, magnetising coils,
examples transformers, fuses and relays, diodes,
can be represented by
light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

includes
ELECTRICAL
Circuit
components

CIRCUITS Series circuits

E • Current:
can cause
examples I1 I3 I1 = I2 = I3
• Potential
difference:
Electrical hazards VE
VE = V1 + V2
• Damaged insulation • Combined
• Overheating cables resistance:
R1 R2
• Damp conditions R = R1 + R2
I2
• Excess current from overloading V1 V2

can be avoided by using Parallel circuits

E • Current:
Safety features I = I1 + I2
I I • Potential
• Trip switches
VE difference:
• Fuses I1
R1 VE = V1 = V2
• Switches
• Combined
• Earthing V1 resistance:
• Three-pin plugs I2 1 1 1
R2 = +
• Double insulation R R1 R2
V2

Potential divider circuit with Variable potential divider circuit Variable potential divider
fixed resistors with rheostat circuit with potentiometer
• Fixed R1 and fixed R2 • Variable R1 and fixed R2 • Variable R1 and variable R2

B
R1 R1
sliding
contact
E VE E VE C
E R
VE

R2 Vout R2 Vout
Vout
A

R2 R1 V1 RAC
Vout = × VE In general: = Vout = × VE
R1 + R2 R2 V2 RAB

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 Chapter 17

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions What is the resistance of resistor R2?

1 Figure 17.49 shows three identical resistors. A  2 Ω B  3 Ω

6V
C  6 Ω D  9 Ω

4 S Which of the following combinations of resistors has

the lowest resistance?
X
A B
Y 2Ω
2Ω 3Ω 4Ω
3Ω
Figure 17.49 4Ω

What is the voltage reading of a voltmeter connected C D
2Ω 2Ω

across XY?
4Ω
A  2 V B  3 V 3Ω


C  4 V D  6 V 1Ω



2 In Figure 17.50, the reading on ammeter A2 is 1 A and 5 An appliance has a current of 7 A. Which fuse should be

that on ammeter A4 is 3 A. What are the readings on

used to protect the appliance in the event of a fault?
ammeters A1 and A3?
A  1 A B  3 A


4Ω C  5 A D  13 A


6 Which safety precaution reduces the risk of an electrical
A1 A4

A2 fire if a device becomes faulty?
6Ω
A  Earth wire B  Trip switch


C  Insulation D  Plug
A3 3Ω


For questions 7 and 8, refer to Figure 17.53. In the circuit

Figure 17.50 shown, the resistors have equal resistance R.

A1 reading/A A3 reading/A E

A 1.5 0.5

B 2 1
I
C 3 1 I2 R I4

D 3 2 R

3 S In Figure 17.51, resistor R1 is connected to an e.m.f. P I1 Q

source. The ammeter reading is 2 A and the voltmeter R
reading is 6 V. In Figure 17.52, a new resistor R2 is now I3
connected in parallel with resistor R1. The ammeter and
voltmeter readings are now 3 A and 6 V respectively. Figure 17.53
7 S The combined resistance between PQ is

1 3
A   R. B   R.
3 2

A
C  2R. D  3R.

A
V 8 What can be deduced about I, I1, I2, I3 and I4?

A  I = I1 = I4 = I2 + I3
V R1 B  I = I1 = I2 = I3 + I4
C  I > I1 > I4 and I2 = I1
R1 R2 D  I > I1 > I4 and I4 = I2 + I3
Figure 17.51 Figure 17.52

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 Chapter 17

Let’s Review
9 S In the potential divider in Figure 17.54, the variable power supply

resistor R1 has a maximum resistance of 4 Ω . What are
the minimum and maximum possible values of Vout?

R1
Vout
(0 Ω to 4 Ω)
V
12 V
R2 Figure 17.56

6Ω
A  Decreases
B  Decreases and then increases
Figure 17.54 C  Increases
Minimum Vout/V Maximum Vout/V D  Stays the same
A 0 4.8 Section B: Short-answer and Structured
B 0 6 Questions
C 2 4.8 1 S For the circuit in Figure 17.57, calculate the

(a)  combined resistance across AB;
D 6 12
(b)  combined resistance across CD;

10 S The circuit in Figure 17.55 is used to detect the level (c)  combined resistance of the whole circuit;

of sunlight. The resistance of the LDR is 1 MΩ in the (d)  current flowing through the 6 Ω resistor.
dark and 100 Ω in bright sunlight. What is the voltmeter
reading in dark and bright conditions? 2Ω 3Ω
C D
A B
4Ω 6Ω
12 V

12 V Figure 17.57
500 k Ω V 2 A 6 V cell is connected to three resistors in the circuit

shown in Figure 17.58. The current flowing through the
source is 0.8 A. Calculate the
Figure 17.55 (a)  current I1;

(b)  current I2;

Voltmeter reading in Voltmeter reading in

the dark/V bright sunlight/V (c)  value of the resistance of resistor R.

A 4 0 6V
B 4 12

C 8 0
0.8 A
D 8 4
I2

11 Figure 17.56 shows a thermistor connected in a potential X 6Ω R Z
Y

divider circuit at room temperature. The resistance
of this thermistor decreases with an increase in its
temperature. Which of the following happens to the I1
voltmeter reading when the thermistor is heated? 30 Ω

Figure 17.58

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 Chapter 17

3 (a) Using four identical resistors, design a circuit in (c) State the location of the fault in the circuit, and




which the p.d. across suggest a possible cause of the fault.
(i) each resistor is one-fourth of the e.m.f.; (d) If the current flowing through R4 is 0.50 A, and




(ii) each resistor is the same as the e.m.f.; the current flowing through R7 is one-fourth of
that flowing through R5 and R6, calculate the


(iii) each resistor is half of the e.m.f.;
resistances of


(iv) one resistor is the same as the e.m.f., and the
(i) R7; (ii) R5; (iii) R6.


p.d. across each of the other three resistors is

 

 
less than the e.m.f. (e) Calculate the combined resistance across EF.

(b) Compare the advantages and disadvantages of 5 S Variable resistors are used in circuits to produce

variable output voltages.


connecting lamps in series and in parallel. Explain
your answer. (a) Using an e.m.f. of 9 V, a variable resistor with a


4 The electrical wiring in a house is complex. When an range of 0 Ω to 12 Ω, and a fixed resistor of 24 Ω,
design a circuit that can produce a variable output

electrical failure occurs, it is hard to determine the cause
of the failure. To determine the cause, an electrician uses voltage of 0 V to 3 V.
a voltmeter to determine the p.d. across two points in a (b) Perform calculations to show that your design


circuit. Table 17.8 shows the readings the electrician took produces the desired voltage output.
for the circuit shown in Figure 17.59. 6 Figure 17.60 shows a circuit in which lamps 1 and 2

240 V R1 (of resistances R1 and R2) are connected in series.
power Figure 17.61 shows the same circuit after lamps 1
A B
F source and 2 are replaced by a single lamp 3 of equivalent
C resistance R.
R6
R7 G R3 R2
R5 lamp 1 lamp 2 lamp 3
D
R4 I I I I
V1 V2 V
E
Figure 17.59 Figure 17.60 Figure 17.61

Table 17.8 According to the principle of conservation of energy,

power power power


Points P.d. across the points
dissipated = dissipated + dissipated





A and B 40 V
by lamp 3 by lamp 1 by lamp 2



B and C 0V (a) Given that power P dissipated by a lamp is
P = IV,


C and D 0V
D and E 100 V where I = current flowing through the lamp,
V = p.d. across the lamp,
E and F 50 V
use the principle of conservation of energy to
E and G 30 V derive the formula for the combined resistance
G and F 20 V R of lamps 1 and 2.
(b) Using a similar method as in (a), derive the

(a) Explain why there is no p.d. across BC.


formula for the combined resistance of lamps


(b) If the current flowing through R4 is 0.50 A, 1 and 2 when they are arranged in parallel.


determine the resistances of
(i) R4; (ii) R1.

 

 
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 CHAPTER
Electromagnetic
18 Effects

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about the uses of

electromagnetic effects.

QUESTIONS
Farms in the rural areas of Japan are facing a problem. They are left in • Look at the photo. What is the drone
the hands of aging farmers who may no longer have the strength to

used for?
do the work. Many of the young people prefer to find jobs in the city. • What does d.c. stand for?

This aging of the agricultural industry is also happening in countries • Which parts of the drones make use of

such as Thailand. d.c. motors?
• Why do the motors have permanent
One answer to the problem is to use drones. Drones are unmanned

magnets?
aerial vehicles that can operate using small d.c. motors. The motors
have permanent magnets that are made of alloys. These magnets need
to be small and light so that the motors can provide enough thrust for
a lift off.
Perhaps, using drone technology in agriculture could lure the young
people back to the rural farms.

300

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 Chapter 18

18.1 Electromagnetic Induction

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that a conductor moving across a magnetic field or a changing magnetic field linking with a

conductor can induce an e.m.f. in the conductor.
• Describe an experiment to demonstrate electromagnetic induction.
•

State the factors affecting the magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
•

S Know that the direction of an induced e.m.f. opposes the change causing it.
•

S State and use the relative directions of force, field and induced current.

In chapter 15, you have learnt that a current flowing through a conductor produces a magnetic
field around it. In 1831, an English scientist named Michael Faraday discovered that the converse LINK
is true — a changing magnetic field produces an induced current. This effect is known as
electromagnetic induction. Recall the magnetic field
pattern around a current-
Electromagnetic induction is the process through which an induced e.m.f. is produced in a carrying conductor.
conductor due to a changing magnetic field.
Refer to Chapter 15.

What did Faraday discover?

Figure 18.1 shows the apparatus that Faraday solenoid (a cylindrical coil of wire)
used to test whether a moving magnet could
induce a current. N S
permanent
These were Faraday’s observations:
magnet
• When a magnet was inserted into a
galvanometer

solenoid, the galvanometer needle was
deflected in one direction.
• When the magnet was withdrawn from

the solenoid, the galvanometer needle was Figure 18.1 Faraday’s solenoid experimentremains constant. WORD ALERT
deflected in the other direction.
• When the magnet was stationary in the solenoid, the galvanometer needle was not deflected. Deflected: caused

From his observations, Faraday concluded that a relative movement between the solenoid and the to move
magnet induced an electromotive force (e.m.f.) in the circuit. The induced e.m.f. drove an induced Flux: the rate of flow
current which was then detected by the galvanometer. of something across an
area; magnetic flux is a
Faraday also found that the magnitude of this induced e.m.f. could be increased by increasing the measure of the quantity
1 number of turns in the solenoid; of magnetic field

surrounding a magnetic
2 strength of the magnet;
object.

3 speed at which the magnet moves with respect to the solenoid.

The laws of electromagnetic induction
There are two laws of electromagnetic induction.
PHYSICS WATCH
Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a
circuit is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit. Scan this page to
explore a simulation
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f., and hence the induced current in a closed on electromagnetic
circuit, is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change producing it. induction.
We can carry out Let’s Investigate 18A to demonstrate the laws of electromagnetic induction.

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Let’s Investigate 18A

Objective
To demonstrate the laws of electromagnetic induction

Apparatus
Bar magnet, solenoid of wire, connecting wires, centre-zero galvanometer or other
sensitive ammeter

Procedure
1 Connect the ends of a solenoid to a centre-zero galvanometer

sensitive centre-zero galvanometer with
connecting wires.
2 Move the S pole of a permanent bar magnet

into the solenoid, and note any deflection on
the galvanometer (Figure 18.2).
3 Once the bar magnet is inside the solenoid, connecting

hold it stationary and note any deflection on wires
the galvanometer. solenoid

4 Next, move the S pole of the magnet out tabletop bar magnet

of the solenoid, and note any deflection on
Figure 18.2
the galvanometer.
5 Repeat steps 2 to 4, using the N pole of the same bar magnet.

LINK PWB
Observation and discussion
Practical 18A, pp. XX–XX Tables 18.1 and 18.2 summarise the observations and discussion of this investigation.

Table 18.1 S pole of bar magnet moved into and out of the solenoid

Observation Discussion
(a) S pole of magnet moved towards the solenoid • When the S pole of the bar magnet was moved towards

the solenoid, the galvanometer needle was deflected
momentarily to one side.
S N
• This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil and a

current flowed through the galvanometer.
• The induced current produced an S pole at the end

of the solenoid to repel the S pole of the bar magnet
A − + B moving towards it.
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily
 
to one side.
(b) S pole of magnet held stationary in the solenoid • No current was induced in the circuit.

S N

A − + B
The galvanometer needle was not deflected.
 
(c) S pole of magnet drawn out of the solenoid • When the S pole of the bar magnet was moved away

from the solenoid, the galvanometer needle was
deflected momentarily to the other side.
S N • This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil and a

current flowed through the galvanometer.
• The induced current produced an N pole at the end

of the solenoid to attract the S pole of the barmagnet
A − + B moving away from it.
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily
 
to the other side.

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Table 18.2 N pole of bar magnet moved into and out of the solenoid

Observation Discussion
ENRICHMENT
(a) N pole of magnet moved towards the solenoid • When the N pole of the bar magnet was moved towards INFO

the solenoid, the galvanometer needle was deflected
momentarily to one side. Conservation of Energy
N S • This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil and a and Lenz’s Law

current flowed through the galvanometer. There is a link between
• The induced current produced an N pole at the end the conservation of

of the solenoid to repel the N pole of the bar magnet energy we have seen
A − + B moving towards it. in other chapters and
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily
Lenz’s Law. This is used in
 
to one side.
electromagnetic braking.
(b) N pole of magnet held stationary in the solenoid • No current was induced in the circuit.
A current is induced in a


spinning aluminium disc
N S
because of the presence
of a magnetic field.
The induced current
produces a force on the
A − + B disc. This force will either
The galvanometer needle was not deflected. accelerate or decelerate
 
(c) N pole of magnet drawn out of the solenoid • When the N pole of the bar magnet was moved away the disc, depending

from the solenoid, the galvanometer needle was on the direction of the
deflected momentarily to the other side. current. In one direction
N S
• This shows that an e.m.f. was induced in the coil and a the disc would continue

current flowed through the galvanometer. to accelerate and would
• The induced current produced an S pole at the end of never slow down —

the solenoid to attract the N pole of the bar magnet impossible. Hence, the
A − + B moving away from it. current must be in the
The galvanometer needle was deflected momentarily
direction predicted by
 
to the other side.
Fleming’s right-hand rule
(see page 335).

Worked Example 18A aluminium disc

I
In Figure 18.4, a short bar magnet passes through a long solenoid. A galvanometer is connected
across the solenoid.
(a) Sketch a graph of the galvanometer needle deflection θ against time t, starting from the Figure 18.3

instant shown in Figure 18.4 to the time the magnet emerges from the solenoid.
(b) Using the principles of electromagnetic induction, explain the shape of the graph you

sketched in (a).

N S

Figure 18.4

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 Chapter 18
Solution
(a) Figure 18.5 shows the graph of galvanometer needle deflection θ against time t.

2
0 t

Figure 18.5

(b) At 1:

• At the instant when the bar magnet travels past the midlength point of the solenoid,

there is no change in the magnetic flux in the solenoid.
• There is no induced e.m.f., and hence no induced current to cause the galvanometer

needle to be deflected.
At 2:

• As the N pole of the bar magnet enters the solenoid, there is a change in the number of

magnetic field lines linking the solenoid (i.e. magnetic flux in the solenoid changes).
• By Faraday’s Law, the change of the magnetic flux in the solenoid results in an induced

e.m.f. in the circuit. This e.m.f. drives an induced current through the closed circuit.
The induced current produces a galvanometer needle deflection θ.
• By Lenz’s Law, the induced current creates an N pole at the right end of the solenoid to oppose

the incoming N pole. Thus, the galvanometer needle is deflected momentarily to one side.
At 3:

• As the S pole of the bar magnet exits the solenoid, there is again a change in the

magnetic flux in the solenoid.
• By Faraday’s Law, this produces an induced e.m.f. and hence an induced current.

• By Lenz’s Law, the induced current creates an N pole at the left end of the solenoid to

oppose the outgoing S pole. Thus, the galvanometer needle is deflected momentarily to
the other side.

Let’s Practise 18.1

1 A bar magnet is pushed towards one end of a solenoid, as shown in Figure 18.6.

(a) Explain what happens to the galvanometer needle.


(b) Describe how you would increase the angle of deflection of the galvanometer needle.


(c) Explain which pole is induced at end A of the solenoid.


N S
LINK TWB A


Figure 18.6

Exercise 18A,
2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
pp. XX–XX

this section.

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 Chapter 18

18.2 The A.c. Generator

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe a simple form of a.c. generator and the use of slip rings and brushes. HELPFUL NOTES
•

Sketch and interpret graphs of e.m.f. against time for simple a.c. generators and relate the position
An e.m.f. is induced in a

of the generator coil to the peaks, troughs and zeros of the e.m.f.
conductor only when there
is a change in magnetic
flux. If the conductor is at
One important use of electromagnetic induction is in the generation of electricity. The alternating rest in a constant magnetic
current (a.c.) generator uses alternating current to transform mechanical energy into field or moving in the same
electrical energy. direction as the magnetic
field lines are pointing, no
How can we generate a.c. from motion? e.m.f. is induced.

Figure 18.7 shows how a simple a.c. generator works. Note that the direction of the induced current
flowing in the coil can be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule.

1 A rectangular coil of wire 2 By turning the handle, the coil 3 As the coil rotates in the magnetic field, the
ABCD (the armature) is rotates between the poles of change in magnetic flux creates an induced
mounted on an axle. two permanent magnets. e.m.f., and hence an induced current in the coil.

N D C S N C S
4 The slip rings are always D
in contact with the carbon
brushes as the axle rotates. A B B A
The slip rings ensure that the
slip rings slip rings
induced current in the coil
is transferred to the external axle axle
circuit. carbon brush electrical load carbon brush electrical load

5 The induced current powers the electrical load connected

Figure 18.7 Simple a.c. generator to the external circuit, so the lamp lights up.

Fleming’s right-hand rule

The British physicist John Ambrose Fleming came out with a simple hand rule to find the direction of
induced current when a conductor moves in a magnetic field (Figure 18.8).

1 Point your thumb, forefinger and second finger at right

angles to one another using your right hand.

force (thumb)
2 Point your forefinger in the direction of the magnetic
magnetic field field (N-to-S direction) and your second finger in the
(forefinger) direction of the induced current.

induced current
(second finger) 3 Your thumb then gives the direction of the motion of the
wire, i.e., the direction of the force. In fact, given any two
Figure 18.8 Fleming’s right-hand rule of the directions, we can deduce the remaining one.

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What does the voltage-time graph look like for an
a.c. generator?
At different positions, the rate at which the coil cuts across the magnetic field differs. Figure 18.9
shows how the magnitude of the output voltage (induced e.m.f.) changes as the coil rotates.
Note that the alternating voltage in turn produces an alternating current (hence the name
alternating current generator).
The horizontal and vertical red arrows in the diagram shows the direction of the forces produced.
These forces cause the coil to turn.

1 2 3 4 5

D C D C D C D C
C D

A B
N A B B A A B
S
B A
E.m.f./V
E0 1 5

0 2 4 Time/s
T T
2
–E0 3
one revolution

1 When the plane of the coil is parallel 3 After the coil rotates half a cycle, it is parallel
to the magnetic field, the arms AD and to the magnetic field again. The magnitude of
BC cut across the magnetic field lines the induced e.m.f. is maximum. Note that since
at the greatest rate. Since the rate of the arms AD and CB are moving in directions
change of magnetic flux is maximum, opposite to those in step 1, the direction of the
the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. induced e.m.f. is opposite to that in step 1.
is maximum.

4 The arms AD and BC of the coil do not cut across

the magnetic field lines. The magnitude of the
2 When the plane of the coil is induced e.m.f. is zero.
perpendicular to the magnetic field,
the arms AD and BC do not cut across
the magnetic field lines. Since the rate
QUICK CHECK of change of the magnetic flux is zero, 5 The coil has rotated one complete cycle. It is
the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. parallel to the magnetic field again, and hence
Look at the coil in is zero. the maximum induced e.m.f. is produced.
step 1 of Figure 18.9.
The induced current is
flowing from D to A. Figure 18.9 The induced e.m.f. varies with the position of the coil.

True or false? We can increase the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. of an a.c. generator by
1 increasing the number of turns in the coil (Figure 18.10);

2 using stronger permanent magnets;

3 increasing the frequency of rotation of the coil (Figure 18.11);

4 winding the coil around a soft iron core to strengthen the magnetic flux linking the coil.

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E.m.f./V E.m.f./V

final output voltage final output voltage

2E0 2E0

E0 E0
0 Time/s 0
T T T Time/s
–E0 T
–E0 2 2
–2E0 –2E0
initial output voltage initial output voltage
Figure 18.10 Doubling the number of turns of the coil Figure 18.11 Doubling the frequency f doubles the
doubles the maximum output voltage maximum output voltage.

Worked Example 18B

(a) Explain why rotating a coil between two magnets generates an induced e.m.f.

(b) On the same axes, sketch the graphs of induced e.m.f. against time for a time interval of 0.6 s

for the coil when it rotates
• 5.0 times per second, and the induced e.m.f. generated has a maximum value of 40 mV;

• 2.5 times per second. Note that the maximum value of the e.m.f. changes when the

frequency of rotation changes.
Assume that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field at t = 0 s.

Solution
(a) When the coil rotates, it cuts across the magnetic field lines, and there is a change in the

magnetic flux in the coil. By Faraday’s Law, this change induces an e.m.f. in the coil.
1 1
(b) Period T1 = = = 0.2 s HELPFUL NOTES
f1 5.0 Hz

1 1 1 Hz means 1 cycle
Period T2 = = = 0.4 s
f2 2.5 Hz

per second.
The maximum value of the induced e.m.f. (i.e. the amplitude of the graph) is halved when 1 1
So =

the frequency of rotation is halved (Figure 18.12). 5.0 Hz 1
5.0
Induced e.m f. E/mV s
curve for f1 = 5.0 Hz = 0.2 s
curve for f2 = 2.5 Hz
40
20
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 Time t/s
–20

–40

Figure 18.12

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The practical design of an a.c. generator
In a simple a.c. generator, it is the coil that rotates between fixed magnets. However, we can also
have an a.c. generator in which magnets rotate with respect to fixed coils. This type of a.c. generator
is called a fixed coil generator. An example of a fixed coil generator is the bicycle dynamo
(Figure 18.13).

rotating wheel in
1 contact with the side
A magnet is attached to
of a bicycle wheel
an axle and a wheel. As
the wheel rotates, the
magnet rotates too.

2 The magnetic field axle

rotates with respect to a
fixed coil. This changes
the magnetic flux in the
coil. An induced e.m.f. 1 rotating
is generated, and this in
magnet
turn creates an induced
current. S N soft iron
core
2
fixed
3 The induced current is coil
channelled directly to the
external circuit through 3 Figure 18.13 A bicycle dynamo is a small a.c.
generator that uses the fixed coil design. As the
the output terminals. Slip cyclist pedals, the dynamo generates electricity
rings and carbon brushes that powers the headlamp.
are not needed. output terminals

In practical applications, a fixed coil a.c. generator is favoured for the following reasons:
1 It does not require carbon brushes, which wear out easily and need to be replaced frequently.

2 It is less likely to break down from overheating. This is because it does not use slip rings and

carbon brushes. An eroded connection between slip rings and carbon brushes has increased
resistance, which can generate large quantities of heat.
3 It is more compact.

Let’s Practise 18.2

1
Name the components of an a.c. generator that allow the transfer of the induced alternating
current to an external circuit.
2
Sketch a graph of output voltage against time of an a.c. generator for two complete
LINK TWB rotations of the coil.
Exercise 18B, 3
Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in
pp. XX–XX this section.

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 Chapter 18

18.3 Magnetic Effect of a Current

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the pattern and direction of the magnetic field due to currents in straight wires and in solenoids.
•

Describe an experiment to identify the pattern of the magnetic field (including direction) due to

currents in straight wires and in solenoids.
• Describe how the magnetic effect of a current is used in relays and loudspeakers and give examples

of their application.
• S State the qualitative variation of the strength of the magnetic field around straight wires

and solenoids.
• S Describe the effect on the magnetic field around straight wires and solenoids of changing the

magnitude and direction of the current.

How did Oersted discover electromagnetism?

In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish professor, discovered the magnetic effect of an electric
current by accident. During a class demonstration, he noticed that when a current was flowing
through a wire, it caused the needle of a compass nearby to be deflected. This indicated
the presence of a magnetic field. Oersted’s observation eventually led to the discovery of
electromagnetism — the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
Figure 18.14 shows the result of Oersted’s experiment. Note that wire XY was placed in the north–
south direction. Oersted’s experiment showed that a magnetic field was present when a current
flowed through wire XY.
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.

Y Y

compass B compass B
(below wire) (below wire)
N
R R

compass A compass A
(above wire) (above wire)

X X

No current flowed through XY. Current flowed through XY. The needle of
The needles of both compasses compass A (placed above the wire) pointed
pointed to the north. to the east. The needle of compass B (placed
below the wire) pointed to the west.

(a) Open circuit (b) Closed circuit

Figure 18.14 The positions of the needles of compasses A and B in Oersted’s experiment

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What are the shapes and directions of magnetic
field lines?
Magnetic field pattern around a straight wire
Let’s Investigate 18B describes an experiment that can be conducted to plot the magnetic field
pattern around a straight current-carrying wire.

Let’s Investigate 18B

Objective
To plot magnetic field lines around a straight current-carrying wire with a compass

Apparatus
Straight wire, plotting compass, cardboard, pencil, e.m.f. source

Procedure
current I
1 Thread a wire through a small hole in a

sheet of cardboard. The wire should be
cardboard
perpendicular to the cardboard sheet
(Figure 18.15). Connect the wire to an
e.m.f. source such that the current flows
up the wire. straight wire
2 Place a compass on the
Figure 18.15 A wire threaded through a

cardboard sheet. cardboard sheet
3 On the cardboard sheet, mark the
current I

positions of the S and N ends of the
compass needle with pencil dots X and Y
plotting X
Y respectively.
compass
cardboard
4 Move the compass so that the S end of Z

the needle is now at Y (Figure 18.16).
5 Mark the new position of the N end of straight wire

the needle with a third dot Z.
6 Repeat steps 2 to 5, placing the compass Figure 18.16 The positions of the S and N ends of
the compass needle are marked with pencil dots.

at different distance from the wire until
several field lines are drawn.
current I
Observation and discussion magnetic
• The magnetic field plot obtained field line

consisted of concentric circles plotting compass
(Figure 18.17).
• The circles nearer the wire were closer

to one another. This implies that the straight wire
magnetic field was stronger at regions
nearer the wire.
Figure 18.17 The magnetic field pattern of a
straight wire

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We can determine the direction of the magnetic field around the wire using the right-hand grip
rule (Figure 18.18).

PHYSICS WATCH
2 The direction in which
current your fingers curl indicates Scan this page to explore
1 Grip the wire with your right whether the magnetic a simulation on magnetic
hand such that your thumb field is clockwise or field patterns.
points in the direction of anticlockwise.
current flow.

field

Figure 18.18 The right-hand grip rule

The factors that affect the direction and strength of a magnetic field around a current-carrying
straight wire are shown in Figures 18.19 and 18.20.

(a) Direction of current reversed

The direction of the represents current represents current
magnetic field of a flowing out of the flowing into the
plane of this page plane of this page
current-carrying wire
towards you away from you
is reversed when
the direction of the
current is reversed.

magnetic field is magnetic field is

anticlockwise clockwise
wire wire

Figure 18.19 When the direction of the current is reversed, the direction of the magnetic field is reversed.

(b) Magnitude of current increased

HELPFUL NOTES

When drawing the

magnetic field around a
straight current-carrying
wire, remember that the
magnetic field lines should
be further apart with
increasing distance from
the wire.

wire carrying current I1 wire carrying current I2

Figure 18.20 When the current is increased from I1 to I2, the strength of the magnetic field increases.

The strength of the magnetic field of a current-carrying wire increases when the current is increased. Note
that the strength of the magnetic field around the wire is not uniform. It depends on the distance
from the wire. The magnetic field is stronger closer to the wire. This is represented by drawing the
magnetic field lines closer together near the wire.

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Magnetic field pattern of a solenoid
We can do a similar experiment to the one in Let’s Investigate 18B using a solenoid.
HELPFUL NOTES
Figure 18.21 shows the magnetic field pattern of a solenoid.
You can use the right-
hand grip rule (Figure
18.22) to deduce which
end of a solenoid the
north pole is.
thumb points to N pole

I
I
fingers indicate
current direction
Figure 18.22
Figure 18.21 Diagram of the magnetic field lines of a solenoid
From the diagram, we observe the following:
• The magnetic field pattern of a solenoid resembles that of a bar magnet. Thus, the solenoid acts
QUICK CHECK

like a bar magnet. It has two poles and can be used as an electromagnet.
The right-hand end of • The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are closer together than the field lines outside.

the solenoid in Figure This means that the magnetic field inside the solenoid is stronger. The magnetic field inside the
18.21 is a North pole. solenoid can be taken to be uniform.
True or false? In addition, if a soft iron core is placed within the solenoid, it will concentrate the magnetic field lines
and increase the magnetic field strength of the solenoid.
The magnetic field strength in a solenoid can be increased by
• increasing the current flowing through the solenoid;

• increasing the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid;

• placing a soft iron core within the solenoid.

