3.

Electric Motors and Hybrids

by Dr. James Wang

SNUevtolclass@gmail.com
For students to use in the 2022 eVTOL Design Short Course at SNU,
please do not reproduce or distribute
 Propulsion Specific Power Trend
Specific Power
(Watts/kg)
10000
9000 US Army AATE

8000 CT7-8B5(UH-60M SOF)

CT7-8A(S-92)
Williams F-1 Racing Engine
7000 CT58(S-61) T64-GE3(CH-53A)
T700-GE701C(UH-60L)

T700-GE700(UH-60A) PT6C-67C (AW139)

6000
5000
Allison 250-C20J(Bell 206B3)
4000 Electric Motors
PT6B-37A (AW119Ke)

3000 RR300 (R66)

Axial Flux Brushless motor

Aero-Piston Engines
2000 HIO-360-D1A HIO-360-F1AD Motor with
Mazda Wankel Gasoline Engine
(Schweizer 300CB) (Enstrom F28F) Rare-earth Magnet
HIO-360-G1A
1000 O-540-F1B5 (R44) Ferrite Core Brush Motor
(Schweizer 300CBi)
IO-540-AE1A5
O-360-J2A DeltaHawk Aero Diesel engine,
Mercedez (R44)
(R22) best prototype diesel engine
0 300SD Diesel Engines
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
Year
Note, 746 watts = 1 horsepower
 Electric Motor Specific Power Trend
Specific Power
(Watts/kg)
6000

5 kw/kg is 2020 standard

5000

4000

Axial flux
3000 brushless motor

2000
Motor with
rare-earth
Brushless DC magnet
1000 outrunner
Brushless DC motor
Ferrite core in-runner motor
brush motor
Coreless motor
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Note, 746 watts = 1 horsepower
Direct Electric Drive Has Many Benefits
• 92-95% efficiency continuously
• 30% overpower for few min.
• No gearbox needed
• Easy to vary rotor rpm
• Instantaneous response
• Few moving parts
• Low noise
• No polluting exhaust
• Low thermal signature
• No oxygen combustion,
Siemens 5kw/kg motor altitude independent
Unlike turbine helicopters, electric power requires
no warm up, on instantly. Great for UAM,
emergency rescue, police and special operations.
Different Types of Motors

1. DC Brushed Motors (19th century)

2. DC Brushless Motors (1960s)
3. AC Brushless Motors
4. Direct Drive
5. Linear Motors
6. Servo Motors
7. Stepper Motors
 1. DC Brushed Motors +
2 carbon brushes

+
-

Carbon
brush

• Use DC voltage. Simple 2 wires

• Controls rpm by voltage
• Reverse direction by reverse voltage
• Carbon brushes wear with usage
Disadvantages of DC Brush Motors

• Friction of the brushes sliding along the rotating commutator

segments causes power losses

• Soft brush material wears down creating dust Difficult to replace

brushes for sealed or maintenance-free applications.

• Electrical resistance of the sliding brush contact causes a voltage

drop which consumes energy.

• Repeated abrupt switching of the current through the inductance

of the windings causes sparks at the commutator contacts, which
is a fire hazard in explosive atmospheres and a source of
electronic noise.
2. DC Brushless Motors
Made possible by the development of solid state electronics in the
1960s.

Also known as Electronically Commutated Motor (ECM or EC

motor) and synchronous DC motors, are synchronous motors
powered by direct current (DC) electricity via an inverter or
switching power supply which produces electricity in the form of
alternating current (AC) to drive each phase of the motor via a
closed loop controller. The controller provides pulses of current to
the motor windings that control the speed and torque of the motor.
This control system replaces the commutator (brushes) used in
many conventional electric motors.

The construction of a brushless motor system is typically similar to

a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM), but can also be
a switched reluctance motor, or an induction (asynchronous) motor.
DC Brushless Motors
In-runner type Outrunner type

The spinning rotor with the The spinning rotor is the outer
magnet is at the center. casing with magnet.
The armature (stator and wire The armature (stator and wire
winding) is stationary on the winding) is stationary at the
circumference. center.
“Harmony” Texas A&M University, USA

Brushless
outrunner motor
“Harmony” Texas A&M University, USA
 Inside of DC Brushless, 3-Phase,
Radial, Out-runner Electric Motors
 Electric Motor Buzz Words