LINK PWB
What devices make use of electromagnetism?
Practical 18B,
pp. XX–XX
Relay
primary circuit A relay is a device that consists of two circuits
(Figure 18.22). The primary circuit, controlled by a
switch, is designed to work at a low, safe current. When
iron lever N S the primary circuit is complete, the electromagnet
is energised. The iron lever is attracted to the
electromagnet and in moving, it pushes the moveable
contact. This causes the moveable contact to touch the
fixed fixed contact, making the secondary circuit complete.
contact The secondary circuit could contain a very much
moveable contact
higher voltage supply and a high power device such
as a motor.
M motor The advantage of using a relay is that there is no
electrical connection between the user activating the
switch and the secondary circuit. The user can activate
the device in the secondary circuit remotely. This is
secondary circuit especially helpful if the device is somewhere that is
otherwise unsafe for the user or is a large distance away.
Photo of an electrical relay Diagram of a relay circuit
Figure 18.22 Can you identify some parts of a relay in the photo.

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Moving-coil loudspeaker
Figure 18.23 shows how electromagnetism is used in a loudspeaker.

5 The loudspeaker diaphragm

vibrates due to the alternating
attraction and repulsion between
the temporary and permanent
3 The coil of wire becomes a
magnets.
temporary magnet when current
If the frequency of the a.c. supply flows through the coil. Each time
is 200 Hz, then the coil will the current reverses direction,
vibrate at a frequency of 200 Hz. the poles of the temporary
magnet reverses and the force on
the coil will also reverse direction.
N

2 A strong permanent magnet

N S N
is used to provide a constant
static magnetic field.

4 The current is shown flowing 1 A moving coil is connected

counter-clockwise around the coil.
to a circuit that provides a.c.
Using Fleming’s left-hand rule (see
(alternating current). A pure
page 314), the force on the coil
wave a.c. supply will give a
will be outwards (towards you the
pure, single-toned note from
reader). When the current changes
a loudspeaker.
direction, the force on the coil will
be inwards, away from you.

Figure 18.23 Use of electromagnet in a moving-coil loudspeaker

The magnetic component in the loudspeaker is designed so that the magnetic field lines are always
at right angles to the current direction. This makes this design very much more efficient.

Let’s Practise 18.3

1 Figure 18.24 shows a current flowing in a long
wire

straight wire. In the diagram, draw the pattern
and direction of the magnetic field produced.
2 (a) Draw the magnetic field lines around a


current-carrying solenoid.
(b) Name three ways to increase the
current I

magnetic field strength of a solenoid.
3 Explain what would happen if the iron core

of the solenoid in a circuit breaker were Figure 18.24
TWB LINK
replaced with a steel one.
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 18C,

this section. pp. XX–XX

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18.4 Force on a Current-carrying


Conductor
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe an experiment to show that a force acts on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field.
•
S Recall and use the relative directions of force, magnetic field and current.
•

S Determine the direction of the force on beams of charged particles in a magnetic field.

Do current-carrying conductors affect each other?
In the previous section, you have learnt that a current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field
around it. What happens if the current-carrying conductor is placed in another magnetic field?
Let’s Investigate 18C describes an experiment to demonstrate the motor effect.

Let’s Investigate 18B

Objective
To demonstrate that a force acts on a current-
–
carrying conductor when it is placed in a
9 V dry cell D
magnetic field (i.e. the motor effect) +

Apparatus A
strong magnet
Stiff wire, strong permanent U-shaped magnet,
I
9 V dry cell, switch, connecting wires C
S
Procedure C B
1 Bend a stiff wire into the shape of a swing

ABCD (Figure 18.25). B
2 Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 18.25. N

The wire swing is connected to a dry cell and a
switch by copper wires. Figure 18.25 A current-carrying wire swing
3 Close the switch. Observe the direction in placed in a magnetic field

which the wire swings.
4 Reverse the polarity of the dry cell to reverse the direction of the current and repeat step 3.

In which direction does the swing move now?
5 Invert the magnet so that the N pole is now above the wire section BC. Repeat step 3.

Observation
1 When current flowed in the direction A to B to C to D, the wire swung outwards, away from

the magnet.
2 When the direction of the current was reversed, the wire swung in the opposite direction, i.e.,

it swung inwards, towards the magnet.
LINK PWB 3 When the magnetic field was reversed, the wire swung outwards again.

Practical 18C, In all three scenarios, we observe that the wire moved when current flowed through it.
pp. XX–XX This shows that a force acts on a current-carrying wire when it is placed in a magnetic field.

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 Chapter 18
From Let’s Investigate 18C, the following conclusions can be made:
• The direction of the force on a current-carrying conductor is reversed when we reverse the

direction of the current or the magnetic field.
• The force, current and magnetic field are at right angles to one another.

Fleming’s left-hand rule
We can deduce the direction of the force acting on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field
using Fleming’s left-hand rule (Figure 18.26).

direction of:
magnetic field 1 Point your thumb, forefinger and
current second finger at right angles to one
S force
another.

Force, current and

 
 
N magnetic field are at
right angles. 2 Point your forefinger in the direction
of the magnetic field (N-to-S
force (thumb) direction) and your second finger in
the direction of the current.
magnetic field
(forefinger)

3 Your thumb then gives the direction

of the motion of the wire, i.e., the
current direction of the force. In fact, given
(second finger) any two of the directions, we can
deduce the remaining one.

Figure 18.26 Fleming’s left-hand rule

Worked Example 18C (a) A to B; B

PHYSICS WATCH
Figure 18.27 shows a wire placed between two
Scan this page to
magnetic poles. State what happens when the
explore a simulation
current in the wire flows from on force on a current-
N S
Solution carrying conductor.
A wire
(a) When a current-carrying wire is placed in

a magnetic field, a force acts on it. Using Figure 18.27
Fleming’s left-hand rule, we find that the
force acts vertically downwards on the wire (b) B to A. field lines B

(Figure 18.28).
(b) Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, we find that

the force acts vertically upwards on the wire.
N S
force
A
Figure 18.28 The force acts vertically downwards
when current flows from A to B.

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 Chapter 18
What causes the motor effect?
Examine what happens when the magnetic field due to the current in a wire is combined with the
magnetic field of a magnet (Figure 18.29).

S S
wire inserted
between two direction of force
magnetic poles
A B
(stronger magnetic (weaker magnetic
field) field)

N N

(a) Magnetic field due (b) Magnetic field between (c) Combined magnetic field of
to current in wire two magnetic poles wire and magnetic poles
Figure 18.29 How magnetic fields combine when a current-carrying wire is placed between the poles of a magnet

From Figure 18.29(c), we can see that at point A, the magnetic fields produced by the current-
carrying wire and by the magnetic poles act in the same direction. They reinforce each other and so
the magnetic field at point A is stronger. At point B, the magnetic field of the current-carrying wire is
in the opposite direction to the magnetic field of the magnetic poles. Thus, the combined magnetic
field at point B is weaker.
The difference between the magnetic field strength at A and at B results in a net force acting on the
wire. The force acts towards the weaker field.

Forces between two parallel current-carrying

conductors
When we place two current-carrying conductors parallel to each other, the magnetic fields of both
wires combine. The combined magnetic field results in forces acting on each conductor.

Currents in opposite directions

Figure 18.30 shows the forces that act on two parallel strips of aluminium foil carrying currents in
opposite directions.
Explanation: To understand the repulsion of the aluminium foil strips, consider the
cross-section (top view) of a pair of parallel current-carrying wires.

current I
+ F F
current I aluminium foil
strips repelled
by each other

combined magnetic field gives

currents in opposite directions
rise to repulsive forces being
exerted on the wires
Figure 18.30 Parallel aluminium foil strips carrying current in opposite directions repel each other.

Conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel.

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 Chapter 18
Currents in same direction
Figure 18.31 shows the forces that act on two parallel strips of aluminium foil carrying currents in the
same direction.

Explanation: To understand the attraction of the aluminium foil strips, consider the
cross-section (top view) of a pair of parallel current-carrying wires.

F F
+
aluminium foil
strips attracted
to each other
current I current I
combined magnetic field gives
currents in the same directions
rise to attractive forces being
exerted on the wires

Figure 18.31 Parallel aluminium foil strips carrying currents in the same direction attract each other.

Conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract.

Force on a beam of charged particles in a QUICK CHECK

magnetic field A magnetic field can

exert a force on a
In Chapter 17, you have learnt that current consists of moving charges. A current-carrying conductor stationary charge.
experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field. Since a beam of charged particles is essentially True or false?
a line of charged particles, we can examine the effects of a magnetic field on a beam of charged
particles by examining the effect of a magnetic field on a single moving charge.

Positive charge moving in a magnetic field

Figure 18.32 shows the force acting on a positively charged particle moving through a magnetic field.

1 Positively charged particle

magnetic field into the plane of this ENRICHMENT
travelling into a magnetic ACTIVITY
page (away from you)
field A mass spectrometer
is a device that can
work out the chemical
2 Using Fleming’s left-hand composition of
rule, we can deduce that the unknown substances.
positively charged positive charge is deflected
upwards in a circular path. Find out how a mass
particle
spectrometer uses
force a magnetic field to
distinguish between
chemical elements.
Figure 18.32 Deflection of a positively charged particle in a magnetic field current Share your findings
with the class.
magnetic field

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 Chapter 18
Negative charge moving in a magnetic field
Figure 18.33 shows what would happen to the force if the positive charge in Figure 18.32 were
replaced with a negative charge (e.g. an electron).

1 Negatively charged 2 Using Fleming’s left-hand rule,

magnetic field
particle travelling into we can deduce that the negative
a magnetic field charge is deflected downwards
in a circular path. current
negatively charged Note that the direction of the
particle current is opposite to the motion force
of the negative charge.

Figure 18.33 Deflection of a negatively charged particle in the same magnetic field

Reversing the magnetic field

Other than the charge of the particles, what do you think affects the direction of the force acting on
the particles? Figure 18.34 shows what happens to the force acting on the positively charged particle
(in Figure 18.33) if the magnetic field is reversed.
The direction of the force on a beam of charged particles is reversed when we reverse the direction of the
magnetic field.
2 Using Fleming’s left-hand magnetic field
rule, we can deduce that current
1 Positively charged the positive charge is
particle travelling into deflected downwards in a
a magnetic field circular path. force

magnetic field out of

the plane of this page
positively charged (towards you)
particle

Figure 18.34 The positively charged particle is deflected downwards when the magnetic field is reversed.

Let’s Practise 18.4

wire
1 Figure 18.35 shows a current-carrying wire placed

between the poles of a magnet.
(a) On the diagram, mark the direction of the force S N


acting on the wire AB. cell
(b) Describe what happens to the motion of


the wire AB if the poles of the magnets
are reversed. Figure 18.35

2 S Consider two parallel wires with currents flowing in the same direction.

(a) Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on each wire.


(b) State the change(s) that can be made to increase the magnitude of each force.
LINK TWB


(c) Explain what will be observed if two current carrying wires are placed perpendicular to


Exercise 18D, each other.
pp. XX–XX 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 18

18.5 The D.c. Motor

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field experiences a turning effect and the factors

that can increase the turning effect.
• S Describe the operation of an electric motor, including the action of a split-ring commutator

and brushes.

In Section 18.4, you have learnt that a straight current-carrying wire placed between the poles of a
magnet experiences a force. Figure 18.36 shows what happens if the straight current-carrying wire is
replaced with a current-carrying wire coil.
P

1 A stiff wire coil ABCD is placed between the

poles of a strong magnet. A current is passed
C through the coil.
B
I S
F 2 The coil experiences a turning effect about
N F the axis PQ.
I
D
A
Q

Figure 18.36 Current-carrying wire coil placed between two magnetic poles

What causes the turning effect of coil ABCD in the set-up in Figure 18.36? To understand this turning
effect, we consider the top view of the cross-section of the set-up (Figure 18.37).

current
force directed
into page The two forces produce a turning effect.
field field Note: Fleming’s left-hand rule was used
N S
to deduce the directions of the forces on
current wire sections AB (current out of page)
directed out and CD (current into page).
of page force

Figure 18.37 Top view of cross-section of set-up in Figure 18.36

The turning effect on a current-carrying wire coil can be increased by increasing

• the number of turns in the wire coil;

• current in the wire coil;

• the strength of the magnetic field.

The d.c. motor
An important application of the turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field is the
direct current (d.c.) motor. A d.c. motor is used to convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.
It is commonly used in battery-operated toys, DVD players and hard disk drives. Figure 18.38 shows
how a d.c. motor works.

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 Chapter 18 Low res image

a d.c. motor 1 rectangular coil

Q permanent
B magnet
C
N
S
split-ring A
commutator D
X carbon
+ – Y
P brush
cell
2 switch
rectangular coil rheostat
Q permanent
C
magnet
Structure of a d.c. motor:
N B 1 A rectangular wire coil ABCD is mounted on an

D S axle (represented by the dotted line PQ) that
split-ring allows it to rotate about PQ.
Y
commutator A 2 The coil and the axle are positioned in between

the poles of a permanent magnet.
X carbon
+ P brush
3 The ends of coil ABCD are connected to a split-
–

cell ring commutator XY. The commutator rotates
switch with the coil.
rheostat 4 Two carbon brushes press lightly against

the commutator.
• When the coil is in the vertical position, Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, we know that a

the current is cut off because the split ring downward force acts on wire section AB, and an
commutator XY is not in contact with the upward force on wire section CD. The coil thus
carbon brushes. rotates anticlockwise about PQ until it reaches a
• The momentum of the coil, however, carries it vertical position.

past the vertical position.

3 rectangular coil
Q permanent
C magnet
B
N
it is common to find d.c. S
motors in small devices. split-ring D
commutator A
Y carbon
+ – X
P brush
cell switch
rheostat

• The direction of the currents flowing through

wire sections AB and CD is now reversed.

An upward force now acts on AB, and a
downward force acts on CD.
Figure 18.38 How a d.c motor works • Hence, the coil continues to rotate in the

anticlockwise direction.

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 Chapter 18
In a d.c. motor, the function of the split-ring commutator is
to reverse the direction of the current in the coil every half a
revolution. This occurs whenever the commutator changes
contact from one brush to the other. This ensures that the coil
will always turn in one direction. Low res image
The turning effect on a current-carrying coil in a d.c. motor can
be increased by ENRICHMENT
THINK
• inserting a soft iron core into the coil; Refer to Figure 18.39.

• increasing the number of turns in the coil; Why are the iron
Figure 18.39 Practical d.c. motors, like the

• increasing the current in the coil. one shown above, have hundreds of turns parts curved?

of wire with a soft iron core at the centre.

Let’s Practise 18.5

1 The coil in a particular d.c. motor rotates in an anticlockwise direction. State the change(s)
that must be made in order for the coil to rotate in a clockwise direction.
2 Explain the purpose of the rheostat in the d.c. motor.
TWB LINK

3 State the energy conversion that takes place in the d.c. motor.
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 18E,
this section. pp. XX–XX

18.6 The Transformer

In this section, you will learn the following:
•
Describe the construction of a simple transformer with a soft iron core, as used for voltage
transformations.
•
S Explain the principle of operation of a simple iron-cored transformer.
•
Use the terms primary, secondary, step-up and step-down.
V N
•
Recall and use the equation p = p where p and s refer to primary and secondary.
Vs Ns
•
Describe the use of transformers in high-voltage transmission of electricity.
•
State the advantages of high-voltage transmission.
•
S Recall and use the equation for 100% efficiency in a transformer, IpVp = IsVs.
•
S Recall and use the equation P = I2R to explain why power losses in cables are smaller when the LINK
voltage is greater.
Recall that a current-
carrying conductor
produces a magnetic field.
In 1831, Faraday discovered that when two coils of wire were wrapped around a soft iron ring
Refer to Chapter 15.
(Figure 18.40), the magnetic field produced by one coil could induce a current in the other.
A compass was placed above wire PQ to detect any changes in the magnetic field there. If the
needle of the compass was deflected, it meant there was a magnetic field present. This indicated
that there was a current flowing in the wire PQ. QUICK CHECK

S The compass remains

P deflected when there is a
constant current in coil A.
True or false?
coil A coil B compass

iron ring Q

Figure 18.40 Faraday’s iron ring experiment

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 Chapter 18
Figure 18.41 summarises the results of Faraday’s experiment.

At the moment
switch S was The number of
closed magnetic field
lines linking
coil B increased This change in
The compass needle
from zero to magnetic flux
was deflected
Current started The varying maximum. produced an
A magnetic momentarily in one
­
flowing in current in induced e.m.f. in
field was direction when the
­
coil A. coil A created coil B. The induced
produced switch was closed. The
a varying e.m.f. drove an

­
about wire needle was deflected
magnetic induced current
The number of PQ. momentarily in the
Current flux in the through the closed
magnetic field other direction when
stopped iron ring. circuit (and thus
lines linking the switch was opened.
flowing in through wire PQ).
coil B decreased
coil A. from maximum
to zero.

At the moment
switch S was Figure 18.41 The results of Faraday’s iron ring experiment
opened
Faraday’s findings led to the construction of transformers, a widely used device in electricity
transmission. In the following sections, you will learn what transformers are and how they work.

What is a transformer?
The mains supply voltage for homes in many Asian countries such as Singapore is between 220 V
and 240 V. However, different electrical appliances operate at different voltages. For example, a typical
mobile phone only needs about 5 V. To convert the mains supply voltage to a suitable voltage for
different appliances, transformers are used.
A transformer is a device that can change a high alternating voltage (at low current) to a low
alternating voltage (at high current), or vice versa.
Transformers are used in
1 electrical power transmission from power stations to households and industries;

2 regulating voltages for the proper operation of electrical appliances.

Structure and operation of a transformer
The structure (Figure 18.42) and workings of a transformer are based on Faraday’s findings in the iron
ring experiment.
• The laminated soft iron core comprises thin

• Two coils, the primary coil and sheets of soft iron. These sheets are insulated

the secondary coil, are wound from one another by coats of lacquer.
2 magnetic
around a laminated soft iron core. field lines • Soft iron is used because it is easily magnetised

• Each coil has a certain number and demagnetised. This ensures better

of turns. magnetic flux linkage between the two coils.

laminated soft iron core • The lamination reduces heat loss.

primary secondary
1 VP VS 3 load
coil of NP coil of NS

Figure 18.42 Structure of a transformer

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 Chapter 18
The workings of a transformer are as follows (refer to Figure 18.42):

1 The primary coil is 2 A varying magnetic 3 An e.m.f. VS is induced in the secondary

connected to an field is set up in the coil. This voltage is called the output
alternating voltage — the laminated soft voltage. Since the circuit is closed, a
input voltage VP . iron core. current is also induced in the coil.

 
Electrical energy is transferred from the primary coil to the secondary coil in a transformer.
The voltages and the number of turns in the primary and secondary coils are related by this formula:
QUICK CHECK
VP NP
= where VS = secondary (output) voltage (in V)
VS NS NP
VP = primary (input) voltage (in V) NS
for a step-up

NS = number of turns in secondary coil transformer is less than 1.

NP = number of turns in primary coil True or false?

In a step-up transformer, the number of turns in the secondary coil is greater than that in the
primary coil. This results in an output voltage that is higher than the input voltage.
In a step-down transformer, the converse is true. The number of turns in the secondary coil is less
than that in the primary coil, so that the output voltage produced is lower than the input voltage.

Power transmission in a transformer

In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss (i.e. the efficiency is 100%). The power supplied to the
primary coil is fully transferred to the secondary coil. Hence, from the principle of conservation of
energy, power in the primary coil = power in the secondary coil.
IP VP = IS VS where VS = secondary (output) voltage (in V) LINK
VP = primary (input) voltage (in V)

IS = current in secondary coil (in A) Recall the equation
P = IV which you have

IP = current in primary coil (in A)
learnt in Chapter 16.

VP NP
From the equations = and IP VP = IS VS,
VS NS
VP NP IS
we can obtain the equation = = .
VS NS IP

Therefore, VS = ( )
NS
V and IP =
NP P
NS
NP ( )
I S.

We can see that for a step-up transformer:

NS
1 VS > VP by the fraction ;
NP

NS Low res image
2 IS < IP by the same fraction .
NP

Figure 18.43 A transformer — the coils and laminated soft iron core can
be seen. The design of this transformer differs from the one shown in Figure
18.42. What other designs are there, and why?

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 Chapter 18
The converse is true for a step-down transformer (Table 18.3).
Table 18.3 Comparing step-up and step-down transformers

Step-up transformer Step-down transformer

Ns > Np Ns < Np

Vs > Vp Vs < Vp

Is < Ip Is > Ip

In reality, transformers are not ideal. There is power loss, and therefore the efficiency is less than 100%.
LINK The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated using the following equation:
output power
Recall about mechanical Efficiency = × 100%
efficiency which you have
input power
learnt in Chapter 6.
IP IS
Worked Example 18D A A

The circuit shown in Figure 18.44 is set up. NP NS

VP VS
(a) Explain briefly how a transformer works. turns turns

(b) Assuming the transformer in Figure 18.44 is 100%

efficient, complete Table 18.4.
Figure 18.44
Table 18.34

Vp/V Ip/mA NP turns VS/V Is/mA Ns turns
240 2 40 50

(c) Is the transformer a step-up or step-down transformer?

(d) The transformer used in the experiment is actually non-ideal. It is found that when the

primary current is 2 mA, the secondary current is 30 mA instead of 40 mA. Assuming that
the secondary voltage VS is the same as that calculated in (b), calculate the efficiency of this
practical transformer.
Solution
(a) The operation of a transformer is based on electromagnetic induction. An alternating

current in the primary coil induces a varying magnetic field in the soft iron core. This varying
magnetic field creates an alternating induced e.m.f. in the secondary coil, which generates
an induced current.
(b) At 100% efficiency,

input power of primary coil = output power of secondary coil

IP VP = IS VS

I P VP 2 mA × 240 V
VS = = = 12 V
 
IS 40 mA

VP NP VP NS 240 V × 50 turns
Using = ,N = = = 1000 turns
VS NS P VS 12 V

(c) Since the number of turns in the secondary coil is less than the number of turns in the

primary coil (i.e. Ns = 50 < NP = 1000), the transformer is a step-down transformer.
(d) By definition,

output power in secondary coil
efficiency = × 100%
input power in primary coil

IS VS 30 mA × 12 V
= × 100% = × 100% = 75%
 
IP VP 2 mA × 240 V

 
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 Chapter 18
Transformers and the transmission of electricity
HELPFUL NOTES
There are problems in the transmission and distribution of electricity from power stations to
households and industries. One of them is the loss of power due to Joule heating (P = I 2R) in the cables.
Voltage does not

 
This loss should be minimised for efficiency and economy. contribute to the power
Possible solutions: loss due to Joule heating.
• Use very thick cables, so that the resistance R is low. In this way, the power lost as heat in the However, the output
voltage affects the output

cables is reduced. However, thicker cables increase the cable and construction costs.
current. So, we can adjust
• Reduce the magnitude of the current I flowing in the cables. This can be done with a the output voltage (by
step-up transformer. When the transmission voltage V is stepped up, the current I in the cables is

adjusting the number of
stepped down. turns in the secondary coil
of a transformer) to adjust
the output current.
cable of resistance R
power station

households
Pin V and industries

Pout

Figure 18.45 Power transmission

Suppose the electrical power output Pout of a power

station is to be transmitted at a voltage V by transmission
cables of total resistance R (Figure 18.45). The current I in
the transmission cables is
Pout
I= .
V

Hence, the power lost as thermal energy, Ploss, is

( )
Pout 2
Ploss = I 2R = V R.

Thus, the greater the value of V, the lower the power loss.

As electricity is transmitted more efficiently at high

voltages, electricity produced in power stations has its
voltage stepped up by step-up transformers. The high-
voltage electricity is then transmitted to households
and industries through transmission cables. Step-
down transformers then reduce the voltage to suitable
values so that households and industries can use the
electricity safely.

Figure 18.46 Step-down transformers

help distribute electricity to households
and industries.

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 Chapter 18
Worked Example 18E
ENRICHMENT
THINK A power station with an output power of 100 kW at 20 000 V is connected by cables to a factory.
Overhead transmission
(a) If the resistance of the cables is 5.0 Ω, calculate the
cables are supported

by electricity pylons. In (i) current flowing in the cables;

some countries, most (ii) power loss in the cables.

transmission cables are
(b) Account for the power loss.
underground. Why?

Solution
Given: Output power Pout = 100 × 103 W
Voltage V = 20 000 V
Resistance R of cables = 5.0 Ω
(a) (i) Since Pout = VI, where I is the current in the cables,

Pout
= 100 × 10 W = 5 A
3
I=
V 20 000 V

(ii) Power loss in the cables

Ploss = I2R = (5 A)2 × 5.0 Ω = 125 W

(b) Power is lost as thermal energy. This is due to Joule heating, caused by the resistance of the

cables and the current flowing through the cables.

Let’s Practise 18.6

Figure 18.47 shows a simple transformer.
1 (a) Explain

a.c. input output
(i) the material used to make the item


labelled A;
(ii) whether the output voltage is greater or
A


smaller than the input voltage.

(b) This transformer supplies a voltage of 12 V to
Figure 18.47
a model train, which draws a current of 0.8 A.
LINK If the voltage of the a.c. source is 240 V, calculate the current in the primary coil.
TWB
2 Power is lost as thermal energy during the transmission of electricity from power stations to

Exercise 18F–18G, homes. State two ways through which this power loss can be minimised.
pp. XX–XX 3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

Exercise 18H Let’s Reflect this section.

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 Chapter 18 M
Chapter 18
ag
ne
eld tic
c fi fie
neti ld

Force
ag Induced cu
Let’s Map It

Force
M rrent
Induced current

D.C. motors A.C generator Lenz’s law

• Convert electrical energy into • Convert mechanical energy into electrical • The direction of an induced
mechanical energy energy e.m.f. opposes the change
• Direction of resultant force can be • Direction of induced current in the coil can that is causing it.
found using Fleming’s left-hand rule be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule

applied in
produces
Turning effect Current-carrying conductor applied in
in an external magnetic field
can be increased
by increasing

• The number of Beams of charged particles Electromagnetic induction

turns on the coil in a magnetic field • A process in which an governed by
• The current induced e.m.f. is produced
in a conductor due to a
• The strength of
changing magnetic field.
the magnetic field Two parallel current-carrying
conductors in a magnetic field

acts on
applied in
Resultant force Electromagnetism

involves
interaction of
Faraday’s law
Interact
to produce • The magnitude of the

ELECTROMAGNETIC
induced e.m.f. in a circuit is
directly proportional to the
rate of change of magnetic
External magnetic fields EFFECTS flux in the circuit .

produces
Magnetic fields Electric current Factors affecting the
magnitude of an induced e.m.f.
• Number of turns in the
applied in Transformer current-carrying coil
• Change a high alternating • Strength of the magnet
Field patterns can voltage (at low current) to a • Speed at which the magnet
• Relays low alternating voltage (at
be deduced using moves with respect to the
• Loudspeakers high current) or vice versa current-carrying conductor
the right-hand grip
rule.

used for
Current

• Magnetic field strength can High voltage transmission Vp Np

• Turns ratio = N
be increased by increasing of electricity Vs s
Field the magnitude of the current where p means primary and
• Reduce power losses (more efficient)
• Magnetic field direction can Pout s means secondary
Ploss = I2R = (
)2R
be reversed by reversing the V • For an ideal transformer
• Lower cable and construction costs
direction of the current (100% efficiency), Ip Vp = Is Vs

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 Chapter 18

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 Figure 18.48 shows a current-carrying wire passing 4 Figure 18.51 shows a beam of electrons entering a


through the centre of a sheet of cardboard. How do magnetic field.
the strengths of the magnetic field at points X, Y, and
Z compare?

magnetic field
electron beam into page

X Y Z

Figure 18.51

Figure 18.48 What is the initial direction of the deflection of the

electrons as the beam passes through the field?
A Different at X, Y, and Z
A Into page

B Equal at X and Z, but stronger at Y

B Out of page

C Equal at X and Z, but weaker at Y

C Towards the bottom of page

D Stronger at X than Y, and stronger at Y than Z

D Towards the top of page

2 In Figure 18.49, a current-carrying wire is placed

5 In a simple d.c. motor, the direction of current in the

between two magnetic poles. In which direction does

the wire move? motor coil is reversed every half-revolution. This is to
keep the coil turning in the same direction. Which part
current flowing of the motor enables this?
in wire A Brushes
N

B Coil

C C Split-ring commutator

B D Permanent magnets
D

A S 6 Which of the following procedures does not generate

an e.m.f.?
A Holding a magnet stationary inside a coil

B Rotating a coil in a magnetic field
Figure 18.49

C Rotating a magnet around a stationary coil

3 Figure 18.50 shows a current-carrying coil placed D Moving a bar magnet across a flat piece of metal

within a magnetic field. The coil experiences forces that

7 In electromagnetic induction, which of the following
make it move. How does the coil move?

does not affect the magnitude of the induced e.m.f.?
Y A The strength of the magnetic field linking the coil

B The resistance of the coil cutting across the

magnetic field
C The speed with which the coil cuts across the

magnetic field
magnetic field
D The number of turns in the coil

current
X
Figure 18.50
A From X to Y

B Out of page

C Along the magnetic field

D About the axis XY

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 Chapter 18

8 Figure 18.52 shows the coil of a generator with 3 Referring to Figure 18.53, state what is observed in the


slip rings. galvanometer when the
(a) magnet is moved into the solenoid;

(b) magnet is pulled out of the solenoid;

(c) number of turns in the solenoid is increased and (a)

is repeated.
N S
N S
output

Figure 18.52
Which of the following graphs gives the correct output

voltage against time when the coil begins to turn from Figure 18.53
the position shown?
4
A V B V

(a) State Lenz’s Law of electromagnetic induction.