• Stator
• Winding
• Rotor
• Magnetic poles
• Brushless and brushed
• Kv (rpm/volt)
• Timing
• Idle current and impedence
Stator is Made From Iron
Zefhir Parachute System from Italy

Winding around
the stator
Different Sizes
Brushless 3-phase
motor
components
Winding around
the stator

Winding
determines
rpm/volt
Example of an 8 neodymium
8-pole motor magnets
 Ampere’s Law - Current flow through a wire
will Induce a magnetic field B at distance r

Current I
i

The direction of the magnetic field lines obeys the Biot-Savart Law, right hand rule
Explains Ampere’s Law https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S4uNHue5aNM
Current Flow Will Induce a Magnetic Field

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59HBoIXzX_c
3 Phase AC Induction Motors
 Coiling the Wires Will Produce a Magnetic
Flux Through the Center of the Coil and Make
it an Electro Magnet
Magnetic field

c
N S

Current flow
direction
Coiling the Wires Will Produce a Magnetic
Flux Through the Center of the Coil and Make
it an Electro Magnet
3 Phase DC Brushless Motors
Rotor

Source: LearnEngineering.com
 3 Phase DC Brushless Motors

Once the battery voltage is fixed, the frequency of the 3 phases controls
the rpm, the current determines the power (P=VxI) Source: LearnEngineering.com
3 Phase DC Brushless Motors

Source: LearnEngineering.com
This explains how Tesla permanent magnet motor works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=esUb7Zy5Oio
3 Phase DC Brushless Motors

Source: LearnEngineering.com
3-phase wires
A Stator is made of many thin layers laminated together to
minimize eddy current loss

Stator stack

Stator sheets
Eddy Current
“Harmony” Texas A&M University, USA

Thicker winding wires

 Thinner winding wires
“Harmony” Texas A&M University, USA
3 phase wires
Bell housing
with magnets
Finished motor
 DC Brushless 3-Phase In-runner Motors

3-phase power Wire winding is

supply and on the outside
control wires

Magnets are on
the rotating rotor
Burned out winding on
an in-runner motor
Motor Burned in a 200o C Fire Incident, Neodymium
Magnet Became De-magnetized
Sensor Type 3-Phase Brushless In-runner Motor

Five wires for

rotor azimuth
position sensors
signal. Sensor
type motor
controls rpm
more precisely. 3-phase
power wire
Siemens’ Radial Motor on CityAirbus

Top motor

Bottom motor
“Harmony” Texas A&M University, USA

Bigger
bearings
 Motor / Rotorshaft Bearings
Motor bearings can experience high loads and heat, especially at
thousands of RPM or when rotor is mounted directly to motor shaft.
Use radial bearings to take side loads and thrust bearings to handle
pushing/pulling on the shaft. Example, Tesla Model S’ induction motor
uses SKF ceramic bearings to handle heat and prevent expansion

Source: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00170-020-06069-0
Source: https://insideevs.com/news/322358/tesla-model-s-makes-use-of-skf-ceramic-motor-bearings-video/
 Liquid cool on Project Zero

Air Cool vs Liquid Cool

MAGicALL air cool motors on Airbus Vahana and on Boeing PAV demonstrators
Air Cooled Motor on Beta Technologies Alia

Cooling vanes
 Example: a Circular Radiator Design
Ampaire aircraft company in California commissioned Reactengine in UK
to design this compact annual shaped radiator for cooling the coolant

Source: www.reactionengines.co.uk/technology/our-work/advanced-radiator-hybrid-electric-aircraft
3. AC Brushless Induction Motors

The AC induction motor was invented by Nikola Tesla

(1856‐1943). Three‐phase AC induction motors are the
most frequently encountered in most industries. They are
simple, rugged, easy to maintain and are less expensive
than DC motors of equal power and speed ratings.
Induction motors inside can get very hot and requires
cooling by a fan and fins.