(b) Explain how Lenz’s Law illustrates the principle of

t conservation of energy.
5

t (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a simple a.c. generator


C V D V and describe the use of the slip rings.



(b) Sketch the graph of the output voltage against time

for a simple a.c. generator.
t t 6 Figure 18.54 shows a solenoid connected to

a galvanometer.
galvanometer
9 Why is soft iron used in the core of a transformer?

A It has a low electrical resistance. A B

B It conducts the induced current well.

C It does not melt easily when the induced current is

too large. S N
D It ensures better magnetic flux linkage between the magnet

two coils. Figure 18.54
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions Explain the following observations:

1 (a) Using suitable diagrams, describe the pattern of the (a) When the magnet is held stationary at the end of



magnetic field due to the current in a the coil, the galvanometer needle is not deflected.
(i) long straight wire; (b) When the magnet is moved towards the solenoid,



(ii) solenoid. the galvanometer needle is deflected towards A.


(b) State a factor that affects the strength of the (c) The faster the motion of the magnet towards

the solenoid, the larger the deflection of the

magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor, and
describe how it affects the magnetic field strength. galvanometer needle.
(c) State a factor that affects the direction of the (d) When the magnet is moved away from the

solenoid, the galvanometer needle is deflected

magnetic field of a current-carrying conductor, and
describe how it affects the magnetic field direction. towards B.
2 (a) What is electromagnetic induction?


(b) State the factors that affect the magnitude of the

induced e.m.f.

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 Chapter 18

Let’s Review
7 A transformer has 400 turns in the primary coil and 10


10 turns in the secondary coil. The primary voltage is (a) What is Fleming’s left-hand rule used for?
250 V and the primary current is 2.0 A.

(b) On Figure 18.56, label the following parts:
(a) Calculate the

(i) Split-ring commutator

(i) secondary voltage;

(ii) Carbon brushes


(ii) secondary current, assuming the transformer

is ideal. X Y
(b) Several measures are taken to increase the N S

efficiency of transformers. Explain why, and
describe two features in transformer design that
W Z
improve efficiency.
8 A battery charger draws electricity from the 240 V mains

supply. The charger contains a transformer, which provides
an output of 15 V.
(a) There are 6400 turns on the primary coil of the

transformer. Calculate the number of turns on the Figure 18.56
secondary coil. (c) What are the functions of the parts in (b)(i) and (ii)?
(b) Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient,

(d) Using Fleming’s left-hand rule, state whether the

calculate the current flowing in the primary coil if

rectangular coil will rotate clockwise or anticlockwise.
the output current of the transformer is 2.0 A. Draw the forces that cause the rotation on the diagram.
9 Figure 18.55 shows part of a power transmission system. (e) How would you change the direction of rotation of


Electricity from the power station is transmitted to end the coil?
users via transmission cables. The power station has a
11 A wire is wound 30 times around a soft iron C-core
capacity of 200 MW and produces a voltage of 2 kV.

(Figure 18.57).
The transmission cable is at 400 kV. The end users
receive a voltage of 250 V. soft iron centre

2 kV transformer A transformer B 250 V

400 kV coil of 30 turns of wire
power end
station users
transmission
200 MW cables Figure 18.57
Figure 18.55 You are provided with two such C-cores.

(a) Is transformer A a step-up or a step-down (a) Without the use of a magnet, describe how


transformer? Explain your answer. you would use the C-cores to show that a
(b) Assuming that transformers A and B are ideal, current can be induced in a coil of wire through
electromagnetic induction.

and that no energy is lost during transmission,
calculate the (b) Should the wires that are wound around the soft

(i) current flowing through the transmission cables; iron C-cores be insulated? Why?


(ii) total current supplied to the end users; 12 (a) Describe an experiment to demonstrate




(iii) total energy generated by the power station electromagnetic induction. Explain how you would
demonstrate the factors that affect the magnitude


each day.
(c) Why is electricity transmitted at high voltage? and the direction of the induced e.m.f.
(b) Describe briefly how electromagnetic induction


is applied in the operation of a transformer.

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 CHAPTER
Nuclear Model
19 of the Atom

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch the world’s

smallest movie called ‘A Boy and His Atom’.

QUESTIONS

We are creating more and more data every day. How do we solve the • What do you think atoms look like?

problem of where to store this huge amount of data? Scientists have • The photo shows raised dots that make

explored right down to the atomic level to find a solution for data up the image of the boy. What are these
raised dots caused by?
storage.
• How can atoms help to solve our data
The photo shows an image of a boy taken from a 1-minute movie called

storage needs?
A Boy and His Atom, made by researchers at IBM. The movie was made
by moving carbon monoxide molecules using a scanning
tunneling microscope. The microscope can magnify atoms 100 million
times. It is the oxygen atom of each molecule that showed up when
photographed using the microscope. With this method, it is said that
one bit of data can be stored in just 12 atoms, compared to about one
million atoms that was used before.
A Boy and His Atom is the world’s smallest movie. You would probably
be interested to know how it is possible to make such a movie. But first,
let’s find out more about atoms!

331

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 Chapter 19

19.1 The atom

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the structure of an atom.
•

Know how atoms form positive or negative ions.
•

S Describe how the scattering of alpha (α-) particles by a sheet of thin metal provide evidence to

support the nuclear model of the atom.

What is an atom?
In the kinetic particle model of matter, matter is modelled as being made up of particles. What are
these particles? They are atoms, molecules, ions and electrons. In this chapter, you will learn about
other particles and how they are related to atoms, ions and electrons.
LINK An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical element. However, each atom is made up of even smaller
particles. You have learnt about electrons, which carry negative charges. Electrons are many million
Recall what you have
times smaller than an atom. They
learnt in Chapter 8 about
are part of an atom.
the particles that make
up matter. An atom consists of a positively
charged nucleus and negatively Negatively charged electron:
charged electrons in orbit around It has a very small mass.
the nucleus (Figure 19.1). Strong Positively charged nucleus:
attractive forces between the The mass of the nucleus is
positively charged nucleus and almost the mass of the
negatively charged electrons entire atom.
hold the electrons to the atom.
The electrons furthest from the
nucleus could become detached
by friction or by other means. Figure 19.1 Simplified structure of an atom

How do atoms form ions?

An electrically neutral atom has equal negative charges and positive charges. How many electrons
are there in the atom in Figure 19.1? Each electron carries the same quantity of negative charge.
How many positive electronic charges should be in the nucleus for it to be a neutral atom?
An atom which loses or gains electrons has unbalanced positive and negative charges.
An atom which loses electrons has more positive charges — it becomes a positive ion.
An atom which gains electrons has more negative charges — it becomes a negative ion.
Figure 19.2 shows how a positive ion is formed.

loses
outermost
electron
11+ 11+

outermost
electron

A neutral atom has equal number of positive and A positive ion has more positive charges than
negative charges. In this atom, there are 11 electrons, negative charges. This ion has only 10 electrons,
so the nucleus has 11 positive charges. but its nucleus has 11 positive charges.
Figure 19.2 When an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positive ion.

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 Chapter 19
Figure 19.3 shows how a negative ion is formed.
QUICK CHECK

Atom A is a neutral atom. It

gains an electron has 24 electrons. Its nucleus
9+ 9+ has the same number of
positives charges.
True or false?

electron gained

An electrically neutral atom has the same A negative ion has more negative
number of positive and negative charges. charges than positive charges. This ion
In this atom, there are 9 electrons, so the has 10 electrons, but its nucleus has
nucleus has 9 positive charges. only 9 positive charges.
Figure 19.3 When a neutral atom gains electrons, it becomes a negative ion.

S
What evidence do we have to support the nuclear
model of the atom?
In 1911, scientists Geiger and Marsden carried out an experiment to study the internal structure of
atoms. They directed alpha (α-) particles from a radioactive source at a thin metal foil (Figure 19.4). LINK
This is like shooting bullets at a locked box to find out what sort of material is hidden inside —
if the bullets are deflected instead of passing right through, the box must contain some very A radioactive source
dense material. emits radioactive
particles such as find out
more in Chapter 20.
thin metal (gold
gave best results)

vacuum
source of most of α-particles
α-particles go through the foil
in lead box

a very small number

of α-particles are
scattered backwards angle of
deflection

a few of α-particles are

deflected through a
large angle
detector
Figure 19.4 Scattering of α-particles by thin metal foil

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 Chapter 19
S Geiger and Marsden’s supervisor, Ernest Rutherford, was very puzzled by the fact that a few
α-particles could be scattered backwards while almost all the particles passed right through.
He knew that α-particles are positively charged particles. Also, the mass of an α-particle is much
ENRICHMENT smaller than the mass of a gold atom.
INFO
Other Models of the Atom Based on some mathematical calculations, Rutherford showed that the experimental results
provided evidence for an atom that has
The nuclear or planetary
model of the atom (1911)
• a very small nucleus surrounded by mostly empty space (almost all the α-particles go right through);

by Ernest Rutherford • a nucleus containing most of the mass of the atom (an electron has a very small mass);

was not the only model • a nucleus that is positively charged (positively charged α-particles are repelled).

proposed to explain the The few α-particles that scattered backwards were going so close to the nucleus that they were
atomic structure. Before strongly repelled as shown in Figure 19.5.
this, there were the solid
sphere model (1803) and nucleus
the plum pudding model α-particle that gets too close
(1904). to the nucleus is repelled.
Scientists continued to
study atoms and later
proposed the Bohr’s Most of the α-particles
model (1913) and the pass easily through the
α-particles
quantum model (1926) almost empty space in
(Figure 19.6). the atom.

gold atom
Figure 19.5 Experimental evidence for a small, massive and positively charged nucleus surrounded by mostly
empty space
Figure 19.6 The
quantum atomic model
suggests that electrons
move in clouds around
the nucleus instead of in Let’s Practise 19.1
fixed orbits.
1 Complete the sentences.

(a) An atom consists of a ____________ (positively/negatively) charged nucleus and


____________ (positively/negatively) charged electrons in orbit round the nucleus.
WORD ALERT (b) When an atom ____________ (gains/loses) electrons, it becomes a positive ion.


(c) A negative ion is formed when an atom ____________.


massive: has large mass
2 S The scattering of α-particles by a sheet of thin metal supports the nuclear model of

the atom. What evidence about the nucleus does the experiment provide?
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section.

ENRICHMENT
INFO
Work in groups. Search
the Internet to find
out more about the
different models of the
atom. Create a slide
presentation and present
your findings to the class.
Low res image

LINK TWB

Exercises 19A, pp. XX-XX

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 Chapter 19

19.2 The Nucleus

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the composition of the nucleus in terms of protons and neutrons.
•

State the relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons.
•

Define proton number (atomic number) Z and nucleon number (mass number) A.
•

Calculate the number of neutrons in a nucleus.
•

Use the nuclide notation AZ X.
•

Explain the meaning of isotope and state that an element may have more than one isotope.

What makes up the nucleus of an atom?
Experiments show that the nucleus of an atom consists of two types of particles — protons
(positively charged) and neutrons (no charge). Figure 19.7 shows the structure of a helium atom. The
two protons are responsible for the nucleus being positively charged.

nucleus
+

nucleus +
nucleus
nucleus
−

Figure 19.7 The nucleus of a helium atom is made

up of two protons and two neutrons.

The amount of charge carried by each proton is the same as that carried by an electron. Can you
recall the SI unit for charge? It is the coulomb. The charge of an electron is very much smaller than
1 coulomb. Instead of using the specific small number for the charge of an electron, scientists
prefer to express the charge of small particles like electrons and protons in terms of the charge
of an electron. Thus, the relative charge of an electron is –1 (because it is negative) and the
relative charge of a proton is +1. As the neutron does not carry any charge, the relative charge
of a neutron is 0.

Proton number Z QUICK CHECK

The number of protons in an atom is called the proton number or atomic number. The symbol Z A neutral atom with proton
is used to represent the proton number of an element. It is unique to each element. number Z has Z number of
electrons.
In a neutral atom, the total positive charge must equal the total negative charge. Therefore, in a
neutral atom, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. True or false?

Nucleon number A
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons. A nucleon can be a proton or a neutron. The total
number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called the nucleon number. The symbol A is used
to represent the nucleon number of the nucleus. (Nucleon number is also known as mass number.).
Recall that the number of protons in a nucleus is the proton number Z. Therefore, we have:
The number of neutrons in a nucleus = nucleon number A – proton number Z HELPFUL NOTES
The nucleus of an atom is represented by the nuclide notation shown in Figure 19.8. Proton (atomic) number =
number of protons in an
nucleon (mass) atom
number A nuclide
X
Nucleon (mass) number =
Z name total number of protons
proton (atomic) and neutrons in
number the nucleus
Figure 19.8 Nuclide notation

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 Chapter 19
Figure 19.9 shows the structures of three atoms with different proton numbers. Take note of the
number of electrons, protons and neutrons in each atom and their corresponding proton number Z
and nucleon number A.

Key
electron nucleus
proton nucleus nucleus
neutron

Nuclide notation 1 4 7
1 H 2He 3Li
Atom Hydrogen Helium Lithium
Number of electrons 1 2 3
Number of protons 1 2 3
Number of neutrons 0 2 4
Proton number Z 1 2 3
Nucleon number A 1 4 7
Figure 19.9 Simplified atomic structures of the three lightest elements

Worked Example 19A

The nucleus of an element is represented by 131
53
X.
(a) How many electrons does the neutral atom contain?

(b) How many neutrons does the nucleus contain?

Solution
(a) The proton number Z = 53. So, the number of protons is 53.

In a neutral atom, the number of electrons must equal the number of protons. Hence, the
number of electrons is 53.
(b) The nucleon number A = 131. So, the number of neutrons is 131 – 53 = 78.

Isotopes
ENRICHMENT
THINK Isotopes of an element are the atoms that have the same number of protons but different number
Figure 19.10 shows three of neutrons in the nucleus.
isotopes of the element Figure 19.10 shows the nuclide notation for three atoms of the same element carbon. How many
carbon. electrons and protons does each atom have? How many neutrons does each atom have?
1 Which isotope is the
12
C 13
C 14
C

heaviest? Explain why.
2 Which isotope is 6 6 6
   
   

the least stable?
Explain why. Figure 19.10 Isotopes of the same element have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers.

The atoms have the same proton number, i.e., each atom has six protons. All atoms of the same
element have the same number of protons. However, the number of neutrons is different for each
atom. There are six neutrons in 126 C, seven neutrons in 136C and eight neutrons in 146C. The three atoms
are isotopes of the same element.

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 Chapter 19
Many elements have isotopes. An element may have more than one isotope. Carbon has three
naturally occurring isotopes as shown in Figure 19.10. Hydrogen also has three naturally occurring
isotopes, which include deuterium and tritium. Isotopes of the same element have identical
chemical properties.
ENRICHMENT
THINK
Let’s Practise 19.2 Why do you think
isotopes of the same
1 State the relative charge of element have identical

(a) a proton; chemical properties?


(b) a neutron;


(c) an electron.


2 The following statement describes the nucleus of atom X.

The proton number Z of atom X is 17. The nucleon number is 35.

(a) State the meanings of the underlined terms.


(b) Write down the nuclide notation for the nucleus of this atom.


(c) How many neutrons are in the nucleus?


(d) Atom Y has the same proton number 17, but its nucleon number is 37. Based on this


information, how is X related to Y?
TWB LINK
3 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section. Exercises 19B, pp. XX–XX

S
19.3 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. Include nuclide equations and mass and

energy changes.
• Know the relationship between the proton number and the relative charge on a nucleus.
•

Know the relationship between the nucleon number and the relative mass of a nucleus.

What is nuclear fission?
A neutron is a small particle that has no charge. It can get close to a positively charged atomic
nucleus without being repelled by it. Scientists used neutrons to probe the nucleus of various
elements. They carried out experiments similar to hitting a metal foil with α-particles but used WORD ALERT
neutrons instead. Probe: examine or
The uranium-235 atom, 23592U, has a big nucleus consisting of 235 nucleons. It has 92 protons and
investigate in detail
143 (235 – 92) neutrons. Fission: break up into
parts
In 1938, scientists experimented with hitting uranium-235 with neutrons. The nucleus split into two
almost equal parts and released more neutrons. A lot of energy was also released in the process.
This splitting of the atomic nucleus is called nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom splits (usually into two parts) and
releases a huge amount of energy.

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 Chapter 19
S What happens to the split nucleus during a nuclear fission? The original atom becomes atoms of two
different elements. This is a type of nuclear reaction. It can be represented by a nuclide equation as
shown in Figure 19.11.

Low res image

92U ® 56Ba + 30Kr + 2 0n + energy

n + 235
1 144 90 1
0
Figure 19.11 During a nuclear fission, a massive nucleus splits into smaller nuclei, releasing a huge amount of energy.
In a nuclear reaction, the total number of nucleons before and after the reaction is the same. Add up the
nucleon numbers on the left-hand side of the nuclide equation in Figure 19.11. It should equal the
sum of the nucleon numbers on the right-hand side. The total number of nucleons before fission is
1 + 235 = 236. After fission, the total number of nucleons is 144 + 90 + 2(1) = 236.
The total relative charge before and after should also be the same.
What is the relative charge on the nucleus of an atom? Recall that the relative charge on each proton
is +1. The relative charge on a neutron is 0. The proton number Z gives the number of protons in
the nucleus.
The relative charge on the nucleus is the same as the proton number Z of the nucleus.
In Figure 19.11, the total relative charge before fission is 0 + (+92) = +92.
After fission, the total relative charge is 56 + (+36) + 2(0) = +92.
In a nuclear fission, there are a number of possible fission products. Therefore, there are a number of
possible nuclide equations.
For example: 235
92
U + 01 n ® 139
56
Ba + 94
36
Kr + 3 01 n + energy
Check that the total number of nucleons and the total relative charge before and after the reaction
are the same.

Worked Example 19B

In the following nuclide equation, what are the missing nucleon number A and proton
number Z?
U + 01 n ® 137
233
92 54
Xe + AZSr + 301 n
Solution
Before fission, total nucleon number = 233 + 1 = 234
After fission, total nucleon number = 137 + A + 3(1) = 140 + A
Equating the total nucleon number before and after fission, 140 + A = 234
Þ \ A = 94
Before fission, total relative charge = (+92) + 0 = +92
After fission, total relative charge = (+54) + Z + 0 = (+54) + Z
Equating the total relative charge before and after fission, 54 + Z = 92
Þ\ Z = 38

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 Chapter 19
S
What is nuclear fusion?
Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light atomic nuclei combine to form one heavier atomic
nucleus, releasing a huge amount of energy.
Figure 19.12 shows an example of a nuclear fusion reaction.

Low res image

2
1 H + 31 H ® 42He + 01n + energy
WORD ALERT
Figure 19.12 Two hydrogen isotopes combine to form a larger helium atom in a nuclear fusion reaction.
Fusion: joining of
individual parts to
Just like in nuclear fission, the total number of nucleons before and after the fusion is the same. become one
The total charges before and after is also the same.

Where does nuclear energy come from? QUICK CHECK

Nuclear energy is potential energy stored in the nucleus. This energy is converted from mass.
In both nuclear fission and
Nuclear scientists use relative mass (in atomic mass units) instead of the kilogram to measure the nuclear fusion, the total
mass of a nucleus because it is very small. By definition, the mass of the nucleus of the carbon-12 number of nucleons before
atom is 12 atomic mass units. There are 12 nucleons in the nucleus of the carbon-12 atom. So, the and after each process is
relative mass of each nucleon should be 1 atomic mass unit. the same.
True or false?
However, very precise measurements show that the relative mass of a neutron which is not in a
nucleus is slightly larger than 1 atomic mass unit. Similarly, the relative mass of a proton which is not
combined in a nucleus is slightly larger than 1 atomic mass unit. So the total mass of the 12 nucleons
that make up the carbon-12 nucleus is actually slightly larger than the mass of the nucleus itself.
This fact is true of all nuclei — the total mass of the nucleons that make up a nucleus is slightly larger
than the mass of the nucleus itself.
What happens to the missing mass? It is converted to the energy that holds the nucleons together.
This is the potential energy stored in the nucleus. During a nuclear reaction (nuclear fission or HELPFUL NOTES
nuclear fusion), the neutrons and protons rearrange to form new nuclei. As a result, there is a very
small change in mass. A huge amount of energy is released as a result of mass–energy conversion. The mass–energy
conversion of a nuclear
fission is governed by the
famous Einstein equation:
E = mc2

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 Chapter 19
S In a nuclear fission, the total mass of the products (new nuclei and
ejected neutrons) is smaller than the total mass of the original nucleus
and neutron that hit it. In forming fission products, a lot of energy
WORD ALERT is released from the total reduced mass. Nuclear power stations use
Ejected: forced or nuclear fission to generate energy (Figure 19.13).
thrown out
Similarly, in nuclear fusion, the total mass of the two light nuclei before
the fusion is more than the total mass of the heavier nucleus and the
ejected neutron. The difference in mass is converted to energy released
in the fusion process. Low res image
However, nuclear fusion is harder to achieve. The nucleus of an atom
is positively charged. Like charges repel. In order for two positively
charged nuclei to combine, they must overcome the strong repulsive
force. Nuclear fusion takes place naturally at very high temperatures
and pressures in the Sun. Unfortunately, nuclear fusion has only been
used destructively in the hydrogen bomb (Figure 19.14). Scientists are
trying to build nuclear fusion reactors that can be safely used.
Table 19.1 summarises the particles represented by ZA X.

Figure 19.13 A nuclear power plant harnesses

Table 19.1 Summary of atomic particles the energy released from nuclear fission.

Approximate Number of
Charge
PHYSICS WATCH Particle mass (atomic particles
(relative charge)
mass unit) in nucleus
Scan this page to Proton +1 1 Z
watch a clip about the Neutron 0 1 A–Z
need to use nuclear 1 Low res image
energy responsibly. Electron –1 2000 Z
Nucleus +Z A

Figure 19.14 The hydrogen bomb

releases a huge amount of energy from
nuclear fusion.

Let’s Practise 19.3

1 Table 19.2 compares two nuclide equations. Complete the table with suitable words from the

list below.
nuclear fusion, nuclear fission, mass, number of nucleons, energy, charges, heavy nucleus split into

lighter nuclei, lighter nuclei combine to form heavier nucleus
You may use some words more than once. The first has been done for you.

Nuclide equation 239
Pu + 01 n ® 137
54 Xe + 40 Zr + 0 n
103 1 2
1 H + 21 H ® 32 He +10 n
94
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Heavy nucleus split into
Description of process
lighter nuclei
Name of process
Total before 24 0 4
 
Total after 24 0 4
 
Total before +94 +2
LINK TWB
Total after +94 +2
Exercises 19C–19D,
pp. XX–XX Total before
greater and so released greater and so released
compared to after
Exercise19E Let’s Reflect,
p. X 2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 19
Chapter 19

Let’s Map It
Geiger and Marsden experiment
(Rutherford’s scattering)

provides
insights into

THE
NUCLEAR
ATOM
can
arnesses
n. consists of
Negatively charged Positively charged
electrons nucleus

contains

Nucleons
Protons Neutrons
• 2 types of particles,
• Positively charged • No charge
protons and neutrons
• Proton number Z • Nucleon number A • Number of neutrons (A-Z)

Isotopes of elements
used to represent
Nuclide notation • Same proton number Z

A
X
• Different nucleon number A

Z
• Element X
• Nucleus has Z protons
and A − Z neutrons

used in nuclide
equations to
describe the

Nuclear processes of
• Nuclear fission
• Nuclear fusion

Nuclear Model of the Atom 11

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 Chapter 19

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Section B: Short-answer and
1 Which of the following statements correctly describe Structured Questions

the structure of an atom? 1 The nuclide notation for an atom is 147N.

A An atom consists of positively charged protons and (a) What does the number 14 represent?


negatively charged electrons tightly bound together. (b) What does the number 7 represent?

B An atom consists of positively charged protons and (c) The nuclide notation for another atom of the same


negatively charged neutrons tightly bound together. element is 157 N. Explain how the two atoms can be of the
C An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus same element.

and negatively charged electrons in orbit around 2 Figure 19.15 shows the structures of two atoms X and Y.
the nucleus.

One of the atoms is not a neutral atom.
D An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus Atom X Atom Y

and negatively charged neutrons in orbit around
the nucleus.
2 How does a neutral atom become a positive ion?

A It gains protons. B It loses protons.



C It gains electrons. D It loses electrons.



3 S The scattering of α-particles by thin metal provides

evidence for Figure 19.15
A a nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons. (a) Complete the key to the Figure 19.14.


B a nucleus that is charged. electron

C electrons carrying negative charges.

D neutrons not carrying any charge.

4 An atom has proton number Z = 19 and nucleon


number A = 40. Which of the following rows describes (b) Which atom is neutral?

the composition of the neutral atom? Give the nuclide notation for this atom.

Number of Number of Number of (c) Explain why the atoms in Figure 19.8 belong to the

protons electrons neutrons same element.
A 40 40 19 3 S In a nuclear reactor, an atom of uranium-235

B 19 21 40 undergoes nuclear fission.
(a) Explain what is meant by nuclear fission.
C 40 21 19

(b) Describe how energy is produced by the fission of an
D 19 19 21

atom of uranium-235.
5 Which of the following nuclides has equal number of 4 S A nuclear reaction is represented by the following


neutrons and protons? nuclide equation:
A 11H B 63Li 1
H + 21H ® 32He + energy



1

C 4Be
10
D 178O
(a) Explain the type of process represented by the



6

Which pairs of nuclides are isotopes? nuclide equation.

A 3517 X and 3717Y B 3517 X and 3579Y (b) Energy is released by the process. Describe the changes




C 17 X and 20Y
37 37 D 3579X and 8137Y that result in energy being released.



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 CHAPTER

20 Radioactivity

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about

radioactive exposure.

QUESTIONS

Toshiro, a Japanese pilot, spends a lot of time in the sky at altitudes • What is the nature of the radiation that

pilots are trying to avoid?
between 6000 to 12000 metres. He has clocked up to 1000flight hours
• Where do you think the radiation comes
per year for the past 12 years. That’s more than 10 000 flight hours!

from?
Before this, Toshiro used to clock up to 1650 flight hours per year.
• How does following the advice helps

Pilots are being advised to reduce the amount of working time pilots?
spent on long flights and flights that are at high altitudes. They are
even told not to fly frequently over the two poles — the North Pole
and the South Pole!
What are they trying to avoid?
Radiation!

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 Chapter 20

20.1 Detection of Radioactivity

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know what is meant by background radiation.
•

Know the sources that make a significant contribution to background radiation, including radon

gas (in the air), rocks and buildings, food and drink and cosmic rays.
• Know that ionising nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector connected to a counter.
•
Use count rate measured in counts/s or counts/min.
•

S Use measurements of background radiation to determine a corrected count rate.

What is background radiation?
Radiation is all around us. We are commonly exposed to electromagnetic radiation. Examples are
ENRICHMENT visible light and infrared light from the Sun, and microwaves from mobile phones. These are
INFO non-ionising radiation. There are also other types of radiation which are ionising.
Cosmic Rays Lonising radiation is radiation with high energies that can knock off electrons from atoms
Cosmic rays come from to form ions. Very high frequency ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays are examples of ionising
the Sun and other space electromagnetic radiation. High-energy particles from cosmic rays and from naturally occurring
objects outside the Solar radioactive materials are examples of ionising nuclear radiation.
System, such as distant
galaxies. They are not like Background radiation is ionising nuclear radiation in the environment when no radioactive source
light rays. They consist is deliberately introduced. Sources of background radiation can be natural or artificial (Table 20.1).
mainly of protons and a
small percentage of other Table 20.1 Sources of background radiation
subatomic particles.
Natural sources Artificial sources
The Earth’s atmosphere
reduces most of the
• Rocks • Medical X-rays
energy of cosmic rays. • Radon gas in the air • Building materials
When cosmic rays • Food and drink (e.g. foods • Waste products from nuclear
collide with the Earth’s high in potassium such as power stations
atmosphere, less banana contain small amounts
energetic particles are of radioactive potassium-40)
created. At ground level, • Cosmic rays
exposure to cosmic rays is
much less than at higher
levels above sea levels. Natural sources make a significant contribution to background radiation. At ground level, the
amounts of background radiation are usually well below the levels that the human body
can tolerate.

Low res image Low res image

Figure 20.1 The people in the photos are exposed to background radiation. For each situation, can you identify the
sources of the background radiation?

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 Chapter 20
How do we measure ionising nuclear radiation?
Ionising nuclear radiation can be measured using a detector connected to a counter (Figure 20.2).
To measure the background radiation, follow these steps:
1 Remove all known radioactive sources and set the counter to zero.