Electric cars, like Tesla Model S, use 3-phase AC induction

motors. They are self starting. They do not require
permanent magnets.
3Phase AC Induction Motors are most
popular and they have 3 sets of windings

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AQqyGNOP_3o
 Tesla Uses Induction Motors (IM) and
Permanent Magnet (IM) Motors

Source: https://youtu.be/MQV3D8F6gvw and https://youtu.be/FVVT3FD30eY

Axial Flux Motor
Inside of an Axial Flux Motor
The rotor spins

Permanent magnet Copper wire winding

Source: The Dawn of an Advanced Transportation Mode

A Direct Drive with Axial Flux Motor

Stator with
Ball bearing wire winding
to generate
electro-
magnetic flux

Permanent magnet

Source: The Dawn of an Advanced Transportation Mode

Axial Flux Motor Controls RPM by the 3 Phases

Source: The Dawn of an Advanced Transportation Mode

Axial Flux Motor

Source: The Dawn of an Advanced Transportation Mode

Axial Flux Motor

Source: The Dawn of an Advanced Transportation Mode

Finished Axial Flux Motor

Source: The Dawn of an Advanced Transportation Mode

Advantages of Axial Flux Motor is More
Torque at Lower RPM

Torque = r x F
A

C
Three Methods to Increase Redundancy

1. Many motors/rotors

2. Stack multiple motors on

one rotor shaft

3. Multiple windings inside

each motor
On a stacked motor, how do we achieve the
30% overpower mentioned earlier?

Example: Voltage is fixed at 800 volts, electric motor kv

is fixed at 2, so it will want to spin at 1600 rpm. Motor
will pull current to spin at that rpm. Power= v x i , if one
motor failed, the blade pitch remains the same, the
second motor will pull more current. The second motor
will start to heat up, it could take a couple minutes
before motor temperature reach 180oC.

That’s why motors and inverters have a continuous

rating and a peak rating for current.
Electric Motors Have Another Advantage

With an internal combustion engine, if the air/fuel

mixture is not changed, but suddenly there is a loading
change (example, suddenly reducing propeller’s pitch
angle), the engine will overspeed because the air/fuel
mixing has not changed. While an electric motor will
automatically draw less current when external load is
reduced.
RR Spirit of Innovation Clocks 387 MPH

January 2022
 RR Spirit of Innovation

Source: The world’s fastest electric airplane

https://youtu.be/GsXGJ1O3ccQ
 3 x 250kw Axial Flux Motors on One Shaft

In flight only a total of 210kw

used to keep motors cool
Three Motors on One Shaft
Inside Axial Flux Motors

Source: The world’s fastest electric airplane

https://youtu.be/GsXGJ1O3ccQ
Wires in Winding Used in Automotive are Flat
Each Motor Develops 580 ft-lbs of Torque
Motor Testing
Indoor Motor Test Cell

340 volts

-10 °C to +80°C
350 kw
A Megawatt Power Test Grid
Small Scale Motor Test Stand

RCBenchmark.com makes small test stands and software

Always Record and Monitor Motor
Conditions in Realtime or Datalog
• Temperature of motor and controller
• Temperature of coolant
• Voltage
• Current
• RPM

• Command from the flight computer to the

motor controller

• Command received and output at the motor

controller (check for noise)
Can Collect Power Data on Model Flight Test

diameter: 1.6 meter

rpm: 2000
weight: 5.6 kg
optional payload: 5 kg
Data Log Result for Model Tested on Previous
Slide
 Model Rotor Test Stand

Outside Inside wind

wind tunnel tunnel
Indoor Motor/Rotor Test Stand
Then Test on Actual Aircraft
Full-Scale Whirl Tower
Collecting Rotor Data
NASA Tiltrotor Test Rig (TTR) at NASA 40’ x 80’
Wind Tunnel at Ames Research Center

Up to 26 ft diameter
90 degrees nacelle rotation
100 knots edgewise
300 knots for airplane mode
NASA Tiltrotor Test Rig (TTR)
4 electric motors, total 5000 hp or 3.7 MW
126 – 630 rpm, 20,000 lbs thrust steady
30,000 lbs peak
NASA Tiltrotor Test Rig (TTR)
 Iron Bird for Testing Electric Powertrain Only

Roll Royce Electric Airplane

Iron Bird for Testing Complete Drivetrain
Iron Bird for Testing Complete Drivetrain
 Electric Motor Trade Study with
Design Tips for eVTOL Aircraft
(All data are estimated or obtained from public domain, do not
assume they are all accurate)
Specific Power for Electric Motors

Specific Power (kW/kg)

7.00

6.00

5.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
YASA-P400 Remy HVH250 HT TP POWER TP100XL Emrax 348 Emrax 268 Rolls-Royce SP260D-A
 Continuous Specific Power vs Motor Weight
7.00
At a given weight, the higher
the specific power better
6.00
Siemens SP260D-A
MGM Compro RES120
5.00
Specific Power (kW/kg)