2 Start the counter and a stopwatch.

3 Stop the counter after 10 minutes and record the number of counts.

4 Divide the number of counts by 10 to obtain the number of counts per minute.

5 Repeat your measurement at least once to obtain an average value.

Alternatively, record the number of counts for a longer time interval,
for example, 20 minutes.
counter
The background count rate is measured in counts per minute
(counts/min). When the count rate is high, the counts are
measured for a shorter time, for example, 30 seconds. Low res image
detector
The average count rate in such a case is measured in counts
per second (counts/s).

S When carrying out any measurements with radioactive sources, you should first
measure the background radiation. Subtract this background count rate from your
measurements to obtain the corrected count rate for the radioactive source.

Figure 20.2 A detector attached to a counter is used to

measure ionising nuclear radiation.

Worked Example 20A QUICK CHECK

(a) A teacher turned on a radiation detector and observed the number of counts at 10-minute When measuring

intervals. She recorded her observations as follows: 198, 180, 175, 200. Determine the average ionising nuclear
background count rate. radiation from a
radioactive source, the
(b) Next, the teacher carefully placed the detector in front of a radioactive source. She measured
counter will give the true

the number of counts for 30 seconds. It was 1243. Calculate the count rate for the radioactive count rate.
source in counts/s.
True/false?
(c) S What was the corrected count rate for the radioactive source in counts/min?

Solution
198 + 180 + 175 + 200
(a) Average number of counts for 10 minutes = = 188
4

188
Average background count rate = = 19 counts/min
10

1243
(b) Count rate of the radioactive source = = 41 counts/s
30

1243
(c) S Count rate of radioactive source = = 2486 counts/min (30 s = 0.5 min)
0.5

Corrected count rate = 2486 – 19 = 2467 counts/min

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 Chapter 20
Let’s Practise 20.1
1 What is background radiation?

2 Name two natural sources of background radiation.

3 A student turned on a radiation detector for 20 minutes. The counter showed a count of 420.

What was the background radiation?
4 S In an experiment, the number of counts from a radioactive source was measured for five

minutes. It was 120. The background count was 20 counts/min. What was the corrected count
rate for the radiation from the radioactive source?
LINK TWB
5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

Exercise 20A, pp. XX–XX this section.

20.2 Nuclear Emission

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the emission of radiation from a nucleus as spontaneous and random in direction.
•

Identify alpha (α-), beta (β-) and gamma (γ-) emissions from the nucleus by recalling their nature,

their relative ionising effects and their relative penetrating abilities.
• S Describe the deflection of α-particles, β-particles and γ-radiation in electric fields and

magnetic fields.
• S Explain their relative ionising effects with reference to kinetic energy and electric charge.

How is radiation emitted from a nucleus?
If you measure background radiation at one-minute
intervals, you will observe that the count rate is always
different for successive minutes. This is not because of
errors in counting. The count rate will always be different.
Why is this so?
The radiation emitted by a radioactive nucleus is
WORD ALERT spontaneous and random in direction. It is not possible to
make the radioactive nucleus emit radiation by heating,
Spontaneous: happening cooling, chemical means or any other method. There is Low res image
suddenly no way to predict when a radioactive nucleus will emit
radiation. It is also impossible to know the direction in
which the emitted radiation will leave a nucleus. This is why
we need to make measurements over a sufficiently long
period of time to obtain an average count rate.

Figure 20.3 How does popping popcorn

simulate radioactive emission?

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 Chapter 20
What are the three types of nuclear emission?
There are three types of nuclear emission: alpha (α-) particles, beta (β-) particles and gamma (γ-) rays.
Their properties are shown in Table 20.2.

Table 20.2 The three types of nuclear emission

Nuclear Relative Relative

Nature
emission ionising effect penetrating ability

α-particles An α-particle consists of two Highest • Least

 
4 protons and two neutrons
+ tightly bound together without
• They are easily absorbed by a piece of

 
+ 2 any orbiting electrons. It is
paper, a thin aluminium foil or human
skin.
identical to a helium nucleus.
β-particles A β-particle is a fast-moving Medium • Medium

 
electron ejected from a
0 • They are absorbed by a few-mm-thick
− −1 radioactive nucleus.

 
aluminium.

γ-rays A γ-ray is electromagnetic Least • Highest

 
radiation emitted by a nucleus
with excess energy.
• They pass through most materials easily

 
and are absorbed by a few-cm-thick
lead or very thick concrete.

Worked Example 20B

An experiment was set up to investigate the penetrating power of radiation from a radioactive
source (Figure 20.4).

3 cm radioactive
to counter detector source

absorber
Figure 20.4

Table 20.3 shows the results.

Table 20.3
Background count 25 counts per minute
Count with source only 4200 counts per minute
Count with source and paper absorber 4180 counts per minute
Count with source and 3-mm-thick aluminium absorber 1200 counts per minute

What type or types of radiation does the radioactive source emit?

Solution
No α-particles are emitted because the count rate with the paper absorber is about the same
as without any absorber. The emission is partially absorbed by the 3-mm-thick aluminium — so
this must be the β-particles. Some emission is not absorbed because the count rate is quite
high at 1200 counts per minute while the background count is only 25 counts per minute. This
must be due to γ-emission from the source. The radioactive source emits β-particles and γ-rays.

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 Chapter 20
S
Relative ionising effects of nuclear emission
An ion is formed from a neutral atom when an electron leaves the atom. Energy has to be transferred
to the electron for it to leave the atom.
α- and β-particles are fast-moving charged particles. They have large amounts of kinetic energy.
α-particles have a bigger amount of kinetic energy than β-particles. Therefore, they have a bigger
ionising effect.
There is electrical force between the moving charged particles and the charged electrons in the
atoms. The electrical force transfers energy to the electrons in the atom from the kinetic energy of
the moving particles. The bigger the force, the more energy can be transferred. Table 20.3 shows that
an α-particle has twice the amount of charge of a β-particle. It has a bigger force than a β-particle.
Thus, α-particles form more ions within a short distance than β-particles.

Table 20.4 Relative charges and mass of nuclear emission

Nuclear emission Relative charge Mass (atomic mass units)

α-particles +2 4
1
β-particles −1
2000
γ-rays 0 0

γ-rays are electromagnetic waves. They do not have any charge or mass. They transfer nuclear energy
from the radioactive nuclei. γ-rays have the least ionising effect. α-particles have the greatest ionising
effect because of its +2 relative charge and high amount of kinetic energy.

What happens when α-particles, β-particles and

γ-rays travel through an electric field?
Figure 20.5 shows three different sources of nuclear radiation in a strong electric field. The path of
each type of nuclear radiation is deflected differently. Can you identify the type of nuclear radiation?
(Hint: What type of charge is carried by each type of nuclear radiation?)

negative plate

source
1 path 1

2 path 2
3
path 3

positive plate

Figure 20.5 Nuclear radiation passing through an electric field

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 Chapter 20
S Source 1 emits α-particles. The positively charged particles are attracted to the negative plate (path 1).
The deflection is not as much as path 3 because they have a relatively big mass.
Source 3 emits β-particles. The negatively charged electrons are attracted towards the positive plate
(path 3). The deflection is more because they have a small mass.
Source 2 emits γ-rays which are not deflected (path 2) because they are electromagnetic waves.

What happens when α-particles, β-particles and

γ-rays travel through a magnetic field?
Figure 20.6 shows the paths of three different types of nuclear radiation in a magnetic field. The
magnetic field is coming out of the page. (The dots represent the pointed end of arrows coming out
of the page.) Can you identify the types of nuclear radiation? (Hint: determine the direction of the
force on a stream of charged particles in a magnetic field.)

path 1

source Magnetic field

is at a right angle
1
to the page and
2 path 2 is coming out of
the page.
3
path 3

Figure 20.6 Nuclear radiation passing through a magnetic field

Source 2 emits γ-rays which are not deflected by the magnetic field because they do not carry
any charge.
Source 1 emits β-particles. The particles are deflected upwards since they are negatively charged.
They are deflected more than the alpha particles in path 3 because they have smaller mass.
Source 3 emits α-particles which are deflected downwards and less than the particles in path 1.

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 Chapter 20
Let’s Practise 20.2
1 A student was trying to measure the radiation from a radioactive source. He took readings for

a short time. His readings were as follows:
Counts/s: 520 530 510 515 540

  
  
  
  
  
The student suggested that the counter was faulty because the readings kept changing.

What explanation can you give for the changing count rate?
2 Draw lines to match the type of nuclear radiation (A) to the correct nature (B), relative

ionising effect (C) and relative penetrating abilities (D):

A B C D

α Electromagnetic radiation Least Most

ionising penetrating
β Negatively charged small Most Medium
particles ionising penetrating
γ Positively charged particles Medium Least
with high kinetic energy ionising penetrating

3 (a) S The radiation from a radioactive source is not deflected in an electric field or in a

 
magnetic field. What is this radiation?
(b) What type or types of nuclear emission will be defected in an electric field and in a


magnetic field? How can you verify the type of emission by observing its deflection?
4 S What two properties of α-particles explain their strong ionising effect?
LINK TWB

5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

Exercise 20B, pp. XX–XX this section.

20.3 Radioactive Decay

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know what is meant by radioactive decay and that the changes involved are spontaneous and random.
•

State that what happens to the nucleus during α-decay or β-decay.
•

S Know why isotopes of an element may be radioactive.
•

S Describe the effect of α-decay, β-decay and γ-emissions on the nucleus.
•

S Use decay equations, using nuclide notation, to show the emission of α-particles,

β-particles and γ-radiation.

What is radioactive decay?

Radioactive sources contain unstable nuclei. These nuclei are unstable because they change
WORD ALERT spontaneously and randomly.
A change in an unstable nucleus can result in the emission of α-particles or β-particles and/or
Nuclei: plural of nucleus γ-radiation. This nuclear process is called radioactive decay.
Decay: break down into
smaller parts
It is impossible to predict which nucleus or when a particular nucleus will decay because radioactive
decay is spontaneous and random. However, all nuclei of the same isotope will emit the same type of
nuclear radiation.
• When a nucleus undergoes α-decay, it emits an α-particle.
 
• When a nucleus undergoes β-decay, it emits a β-particle.
 
During α- or β-decay, the nucleus changes to that of a different element.

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 Chapter 20
S
Why are some isotopes radioactive?
92U) and caesium ( 55Cs) are very massive. Such a massive
The nuclei of some isotopes like uranium(238 137

nuclide has more than a hundred nucleons packed in its nucleus. These nuclei tend to be unstable. WORD ALERT
They can change into lighter nuclei by emitting α-particles.
Massive: has large mass
The element carbon has three natural isotopes: 126C, 136C and 146C. Which nuclide has the most neutrons?
By looking at the nucleon number, we know it is carbon-14. Carbon-14 has eight neutrons, which is
more than the six protons in the nucleus. Similarly, the nuclide sodium-24 (2411Na) has 13 neutrons but
only 11 protons. These nuclides with excess neutrons are unstable. They can change into nuclei with
fewer excess neutrons by emitting β-particles.

How does α-decay make a nucleus more stable?

When a very massive nuclide such as radon-224 decays by emitting an α-particle, it changes into a
nucleus of a lighter element. This nucleus has a nucleon number A smaller by 4 and proton number
Z smaller by 2. The new element formed is polonium. How does this happen? The nuclide equation
below shows how radon-224 undergoes α-decay:

nucleon number
decreases by 4

218 4
222
Rn ➞ Po + 2 He
86 84
 
 
proton number
decreases by 4

During α-decay, the nucleus ejects four nucleons consisting of two protons and two neutrons.
The nucleus now has four fewer nucleons. The four ejected nucleons form a helium nucleus. This QUICK CHECK
helium nucleus is referred to as an α-particle and can simply be written as 42α. The decay equation can
then be written as: The nuclide equation
for α-particle decay of
222
86
Rn ➞ 218
84
Po + 42α polonium is as follows:
Although polonium is less massive than radon, it is still not stable. It further decays by emitting Po
218
84 ➞ 21482Pb + 42α
α-particles to become the lead nuclide 214 Pb.
82 True or false?

How does β-decay make a nucleus more stable?

A β-particle is a negatively charged electron. However, there are no electrons in the nucleus of an
atom. So how can a nucleus emit an electron?
The process is complex and involves another extremely small particle. To simplify, the following
describes what happens during a β-decay:
• A neutron changes into a proton and an electron (neutron ➞ proton + electron).
 
• The proton remains in the nucleus. The electron is emitted as a β-particle.
 
• As a result, the proton number Z increases by one while the nucleon number A remains the same.
 
As an example, let’s take a look at carbon-14 undergoing β-decay as shown below:
nucleon number
remains the same

14 ➞ 14 0
6
C 7
N + −1 β
 
 
 
proton number
increases by 1

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 Chapter 20
S When carbon-14 emits a β-particle, it changes into the nitrogen nuclide with seven neutrons and
seven protons. Before the decay, the carbon nuclide has eight neutrons but only six protons.
The new nitrogen nuclide does not have excess neutrons compared to the number of protons.
The lead nuclide 214
82
Pb decays by β-emission to form the nuclide bismuth 214
83
Bi. Try writing out the
nuclide equation for this decay. Check your answer in the following discussion on γ-emission.

How does γ-emission make a nucleus more stable?

After a nucleus emits an α- or a β-particle, the nucleus may have excess energy. It releases this excess
energy by emitting γ-rays. For example, when the lead nuclide 214 82
Pb decays, the nuclide, bismuth 214
83
Bi
is left with excess energy. This excess energy is released as γ-emission. Both the number of protons
and the number of neutrons in the nucleus are not changed in the process. During γ- emission,
the proton number Z and the nucleon number A remain the same.
The two types of emission can be represented by the following nuclide equations:

214 214 *
82 Pb ➞ 83 Bi + -01β
214 *
83 Bi ➞
214
83 Bi +
γ

The asterisk * is used to indicate that a particular nucleus has excess energy (or is in an excited state).
The equations are usually combined into one:
214 214 0
82
Pb ➞ 83 Bi + -1β + γ
 
 
Similarly, when radium decays to radon, the radon nucleus is left with excess energy, which it
releases as γ-radiation:
226 222
88 Ra ➞ 86 Rn + 42 α + γ
 
 
There are some rare artificial isotopes that emit only γ-rays, like the unstable technetium-99m.
(The ‘m’ stands for ‘metastable’.)
99m 99
43 Tc 43 Tc
➞ +γ
 
Table 20.5 summarises the changes to the nucleus during radioactive decay.

Table 20.5 What happens to the nucleus during radioactive decay

Type Effect on nucleus Decay equation
α-decay • Loses two neutrons and two protons
A A−4 4
 
• X ➞ Z − 2 Y + 2α
 
 
Becomes a less massive nucleus of a different Z
 
 
  
 
 
 
 
element
β-decay • One neutron in nucleus changes into a
 
proton and an electron; proton remains in
A 0
the nucleus, electron is emitted (β-particle)
Z
X ➞ Z +A1 Y + − 1 β
  
 
•
  
 
 
 
Becomes the nucleus of a different element
 
with fewer excess neutrons
γ-emission • Releases excess energy
A A A
➞ AZ X + γ X* ➞ Z X + γ
 
• No change in atomic number or mass Z
X or
Z
  
 
 
  
 
 
 
number

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 Chapter 20
Let’s Practise 20.3
1 Complete the sentences:

(a) is a change in an unstable nucleus that can result in the emission of


α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation. These changes are and
.
(b) During α- or β-decay, the nucleus changes to that of a different .


2 S What two types of isotopes may be radioactive?

3 S Complete the sentences:

(a) When a nucleus emits an α-particle, its nucleon number and its


proton number .
(b) When a nucleus emits a β-particle, its nucleon number and its proton


number . It now has excess neutrons.
4 S Write the nuclide equations for the following two processes:

(a) 238
92U decays to Th by emitting an α-particle and γ-radiation.


(b) 55Cs decays to Ba by emitting a β-particle and γ-radiation.
137
TWB LINK


5 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section. Exercise 20C, pp. XX–XX

20.4 Half-life
In this section, you will learn the following:
• Define the half-life of a particular isotope.
•

Recall and use the definition of half-life in simple calculations.
•

S Calculate half-life from data or decay curves from which background radiation has not

been subtracted.
• S Explain how the type of radiation emitted and the half-life of an isotope determine which

isotope is used for applications.

What is half-life?
Nobody knows exactly when a particular nucleus will decay. However, every isotope has a definite rate
of decay which cannot be changed by heating, cooling or any other methods. We can make predictions HELPFUL NOTES
about the decay of a large number of nuclei of a particular isotope because it has a fixed half-life.
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half the nuclei of that isotope in any The half-life of an isotope
can also be understood
sample to decay.
as the time taken for
For example, the half-life of iodine-131 is eight days. Suppose there are 120 million iodine-131 in the the count rate of the
beginning. Observe the number after 8 days, 16 days and 24 days. The results are as shown: radioactive emission to
fall by half.
start 8 days 16 days 24 days

120 million 60 million 30 million 15 million

iodine-131 iodine-131 iodine-131 iodine-131
nuclei nuclei nuclei nuclei

half-life half-life half-life

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 Chapter 20
Experimentally, the time taken for the count rate of the radioactive emission to fall by half is the
half-life of the isotope. The graph of count rate against time is called the decay curve (Figure 20.7).

Number of iodine-131
atoms/millions

120

ENRICHMENT
THINK
Technetium 99 has a half-
life of 215 000 years. Its
isomer, Technetium 99m, 60
has a half-life of six hours.
Which of the two is
suitable to be used as
30
a medical tracer for 15
scanning the internal
organ of a patient? 0 Time/days
8 16 24
Explain why.
Figure 20.7 Decay curve

S
Worked Example 20C
In an experiment, a radiation detector was placed close to a radioactive source. The count rate was
measured at five-minute intervals for 30 min. The results for the first 20 min are shown in Table 20.6.
Table 20.6

Time/min 0 5 10 15 20
Count rate
12 012 8558 6098 4344 3095
Counts / min

(a) Use the data to estimate the half-life of the radioactive source.

(b) What could be the approximate count rate at the end of 30 min?

Solution
(a) At the start of the experiment, the count rate was 12 012 counts/min. Half of this rate is about

6000 counts/min. From the table, the count rate decreases to 6098 counts/min after 10 min.
Therefore, the half-life of the radioactive source is about 10 min.
(You can check to see that after another 10 min (i.e. time = 20 min), the count rate is further

halved from about 6000 to 3000 counts/min.)
(b) The half-life is 10 min. At the end of 20 min, the count rate was about 3000 counts/min. So, in

the next 10 minutes (i.e. at the end of 30 min), this rate would be halved to 1500 counts/min.

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S
Worked Example 20D
The decay curve of a radioactive isotope is shown in Figure 20.8. Use the graph to estimate the
half-life of the isotope.
Count rate
Count/s

9000

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

Time/min
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Figure 20.8 Decay curve for a radioactive isotope
Solution
The solution is shown in Figure 20.9 From the decay curve, the half-life is 3 min.
Count rate
Count/s

9000

8000

7000 count rate

drops by half
6000 from 9000 to
4500
5000

4000 half-life

3000

2000

1000

Time/min
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
half-life = 3 minutes
Figure 20.9 Determining the half-life of an isotope from a decay curve

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S In Worked Examples 20C and 20D, the count rates are very high. Now consider the decay curve in
Figure 20.10. Why does the count rate remain at about 20 counts/min after some time?
The almost constant count rate of 20 counts/min is due to the background radiation. In this example,
the small sample has completely decayed. What is the half-life of this isotope? From the decay curve
in Figure 20.11, the half-life is 20 min.
Count rate Count rate
Counts/min Counts/min
500 500

400 400
count rate drops
by half from 400
300 300 (420 – 20) to 200
(420 – 220 or
220 – 20)
200 200

100 100

0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250

Time/min half-life = 20 min Time/min
Figure 20.10 Decay curve from which Figure 20.11 Determining the half-life from decay
background radiation has not been subtracted curve from which background radiation has not
been subtracted

Worked Example 20E

In an experiment to measure the half-life of an isotope, the count rate was measured at 10-min
intervals for 40 min. The results are shown in Table 20.7.
Table 20.7

Time/min 0 10 20 30 40
Count rate
423 305 219 165 124
Counts / min

The background count rate was 20 counts/min.

(a) Determine the corrected count rates.

(b) Estimate the half-life of the isotope.

Solution
Subtract 20 from each count rate to obtain the corrected count rate.
Table 20.8

Time/min 0 10 20 30 40
Count rate
403 285 199 145 104
Counts / min

The starting count rate was about 400 counts/min. Half of this quantity is 200 counts/min. From
Table 20.8, the count rate falls to this value after about 20 min. So, the half-life is about 20 min.

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 Chapter 20
S
What are the uses of radioactivity?
Radioactive isotopes have many practical uses. Table 20.9 shows how the half-life and the type of
radiation emitted determine which isotope is used for a particular application.

Table 20.9 Some applications of radioactivity

Requirements
Application How it works
Type of radiation Half-life ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY
Household fire (smoke) alarm α-particles have the highest Doctors use radioactive
When there are smoke
ionising ability and they are isotopes called tracers to
particles, the alarm sound
easily stopped by smoke identify abnormal body
because an ionising current is
particles. Isotope must emit
interrupted. processes. Tracers emit
α-particles.
α-particles, β-particles or
Irradiating food to kill bacteria γ- rays and can be used
Long (more than a
γ-rays have the highest few years) so that a to follow the path of a
Radiation penetrates food and
penetrating ability. Isotope small quantity can single element around
kills bacteria.
must emit γ-rays. last a long time the body.
In small groups, discuss
Sterilisation of equipment and make a list of
γ-rays pass through sealed
packages of medical
the advantages and
Isotope must emit γ-rays. disadvantages of using
equipment such as dressing,
syringes and needles tracers in medicine.
Present your list to
Measuring and controlling the • Radiation passes through
 
α-particles cannot be used. the class.
thickness of materials continuous roll of materials. They are easily absorbed.
Whether to use β-particles or
• Thickness is indicated by
 

γ-rays depends on the type of

change in count rate. material.
β-particles can pass through
these materials though some
will be absorbed. Count rate
Thin materials such as paper will depend on thickness.
Long so that a
and plastic film γ-rays pass through too easily
small quantity can
to show changes in count
last for some time
rate. Isotope should emit
β-particles.

β-particles will be completely

Materials such as metal plates absorbed. Isotope should
emit γ-rays.

In medicine — diagnosis and For cancer diagnosis, small

treatment of cancer doses of isotopes that emit
γ-rays are taken into the body.
Gamma cameras are used to
obtain images for diagnosis. Short (at most
a few hours) so
For cancer treatment, Isotope must emit γ-rays.
that they will not
isotopes are inserted near remain in the body
the cancerous growth.
γ-rays damage cancer cells,
controlling and even stopping
their growth.
Iodine-131 is used to treat
thyroid cancer. It emits
α-particles that destroy Iodine -131 emits α-particles. Short, 8 days
thyroid cells including the
cancer cells.

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 Chapter 20
Let’s Practise 20.4
1 The half-life of a particular radioactive isotope is 15 h. A counter recorded a count rate of

8800 counts/min. It continues to record the count rate for the next 45 h.
(a) What is half-life?

(b) After how long will the count rate be about 4400 counts/min?

(c) What will be the approximate count rate at the end of 45 h?


2 S On a particular day, the background count was 25 counts/min. A student measured the

radiation from a radioactive isotope for 20 min. The counter showed the total number of
counts as 2800. What was the count rate for the radiation from the isotope?
3 S You need to choose a radioactive isotope for a particular application. Explain the two

properties you need to consider when making your choice.
LINK TWB
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

Exercise 20D pp. XX–XX this section.

20.5 Safety Precautions

In this section, you will learn the following:
• State the effects of ionising nuclear radiations on living things.
•

Describe how radioactive materials are moved, used and stored in a safe way.
•

S Explain safety precautions for all ionising radiation.

How does ionising nuclear radiation affect living things?
Ionising nuclear radiation damages living cells. The energy carried by the
radiation can kill cells and cause mutation and cancer (Figure 20.12).
During World War II, two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, were
exposed to a large amount of ionising nuclear radiation released by atomic
bombs. Mutations in the genes of many survivors led to children with
disabilities and health problems. The Chernobyl nuclear reactor accident
Low res image
in 1986 caused a large leakage of radioactive dust into the air, which led to
health problems in people, livestock and plants.
In more recent times, another nuclear plant disaster had occurred. The
Fukushima nuclear plant was destroyed by a tsunami in 2011. The Japanese
were once again exposed to nuclear radiation. People had to abandon
places contaminated by the radiation (Figure 20.13).

Figure 20.12 Radiation can cause a healthy

cell to become cancerous.

Low res image

Figure 20.13 Radiation hotspot in Kashiwa, Japan

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 Chapter 20
How do we handle radioactive materials safely?
When using radioactive materials, use gloves and tongs. Wear protective clothing such as lab coats,
shoe covers and safety glasses to prevent contamination. When moving a radioactive source, make
sure it is in a suitable container to prevent exposure to nuclear radiation. For example, a sample of
isotope that emits γ-rays must be stored in a lead box.
All radioactive materials should be kept in sealed and clearly labelled lead boxes. This is to prevent
WORD ALERT
nuclear emissions from escaping into the air. The boxes should be kept in a secure place that is not
easily accessible by anyone.
Accessible: easily within
S What safety precautions can be taken to prevent overexposure to ionising radiation? reach
Below are three important ways to control exposure to ionising radiation:
• Reduce exposure time: For example, complete the experimental setup first before introducing
 
the radioactive source. Carry out experiments involving radioactive materials only in designated
locations. These locations should only be used for work that requires the use of ionising radiation.
• Increase distance between source and living tissue: The intensity of all ionising radiation decreases
 
with distance. Use long tongs or remote-controlled devices to increase the distance between
radioactive materials and your body.
• Shielding: Use materials that absorb ionising radiation to protect your body. For example, use
 
lead-lined gloves and suits, and thick concrete walls and lead-lined doors for rooms in which
ionising radiation is used.

Low res image

healthy

Let’s Practise 20.5

1 State two negative effects of ionising nuclear radiations on living things. TWB LINK
2 What kind of box is suitable to store radioactive sources in a safe way?
Exercises 20E–20F,
3 S State three ways to control exposure to ionising radiation.

pp. XX–XX
4 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in Exercise 20G Let’s Reflect,
this section. p. X

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 Chapter
Chapter 20 20

Let’s Map It

Background radiation
from sources including Safety precautions
• radon gas in the air • Reduce exposure time
RADIOACTIVITY
causes
• rocks and buildings • Increase distance
• food and drink from source
• Shield from source
• cosmic rays

Three types of
nuclear emission

can be
measured
using
+ 4
+ 2 α
• Alpha (α-) particle: two
protons and two neutrons
• Beta (β-) particle: fast-moving
−
0
−1 β
Electronic detector electron Radioactive decay
connected to a counter • Gamma (γ-) ray: from unstable nucleus
electromagnetic radiation

• Measures count rate in

counts/s or counts/min • Spontaneous and random
• Corrected count rate = emission
count rate - background • Relative penetrative power
count rate
• Relative ionisation power
• Deflection in electric and
magnetic fields

Decay equations Half-life

• α-decay • Time taken for half the
A A-4 4 nuclei of that isotope in
ZX → Z - 2Y + 2α
any sample to decay.
• β-decay
A A 0
Z X → Z + 1 Y + -1 β
• γ-emission
Am A
ZX → ZX + γ
Or
A * A
ZX → ZX + γ

16 Radioactivity
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 Chapter 20

Let’s Review

Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 7 There is 80 mg of radioactive chemical in a container.

1 Background radiation is The half-life of the radioactive chemical is 5 years. The
chemical decays into a stable compound. How much of

A  electromagnetic radiation from the Sun.
the chemical is still radioactive at the end of 10 years?
B  microwave radiation from mobile phones and
A  8 mg

wireless Internet.
B  16 mg
C  ionising nuclear radiation from radioactive sources
C  20 mg

left in the laboratory.
D  ionising nuclear radiation in the laboratory when D  40 mg

there is no radioactive source present. 8 S A student was investigating the activity of a

2 Which atoms in a sample of radioactive isotope will radioactive source. When the radiation detector
was placed next to the source, the count rate was

decay first?
750 counts/min. The half-life of the source was 10 min.
A  Half the atoms inside the sample
The background count rate was 30 counts/min. What
B  Atoms that have lost their electrons was the count rate after 20 min?
C  Atoms near the surface because they are exposed A  180 counts/min

to air
B  195 counts/min
D  No particular atoms because the process is random
C  210 counts/min
3 Which statement about α-particles is correct? D  225 counts/min

A  They emit gamma rays.
9 S The isotope technetium-99m emits only γ-rays.
B  They travel as electromagnetic waves.

Its half-life is six hours. It is used for detecting cancer
C  They are not ionising nuclear radiation. because it
D  They are the least penetrating of the nuclear A  has a short half-life.

emission. B  is a cheap source of γ-rays.
4 S Which statement about γ-emission is correct? C  will emit radiation for only six hours.

A  They are emitted by β-particles. D  takes about six hours to detect cancer cells.
B  They travel at the same speed as visible light in air. 10 A radioactive chemical decays by emitting β-particles
C  They travel at the same speed as β-particles emitted

and γ-rays. What type of material should be used for the

by the same nuclei. container?
D  The atomic number of the nucleus increases by one A  lead

when it emits γ-radiation. B  plastic
5 A radioactive isotope decays by emitting β-particles. C  cardboard

What happens to an atom of the isotope when it D  aluminium
decays?
A  It gains electrons.
B  It loses electrons.
C  It becomes a β-particle.
D  It changes into another element.
6 S The equation represents radioactive decay:

227
89
Ac ➞ 227 90
Th + Y

 
What does Y represent?
A  neutron
B  α-particle
C  β-particle
D  γ-emission

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 Chapter 20

Let’s Review

Section B: Short-answer and Structured 4 S Radioactive cobalt-60, 60 27 Co, decays by β-emission to

 
Questions the element nickel (Ni) and emits γ-radiation.
1 In a school laboratory, a student turns on a radiation (a)  Write down the equation representing this decay.



detector for 20 min. The counter reads 440 counts. There (b)  The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5.3 years. A container


is no radioactive material in the laboratory. contains 16 mg of radioactive cobalt-60. After how
(a)  What is the count rate for the radiation? many years will the amount of radioactive cobalt-60
(b)  What are two possible sources for the radiation that be reduced to 1 mg?

the detector measures? 5 S The isotope americium-241, 241 95 Am, has a half-life of

 
(c)  What is the name for the radiation? 430 years. It decays to form 237 93 Np. It is commonly used

 
in smoke detectors that makes use of ionisation. The
2 A particular radioactive isotope decays by emitting
alarm sounds when smoke breaks the flow of ions.

α-particles. It has a half-life of 430 years.
(a)  What type of radiation does americium-241 emit
(a)  What is an α-particle?


that makes it suitable for use in smoke detectors?
(b)  What does half-life of 430 years mean? Explain the property that makes it suitable.
(c)  Another radioactive isotope decays by emitting (b)  Suggest another reason (other than the type of

β-particles. State two ways in which β-particles are


radiation) that makes this isotope a good choice for
different from α-particles. use in smoke detectors.
3 S A radioactive source is placed in a strong electric field. (c)  In such a smoke detector, a very small quantity

Figure 20.14 shows the path of the emission from the


of americium-241 is encased in a layer of foil and
radioactive source. ceramic. Explain why this will prevent the radiation
positive plate from harming the user.

negative plate
Figure 20.14

(a)  Identify the type of emission. Explain your answer.

(b)  Complete Figure 20.15 to show the effect on the

radiation when the source is placed in a strong
magnetic field. The magnetic field is at a right angle
to the paper and is going into the paper.

Figure 20.15

(c)  Explain why long tongs should be used to pick up


the source.

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 CHAPTER
Earth and the
21 Solar System

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip of how the

photo of Earthrise was captured.

QUESTIONS

• Why do you see only half of the Earth?

• Where on the Earth is it daytime and
In 1968, Apollo 8 left the Earth and went into orbit round the Moon

where is it night?
before returning to Earth. It was the first spacecraft to do so while • In which direction is the Sun?
carrying astronauts. The three crew members were looking for a

• Why do you think this photograph had
future landing site on the Moon. They were photographing the

a profound effect on people’s feelings
brown-grey moon rocks when they noticed the Earth coming into about the Earth? How does it affect you?
view at another window of the spacecraft. Bill Anders, one of the
astronauts, took a colour photo which is now known as ‘Earthrise’.
The photo had a profound effect on people’s feelings about the
Earth at that time.

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 Chapter 21

21.1 The Earth

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that the Earth is a planet that rotates on its tilted axis once in about 24 hours. Use this to

explain observations of the apparent daily motion of the Sun and the periodic cycle of day
and night.
• Know that the Earth orbits the Sun once in about 365 days. Use this to explain the periodic nature

of the seasons.
• Know that the Moon takes about one month to orbit the Earth. Use this to explain

the Moon’s phases.
2πr
• S Define average orbital speed and use the equation v = .
T

 
How does the Earth move?
The Earth is a planet. Planets orbit a star. Our star is the Sun.
ENRICHMENT The Earth takes about 365 days or one year to orbit the Sun. Every time you celebrate your birthday,
INFO you have travelled one more time around the Sun! How many times have you travelled around
Leap Years the Sun?
Our calendars have
The Earth also rotates on its axis and it takes about 24 hours or one day to rotate once. The Earth’s axis
365 days in a year. The
Earth takes closer to is tilted at an angle of about 23.5 degrees towards the plane of its orbit.
365 days and six hours to
travel once around the
Sun. In four years, the
How does day and night come about?
difference between the Stars produce energy by nuclear fusion and give out light so they shine brightly. A planet only shines
orbit time and calendar when the light from a star lands on it.
time adds up to 24 hours.
So, in every four years, The Sun shines on the half of the Earth that is facing it. This half experiences daytime. The other half
an extra day is added to is in darkness, which experiences night-time. In 24 hours, the Earth spins once and we move from the
the calendar making a light into darkness and back into the light again.
leap year. In a leap year,
On the Earth, we see the Sun move across the sky from East to West. This apparent movement is
February has 29 days
instead of 28 days.
because the Earth is spinning about its axis as it orbits the Sun.

24°
of tilt
WORD ALERT

Apparent: can be
observed

NIGHT DAY

spin axis
Earth’s orbit round the Sun light from
the Sun
Figure 21.1 The day and night cycle is due to the Earth’s rotation about its tilted axis.

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 Chapter 21
What is a season?
Temperate countries have different weather patterns at different times of the year. These weather
patterns are called seasons. There are four seasons every year — spring, summer, autumn WORD ALERT
and winter.
Temperate: having
Seasons occur because the Earth orbits the Sun on a tilt. At different times of the year, places on the moderate climate,
Earth receive different amounts of the Sun’s rays. experienced by
Figure 21.2 shows how the tilt of the Earth’s axis affects the periods of daytime and night-time. countries between the
tropics and the polar
Here, the North Pole is tilted directly towards the Sun.
regions of the Earth

North

B
X QUICK CHECK
NIGHT DAY
Refer to Figure 21.2.
C Point X is experiencing
dawn. Night has just
ended and daytime is
starting.
D
True or false?

E
light from
the Sun

A is at the Arctic Circle. B is in the temperate C is on the Equator. Places

Places north of this circle will zone between A and C. around the Equator have
be in daylight for 24 hours Places here have longer equal periods of daytime
and the Sun never sets. days and shorter nights. and night-time.

D is in the temperate E is at the Antarctic Circle.

zone between C and E. Places south of this circle will
Places here have shorter be in darkness for 24 hours
days and longer nights. and the Sun never rises.

Figure 21.2 The tilt of the Earth’s axis causes different parts of the Earth to have different lengths of daytime
and night-time.

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 Chapter 21
Figure 21.3 shows the Earth in its orbit at different times of the year and the corresponding seasons
for the Northern Hemisphere.

Low res image Low res image

SPRING
March
Northern North Pole
Hemisphere

Equator

SUMMER Sun WINTER

June December

Earth’s orbit

ENRICHMENT
ACTIVITY AUTUMN
September
Figure 21.3 is certainly not
drawn to scale. Try this to
see why!
Earth’s radius = 6 x 106 m
Sun’s radius = 7 x 108 m
Low res image Low res image
Radius of Earth’s orbit =
1.5 x 1011 m
If the Sun’s radius was
reduced to 5mm, what
would the distance Figure 21.3 The seasons in the Northern Hemisphere (not to scale).
between the Sun and
the Earth be to the same
scale? On this same scale, In the months around June, the tilt of the North Pole is towards the Sun. As shown in Figure 21.3, the
what would the Earth’s Northern Hemisphere, above the Equator, will have long days and short nights. It is hotter because
radius be? the Sun rises higher in the sky and there are more hours of sunshine. This is the summer season.
As the orbit continues, the Earth’s axis no longer tilts towards the Sun. In September, the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted in the direction of travel. The days gradually become shorter and the nights
QUICK CHECK longer. Shorter days mean cooler temperatures, and it is autumn.
Around December, the tilt of the North Pole will be away from the Sun. In the Northern Hemisphere,
Look at the Southern the days will be shortest and the nights longest. Fewer hours of sunlight and the Sun rises lower in
Hemisphere in Figure 21.3. the sky means it will be colder. This is winter.
It will be winter in June
and summer in December. In March, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted in the direction of travel again. The days gradually
True or false? become longer and the nights shorter. The land will be warming up again as spring arrives.

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 Chapter 21
How does the Sun appear to move during the day?
Remember that the Sun appears to move across the sky because the Earth is spinning about its axis HELPFUL NOTES
as it orbits the Sun. The Earth spins from West to East, so the Sun appears to rise in the East and set in
the West. You must never look
directly at the Sun. A
At the Equator, the Sun always rises due east and sets due west, so the days and nights are always glass lens can focus the
12 hours long. The Sun is almost directly overhead at midday all year. Places near the Equator Sun’s rays to set fire to
have little seasonal change because the Sun’s position in the sky does not change very much paper. Your eye lens
all year. would focus the Sun’s
energy onto the light
In the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun’s path across the sky is longer in summer than in winter. sensitive cells of your eye
Also, the Sun rises higher in the sky in summer than in winter. and damage them.
Light from the Sun is more intense when it is higher in the sky as the rays spread over a smaller area
of the Earth.
Figure 21.4 shows the apparent motion of the Sun in the sky for Manchester in the UK. PHYSICS WATCH
Manchester is about 53 degrees north of the Equator. On the longest day of the year, June 21st,
there is 17 hours between sunrise and sunset. On the shortest day, December 21st, there is only Scan this page to watch
7.5 hours of daylight. how the Sun appears
to move across the
sky. They are taken at
the same place on the
longest day and the
East South West shortest day.
What differences do you
expect to see?

QUICK CHECK

The Sun moves across

the sky in the daytime
because it is orbiting
around the Earth.
True or False?

June 21 : about December 21 : about

17 hours of daylight 7.5 hours of daylight

Figure 21.4 The Sun’s apparent movement across the sky 53 degrees north of the Equator.
ENRICHMENT
Why does the Moon’s appearance change? ACTIVITY

Make a record of the

Some planets have natural satellites or moons that orbit them as they orbit the Sun. The Earth has Moon’s appearance.
one natural satellite called the Moon. Like the planets, moons do not give out light. We only see Observe the Moon every
the Moon’s surface when light is reflected back from it. day for 28 days. Note the
date and the time you
The Moon takes approximately 28 days to orbit the Earth once. It orbits the Earth with the same side made the observation.
facing the Earth as it travels round. Draw a circle to
represent the Moon and
shade in the dark part to
record its appearance.
Use Figure 21.5 on
page 352 to show where
the Moon is in its orbit
round the Earth.

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 Chapter 21
The appearance of the Moon in the sky changes from day to day. This depends on the Moon’s
position relative to the Sun and the Earth. The different appearances are known as the
ENRICHMENT phases of the Moon.
INFO
Study Figure 21.5. The Earth, with the Moon at different positions in its orbit (inner circle), is shown as
The Sun is about 400 times viewed from above the North Pole. The Moon is also shown as how it appears from the Earth at those
further from the Earth different positions (outer circle).
than the Moon. The Sun’s
diameter is about One half of the Moon is in sunlight, so the Moon is always half-illuminated. When the Moon is in
400 times greater than position 1, the bright half of the Moon is facing the Earth. On the Earth, you would see a bright round
the Moon’s. So, the Sun full Moon in the sky at night.
and Moon appear to be As the Moon continues its orbit, less and less of the bright half of the Moon is facing the Earth, and
the same size in the sky. more and more of the dark side of the Moon is seen. Positions 2, 3 and 4 in Figure 21.5 shows how the
Occasionally, for some Moon appears from Earth as the bright part is getting smaller or waning.
places on Earth, a new
Moon coincides exactly In position 5, the dark side of the Moon is facing the Earth. This is called the new Moon. It is only
with the Sun. The Moon illuminated by a little light reflected from the Earth. This occurs in daytime so the new Moon is
completely blocks out the not visible.
Sun. This is called a total In the rest of its orbit, more and more of the bright part of the Moon can be seen from the Earth.
eclipse. The Sun disappears
The Moon is said to be waxing.
and daytime turns to night-
time for a few minutes.

First Quarter

Waxing Gibbous Waxing Crescent

Full New
S
U
1 5 N
Low res image L
I
G
H
T

2
4

Waning Gibbous Waning Crescent

3
Third Quarter

Figure 21.5 The phases of the Moon (not to scale).

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 Chapter 21
S
How quickly is the Moon orbiting the Earth?
Remember that speed is distance travelled per unit time and average speed is given by the equation:
s where v = average speed (in m/s)
v=
t

s = total distance travelled (in m)

t = total time taken (in s)

For a circular orbit, the total distance for one orbit would be the circumference of
a circle.
Circumference = 2πr where r = average orbital radius

The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is a slightly squashed circle called an ellipse.
But if we use the average radius of the orbit, we can use the following equation for the
average orbital speed:
2πr
v= where v = average orbital speed (in m/s)
T

r = average orbital radius

T = orbital period

Worked Example 21A LINK

It takes 27.3 days for the Moon to travel once around the Earth. The average radius of the Moon’s Recall what you have
orbit is 385 000 km. Calculate the average orbital speed of the Moon. learnt in Chapter 2 about
Solution speed and average
speed.
First, we must convert the units.
Average radius = 385 000 km = 3.85 × 108 m
Orbital period = 27.3 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 2.36 × 106 s
2πr 2(3.85 × 108)
Average orbital speed = = = 1.03 × 103 m/s
T 2.36 × 106

Let’s Practise 21.1

1 Choose from the words below to complete the sentences.

natural satellite planet star



The Earth is a which orbits a called the Sun.

The Moon is a of the Earth.
2 State how many times the Earth spins on its axis every year.

3 Which is the correct reason for the Sun’s apparent movement across the sky every day?

A The Sun’s rotation about its axis.


B The Earth’s rotation about its axis.


C The Sun’s rotation around the Earth.


D The Earth’s rotation around the Sun.


4 State whether each of these statements is true or false.

(a) A new Moon occurs when the dark side of the Moon faces the Earth.


(b) A full Moon occurs when the dark side of the Moon faces the Earth. WORD ALERT


(c) A first quarter Moon occurs when half of the bright side is seen and this part is decreasing. Sliver: small, thin


(d) A waxing crescent Moon occurs when a sliver of the bright side is seen and this part and narrow part of


is increasing. something

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 Chapter 21

5 S The International Space Station orbits the Earth 410 km above its surface. It takes

92 minutes to complete one orbit. Work out its average orbital speed in m/s.
(Take the radius of the Earth to be 6 400 km.)
LINK TWB 6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

Exercise 21A, pp. XX–XX this section.

21.2 The Solar System

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Describe the Solar System.
•

Know the physical difference between the four planets nearest to the Sun and the four planets

furthest from the Sun. Explain this difference.
• Know what affects the strength of a planet’s gravitational field.
•

Know that planets orbit the Sun due to the mass of the Sun.
•

Know that the Sun’s gravitational attraction keeps an object in orbit around the Sun.
•

Calculate the time it takes for light to travel between objects in the Solar System.
•

S Know that planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits and that the Sun is not at

the centre except when the orbit is nearly circular.
• S Know that an object in an elliptical orbit travels faster when closer to the Sun and explain this

using the conservation of energy.
• S Analyse and interpret planetary data.
•

S Know how the Sun’s gravitational field decreases with distance and how this affects the orbital

speed of the planets.

How was the Solar System formed?

The Earth, Sun and Moon are part of our Solar System. Figure 21.6 shows the main known objects
lined up. The diagram is certainly not to scale — most of the Solar System is empty space.

Low res image

Figure 21.6 Diagram showing the main objects in our Solar System

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 Chapter 21
Table 21.1 gives more information about the main objects in our Solar System.
Table 21.1 Main objects in our Solar System

One star called the Sun is

at the centre of our Solar Other objects in the Solar System that orbit the Sun
System. are minor planets which include:

Eight planets orbit the Sun.

• In order of their distance
Dwarf planets — these are
 
from the Sun, these are
less massive than the eight
called Mercury, Venus,
planets but are also almost
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
spherical. Their gravity is not
Uranus and Neptune.
enough to attract nearby
• Mercury, Venus, Earth and matter, so there may be other
 
Mars are smaller rocky objects in their orbit. Pluto is
planets. Jupiter, Saturn, a dwarf planet in the Kuiper
Uranus and Neptune are belt with a very elliptical orbit.
larger planets made from
gas and ice.

Most of the eight planets

Asteroids — these are
have one or several moons.
irregularly shaped lumps
A moon is a natural satellite
of rock left over from the
which orbits a planet. The
formation of the Solar System.
Earth has just one moon.
Asteroids have elliptical orbits.
Saturn has over 50 moons.

The asteroid belt between Comets — these are lumps

Mars and Jupiter contains of frozen gases and dust left
many asteroids. Ceres is the ENRICHMENT
over from the birth of the
only object in the asteroid belt INFO
Solar System and they have
which is large enough to be Pluto
very elliptical orbits.
classified as a dwarf planet. Pluto was discovered in
1930 and declared to be
The Kuiper belt beyond the ninth planet of the
The Oort cloud is thought Neptune contains more Solar System. After 1992,
to contain icy rocks and leftovers from Solar System. it was found to be less
massive than previously
dwarf planets like the It has asteroids and other
thought, so it was
Kuiper belt. It is also home dwarf planets as well as Pluto. reclassified as a dwarf
to comets with orbit times Comets with orbit times of planet.
longer than 200 years. less than 200 years, such as
Halley’s comet, originate here.

About 4.6 billion years ago, the Solar System was formed from a swirling cloud of gas and dust in LINK
space. These clouds called nebulae consist of mainly hydrogen plus a mixture of heavier elements.
Recall what you have
The particles in the cloud were attracted to each other because of the force of gravity between them.
learnt in Chapter 3 about
Gradually, the cloud began to collapse which made it spin faster. Gravitational potential energy gravity.
became kinetic energy as the particles began to move. Then kinetic energy became heat energy Recall what you have
as they crashed together. A hot spinning mass called a protostar was formed at the centre of a learnt in Chapter 6 about
swirling disc of gas and dust. The swirling disc is called an accretion disc. gravitational potential
Accretion is the accumulation of particles into a massive object by gravitational attraction. energy and kinetic
energy.
Eventually, the protostar became dense and hot enough for nuclear fusion to occur at its centre. It
became a star — the Sun — and began to give out an enormous amount of energy.

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 Chapter 21
The matter in the spinning disc also gradually clumped together to become the rest of the Solar
System. The four rocky planets formed from heavier material that was pulled near the Sun by its force
of gravity. Lighter gases collected further away, forming the four gas giants.

WORD ALERT A cloud of dust and gas, a A protostar is formed at the The central mass



nebula, is pulled inwards centre with a disc of gas becomes a star. Matter
Nebula: singular of by the force of gravity. and dust swirling round it. in the disc collects to
nebulae form the planets, moons
Figure 21.7 The stages in the birth of the Solar System. and asteroids.

S
What determines gravitational field strength?
Particles of gas and dust are small and have little mass. So their gravitational field strength is small
LINK and the force of attraction is weak. As they clump together, the mass and the gravitational field
strength will increase. It will attract other particles with more force. The process is very slow at first but
The speed of light is gradually speeds up. It takes millions of years for a cloud of dust and gas to form a Solar System.
3 × 108 m/s. At what The Sun contains 99% of the matter in the Solar System, so its gravitational field is very strong. This is
speed do radio waves
why it pulls the planets into orbit around it and they do not fly off into space. The gravitational field
travel in space?
strengths of the planets are much weaker in comparison because they have much less mass.
Recall what you have
learnt in Chapter 13 Gravitational fields around the Sun and the planets extend into space. The further away the distance
about electromagnetic from the Sun or the planets, the weaker the gravitational field becomes.
waves.
How big is the Solar System?
In 1977, the US space agency NASA launched two unmanned space craft from the Earth. In 1989, one
of these, called Voyager 2, arrived close to Neptune, the furthest planet from the Sun (Figure 21.8). It
sent pictures of Neptune back to Earth using radio signals. Radio signals are carried by radio waves
that are electromagnetic waves and travel at the fastest speed possible. How long do you think it
took the signals to get back to Earth? See Worked Example 21B.

Low res image

Figure 21.8 Voyager 2’s encounter with Neptune

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 Chapter 21
S
Worked Example 21B
When Voyager 2 was close to Neptune, it was about 4.5 × 109 km from the Earth. It sent radio
signals back to Earth. Calculate how long it took the signals to reach the Earth.
Solution
s
First, we must rearrange the equation for speed: v =
t
s
t=
v
Distance = 4.5 × 109 km = 4.5 × 1012 m
Speed = 3 × 108 m/s
4.5 × 1012 m
\ Time t = = 15 000 s = 4.2 h
3 × 108 m/s

What are the shapes of orbits?

Long ago, astronomers thought that all orbits were
perfect circles. Detailed observations and measurements
showed that objects in the Solar System move in an pencil
elliptical orbit. Remember that the Moon’s orbit round thread
the Earth is slightly elliptical — like a squashed circle.
The eight planets also have slightly elliptical orbits with nail
the Sun near the centre. Some minor planets and moons
have orbits that are more elliptical. Figure 21.9 shows how
the shape of an ellipse is obtained using two foci.
Comets have very elliptical orbits. The Sun is not at the
centre of the ellipse but at one focus. Comets are lumps focus focus
of frozen gases and dust left over from the birth of the
Solar System. They come from either the Kuiper belt or
the Oort cloud, and they orbit the Sun. Figure 21.9 Ellipse showing the two foci WORD ALERT
When a comet is furthest from the Sun, it travels very
Foci: centres, points,
slowly (Figure 20.10). Here, its kinetic energy is the lowest.
pivots
The Sun’s gravitational field pulls the comet towards it, so the comet speeds up. The gravitational
force is greatest nearest the Sun. Here, the comet moves the fastest and its kinetic energy is the Focus: singular of foci
greatest. It starts to slow down as it moves away from the Sun again.
By the principle of conservation of energy, kinetic energy changes into gravitational potential energy
as the comet moves away from the Sun. Gravitational potential energy changes back to kinetic
energy as it moves towards the Sun.
Also the increased heat energy near the Sun causes some of the comet’s frozen gas to evaporate. QUICK CHECK
This creates a long bright tail streaming away from the direction of the Sun, making the comet
visible. The bright tail disappears as it moves away again. A comet has the greatest
gravitational potential
energy when it is closest
comet to the Sun. It has the least
gravitational potential
energy when it is furthest
fast Sun slow away from the Sun.
True or false?

Figure 21.10 Some stages in the path of a comet round the Sun

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 Chapter 21
Perhaps the most famous comet is Halley’s comet (Figure 21.11). It was first recorded by Chinese
astronomers in 239 BC and is visible from the Earth for a short time every 79 years. Halley’s comet
orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets.

What determines the orbital speed of the planets?

Low res image Table 21.2 shows some data from NASA about the eight planets.
Table 21.2 Data about the eight planets of the Solar System from NASA

Average Approx. mass Gravitational Time to Time to Approx.

Approx.
distance compared field strength spin in orbit in range of
density/
from the Sun/ with the compared with Earth Earth surface
kg/m3
millions of km Earth the Earth days years temps/°C

Figure 21.11 Halley’s comet Mercury 58 0.05 5400 0.4 180 0.2 −170 to 450
Venus 110 0.8 5200 0.9 120 0.6 465
Earth 150 1 5500 1 1 1 −89 to 58
Mars 230 0.1 3300 0.4 1 2 −125 to 20
Jupiter 780 320 1300 2.4 0.4 12 −110
Saturn 1400 95 680 0.9 0.4 30 −140
Uranus 2900 15 1300 0.9 0.7 84 −195
Neptune 4500 17 1600 1.1 0.7 164 −200

S Look at the columns of the distance from the Sun and the time to orbit. Can you see a pattern
between them?
ENRICHMENT As the distance from the Sun increases, the time to orbit the Sun also increases. Nearer to the Sun,
THINK
the gravitational field is stronger. The force on the inner planets pulls them into a tighter circle.
Would humans be able
They have a greater speed and have less distance to travel, so the time to orbit is much less.
to survive on any other
planet apart from the
Earth. If no, why? If yes,
what would they need Let’s Practise 21.2
from the Earth? What
other information about 1 (a) List the eight planets of our Solar System in order of increasing distance from the Sun.


the planets will you need (b) What is the difference between the nature of the four planets nearest the Sun compared


to find out? with the four furthest away?
2 State the energy conversions that take place when the material in a cloud of dust and gas

clumps together.
3 Explain what is meant by the following terms:

(a) moon (b) asteroid (c) protostar

  
  
4 The Sun is 150 million kilometres from the Earth. Work out how long it takes the light from

the Sun to reach the Earth. (The speed of light in a vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s.)
5 S Use Table 21.2 to answer the following questions.

(a) What is unusual about the temperature on Venus?


(b) Which planet has a gravitational field strength similar to the Earth’s?


LINK TWB (c) Which planet is the most massive?


(d) Which planet takes the longest to spin on its axis?
Exercises 21B–21C,


pp. XX–XX (e) The asteroid belt lies between Mars and Jupiter. Estimate the time in Earth years for


an asteroid in this belt to orbit the Sun.
Exercise 21D Let’s Reflect,
p. XXX 6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 21
Chapter 21
Cloud of dust and gas
Let’s Map It • Mainly hydrogen and
helium plus assorted
heavier elements

the force of gravity

causes matter to
collect together—
accretion—to form

Gravitational field
strength
• Increases with mass
• Decreases with distance
SOLAR
from planet SYSTEM

consists of

Main planets The Sun • Dwarf planets

• Mercury • A star • Moons
• Venus rocky • Massive size produces • Asteroids
and
• Earth strong gravitational field • Comets
small
• Mars • Gives out energy
• Jupiter
• Saturn
gaseous
• Uranus and large
• Neptune

The Earth
• Spins once every 24 hours
to give night and day
• Orbits the Sun every year
(~365 days) on its tilted
axis to give seasons
Orbits
• Kept in orbit by the Sun’s
gravitational attraction
• Elliptical orbit with the Sun at
one focus
• Orbital speed v =
2πr
The Moon T
• Time to orbit increases as
• Earth’s natural satellite
distance from the Sun increases
• Orbits the Earth every 27
days
• Appearance changes with
position in orbit (Moon
phases)

Earth
Earthand
andthe
theSolar
SolarSystem
System 359
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 Chapter 21

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 4 S Figure 21.12 shows three stages in the formation

1 Which statement is incorrect? of our Solar System. Explain what is happening in
each stage.

A  The Moon is a natural satellite of the Earth.
B  The Earth spins on its axis once a year.
C  The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System.
D  The Solar System was produced from a cloud of dust

and gas.
2 S An astronaut goes to Mars where the gravitational Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

field strength is 40% of that of the Earth. Which Figure 21.12

statement correctly describes his mass and weight 5 S Figure 21.13 shows the orbit of a comet around
on Mars compared with the Earth?

the Sun.
A  Same mass and same weight B
B  Smaller mass and same weight
C  Same mass and smaller weight C Sun A
D  Smaller mass and smaller weight

Section B: Short-answer and Structured D

Questions
Figure 21.13
1 Explain why half of the Earth has 12 hours of night-time (a)  Explain what a comet is.

followed by 12 hours of daytime. (b)  Give the name of this shape of orbit.
2 Choose the correct word to complete the sentences (c)  At which point in the orbit is the comet travelling

below which describe the seasons.

slowest?
In December, the South Pole of the Earth is tilted (d)  At which point in the orbit does the comet have
____________ (towards/away from) the Sun. The

the most kinetic energy. Explain your answer.
temperate countries in the _____________ (Northern/ (e)  At which point in the orbit is the comet’s energy
Southern) Hemisphere will have long days and short

changing from kinetic energy to gravitational
nights. The ______________ (Arctic/Antarctic) Circle will potential energy.
have 24 hours of daytime. In the Northern Hemisphere,
(f)  Halley’s comet orbits the Sun every 79 years.
it is _______________ (summer/winter).

Give two reasons why it is only visible from the
3 (a) Draw a diagram to show how the Sun, Earth and Earth for a few days each orbit.

 
Moon are positioned when a full Moon is seen.
6 S Geostationary satellites are used to transmit
(b) Assuming that the Moon takes exactly 28 days

communication signals from one continent to another.
 
to orbit the Earth. Describe the appearance of They orbit above the same place on the equator.
the Moon
(a)  Explain why their orbit time must be 24 hours.
(i) 7 days;

(b)  These satellites orbit at a height of 36 000 km above


(ii) 14 days;

the surface of the Earth. Work out their average


(iii) 21 days orbital speed.


after the full Moon. (Take the radius of the Earth to be 6 400 km.)

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 CHAPTER
Stars and the
22 Universe

Low res image

PHYSICS WATCH

Scan this page to watch a clip about the

Hubble telescope and its contribution to
Credit: NASA, ESA, and T. Brown (STScI), W. Clarkson (University of Michigan-Dearborn), and A. Calamida and astronomy.
K. Sahu (STScI)

Nancy Roman was interested in astronomy from an early age.

Her mother used to take her out at night and teach her the QUESTIONS
constellations. When she became NASA’s first chief of astronomy,
• Why should the Hubble space telescope
she campaigned for a telescope to be launched into space in order

see space more clearly than a telescope
to see the Universe more clearly. The Hubble space telescope was on Earth?
launched in 1990. Roman is called the ‘mother of Hubble.’ • What differences can you observe in the

appearance of the stars?
The photo shows clusters of stars captured by the Hubble space
• How does this image compare with
telescope using its wide field camera. China, one of the Asian

the stars that you can see at night from
space powers, is planning to launch its own space telescope. It will where you live?
have a much wider field of view than the Hubble telescope and
will enable us to see more spectacular images of stars that we have
never seen before.

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 Chapter 22

22.1 The Sun as a Star

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know that the Sun is a medium-sized star, consisting mostly of hydrogen and helium.
•

Know that the Sun radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of

the electromagnetic spectrum.
• S Know that stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy.
•

S Know that in stable stars the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of hydrogen into helium.

HELPFUL NOTES How big is the Sun?

The volume of the Sun The Sun is a massive ball of mainly hydrogen and helium
is big enough for over a
gases. It is the biggest object in the Solar System. The
million Earths to fit inside!
next biggest object is Jupiter — ten Jupiters would
fit across the width of the Sun.
The Sun is massive enough for nuclear reactions
LINK
to take place at its centre. These nuclear
reactions produce enormous amounts of energy.
Recall what you have
learnt in Chapter 13
The Sun radiates the energy in the form of Low res image
about electromagnetic electromagnetic radiation — mostly infrared,
radiation. visible light and ultraviolet. Without this energy,
life would not be possible on the Earth.
The Sun is one of many, many stars in the
Universe. Compared with these stars, the Sun is an
QUICK CHECK
average yellow star. Some stars are bigger, hotter and
bluer than the Sun, and some are smaller, cooler
The Sun is the biggest
object in the Universe. and redder.
True or False? Figure 22.1 The Sun
in our Solar System

S
How do stars produce energy?
Stars are so massive that the density and temperature at the centre are high enough for nuclear
reactions to occur. Positively charged hydrogen nuclei are able to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion and combine or fuse together to become helium nuclei. When this nuclear fusion
happens, a lot of energy is released. In this part of its life, the star is stable.
The Sun is a stable star. It has been shining for about 5000 million years. Although it consumes about
600 million tonnes of hydrogen each second, there is enough for nuclear fusion to continue for
another 5000 million years.

Let’s Practise 22.1

1 State whether each statement is true or false.

(a) The Sun is made of gases.


(b) The Sun is nearly at the end of its life.


(c) S Nuclear fission occurs in the centre of the Sun.
LINK TWB


(d) S Smaller nuclei combine to make larger ones in the core of the Sun.


Exercise 22A, pp. XX–XX 2 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section.

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 Chapter 22

22.2 Stars
In this section, you will learn the following:
• State that galaxies are each made up of many billions of stars.
•

State that the Sun is a star in the galaxy known as the Milky Way.
•

State that other stars that make up the Milky Way are much further away from Earth than the Sun is

from the Earth.
• State that astronomical distances can be measured in light-years.
•

S Know that one light-year is equal to 9.5 × 1015 m.
•

S Describe the life cycle of a star.

What is the Milky Way?
On a really clear night and far away from bright city lights, you might be able to see a faint band of
light stretching across the sky (Figure 22.2). This is the Milky Way. It is a group of many billions of WORD ALERT
stars or a galaxy to which our Sun belongs.
Billion: a thousand
The Milky Way is a flattish spiral galaxy with a bulge at the centre. Our Solar System is in one of
million or 1 000 000 000
the spiral arms. If we could see it from above, it would look like the artist’s impression in Figure 22.3.

Low res image

spiral arms

Low res image

Figure 22.2 The Milky Way seen
from the Earth

Figure 22.3 Artist’s impression of the

Milky Way galaxy viewed from above

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 Chapter 22
The closest star to the Sun in the Milky Way galaxy is called Proxima Centauri. It is about 38 million
billion metres away. Distances in the Milky Way are so big that it is more convenient to use a larger
unit of distance.
QUICK CHECK
Light travels at the fastest speed possible and it takes light from Proxima Centauri about four years to
The bright star Sirius is reach the Earth. We call the distance that light travels in one year a light-year. So Proxima Centauri is
8.6 ly away from the about four light-years (4 ly) from the Earth.
Earth. It has taken the
light from Sirius 8.6 years S 1 light-year is the distance that light travels in one year in the vacuum of space. It is equal to
to reach the Earth. 9.5 × 1015 m.

How do stars die?

True or False?

You have learnt in Chapter 21 that a star is formed from a nebula, which is a cloud of dust and mainly
hydrogen gas in space. Gravitational attraction causes the cloud to collapse. A hot spinning mass
called a protostar forms at the centre of the cloud. Eventually, the protostar becomes dense and hot
enough for nuclear fusion to occur at its centre. It has become a star.
Nuclear fusion causes hydrogen nuclei to fuse together forming helium nuclei. This process releases
ENRICHMENT an enormous amount of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. The star is pulled inwards
INFO by gravitational attraction. This is balanced by the outward force due to the high temperature in the
You can see the value centre of the star (Figure 22.4). Thus, the star becomes stable.
for the distance of the
light-year in metres by Eventually, all stars will convert the hydrogen in their centre into helium. What happens next depends
rearranging the equation on their size. See Figure 22.5.
for speed: v = s
t
to give s = vt.
gravity pushes in
The speed of light v
= 3 × 108 m/s outward force due to
The time t = 1 year high temperature
= 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 s
= 3.15 × 107 s
The distance s Figure 22.4 Diagram to show the forces acting
inside a stable star
= 3 × 108 × 3.15 × 107
= 9.5 × 1015 m or
9 500 000 000 000 000 m

average planetary nebula

star red giant white
dwarf
QUICK CHECK

It will be 5000 million

years before the Sun
becomes a red giant.
Low res image neutron
True or False?
star
stellar
nebula

black
hole
massive star red supergiant supernova

Figure 22.5 Diagram to show the life of an average star (top row) and a massive star (bottom row)

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 Chapter 22
S Average stars
Most stars are similar to the Sun and remain stable for billions of years. When they run out of
HELPFUL NOTES
hydrogen, nuclear fusion stops. There is no radiation pressure pushing out, so gravity causes the
core to collapse and heat up. The collapsing core may be hot enough for some helium nuclei to The term ‘planetary’
fuse into carbon and oxygen nuclei. The outer layers expand and cool, turning the star into a nebula is misleading. It
red giant. Our Sun will probably swell enough to reach the orbit of the Earth. has nothing to do with
Eventually, the outer layers are pushed away from the star to become a planetary nebula. planets. Astronomers
thought they were
The central core remains as a white dwarf which gradually cools.
looking at giant planets.
Massive stars But it is just the glowing
shell of gas blown away
Blue supergiants are massive stars that are at least eight times the mass of the Sun. They are hotter from the remains of a star.
and do not live as long as less massive stars. Supergiants live for millions not billions of years.
As with average stars, when the hydrogen is used up, the core shrinks and becomes hotter. The outer
layers expand and turn the star into a red supergiant. In the core helium, nuclei fuse into more
massive nuclei, such as carbon, neon, oxygen and silicon. This releases more energy.
Nuclear fusion stops when nuclei of iron are
formed. The star quickly collapses then explodes
violently. The explosion is called a supernova. Am I really made
There is enough energy in a supernova to of star dust?
produce nuclei more massive than iron. A nebula
containing the remaining hydrogen and the new
elements expands into space. The nebula may
eventually form new stars and planets. O Ca
The core of the supernova can be a very dense
neutron star, which is made of tightly packed
neutrons. If it is very massive, it can also be a
black hole, which is so dense that light cannot N Art Crx Ph
escape from it.
What elements are you made of? Almost 99% of Low res image
C
the mass of the human body is made up of six
elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, H
calcium, and phosphorus. You have seen how the
elements heavier than hydrogen were made inside
stars. You really are made of stardust!

Let’s Practise 22.2

1 Explain what the following terms mean:

(a) billion (b) Milky Way (c) nuclear fusion (d) light-year

 
  
 
  
 
  
 
2 S What names are given to the following descriptions?

(a) An average star that has used up its hydrogen, expanded and cooled


(b) The cloud of gas that has blown away from a dying star


(c) An exploding massive star


(d) The cooling remains of an average star


3 S Put this list in order to describe the stages in the life cycle of a massive star.

black hole, massive star, nebula, protostar, red supergiant, supernova
4 S What is the length of a light-year in metres?

5 S What happens to the forces inside a star when the hydrogen in its core is used up?

What will happen to the star? TWB LINK
6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in

this section. Exercise 22B, pp. XX–XX

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 Chapter 22

22.3 The Universe

In this section, you will learn the following:
• Know the Milky Way as one of many billions of galaxies in the Universe and that it has an

approximate diameter of 100 000 light years.
• Describe what is meant by redshift.
•

Know that the light emitted from stars in distant galaxies appears redshifted compared to light

emitted on the Earth.
• Know that redshift is evidence that the Universe is expanding and supports the Big Bang Theory.
•

S Know what cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is.
•

S Explain that the CMBR was produced shortly after the Universe was formed and that this

radiation has been expanded into the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum as the
Universe expanded.
• S Know how the speed v at which a galaxy is moving away from the Earth can be found.
•

S Know how the distance d of a far galaxy can be determined.
• v

S Define the Hubble constant H0; recall and use the equation H0 = .
d
•

S Know that the current estimate for H0 is 2.2 × 10 per second.
−18

• d
S Know what the equation = 1 represents.
v H0

What does the Universe consist of?
In the early 1900s, astronomers believed that the Milky Way was the whole Universe. They saw that
ENRICHMENT it contained fuzzy spirals and thought that these were nebulae.
THINK In 1919, an American astronomer, Edwin Hubble, used a powerful telescope to look at one of these
1 The Andromeda galaxy nebulae. He saw that it contained bright stars just like the Milky Way. The fuzzy spirals were actually
 
is 2.2 million ly from galaxies more distant than the Milky Way. The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000
the Earth. How long
light-years. The nearest galaxy to the Milky Way is over 25 000 light-years away from it.
does it take light from
this galaxy to reach the Just as a galaxy contains billions of stars, the Universe contains billions of galaxies. The Universe was
Earth? much, much larger than anyone had imagined!
2 Explain why looking at
What is redshift?
 
the night sky is looking
back in time.
You are probably aware of the Doppler effect (Figure 22.6). When an ambulance approaches, its siren
sounds higher and when it moves away it sounds lower.

longer wavelength shorter wavelength

lower frequency higher frequency
PHYSICS WATCH lower pitch higher pitch

Scan this page to watch

a clip of an ambulance
demonstrating the
Doppler effect.

sound waves
from siren

Figure 22.6 The Doppler effect for sound waves

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 Chapter 22
This happens because the wavefronts of the sound become closer together when the sound is
travelling in the same direction as the ambulance. A shorter wavelength means a higher frequency.
When the ambulance moves away, the wavelength is longer so the frequency is lower.
The same thing happens with light sources. When a light source moves towards an observer, the light
has a higher frequency. When it moves away, the light has a lower frequency. A higher frequency
light would be bluer. It is said to be blueshifted. A lower frequency light is redder or redshifted.
In Figure 22.7, the top coloured band shows the spectrum of colours from the Sun’s light. The black
lines show colours that have been absorbed by gases around the Sun.

Low res image

ENRICHMENT
Figure 22.7 Redshift of spectral lines in light from a distant galaxy ACTIVITY
You can make a two-
The bottom coloured band shows the spectrum of colours from a distant galaxy. The white arrows show dimensional model with
how the same pattern of black absorption lines have been shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. a round balloon to show
the effect of expansion.
What does this tell you about the movement of the distant galaxy? A redshift means the frequency is
Draw some galaxies on
lower, so the distant galaxy is moving away from Earth.
sticky paper and attach
Redshift is the increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from stars them to the balloon.
and galaxies which are moving away from the Earth. Mark one of them with a
cross to be the Milky Way.
Astronomers found that the distant galaxies they can see in the Universe are moving away from the
Milky Way galaxy in a similar way. It seems that the whole Universe is expanding.
But what if we imagined time going backwards? Then the galaxies would be moving closer and
closer together to a single point. At some moment in the past, all of the matter in the Universe
must have exploded outwards from this point and it is still expanding. This is known as the
Big Bang Theory of the Universe.
Figure 22.8
Demonstration of
expansion of the
Universe
Blow up the balloon.
What happens to the
distances between the
Milky Way and the other
galaxies?
What happens to the
distances between all
the other galaxies?
You will see that the
space between all of the
galaxies is increasing
Low res image and they are all moving
apart from each other.

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 Chapter 22
S
Is there more evidence for the Big Bang Theory?
After the Big Bang, the Universe would have been very hot and filled with short wavelength gamma
radiation. Expansion of the Universe would cause the wavelength of this radiation to stretch into
longer wavelength microwaves.
If the Big Bang theory is correct, the Universe should now be filled with microwaves. These
microwaves are called the cosmic microwave background radiation or CMBR. A race began
where scientists competed to build a microwave detector to see if CMBR existed.
A few years later, the CMBR was discovered by accident. Two scientists were testing a microwave
ENRICHMENT receiver they had built for their own research. They found that it always picked up an unwanted
INFO background signal of microwaves of wavelength 2 mm. The two scientists thought that it was faulty.
Discovery of CMBR Eventually, they learnt about CMBR from a colleague. This led them to realise that what their receiver
Penzias and Wilson had found was CMBR.
were the two scientists
who were testing the
microwave detector.
How old is the Universe?
They first thought that
Edwin Hubble used a powerful telescope (Figure 22.9) to
the unwanted signal was
measure the distance of galaxies from the Earth by using
from pigeons that were
nesting in the antenna. their brightness.
They removed the By measuring the redshift of starlight from the galaxies,
pigeons and their nest, the speed of the galaxy can be calculated.
but the signal was still
there. They later realised Hubble found that the more distant galaxies had greater
that their detector had redshifts than the ones that were closer to the Earth. What
found the microwave does this mean?
radiation left behind from Light from more distant galaxies has a greater redshift Low res image
the Big Bang. because they are moving away faster. He plotted a graph
of the speed against their distance from the Earth and got
results similar to the graph shown in Figure 22.10.
The graph in Figure 22.10 shows that the speed v is proportional
to the distance d, i.e. v α d. This is known as Hubble’s law. The
constant of proportionality is known as the Hubble constant, H0.
The Hubble constant H0 is defined as the ratio of the speed
at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth to its
distance from the Earth.
Figure 22.9 This is the telescope used by
v Edwin Hubble to measure the distance of
H0 = where H0 = Hubble constant
d galaxies from the Earth.

v = speed of movement away from the Earth

d = distance from the Earth
Speed

ENRICHMENT Distant galaxies

INFO are moving away
To recede means to move from the Earth at
away from. The velocity a faster speed.
with which the galaxies
are moving apart is called
their recessional velocity.

Nearby galaxies are moving away

from the Earth at a slower speed.

Distance
Figure 22.10 A graph of Hubble’s results

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 Chapter 22
Astronomers have repeated
Hubble’s measurements
to get a more accurate
measurement of the Hubble
constant. They have been
able to use the space telescope
Low res image
named after him to do this
(Figure 22.11).

Figure 22.11 Hubble space telescope orbiting above the Earth

For very distant galaxies, astronomers have to look for exploding white dwarf stars. These supernovae
produce enough energy to be seen from the Earth. They are thought to give out a known amount of WORD ALERT
light. The faint light that arrives on the Earth can then be used to estimate their distance away.
Supernovae: plural of
The current estimate of H0 is 2.2 × 10−18 per second.
supernova
A reason for getting an accurate value of the Hubble constant is that it can tell us how old the Universe is.
distance travelled
Since average speed v is given by the equation: v =
time
distance travelled d
Rearranging this gives: time t = =
average speed v
v
From Hubble’s graph, H0 =
d
d 1
\t= =
v H0
1
So gives an estimate of the time from the Big Bang or the age of the Universe.
H0
Using the current estimate, this gives:
1
t= × 10−18 s = 4.5 × 1017 s or 14 billion years
2.2

Let’s Practise 22.3

1 Explain why astronomers were shocked to find out that the fuzzy ‘nebulae’ in the Milky Way
were in fact distant galaxies.
2 Which of the following is correct?
A The Universe consists of billions of stars.

B The Universe consists of millions of stars.

C The Universe consists of billions of galaxies.

D The Universe consists of millions of galaxies.

3 Explain what is meant by

(a) the Doppler effect;

(b) redshift. LINK

TWB

4 (a) S What is meant by the Big Bang Theory?

(b) What two pieces of evidence support the Big Bang Theory? Exercise 22C–D,
pp. XX–XX

5 S Explain what Hubble’s constant is.

Exercise 22E Let’s

6 Mind Map Construct your own mind map for the concepts that you have learnt in this section. Reflect, p. X

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 Chapter 22
Chapter 22

Let’s Map It a theory that states The Universe was

The Big Bang created by expansion
from a single point.

produced

Cosmic microwave contains

THE • Age = 1

UNIVERSE
H 0
background radiation left (~ 14 billion years)
over from the Big Bang • Still expanding

contains
billions of

Emitted light has

Galaxies redshift because they
Clouds of dust and are moving
gas in space
contains
billions of

collapse into Give out UV and IR

Nebulae Stars radiation by fusion of
hydrogen to helium

when hydrogen is
used up, a star forms a

outer layers
become a Helium fuses to
Planetary nebula Red giant Red supergiant make more massive
elements up to iron

core collapses
remains as into a

White dwarf supernovae An explosion that

used to determine White dwarf has energy that can
distance of distant galaxies make elements more
Supernova massive than iron

whose core
could be a

Black hole Matter so dense that

light cannot escape

Neutron star Dense stars of

neutrons

38610 Stars
Stars and
and thethe Universe
Universe

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 Chapter 22

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 3 Figure 22.13 shows Andromeda, a spiral galaxy outside

1 Which statement is correct? the Milky Way.

A  A galaxy is a group of millions of stars. blueshifted
B  Large stars live longer than small stars.
C  Elements heavier than iron are formed in supernovae.
D  A light-year is a unit for measuring time.
2 Which of the following gives the correct order of size

from largest to smallest? Low res image
A  Milky Way, Universe, Sun, Jupiter
B  Sun, Universe, Jupiter, Milky Way
C  Jupiter, Sun, Milky Way, Universe
D  Universe, Milky Way, Sun, Jupiter

Section B: Short-answer and Structured redshifted

Questions Figure 22.13

1 S Describe three similarities and three differences When the light from the galaxy was observed on the


between the life cycle of an average star like the Sun Earth, light from the left hand side was found to be
and the life cycle of a massive star. blueshifted while light from the right hand side was
2 S The astronomer Hubble plotted a graph of the speed found to be redshifted.

with which galaxies were moving away from the Earth (a)  What does this tell you about the movement of

against the distance of the galaxies from the Earth. each end of the galaxy?
(a)  Explain how he could measure the speed. (b)  Suggest a reason for this.
(b)  Use the axes in Figure 22.12 and sketch the graph

he obtained from his results.
Speed

Distance
Figure 22.12

(c)  Explain how the age of the Universe can be


estimated from the graph.

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 Notes to Physics
Practical Work
Introduction
For meaningful inquiry-based learning of physics to occur, it is important that students should
not just learn physics as a body of facts, models, and theories. Rather, they must also learn
physics as an ‘empirical’ subject, which involves the use of observations and experiments for
knowledge construction.
Based on the IGCSE syllabus by CAIE, practical work helps students to:
• use equipment and materials accurately and safely

• develop observational and problem-solving skills

• develop a deeper understanding of the syllabus topics and the scientific approach

• appreciate how scientific theories are developed and tested

• transfer the experimental skills acquired to unfamiliar contexts

• develop positive scientific attitudes such as objectivity, integrity, cooperation, enquiry

and inventiveness
• develop an interest and enjoyment in science

[Taken from CAIE Syllabus Cambridge IGCSE Physics 0625]
This section will provide students with notes on:
• some common experimental contexts in practical work

• the safety pointers when performing experiments in the laboratory work

• the practical skills before engaging in the planning of experiments and investigations

Common Experimental Contexts
During experiments, the accurate measurement of physical quantities using instruments is a
fundamental skill in practical work. Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), an eminent British scientist, once said,
“When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know
something about it, but when you cannot express it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and
unsatisfactory kind: it may be the beginning of knowledge, but you have scarcely, in your thoughts,
advanced to the stage of science, whatever the matter may be.”
Below are some notes to some common experimental contexts in physics practical work.
1 General Physics
 
Common Experimental Contexts Common Instruments Link to Chapters
Measuring physical quantities 1. Metre rule (length) Chapter 1
 
such as length, time, mass 2. Vernier calipers (length) Measurement of Physical Quantities
 
and volume 3. Stopwatch (time)
Chapter 3
 
4. Beam balance (mass)
Mass, Weight and Density
 
5. Electronic balance (mass)
 
6. Measuring cylinder (volume)
 
7. Displacement can (volume)
 
8. Burette (volume)
 
Precautions
1 Length
 
• Avoid parallax error when using metre rule
 
• Check for zero error when using vernier calipers
 
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 Precautions
2 Time
 
When timing oscillations, take note of the following points:
• Repeat timings and take the average time for a more accurate measurement.
 
• To find the period of an oscillation, record the time taken for a large number of oscillations (e.g. 20) and calculate the
 
average time for one oscillation. This average time is more accurate than a direct measurement of the time taken for
just one oscillation.
• Ignore the first few oscillations. Start timing only when oscillations are steady and you have gotten used to the
 
rhythm of the oscillation.
• When oscillations become ‘abnormal’ (e.g. elliptical oscillations in a pendulum), the timing of such oscillations must
 
be ignored.
3 Mass
 
When you are using the beam balance or an electronic balance, take note of the following points:
• Zero the instrument before use, i.e., set the reading to zero when it is measuring nothing.
 
• Do not place wet objects on the pan of the scale.
 
• When weighing chemicals or granular solids, place them in a watch glass (or other suitable containers) of
 
known mass.
4 Volume
 
• Ensure that your viewing eye is at the same level as the bottom of the meniscus when taking volume readings.
 
2 Thermal Physics
 
Common Experimental Contexts Common Instruments Link to Chapter
Cooling and heating, including 1. Thermometer (temperature) Chapter 9
 
measurement of temperature 2. Bunsen Burner Thermal Properties and Temperature
 
3. Beaker
Chapter 10
 
4. Boiling tube
Transfer of Thermal Energy
 
5. Measuring cylinder (volume)
 
Precautions
1 When using a mercury-in-glass thermometer, take note of the following:
 
• Avoid using the thermometer as a stirrer.
 
• Record temperature readings to the smallest half division.
 
• Avoid parallax errors when taking temperature readings by reading the scale with your line of sight perpendicular to
 
the stem of the thermometer.
• If you are measuring the temperature of a liquid in a container, stir the liquid continuously with a stirrer to ensure
 
that the temperature is uniform throughout the liquid.
2 When using a Bunsen burner, take note of the following:
 
• Close the air holes completely before lighting the burner. Lighting the burner with open air-holes may result in a
 
“strike back”.
• The temperature and the colour of the Bunsen flame is controlled by the size of the air-hole openings. For a very hot
 
blue flame, open the air-hole slowly to allow air to mix with the gas.
• A Bunsen burner that is working properly will not produce a loud noisy hiss.
 
• If the burner is hissing loudly, turn off the gas supply and check that the jet is not choked. Do not touch the hot
 
collar or barrel with your bare hands.
• The size of the flame can be controlled by adjusting the gas tap.
 
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 3 Optics

 
Common Experimental Contexts Common Instruments Link to Chapter
Measuring quantities such as angles 1. Illuminated object Chapter 12

 
of reflection 2. Optical pins Light

 
3. Lenses

 
4. Transparent prisms and blocks

 
5. Protractor (incident, reflected and

 
refracted angles)
Precautions
1 When using an illuminated object, ensure that the lights in the lab are switched off or dimmed with the
 
curtains drawn.
2 When using optical pins, take note of the following:
 
• The two pins used to locate the path of the ray of light must be placed as far apart as possible when they
 
are aligned.
• The pins must be placed vertically upright.
 
3 When performing experiments involving lenses, note the following points:
 
• The lens must be upright. If he lens is tilted, the image formed on a vertical screen may not be as sharp as it
 
could be.
• Object and image distances should be measured along a line parallel to the principal axis.
 
• The centre of the illuminated object and the centre of the screen should be placed near the principal axis of
 
the lens. Both the object and the screen should be positioned at right angles to this axis.
4 When using the protractor, avoid parallax error.
 
4 Magnetism
 
Common Experimental Contexts Common Instruments Link to Chapter
Finding the magnetic field pattern 1. Permanent bar magnets Chapter 15
 
of a permanent bar magnet 2. Plotting compass Simple phenomena of Magnetism
 
Precautions
1 When handling magnets or plotting compass, remember the following points:
 
• Do not drop them or knock them unnecessarily.
 
• Avoid placing them near hot objects, such as a Bunsen burner or a beaker of hot water.
 
2 When storing magnets, store them in pairs with soft iron keepers when they are not in use.
 
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 5 Electricity
 
Common Experimental Contexts Common Instruments Link to Chapter
• Determining a derived quantity such as the value 1. Dry cell Chapter 16

 
 
of a known resistance 2. Resistor Electrical Quantities

 
3. Ammeter
• Testing and identifying the relationship between Chapter 17

 
4. Voltmeter
 
two variables such as between the potential Electrical Circuits and

 
5. Plug-key switch
difference across a wire and its length Electrical Safety

 
6. Filament lamp

 
• Connecting and reconnecting of electric circuits, 7. Wire
 
 
and measuring of current and potential difference 8. Crocodile clip

 
Precautions
1 Avoid parallax error when using the ammeter or voltmeter.
 
2 Check for zero error when using the ammeter or voltmeter.
 
3 Minimise heating effects by breaking the circuit using the plug-key switch after taking the readings.
 
Safety Pointers
Carrying out any experiment in the laboratory can be dangerous if we do not follow basic safety
guidelines. Here are some basic safety pointers that you should be aware of:

Before you begin …

1 Make sure your workbench is not cluttered with unnecessary items (such as your school bag,

files, clothes and books). Keep your workbench neat and clean.
2 Read all the instructions in your practical workbook before you do anything.

3 Look out for possible dangers.

While you are conducting the experiment …
1 Follow the instructions in the practical workbook closely. Do not do anything you are not

instructed to do without your teacher’s permission.
2 Do not fool around and endanger people around you.

3 Wear or use protective devices provided for you. These protective devices include goggles,

gloves and safety tongs.
4 Never leave heating apparatus unattended. Turn off Bunsen burners when you have to leave your

workbench for a while or when you have completed your experiments.
5 If you have broken any glassware (beakers, test tubes and thermometers, etc.) or spilt any liquids,

inform your teacher immediately.
6 Find out where fi re extinguishers are located in the laboratory and how to operate one.

After you have finished the experiment …
1 Clean your workbench.

2 Do not dispose of materials in the sink unless you are instructed to do so.

3 Wash your hands thoroughly.

The pointers above are only some of the important safety guidelines that you should follow to avoid
accidents. The best preventive measure is to always be careful and alert. Take care of yourself and
your neighbours. Above all, pay attention to your teacher.

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 Practical Skills
1 Planning an Investigation

 
Planning an investigation involves the four main steps shown below.

Step Elaboration
1 Define the problem. • Make a clear statement of the problem
 
 
• Identify the independent and the dependent variables.

 
Example 1: Period of a Simple Pendulum
Statement of the problem:
What is the relationship between the period and the length of a
simple pendulum?

Variables:
(a) Independent variable: length of thread L

 
(b) Dependent variable: time t for 20 oscillations

 
Example 2: Resistance of a Fixed Resistor
Statement of the problem:
How to determine the resistance of a fixed resistor using the voltmeter-
ammeter method?
Variables:
(a) Independent variable: potential difference V
 
(b) Dependent variable: current I
 
2 Describe how data is to Give a clear and logical account of the experimental procedure, including a
 
be collected. description of
• how the independent variable is to be varied;
 
• how the independent and the dependent variables are to be measured;
 
• how the other variables are controlled;
 
• the arrangement of the apparatus that will be used.
 
3 Describe the analysis of the Describe how the data collected should be processed to fulfil the purpose of
 
collected data. the investigation.
Example 1: Period of a Simple Pendulum
1. For each value length L and the corresponding time t for 20 oscillations,
 
the period
t
T = is calculated.
2
2. Plot a graph of T/s (y-axis) against L/cm (axis) to deduce the relationship between
 
the period T and length of L of the pendulum.
3. Conclusion: The period of a pendulum increases with its length.
 
Example 2: Resistance of a Fixed Resistor
1. By adjusting the position of the sliding contact on the rheostat, record three pairs
 
of the potential difference V and the current I across the fixed resistor
2. For each pair of V and I, calculate the resistance of the fixed resistor using
 
V
R=
I
3. Conclusion: The resistance of a fixed resistor can be determined by finding the
 
average value of the three pairs of R in (2).
4 Think of the relevant Suggest suitable safety precautions to be taken.
 
safety precautions.
Example 1: Period of a Simple Pendulum
1. Ensure that the pendulum oscillates steadily in a vertical plane before starting
 
the timing.
2. To find the period of an oscillation, record the time taken for a large number
 
of oscillations (e.g. 20) and calculate the average time for one oscillation.
Example 2: Resistance of a Fixed Resistor
1. Check for zero error when using the ammeter or voltmeter.
 
2. Minimise heating effects by breaking the circuit using the plug-key switch after
 
taking the readings of V and I.

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 2 Displaying Data on Graphs
 
Graphs are plotted to show the relationship between two quantities. The quantity that you choose
to vary (independent variable) is usually plotted on the x -axis. You should vary this quantity in nearly
regular intervals covering the entire range of the quantity available in the experiment. The quantity
that is dependent on the quantity that you vary (dependent variable) is plotted on the y -axis.
The following points should be noted when drawing graphs:
1 Both axes should be labelled in this manner: name of quantity/unit, e.g., time/second, time/s

or t/s.
2 Use a convenient scale to draw the graph as large as the available space allows.

3 Avoid using awkward scales such as 2 cm : 3 units. Such scales usually lead to errors in plotting

and deduction.
4 Points must be clearly and accurately marked with small, sharp crosses (×).

5 Do not attempt to join all the plotted points on the graph. It is not likely that you will obtain a

straight line or a smooth curve by joining all the points, as there are bound to be errors in the
experimental readings. Instead, use a long (30 cm) transparent ruler to help you draw the best
straight line, or a flexible curve ruler to draw a smooth curve. Remember to use a sharp pencil to
draw the straight line or curve.
6 The best straight line (Figure 1) or the best smooth curve (Figure 2)

(a) passes through the middle of the spaces between the points;


(b) has about the same number of points on either side of the line over


(c) its entire length;


(d) does not necessarily pass through any plotted points or the origin.


7 For an irregular point that is far from the best straight line or curve, either

(a) repeat the measurement and/or calculations for the point and correct it. OR


(b) circle the point and indicate that the point has been rejected and ignored.


8 The gradient of a straight line should be calculated from a right-angled triangle drawn with

dotted lines. The hypotenuse should be as long as possible, and no shorter than half of the
straight-line graph. The ends of the hypotenuse must not be any of the plotted points.
9 Draw dotted lines to find a point on the x -axis corresponding to a point on the y -axis, and

vice versa.
Figures 1 to 10 show examples of desirable and undesirable graphs.

I/A V/V

0.8 2.0

0.6 1.5

0.4 1.0
Desirable Desirable
0.2 0.5

0.0 x/m 0.0 I/A

0.000 0.100 0.200 0.300 0.400 0.500 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Figure 1 Figure 2

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 I /m T/°C

25 10

20 8

15 6

10 4
Undesirable:
Undesirable:
scale for x-axis not
5 points are joined up 2
appropriate

0 F/N 0 t /s
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 3 Figure 4

V V/V

1.0
1.0

0.8 Undesirable: Undesirable:

0.8 points are joined up without
(i) too few points for a curve
(ii) axes have no units drawing a smooth curve
0.6
0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 l 0 t /s
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Figure 5 Figure 6

p /cm

y/cm 60

20 50

18 40

16 30

14 Undesirable: 20
Undesirable:
awkward scale for x-axis and points are crowded at one
12 unequal number of points on 10 corner of the graph paper
either side of the line

10 x /cm 0 q /m
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Figure 7 Figure 8

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 θ /°C

p /cm 60

65 50

60 40

55 30

50 Undesirable: 20 Undesirable:
not a straight line not a smooth curve
45 10

40 q /m 0 V/cm 3
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 0 2 4 6 8 10

Figure 9 Figure 10

3 Interpreting Graphs
 
After you have gathered your data in an experiment, you may wish to know how two variables are
related to each other. One simple way of examining the mathematical relationship between two
variables is to plot a graph. The graph will indicate the general trend of the mathematical relationship
between the two variables.
At the level of this course, there are two common mathematical relationships that you may
encounter. If x and y are the variables that you are investigating, the two mathematical
relationships are:
(a) y = kx (y is directly proportional to x; k = constant);

(b) y = k (y is inversely proportional to x; k = constant).
x

Figure 11 shows a y = kx relationship. Notice that in this relationship,
• when x increases to 2x, y increases by the same factor of 2;

• when x decreases to 1 x, y decreases by the same factor of 1 .
2 2

In this relationship, we say that y is (directly) proportional to x.
You may encounter some cases in which y is inversely proportional to x, i.e. y = k .
x
In such cases, the graph of y against x is a curve, which makes it difficult for us to determine the
constant k. We will obtain a straight-line graph when we plot y against 1x instead of x.

y/cm

12

10

0 x/m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 11

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 Quick Revision Guide
Chapter 1: Measurement of Physical Quantities • Air resistance is a form of frictional force.

• A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. • An object falling through air achieves a uniform velocity


It consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit. known as terminal velocity when its weight is equal to the air
• SI units are the units of measurement in the widely used resistance against it.

International System of Units.
Chapter 3: Mass, Weight and Density
• The smallest unit an instrument can measure is known as its
• Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest

precision.

relative to the observer.
• When using a metre rule, if eye level is not positioned
• Weight is the gravitational force on an object that has mass.

perpendicularly to the rule, parallax error will be introduced.

• Taking several readings and calculating the average also • A gravitational field is a region of space in which a mass exerts

a force of attraction on another mass.

minimises errors.
• When using the vernier calipers, we need to examine the • S The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field on

a mass.

instrument for zero error. This occurs when the zero marks on
the two scales of the vernier calipers do not coincide.
• Gravitational field strength g is defined as the gravitational

force per unit mass.
• We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular
W

intervals or periods. g= where
g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)
m

 
• Each complete to-and-fro motion is one oscillation. W = weight (in N)


• The period of a simple pendulum is the time taken for one m = mass of the object (in kg)


complete oscillation. • The density of a substance is defined as its mass per unit

• S A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has magnitude volume.

only. m
ρ= where ρ = density
• S A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both v

 
m = mass of the object

magnitude and direction.

V = volume of the object
• In a vector diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an

  

arrow. The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude Chapter 4: Forces
of the vector. The direction of the arrow indicates the direction • Forces can change the size and shape of an object. They can

of the vector. change the motion of an object.
• The single vector, called the resultant vector, must be • We can plot the load-extension graph to show the relationship


equivalent to the individual vectors combined in terms of between the force and the extension of an elastic solid.
magnitude and direction. • S The spring constant is defined as the force per unit extension.

F
Chapter 2: Motion k= where k = spring constant
x


• Speed is the distance travelled per unit time. F = force


distance travelled x = extension
• Speed =

 
time taken • S There is a point beyond which the extension is no longer


total distance travelled directly proportional to the load. This point is called the limit of
• Average speed = proportionality.
total time taken

• A force is a vector quantity with both magnitude and direction.
• Distance is the total length covered by a moving object

When more than one force acts on an object, we need to

regardless of the direction of motion. consider the direction of each force in order to determine the
• Displacement is the distance measured in a straight line in a resultant force.

specified direction. • A resultant force may change the velocity of an object by
• Velocity is speed in a given direction.

changing its direction of motion or its speed.

displacement
• Velocity = • An object either remains at rest or continues in a straight line at
time taken


constant speed unless acted on by a resultant force.
• S Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit time. • The resultant force F acting on an object of mass m is related to


change of velocity Dv the acceleration of the object by the following equation:
• Acceleration, a = =
time Dt F = ma where F = force (in N)


 
• The gradient of a distance–time graph of an object gives the m = mass (in kg)

 
a = acceleration (in m/s2)

speed of the object.

• The area under a speed–time graph gives the distance travelled. • Friction is a force that impedes motion. It is a resistive force

because it acts in the opposite direction to motion.

• S The gradient of a speed–time graph gives the acceleration of
• Friction between two moving surfaces produces heating.

the object.

• Acceleration due to gravity, g, is a constant for objects close • Moment of a force is defined as the product of the force and

the perpendicular distance from the pivot.

to the Earth’s surface.
• An object can only be in free fall if the only force acting on it is Moment of a force = F × d
where F = force (in N)

its own weight.

  
d = perpendicular distance from the pivot (in m)

 
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 • When the total clockwise moment is equal to the total • S The Sun is our main source of energy for all our energy


anticlockwise moment, there is no resultant turning effect about a resources except for geothermal, nuclear and tidal resources.
pivot. This is the principle of moments. • S The efficiency of a machine can be calculated using:
• When there is no resultant force and no resultant moment, an

useful energy output
Efficiency = × 100%

object is in equilibrium. energy input
• The centre of gravity of an object is the point through which useful power output

the weight of the object acts. Efficiency = × 100%
power input
• To increase the stability of an object, its centre of gravity should
• Power is defined as the work done or energy transferred per

be kept as low as possible and its base area should be kept as

wide as possible. unit time.
W DE
Chapter 5: Momentum P= = where P = power (W)
t Dt

• S Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity. W = work done (J)

• Momentum = mass × velocity DE = energy converted (J)

p = mv where p = momentum t = time taken (s)

m = mass
Chapter 7: Pressure

v = velocity
• Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

• S Impulse is the product of force and the period of time for which

F

force acts. p= where
p = pressure (in Pa)
A

• S Impulse = force × time = FDt F = force (in N)


 
• S Resultant force on an object is the change in momentum per A = area (in m2)


unit time. • S The change in pressure in a liquid is given by

Dp Dp = ρgDh where p = pressure (in Pa)
F=

Dt
ρ = density (in kg/m3)
• S The principle of conservation of momentum states that the total g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)

Dh = depth (in m)

momentum of two objects just before collision is the same as the total

momentum of the objects immediately after the collision.
Chapter 8: Kinetic Particle Model of Matter
Chapter 6: Energy, Work and Power • When a solid is heated, it melts into a liquid at its melting

• Energy is the capacity to do work. point. A liquid that is heated will boil and become a gas at its

• Energy may be stored as kinetic energy, gravitational potential boiling point. When a gas is cooled to its boiling point, it will

energy, chemical energy, elastic (strain) energy, nuclear energy, condense into a liquid. A liquid will freeze/solidify into a solid
electrostatic energy and internal (thermal) energy. when cooled to its melting point.
• S Kinetic energy can be calculated using • S The forces and distances between particles affects the


1 properties of solids, liquids and gases.
Ek = mv2 where
Ek = kinetic energy (in J)
2 • The kinetic particle model of matter states that the tiny


m = mass of the body (in kg)

particles that make up matter are always in continuous

v = speed of the body (in m/s)
random motion.

• S Gravitational potential energy can be calculated using
• The lowest temperature where the particles have the least

DEp = mgDh where Ep = gravitational potential energy

kinetic energy occurs at –273°C. This temperature is also known



(in J)
as absolute zero.
m = mass of the body (in kg)
• Brownian motion refers to the random movement of

g = gravitational field strength (in N/kg)

microscopic particles in a fluid due to the collisions by the

h = height (in m)
molecules of the fluid.

• The principle of conservation of energy states that energy
• The gas pressure of a gas at fixed volume and mass increases

cannot be created or destroyed. It can be converted from one

with temperature.
form to another or transferred from one body to another. The
• The gas pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature
total amount of energy remains constant.

increases when the volume decreases.
• Energy conversions taking place can be shown using a flow
• S The decrease in the volume resulting in a proportional

diagram.

increase in pressure is known as inverse proportionality.
• S A Sankey diagram can be used to represent the energy
• For an inverse proportionality,

conversions involving multiple stages.

1 k
• Work done by a constant force on an object is the product of pα or p = where
p = pressure
V V



the force and the distance moved by the object in the direction k = proportionality constant
  
of the force. V = volume

W = F × s where W = work done by a constant force F (in J) • Temperature can also be measured using kelvin, K, which is the

 
 

F = constant force (in N) SI unit for temperature. The Kelvin scale of temperature has

s = distance moved by the object in the absolute zero as 0 kelvin, or 0K.


direction of the force (in m) • To convert a temperature (θ) measured in °C into a temperature

• We can obtain energy from fossil fuels, biofuels, hydropower, (T) in K:

geothermal energy, solar energy and nuclear energy. • T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273

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 Chapter 9: Thermal Properties and Temperature • The source of a wave is a vibration or an oscillation.

• Solids, liquids and gases increase in volume or expand when • Waves transfer energy from one point to another.


heated. The greater the temperature rise, the greater the expansion. • Waves transfer energy without transferring the medium.

When cooled, the volume will decrease, i.e., it will contract. • Transverse waves are waves that propagate perpendicular to

• Liquids expand more than solids for the same temperature rise. the direction of the vibration.

• Gases expand much more than liquids. • Longitudinal waves are waves that propagate parallel to the


• The internal energy of a substance is the total energy of all of direction of the vibration.

its particles. • A crest is the highest point of a transverse wave.

• The higher the temperature of a substance (measured in °C or K), • A trough is the lowest point of a transverse wave.


the greater the internal energy of the substance (measured in J). • The amplitude A of a wave is the maximum displacement of a

• S Specific heat capacity c is defined as the amount of point from its rest position.

thermal energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass • The wavelength λ of a wave is the shortest distance between

(e.g. 1 kg) of a substance by 1°C (or 1 K). any two points in phase.
DE • The period T of a wave is the time taken to produce one
c= where DE = thermal energy required (in J)

mDθ complete wave.


Dθ = temperature change (in K or °C)
• The frequency f of a wave is the number of complete waves

m = mass of substance (in kg)

produced per second.

• The melting point of pure water at standard atmospheric • Wave speed v is the distance travelled by a wave per second.

pressure of 1 atmosphere is 0°C.

v = fλ where v = wave speed (in m/s)
• The boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric

 


λ = wavelength (in m)

pressure of 1 atmosphere is 100°C.

T = period (in s)
• Evaporation involves a change of state from liquid to gas. •
A wavefront is an imaginary line on a wave that joins all

• Evaporation causes cooling of a liquid.

adjacent points that are in phase.

• S Temperature, surface area and air movement over a surface
• When water waves hit a barrier, they undergo reflection.

affect evaporation.

• Waves undergo refraction when the they pass from one

Chapter 10:Transfer of Thermal Energy medium to another.
• Thermal energy always flows from a region of higher temperature • S Diffraction involves the spreading out of waves when they


to a region of lower temperature. Net flow of thermal energy encounter gaps and edges.
occurs only when there is a difference in temperature. Chapter 12: Light
• Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy through solids. • Reflection is the rebounding of light at a surface.

• The thermal conductivity of a material is dependent on how

• Incident ray is light ray that hits the reflecting surface.

quickly thermal energy is transferred from the hotter end to the

• Point of incidence is the point at which the incident ray hits
colder end. Materials that can transfer thermal energy quickly

the reflecting surface.
are good thermal conductors, while materials that transfer • Reflected ray is light ray that bounces off the reflecting surface.
thermal energy slowly are bad thermal conductors or insulators.

• Normal is the imaginary line perpendicular to the reflecting
• Convection is the transfer of thermal energy in a fluid (liquid or

surface at the point of incidence.

gas) by means of convection currents due to a difference in density. • Angle of incidence i is the angle between the incident ray and
• Thermal radiation is the transfer of thermal energy in the form

the normal.

of invisible waves called infrared radiation which can travel • Angle of reflection r is the angle between the reflected ray and
through a vacuum.

the normal.
• The amount of infrared radiation absorbed by or emitted from a • The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence i is

surface is dependent on the colour and texture of the surface.

equal to the angle of reflection r (i.e. i = r).
Dull and black surfaces emit and absorb infrared radiation at • A plane mirror image is of the same size as the object, laterally
a faster rate than shiny and silver surfaces. Shiny and silver

inverted, upright, virtual and same distance from the mirror
surfaces reflect more infrared radiation. as the object.
• The higher the surface temperature of an object relative to • A real image can be captured on a screen and the light rays

the surrounding temperature, the higher the rate of emission of

meet at the image position.
infrared radiation. • Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one optical
• When we compare two objects of the same mass and material,

medium to another.

but with different surface areas, the object with the larger surface • Angle of refraction r is the angle between the refracted ray
area will emit or absorb infrared radiation at a higher rate.

and the normal.
• The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the • S The law of refraction states that, for two given media, the ratio

Earth’s surface through a balance of absorption and emission of

of the sine of the angle of incidence, i, to the sine of the angle of
infrared radiation. refraction, r is a constant. This is also known as Snell’s Law.
Chapter 11: General Properties of Waves sin i
= constant
• Wave motion is made up of periodic motion or motion sin r

repeated at regular intervals. • S The refractive index n is the ratio of the speeds of a wave in
• One complete cycle of such motion is known as an oscillation

two different regions.

or a vibration.

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 sin i the frequency, the higher the pitch.
• n= wherei = angle of incidence in vacuum
• Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave — the
sin r



r = angle of refraction in the medium

larger the amplitude, the louder the sound.

• The critical angle c is defined as the angle of incidence in an

optically denser medium for which the angle of refraction in the Chapter 15: Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
optically less dense medium is 90°. • Magnetic materials are materials that can be attracted to a magnet.

• Total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a light • Non-magnetic materials are materials that cannot be

ray inside an optically denser medium at its boundary with an attracted to a magnet.
optically less dense medium. • Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

• S Relationship between the critical angle c and the refractive • The process of magnetising a magnetic material is known as

index n of an optical medium: magnetic induction. When the magnetic material has become
1 magnetised, we say that it has become an induced magnet.
sin c =
n • A magnetically soft material can be easily magnetised and

• A converging lens causes light rays to converge to a point. It is also lose its magnetism easily. A magnetically hard material
is difficult to magnetise, but once magnetised, retains its

thicker in the centre.
• A diverging lens causes light rays to diverge from a point. It is magnetism afterwards.
• Every magnet has a region of space around it called a magnetic

thinner in the centre.

• Focal length f is the distance between the optical centre C and field.
• A magnetic material or magnetic pole placed in the magnetic

the focal point F.

• The principal axis is the horizontal line passing through the field will experience a force.
• The arrangement of a group of magnetic field lines is called a

optical centre of the lens. It is perpendicular to the vertical plane

of the lens. magnetic field pattern.
• The principal focus (or focal point) is the point at which all •
The direction of the magnetic field lines at a point is the
direction of the force on the N pole of a magnet at that point.

rays parallel to the principal axis converge after refraction by the
lens. A lens has two focal points, one on each side of the lens. • S The relative strength of a magnetic field is dependent on how

• The different colours of light observed is called a spectrum closely packed the magnetic field lines are.
• S Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic

• This change in refractive index across the spectrum is known as

fields.

dispersion.
• S Any single frequency of light is described as monochromatic.
Chapter 16: Electrical Quantities

Chapter 13: Electromagnetic Spectrum • In an atom, there is a central nucleus. The nucleus is made up

• Light from the Sun travels as electromagnetic waves. of protons and neutrons. Around the nucleus are the orbiting
electrons. There are positive and negative charges in the

These waves are of different types and they make up the
electromagnetic spectrum. atom. Protons are the positive charges while electrons are the
• Waves with higher wavelength have lower frequencies. negative charges.
• Positive charges repel other positive charges. Negative charges

• All electromagnetic waves travel at the same high speed in a

repel other negative charges. Positive charges attract negative

vacuum.
• S The speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum is 3 × 108 m/s. charges.
• S An electric field is a region in which an electric charge

• S An analogue signal has continuous values in time.

experiences a force.

• S A digital signal has fixed values. For example, it can have
• S The direction of an electric field at a point is the direction of

two values of 1 and 0.

the force on a positive charge at that point.
Chapter 14: Sound • Electric current is related to the flow of charge.
• Sound is a form of energy that is transferred from one point to

• S Electric current is the charge passing a point per unit time.


another.
I= Q where I = current (in A)
• Sound is produced by vibrating sources placed in a medium. t


Q = charge (in C)

The medium is usually air, but it can be any gas, liquid or solid.

t = time taken (in s)
• S Compressions are regions where air pressure is higher than

• S Conventional current is from positive to negative and that

the surrounding air pressure.

the flow of free electrons is from negative to positive.
• S Rarefactions are regions where air pressure is lower than the
• An ammeter is used to measure the magnitude and direction

surrounding air pressure.

of an electric current in an electric circuit.
• For humans, the audible sound range is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.
• Direct current (d.c.) flows in a single direction only, whereas

• Sound waves need a medium to travel from one point to another.

alternating current (a.c.) changes direction frequently.

• S In general, sound travels faster in solids than in liquids and
• Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the electrical work done by a

faster in liquids than in gases.

source in moving a unit charge around a complete circuit.
• An echo is a reflection of sound waves. It is formed when a
S E= W

sound is reflected off hard, flat surfaces. where
E = e.m.f (in V)
Q


• Ultrasound is sound with a frequency higher than 20 kHz. W = work done (in J)


• S Ultrasound is used in testing materials for quality control, Q = charge (in C)

• Potential difference (p.d.) is the work done by a unit charge

medical scanning and sonar technologies.

• Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave — the higher passing through a component.

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 • The equation for two resistors used as a potential divider is as
S V= W where
V = p.d. (in V)

Q follows:


W = work done (in J) R1 V

Q = charge (in C) = 1 where V1 = p.d. across R1 and V2 = p.d. across R2
R2 V2

  

• A voltmeter is used to measure the e.m.f. of a dry cell or the p.d.
• Potential dividers that are used to vary the output voltage from

across a component.

• The resistance R of a component is the potential difference a source are called variable potential dividers.
• Input transducers are electronic devices that respond to

V across it divided by the current I flowing through it.

changes in physical conditions, such as temperature and light.
S R= v where
R = resistance of the component (in Ω) They can be used in potential dividers to vary the output voltage.
I


V = p.d. across the component (in V) • A thermistor is a resistor whose resistance varies with

I = current flowing through the

temperature. An NTC thermistor has resistance that decreases as


component (in A) its temperature increases.
• Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a • A light-dependent resistor (LDR) has a resistance that decreases


metallic conductor is directly proportional to the potential as the amount of light shining on it increases, and vice versa.
difference across it, provided that physical conditions (such as • Trip switches are safety devices that can switch off the electrical

temperature) remain constant. supply in a circuit when large currents flow through them.
• The resistance R of a conductor depends on its temperature, • A fuse is a safety device added to an electrical circuit to prevent

length l and cross-sectional area A (or thickness).

excessive current flow.
• Electrical power P can be expressed as follows: • Switches are designed to break or complete an electrical circuit.

P = IV

where P = power (in W) • The live wire (brown) is connected to a high voltage and



I = current (in A)
delivers current to the appliance. This is the wire to which trip

V = potential difference (in V) switches, fuses and switches are fitted.

• Electrical energy E can be expressed as follows: • The neutral wire (blue) completes the circuit by providing a

E = Pt = IVt

where E = electrical energy (in J) return path to the supply for the current. It is usually at 0 V.


P = power (in W) • The earth wire (green and yellow) is a low-resistance wire. It is


t = time (in s) usually connected to the metal casing of appliances.

I = current (in A) • A fused plug connects an electrical appliance to the mains


V = potential difference (in V) supply via the power socket. The fused plug commonly used in


Chapter 17: Electric Circuits and Electrical Safety some countries is the three-pin plug.
• We use circuit diagrams to represents electric circuits. • Double insulation is a safety feature that can replace the

earth wire.

• S Diodes are components that allow current to flow through

them in one direction only. Chapter 18: Electromagnetic Effects
• In a series circuit, the components are connected one after • Electromagnetic induction is the process through which an


another in a single loop. A series circuit has only one path induced e.m.f. is produced in a conductor due to a changing
through which electric charge can flow. The current at every magnetic field.
point in a given series circuit is the same. • Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction states that the
• S For n resistors placed in series, the p.d. VE across the whole

magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a circuit is directly proportional

circuit (i.e. across all of the components) is equal to the sum of to the rate of change of magnetic flux in the circuit.
the p.d.s across each component. • S Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f., and

VE = V1 + V2 + … + Vn hence the induced current in a closed circuit, is always such that
• For n resistors in placed in series, the combined resistance is the its magnetic effect opposes the motion or change producing it.

sum of all the resistances. • S The alternating current (a.c.) generator uses alternating

R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn current to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• In a parallel circuit, the components are connected to the • In a simple a.c. generator, the direction of the induced current


e.m.f. source in two or more loops. A parallel circuit has more flowing in the coil can be found using Fleming’s right-hand rule.
than one path through which electric charge can flow. • In a fixed coil a.c. generator, the magnets rotate with respect
• For n branches in parallel, the main current I is the sum of all the

to fixed coils.

current in each branch. • Electromagnetism is the relationship between electricity and
I = I 1 + I 2 + … + In

magnetism.
• S The reciprocal of the combined resistance of resistors in • A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around


parallel, 1 , is equal to the sum of the reciprocal of all the it. We can determine the direction of the magnetic field around
R the wire using the right-hand grip rule.
individual resistances. • S The strength of the magnetic field of a current-carrying wire

1 1 1 increases when the current is increased.
= +
R R1 R2 • S We can deduce the direction of the force acting on a current-

• A potential divider is a line of resistors connected in series. It is carrying conductor in a magnetic field using Fleming’s left-
hand rule.

used to provide a fraction of the available p.d. from a source to
another part of the circuit. • Conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel.

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 • Conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract. • S The relative charge on the nucleus is the same as the

• The direction of the force on a beam of charged particles is

proton number Z of the nucleus.

reversed when we reverse the direction of the magnetic field. • S Nuclear fusion is a process in which two light atomic nuclei
• A current-carrying wire coil placed between two poles of a

combine to form one heavier atomic nucleus, releasing a huge

strong magnet experiences a turning effect. amount of energy.
• A d.c. motor is used to convert electrical energy to mechanical • S The total number of nucleons before and after the a nuclear


energy. fission or fusion reaction is the same. The total relative charge
• A transformer is a device that can change a high alternating before and after should also be the same.

voltage (at low current) to a low alternating voltage (at high
current), or vice versa. It has a primary coil and a secondary Chapter 20: Radioactivity
coil wound around a laminated soft iron core. • Ionising radiation is radiation with high energies that can

• Electrical energy is transferred from the primary coil to the knock off electrons from atoms to form ions.
• Background radiation is ionising nuclear radiation in the

secondary coil in a transformer. The voltages and the number of

turns in the primary and secondary coils are related by this formula: environment when no radioactive source is deliberately
Vp N introduced.
= p whereVS = secondary (output) voltage (in V) • The background count rate is measured in counts per minute
Vs Ns



VP = primary (input) voltage (in V) (counts/min).

NS = number of turns in secondary coil • When carrying out any measurements with radioactive sources,

• In a step-up transformer, the number of turns in the secondary

you should first measure the background radiation. Subtract this

coil is greater than that in the primary coil. This results in an background count rate from your measurements to obtain the
output voltage that is higher than the input voltage. corrected count rate for the radioactive source.
• In a step-down transformer, the number of turns in the • The radiation emitted by a radioactive nucleus is spontaneous


secondary coil is less than that in the primary coil, so that the and random in direction.
output voltage produced is lower than the input voltage. • An α-particle consists of two protons and two neutrons tightly
• S In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss (i.e. the

bound together without any orbiting electrons. It is Identical to

efficiency is 100%). The power supplied to the primary coil is a helium nucleus.
fully transferred to the secondary coil. • A β-particle is a fast-moving electron ejected from a radioactive
IpVp = IsVs

where Vs = secondary (output) voltage (in V) nucleus.


Vp = primary (input) voltage (in V) • A γ-ray is an electromagnetic radiation emitted by a nucleus

Is = current in secondary coil (in A)

with excess energy.

Ip = current in primary coil (in A) • A change in an unstable nucleus can result in the emission of

•

The efficiency of a transformer can be calculated using the α-particles or β-particles and/or γ-radiation. This nuclear process

following equation: is called radioactive decay.
output power • When a nucleus undergoes α-decay, it emits an α-particle.
Efficiency = 100%

input power When a nucleus undergoes β-decay, it emits a β-particle.
• During α- or β-decay, the nucleus changes to that of a different
Chapter 19: Nuclear Model of the Atom

element.
• An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively
• The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time taken for half

charged electrons in orbit around the nucleus.

the nuclei of that isotope in any sample to decay.
• An atom which loses electrons has more positive charges – it
• The graph of count rate against time is called the decay curve.

becomes a positive ion.

• Applications of radioactivity include household fire alarm,
• An atom which gains electrons has more negative charges – it

sterilisation of food and equipment, measuring and controlling

becomes a negative ion.
thickness of materials
• The scattering of alpha (α-) particles by a sheet of thin metal
• S Ionising nuclear radiation damages living cells. The energy

provide evidence to support the nuclear model of the atom.

carried by the radiation can kill cells and cause mutation and
• The nucleus of an atom consists of protons (positively
cancer.

charged) and neutrons (no charge).
• S Exposure to ionising radiation can be controlled by reducing
• The relative charge of an electron is –1(because it is negative)

exposure time, increasing distance between source and living tissue

and the relative charge of a proton is +1. As the neutron does
and shielding.
not carry any charge, the relative charge of a neutron is 0.
• The number of protons in an atom is called the proton number Chapter 21: Earth and the Solar System

or atomic number, represented by Z. • The Earth is a planet. Planets orbit a star. Our star is the Sun.
•

The total number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called • The Earth takes about 365 days or one year to orbit the Sun.


the nucleon number, represented by A. • The Earth also rotates on its axis and it takes about 24 hours or
•

The number of neutrons in a nucleus = one day to rotate once. The Earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of

nucleon number A − proton number Z. about 23.5 degrees towards the plane of its orbit.
• Isotopes of an element are the atoms that have the same number • The day and night cycle is due to the Earth’s rotation about its


of protons but different number of neutrons in the nucleus. tilted axis.
• S Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of an atom • On the Earth, we see the Sun move across the sky from East to


splits (usually into two parts) and releases a huge amount of West. This apparent movement is because the Earth is spinning
energy. about its axis as it orbits the Sun.

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 • Temperate countries have different weather patterns at • S Stars are powered by nuclear reactions that release energy.


different times of the year. These weather patterns are called the • S In stable stars, the nuclear reactions involve the fusion of

seasons. hydrogen into helium.
• Seasons occur because the Earth orbits the Sun on a tilt. • The Milky Way is a group of many billions of stars or a galaxy to

•

The Earth has one natural satellite called the Moon. which our Sun belongs.

• The different appearances of the Moon in the sky are known as • S One light-year is equal to 9.5 × 1015 m.


the phases of the Moon. • Redshift is the increase in the observed wavelength of
• S The Moon’s average orbital speed around the Earth:

electromagnetic radiation emitted from stars and galaxies

2pr which are moving away from the Earth.
v= where v = average orbital speed (in m/s)
Q • At some moment in the past, all of the matter in the Universe


r = average orbital radius

must have exploded outwards from this point and it is still

T = orbital period

• The Solar System was formed from a swirling cloud of gas and expanding. This is known as the Big Bang Theory of the

dust in space called nebula. Universe.
• A hot spinning mass called a protostar was formed at the • S If the Big Bang Theory is correct, the Universe should now be

centre of a swirling disc of gas and dust. The swirling disc is filled with microwaves. These microwaves are called the cosmic
called an accretion disc. microwave background radiation or CMBR.
• Accretion is the accumulation of particles into a massive object • S The Hubble constant H0 is defined as the ratio of the

by gravitational attraction. speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth to its
• S Objects in the Solar System move in an elliptical orbit. distance from the Earth.

• S As the distance of planets from the Sun increases, the orbital H0 =
v
where H0 = Hubble constant

speed decreases due to decreasing gravitational field of the d

v = speed of movement away from the Earth

Sun. This means the time to orbit the Sun also increases.
d = distance from the Earth
• S The current estimate of H0 is 2.2 × 10−18 per second.
Chapter 22: Stars and the Universe

• The Sun is an average yellow star consisting of mostly hydrogen

and helium.
• The Sun radiates the energy in the form of electromagnetic

radiation — mostly infrared, visible light and ultraviolet.

402 Quick Revision Guide

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 Answers
This section only includes short and numerical answers. Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
2 (a) No change (b) No change
Chapter 1: Measurement of Physical Quantities (c) Decrease (d) Increase
Quick Check 3 (a) No (b) (i) 0.518 cm3 (ii) The piece of gold will sink.
p. 4: True p. 9: False p. 12: True 4 (a) 14 900 g (b) 3000 cm3 (c) 2 cm2
 
 
Let’s Practise 1.1 5 (a) No
1 1.0 × 10–5 m 2 2.53 cm 3 (a) m3 5 4s Chapter 4: Forces
Let’s Practise 1.2 Quick Check
2 25 N, at 36.9 (anticlockwise) from the 20 N p. 52: False p. 57: False p. 61: True p. 65z; True

Let’s Review Let’s Practise 4.1

Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 1 (a) 4.0 cm (c) N/cm (d) 7.0 cm
1 B 2 B 3 D 4 D 5 A Let’s Practise 4.2
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions 1 (a) False (b) False (c) False (d) True (e) True
1 (a) Length; Five; Metres (b) Time; Two; Seconds (f) True (g) False (h) False (i) False (j) True
(c) Mass; One thousand; Kilograms Let’s Practise 4.3
2 (a) 2.05 cm 1 Moment = force × perpendicular distance from the pivot
(b) Vernier calipers: 0.01 cm; Metre rule: 0.1 cm 2 no resultant force; no resultant moment
4 g = 9.9 m/s2 3 (a) 30 cm (b) 300 N m (c) 87.5 cm
5 4243 N 4 320 N
Chapter 2: Motion Let’s Practise 4.4
Quick Check 1 The centre of gravity of an object is the point through
p.19: False p.21: False p.22: True p. 24: True; True

which the weight of the object acts.
p. 26: True p. 31: True 2 Yes
Let’s Practise 2.1 Let’s Review
1 8 m/s 2 0.6 m/s2 Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
Let’s Practise 2.2 1 B 2 D 3 C 4 A 5 D 6 C 7 C
1 (a) s = 0 m; v = 0 m/s (b) s = 160 m; v = 10 m/s Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
(c) s = 280 m; v = 0 m/s 1 (a) 5 N (b) 50 N
 
Let’s Practise 2.3 2 (a) N m
1 (b) 50 m/s (c) 125 m (b) (i) No resultant force and no resultant moment.
(ii) 2.5 m
Let’s Review 3 (a) 30 000 N m (b) 7500 N (c) 2.4 m
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 4 200 N
1 B 2 D 3 A 4 D
Chapter 5: Momentum
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions Quick Check
1 40 km/h p. 73: True p. 77: True p. 80: False
2 (a) 3 m/s2 (b) Acceleration is zero (c) 2 m/s2
(d) Acceleration is zero (e) Non-uniform deceleration Let’s Practise 5.1
1 mass × velocity 2 kg m/s
 
3 (a) The train is decelerating from t = 12 s to t = 16 s.
(b) 20 m/s2 3 Vector 4 4.8 kg m/s
 
(c) (i) 520 m (ii) 32.5 m/s Let’s Practise 5.2
 
Chapter 3: Mass, Weight and Density 1 force × time 2 N s or kg m/s 3 Vector
Quick Check 4 momentum; time 5 6 N s
p. 39: True p. 42: False Let’s Practise 5.3
Let’s Practise 3.1 2 3.8 m/s
3 100 N 4 2.75 × 103 N Let’s Review
Let’s Practise 3.2 Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 A 2 C 3 D 4 D 5
1 density = mass ; SI unit: kg/m3
volume Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
2 1 cm3 of water has a mass of 1.0 g 1 (a) mass × velocity (b) (i) 16 000 kg m/s (ii) 1.6 m/s
4 0.92 g/cm3 2 (a) 80 kg m/s (b) 80 N s (c) 40 m/s
3 (a) 40 kg m/s (b)–40 kg m/s (c) –0.8 m/s
Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Chapter 6: Energy, Work and Power
1 C 2 D 3 C Quick Check
p. 88: True p. 92: True p. 96: True

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 Let’s Practise 6.1 Let’s Review
1 (a) Electrical energy  Thermal energy Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
(b) Chemical potential energy 1 A 2 D 3 B 4 D 5 B
 Electrical energy  Light and heat energy
3 Kinetic energy Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
 Gravitational potential energy  Kinetic energy 1 (a) Smoke particles
4 (a) 900 J (b) 30 m/s 3 (a) The pressure will be doubled to 2 × 105 Pa
(b) 1.2 × 105 Pa (c) 170 cm3
Let’s Practise 6.2
3 (a) 24 J (b) 24 J 4 (a) 500 J (b) 500 J Chapter 9: Thermal Properties and Temperature
Quick Check
Let’s Practise 6.3 p.128: False p.131: False p.139: True
1 Combustion of fuel 2 (a) Nuclear fission
3 Only 45% of the input energy is converted into Let’s Practise 9.1
1 Expansion can cause metal railway lines to buckle.

useful output.
4 70% 2 Thermal energy causes them to expand and become


longer.
Let’s Practise 6.4
2 100 W 3 1.8 MJ Let’s Practise 9.2
4 The 1000 W kettle will take half the time it takes for the 1 (a) Increase (b) Increase (c) Decrease (d) Increase
3 1111 J/(kg K)

500 W kettle to bring the water to a boil.
Let’s Review Let’s Practise 9.3
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 4 Any two of the following: Windy day; Sunny day; Hot day
1 B 2 B 3 C 4 A 5 B 5 Difference: Boiling occurs throughout the liquid,


evaporation takes place at the surface; Similarity: Both
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions evaporation and boiling involve a liquid changing into a
1 (b) Gravitational potential energy (c) Kinetic energy gas. (Accept other possible answers.)
2 (b) (i) Nuclear energy; Fossil fuels; Biofuels
3 (a) 2 × 10–3 J (b) 1.5 × 10–3 J Let’s Review
4 (b) (i) 9 J (ii) 12 J (iii) 75% Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
5 (a) (i) 300 kJ (b) (i) 240 kJ (ii) 17.9 m s–1 1 A 2 D 3 C 4 C 5 A
6 (a) (i) P = 30.4%; Q = 12.5%; R = 40.4%; S = 35.7%;
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions

T = 20.5%
1 (b) Liquid-in-glass thermometer
(b) 868.1 MJ
2 (a) (ii) Solidifying/Freezing (b) 60°C
Chapter 7: Pressure 3 (a) 50 J (b) 12.5°C 4 400 J/(kg K)
Quick Check
Chapter 10: Transfer of Thermal Energy
p. 105: True p. 107: False p. 109: True
Quick Check
Let’s Practise 7.1 p. 146: True p. 147: False p. 148: True p. 151: True
1 Pressure = force Let’s Practise 10.1 and 10.2
area 1 Through conduction, convection and/or radiation
3 (a) 50 N (b) 0.562 m2 (c) 0.75 m 4 Upright
Let’s Practise 10.3
Let’s Practise 7.2 1 (a) The density of the material decreases.
1 Density of the liquid; Depth of the liquid in which the

object is being immersed in Let’s Practise 10.4
2 (a) greater (b) smaller 3 Dp = ρgDh 1 Infrared radiation
4 51 250 Pa 2 Dark colours are good absorbers of infrared radiation.
4 Any three of the following: Colour of the surface; Texture
Let’s Review

of the surface; Surface area; Surface temperature
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 C 2 D 3 C Let’s Practise 10.5
1 (a) (i) Conduction (ii) Convection
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
2 (a) The pressure on the ball bearing increases. Let’s Review
(b) The change in pressure is greater. Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
3 (a) 2500 Pa or N/m2 (b) 968 Pa or N/m2 1 D 2 C 3 B
Chapter 8: Kinetic Particle Model of Matter Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
Quick Check 1 (c) The hot tea will emit infrared radiation to its

p. 113: True p. 118: False p. 121: True surroundings.
3 (d) Cork is a bad thermal conductor. It is used to reduce
Let’s Practise 8.1

thermal energy transfer by conduction.
1 (a) A gold ring has a fixed shape.
(b) Milk has no fixed shape. Chapter 11: General Properties of Waves
(c) Air can be compressed. Quick Check

p.164: False p.167: False p.170: False; True p.174: False
Let’s Practise 8.3
2 (b) pV = k or pV = constant Let’s Practise 11.1
1 (a) Incorrect (b) Correct (c) Correct

404 Answers

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 2 (b) Transverse waves: sea waves; Longitudinal waves: Let’s Practise 13.3

sound waves 1 (a) 3 × 108 m/s (b) 3 × 108 m/s (c) 3 × 108 m/s
(d) 3 × 108 m/s
Let’s Practise 11.2 2 Can pass through some walls, only a short aerial is
1 (a) 0.1 s (b) 10 Hz (c) 0.1 cm needed
2 v = f λ 3 T = 2.0 s 3 Visible light; Infrared
Let’s Practise 11.3 Let’s Review
1 (a) The water waves have diffracted through the gaps. Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
Let’s Review 1 C 2 C 3 B 4 D 5 A 6 D
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
1 B 2 D 3 D 4 C 5 C 6 C 7 D 1 (a) A: Infrared; B: Ultraviolet; C: Gamma rays; D:
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions Frequency
1 (a) It means two complete waves per second. 2 (a) 3.75 × 108 m (b) 30 m
3 (a) A
(b) (ii) f = 10 Hz
2 (a) 2 Hz (b) λ = 1.5 m Chapter 14: Sound
5 (a) 0.6 m (b) 5 m (c) (i) 1.25 s (ii) 0.8 Hz (iii) 4 m/s Quick Check
p. 225: False p. 227: False p. 232: True
Chapter 12: Light
Let’s Practise 14.1
Quick Check
2 Yes
p. 188: True p. 195: False p. 205: True
Let’s Practise 14.2
Let’s Practise 12.1
1 No 2 333 m/s
2 Upright; Laterally inverted; Same size as the object;

Virtual; Same distance from the mirror as the object Let’s Practise 14.3
3 (b) The image is upright, laterally inverted, virtual, the 1 750 m

same size as the object, and the same distance from 2 Ultrasound is less hazardous than X-rays due to its
the mirror as the object.

lower energy.
4 6.5 m
Let’s Practise 14.4
Let’s Practise 12.2 1 (a) Amplitude (b) Frequency
2 Refractive index n = sin i = c
sin r v Let’s Review
Let’s Practise 12.3 Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
3 c = 31.8° 4 Glass prisms and optical fibres 1 C 2 C 3 B 4 D
Let’s Practise 12.6 Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
1 Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. 3 (a) 329 m/s
2 Red 4 (a) Dogs can detect sound of frequencies above

Let’s Review 20 000 Hz.
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 5 (b) Depth of seabed = 225 m
1 B 2 B 3 D 4 C 5 D 6 D 7 D 8 B 9 C 6 (b) He will not succeed.
10 D 11 B 12 B 13 B 14 B 15 C Chapter 15: Simple Phenomena of Magnetism
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions Quick Check
1 (a) (ii) Upright; Laterally inverted; Same size as the p. 240: True p. 241: False p. 246: False

object; Virtual; Same distance from the mirror as Let’s Practise 15.1
the object 1 (a) Any three of the following: Iron; Steel; Cobalt; Nickel
(b) 30 m 2 (b) (i) n = 1.46 (ii) x = 20°; y = 30° (b) Any three of the following: Copper; Wood; Plastic;
3 (a) (i) Diamond (ii) Air (b) v = 1.76 × 108 m/s (c) 1.5

Brass
4 (a) Angle of refraction in air = 62.9° (b) c = 48.8° 3 (a) Wood does not completely block the magnetic field.
5 (a) r = 28.1° 7 (a) (i) 75 cm (ii) 70 cm (b) 2 m/s
8 (b) 220 cm 9 (b) Angle of refraction at Q is 28°. Let’s Practise 15.2
1 Metal 1: Iron Metal 2: Steel Metal 3: Brass
Chapter 13: Electromagnetic Spectrum
Quick Check Let’s Review
p. 218: False; True Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 C 2 D 3 C
Let’s Practise 13.1
1 (a) Gamma rays (b) Radio waves Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
2 (a) Radio waves (b) Gamma rays 1 (c) Iron
Let’s Practise 13.2 Chapter 16: Electrical Quantities
1 (b) Visible light; Radio waves Quick Check
2 Microwaves p. 258: False p. 261: False p. 263: True p. 265: False
3 (a) Direct satellite television and satellite phones p. 267: True
(b) Satellite phones
Let’s Practise 16.1
1 Positive charges and negative charges

Answers 405

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 2 (a) The two rods attract each other. place a soft iron core in the solenoid to concentrate
the magnetic field lines
Let’s Practise 16.2
1 The two directions are the same. Let’s Practise 18.4
1 (a) The force is downwards.
Let’s Practise 16.3 2 (b) The current could be increased and/or the wires
1 I = Q 2 Ampere


3 6.25 × 1018 electrons could be placed closer to each other.
t
Let’s Practise 18.5
Let’s Practise 16.4 1 Reverse the direction of the magnetic field; Reverse the
2 (a) 48 C (b) 144 J


direction of the current
Let’s Practise 16.5 3 Electrical energy to kinetic energy
1 As the temperature increases, the resistance increases. Let’s Practise 18.6
Let’s Practise 16.6 1 (a) (i) Soft iron (ii) Smaller (b) 0.04 A
1 2.16 kW 2 $26.24 2 Use thick wires to reduce the resistance of the cables;


Transmit electricity at high voltage
Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions Let’s Review
1 B 2 B 3 C 4 B 5 D 6 B 7 D Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 B 2 A 3 D 4 C 5 C 6 A 7 B 8 B 9 D
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
1 (b) 16.2 kWh Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
2 (a) Wire A = 10 W; Wire B = 4 W (b) Wire A is longer 1 (b) The magnitude of the current passing through


a conductor

than wire B.
(c) Wire A = 0.5 A; Wire B = 1.25 A (c) The direction of the current passing through


3 (b) (i) 2 × 10–3 A a conductor
4 (b) (i) 32 (ii) 0.53 A (iii) 22.5 Ω 2 (b) The number of turns in the solenoid; The strength of


6 (a) Conductor A = 15.0 Ω; Conductor B = 3.3 Ω the magnet; The speed at which the magnet moves
(b) (i) Conductor B with respect to the solenoid
3 (a) The galvanometer is deflected in one direction.
Chapter 17: Electrical Circuits and Electrical Safety (b) The galvanometer is deflected in the opposite

Quick Check direction.
p. 277: True p. 278: False p. 280: False p. 287: False (c) Same as (a) but the deflection of the galvanometer

p. 291: False is larger.
7 (a) (i) 6.25 V (ii) 80 A 8 (a) 400 turns (b) 0.125 A
Let’s Practise 17.2 and 17.3 9 (a) step-up transformer
1 (a) 25 Ω (b) I1= 0.1 A; I2= 0.3 A (c) 17 Ω (d) 75 Ω (b) (i) 500 A (ii) 800 000 A (iii) 1.73 × 1013 J
10 (d) The coil will rotate in the anticlockwise direction.
Let’s Practise 17.4
1 1 V at 0°C; 4 V at 100°C Chapter 19: Nuclear Model of the Atom
Quick Check
Let’s Review p. 333: True p. 335: True p. 339 True
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 C 2 D 3 C 4 D 5 D 6 B 7 B Let’s Practise 19.1
8 A 9 A 10 B 11 A 1 (a) positively; negatively (b) loses (c) gains electrons
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions Let’s Practise 19.2
1 (a) 1.3 Ω (b) 2 Ω (c) 3.3 Ω (d) 1.2 A 1 (a) +1 (b) 0 (c) –1
2 (a) 0.2 A (b) 0.6 A (c) 4 Ω 2 (a) The proton number is the number of protons in the

4 (a) There is no resistance between B and C. nucleus. The nucleon number is the total number of
(b) (i) 200 Ω (ii) 80 Ω protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
(c) The fault lies between C and D. (b) 3517 X (c) 18
(d) (i) 500 Ω (ii) 75 Ω (iii) 50 Ω
 
(e) 100 Ω (d) X and Y are isotopes of the same element

Chapter 18: Electromagnetic Effects Let’s Review

Quick Check Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
p. 306: True p. 312: False p. 317: False 1 C 2 D 3 B 4 D 5 B 6 A
p. 321: False p. 323: True Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
Let’s Practise 18.1 3 (a) Nuclear fission is a process in which the nucleus of

1 (a) The galvanometer needle is deflected to the left. an atom splits and releases huge amount of energy.
(c) An S pole is induced at end A. Chapter 20: Radioactivity
Let’s Practise 18.2 Quick Check
1 Slip rings; carbon brushes p. 345: False p. 351: True

Let’s Practise 18.3

2 (b) Increase the number of turns per unit length of the

solenoid; increase the magnitude of the current;

406 Answers

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 Let’s Practise 20.1 Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions
2 Any two of the following: Radon gas in the air; Rocks 2 towards; southern; Antarctic; winter

containing radioactive minerals; Food and drink; 5 (b) An ellipse (c) A (d) C (e) D
Cosmic rays from the Sun 6 (b) 3.1 × 103 m/s

3 21 counts/minute
4 4 counts/minute Chapter 22: Stars and the Universe
Quick Check
Let’s Practise 20.2 p. 378: False p. 380: True p. 380: True
1 Emission of radiation from a nucleus is a random


process. Let’s Practise 22.1
The count rate will always vary. 1 (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) True
3 (a) γ rays 4 Positively charged and high kinetic energy.
Let’s Practise 22.2
Let’s Practise 20.3
1 (a) One thousand million
1 (a) Radioactive decay; spontaneous; random
(b) The galaxy that contains our Solar System
(in either order for the last two blanks)

 
2 (a) A red giant (b) A planetary nebula
(b) element
(c) A supernova
2 Big nucleon number or massive nucleus; More neutrons
(d) A white dwarf

compared to protons

 
4 9.5 × 1015 m
3 (a) decreases by 4; decreases by 2
(b) remains the same; increases by 1; fewer
Let’s Practise 22.3
4 (a) 238
92
U ➞ 234
90
Th + 42α + γ (b) 13755Cs ➞ 137
56
Ba +−10β + γ 2 C
 
 
 
 
Let’s Practise 20.4 Let’s Review
1 (b) 15 h (c) 1100 counts/min 2 115 counts/min Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
Let’s Practise 20.5 1 B 2 D
1 Any two of the following: Kill cells; Cause mutation;
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions

Cancer.
2 (b) The graph would have a straight line through
2 Lead box 3 Time; Distance; Shielding

the origin.
Let’s Review 1
(c) Age of Universe =
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions gradient
1 D 2 D 3 D 4 B 5 D 3 (a) The left hand side of the galaxy is moving towards
6 C 7 C 8 C 9 A 10 A

the Earth and the right hand side of the galaxy is
moving away.
Section B: Short-answer and Structured Questions (b) The galaxy could be rotating.
1 (a) 22 counts/min (c) Background radiation
4 (a) 6027Co ➞ 60
28
Ni +−10β + γ (b) 21.2 years
 
 
5 (c) α-particles are absorbed by the foil.
Chapter 21: Earth and the Solar System
Quick Check
p. 365: True p. 366: True p. 367: False p. 373: False

Let’s Practise 21.1

1 planet; star; natural satellite
2 365 (or 365.25). 3 B
4 (a) True (b) False (c) False (d) True 5 7800 m/s

Let’s Practise 21.2

1 (a) Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,

Neptune
3 (a) A natural satellite which orbits a planet.
(b) An irregularly shaped lump of rock left over from the

formation of the Solar System.
4 500 s or 8 min and 20 s
5 (b) Any one of the following: Venus; Saturn; Uranus
(c) Jupiter (d) Mercury
(e) Any number between 2 and 12 years

Let’s Review
Section A: Multiple-choice Questions
1 B 2 C

Answers 407

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 Index
A stability decay curve

a.c. power supply changes of states decay equations
absolute zero charge alpha decay

acceleration positive beta decay

definition negative gamma emission



due to gravity by friction deceleration


non-uniform relative density


uniform chemical average


zero potential energy definition



accretion chemical potential energy depth
accretion disc circuit real

alpha particles diagrams apparent

scattering components diffraction


nature series digital signal


properties parallel diodes


alternating current short direct current

generator symbols direction


ammeter circular motion dispersion
ammeter colour displacement
ampere comets definition

amplitude communications displacement-distance
analogue signal optical fibres graph


angle compass displacement-time
of incidence compressions graph


of reflection condensation distance

of refraction condense definition



critical conduction distance-time

asteroid belt in liquids graph


asteroids experiment diverging lenses

atoms applications Doppler effect

definition effects dwarf planets


structure heat dynamo


attraction good

average bad E

ohmic Earth

B non-ohmic Earth’s axis


background radiation conductors earthing
definition electrical echo


measurement heat efficiency



sources constant efficiency



balance convection elastic potential energy
beam in liquids electric


electronic in gases field



spring experiment force



bar magnet applications field pattern


battery effects field lines


beta particles convectional current current

nature converging lenses electrical

properties cooling curve work


Big Bang theory coulomb power

binoculars count rate electrical energy
black hole background electromagnet

blueshift corrected electromagnetic

Bluetooth current waves

boiling alternating spectrum


boiling point direct radiation


Brownian motion conventional induction


electric braking


C current direction indication electromagnetic braking
carbon brushes electromagnetic spectrum
cell D main regions

dry cell d.c. motor typical uses


centre of gravity d.c. power supply harmful effects

definition days electromagnetic waves

408 Index

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 speed in vacuum freeze ion


speed in air frequency positive

electromagnetism frequency negative

electromotive force (e.m.f.) friction isotopes
electron flow fuses definition

electrons radioactive

free G

delocalised galaxies J

electrostatic galvanometer Joule
charge gamma rays

ellipse nature K

elliptical orbit emission Kelvin

energy uses Kelvin scale

conversion gas kilogram

chemical potential gas pressure kilowatt-hour

definition generator kinetic energy


efficiency gravitational kinetic particle model of matter

elastic potential potential energy definition



elastic (strain) field evidence



electrical field strength Kuiper belt


electrostatic potential force


gravitational potential gravity L


kinetic gravitational potential energy lamina

light gravity irregular-shaped plane


potential greenhouse gases laminated soft iron core

internal greenhouse effect lamp

non-renewable sources greenhouses laws of reflection

nuclear laws of refraction

renewal sources H length

thermal half-life lenses

equilibrium definition converge


neutral decay curve diverge



stable hard magnetic materials Lenz’s law


unstable heat light

error internal energy ray diagrams


human reaction time capacity (specific) light-dependent resistor (LDR)


parallax heater light-emitting diode (LED)

zero heating curve light-years

evaporation hertz liquid
Hubble constant load-extension graph
F Hubble’s law experiment

Faraday’s Law of human reaction time limit of proportionality

electromagnetic induction spring constant


Faraday’s solenoid I long-sightedness
experiment impedes longitudinal wave

filament lamp impulse loudness
fixed coil generator incident ray

Fleming’s induced M
left-hand rule magnetism magnetic


right-hand rule induction domains


flow diagram magnetic field


flux infrared field lines

focal length harmful effects field patterns


focal plane radiation force


focal point optical fibres induction


forces short-range communications magnetic materials

balanced infrared radiation magnetic poles

effect on motion infrasound magnetised

effects input transducers magnets

equilibrium insulation induced


friction damaged magnifying glass


resistive double magnitude


resultant insulator mass

turning effect heat definition



unbalanced electrical mechanical waves


fossil fuels internal energy melting
free fall inverse proportionality melting point

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 metre parallelogram method reflected ray
microwaves pascal reflection
uses pendulum refraction

harmful effects period refractive index

satellites periodic motion relay

mobile (cell) phone permanent magnets repulsion

cosmic microwave perpendicular resistance

background radiation (CMBR) physical quantities air


Milky Way definition electrical



minor planets base combined

moment of a force derived resistors

definition standard form fixed



principle of moments pitch light-dependent


resultant moment plane mirror variable


momentum planetary nebula resultant force
definition planets determining


conservation of momentum plotting compass rheostat

monochromatic point of incidence right-hand grip rule
Moon potential difference ring main circuit
phases potential dividers ripple tank

full potential energy

new chemical S


waning elastic Sankey diagram


waxing gravitational scalars


moons potentiometer seasons
motor power secondary coil
motor effect precision semiconductor diode
moving-coil loudspeakers prefixes series circuit
multimeter pressure short-sightedness
definition SI (Système International d’Unités)

N force and area prefixes


natural satellites in liquids units


nebulae primary coil slip rings
neutral equilibrium principal axis Snell’s Law

neutron star principal focus soft magnetic materials
neutrons Principle of Conservation solar radiation
newton of Momentum solenoid

nights of Energy solid

non-magnetic prism solidification
non-magnetic materials proportionality constant solidify
non-uniform acceleration proton number sound
north pole protons speed

NTC thermistor protostars wave

nuclear emission south pole
nuclear energy R specific heat capacity
nuclear fission radiation definition

nuclear fusion applications measurement


nuclear model effects speed

experiment electromagnetic average



nucleon number background definition


nucleus electromagnetic instantaneous



nuclide notation nuclear of light


ionising of sound


O radio waves speed-time
ohm radioactive decay graph

Ohm’s law definition split-ring commutator

Oort cloud half-life stable equilibrium

optical centre alpha decay stars

optical fibres beta decay stable


orbital speed gamma emission states of matter

average radioactivity stopwatch

oscillations range of audibility Sun
overheating rarefactions Sun apparent motion
real image supergiants
P rectification blue

parallax error red giant red

parallel circuit redshift supernova

410 Index

EM_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 410 10/30/2020 7:47:06 PM

 surface voltage-time graph

colour voltmeter

texture volume


temperature cubic metre


area

switches W
watt
T wave
temporary magnets
amplitude

terminal velocity speed

thermal crest

conduction compressions


conductor frequency


radiation longitudinal


thermal conduction period


thermal energy
rarefactions
thermal expansion wave motion
effects wavefront

applications wavelength

thermal radiation weight
emission definition


reflection white dwarf

absorption wire

thermistor live

NTC neutral


three-pin plugs earth

time work done
total internal
reflection X

transformers X-rays
definition

step-up Y

step-down years

translucent
transmission Z
transverse waves zero error
trip switch

U
ultrasound
ultraviolet light
ultraviolet radiation
uniform acceleration
Universe
age of

unstable equilibrium

V
variation of pressure
with temperature

with volume

vector
definition

diagrams

parallelogram method

resultant

velocity
definition

terminal

vernier callipers
vibrating sources
vibration
virtual image
visible light
visible spectrum
volt

Index 411

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 Acknowledgements

412 Acknowledgements

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 Acknowledgements 413

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 414 Acknowledgements

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 Acknowledgements 415

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 416 Acknowledgements

EM_IGCSE Physics TB.indd 416 10/30/2020 7:47:06 PM

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