Emrax 268 Siemens SP200D magni500

YASA P400 R magni250
4.00

3.00
MGM Compro REX90

Safran EngineUS
2.00 Emrax 348

YASA 750R
1.00

0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Motor Weight (kg) Compiled in 2020 by author
 Max Continuous Torque vs Motor Weight
3000
magni500

Bigger motor = Higher torque

2500
Max Continuous Torque (Nm)

2000

MGM Compro RES120

1500 Siemens SP200D magni250

Siemens SP260D-A
1000

Typical range for

MGM Compro REX90 Emrax 348 electric car motors
500
Emrax 268
YASA 750R
YASA P400 R
0 Safran EngineUS
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Motor Weight (kg) Compiled in 2020 by author
 Max Continuous Torque vs Max Continuous Power
3000
magni500

2500
Max Continuous Torque (Nm)

2000

MGM Compro RES120

1500 Siemens SP200D magni250

Siemens SP260D-A
1000

Emrax 348
YASA 750R
500 MGM Compro REX90
Emrax 268
YASA P400 R
Safran EngineUS
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Max Continuous Power (kW)
 Max Continuous Power vs Voltage
600
magni500
Power = voltage x current
400 Volt was popular, now the trend is 800 volts
500
Porsche Taycan saved 30 kg harness weight by going to 800V
Max Continuous Power (kW)

400

300 magni250
Siemens SP260D-A MGM Compro RES120

Siemens SP200D
200

YASA P400 R
100 Emrax 268 Emrax 348
YASA 750R
Safran EngineUS
MGM Compro REX90
0
350 450 550 650 750 850 950
Voltage (V) Compiled in 2020 by author
 Continuous Specific Power vs Max Continuous Power
7.00

Siemens SP260D-A
6.00
Emrax 268
MGM Compro RES120
Continuous Specific Power (kW/kg)

5.00
YASA P400 R
Siemens SP200D magni500
magni250
4.00
MGM Compro REX90
3.00
Safran EngineUS
Emrax 348
2.00
YASA 750R
This chart indicates bigger motors (higher continuous
1.00
power) tends to have slightly higher specific power

0.00
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Max Continuous Power (kW) Compiled in 2020 by author
 Specific Continuous Power vs Designed Motor RPM
7.00

Siemens SP260D-A
6.00

5.00 MGM Compro RES120

Specific Power (kW/kg)

magni500 Emrax 268 YASA P400 R

4.00 magni250
Siemens SP200D

3.00
MGM Compro REX90 Safran EngineUS
Emrax 348
YASA 750R
2.00
Motors designed for higher rpm usually give higher Specific Power
The right rotor diameter is a combination of efficient specific power,
1.00 direct drive vs gearbox, enough torque to spin the rotor, proper rpm
for reasonable blade tip speed for acoustic reason, available inverter
0.00 voltage, power wire weight, cooling, etc.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Motor RPM Compiled in 2020 by author
Pure Electric vs Hybrid
Using Hybrid Design to Increase Endurance or
Payload

+
Power Use battery to
Required supplement takeoff
For Flight
Available power from engine

Use surplus engine

power during
cruise to recharge
0 Flight Speed 250 the battery
 Generic eVTOL Hybrid-Electric Schematic
Fossile fuel engine Usually < 30% efficiency

Light weight

Inflight
charging
Generator Generator Needs redundancy

Inverter and Flight Computer

Supplement energy,
Power Avionics
and for maneuvering
Rechargeable battery Management Communication
Lighting
Cabin environment

motor
> 93% efficiency
> 5 kw/kg

Electric Motor Electric Motor Electric Motor Electric Motor

Electric Motor Electric Motor Multiple motors provides redundancy

Example, a hexrotor copter

All-electric vs Serial vs Parallel Hybrid-Electric

Fossile fuel
engine
Inverter and
Rechargeable Rechargeable
Power
battery battery
Light weight
Generator Management

Inverter and Inverter and Electric Fossile fuel

Rechargeable Motor
Power Power engine
battery
Management Management

Gearbox Generator
Electric Electric Electric Electric
Motor Motor Motor Motor

All-electric suitable for: Serial hybrid suitable for: Parallel hybrid suitable for:
• <30 min flight (200 Wh/kg pack level) • <2 hours flight • Long endurance
• <60 min flight (400 Wh/kg pack level) • Medium size aircraft • Medium to large aircraft
• Small to medium size aircraft • Reasonable payload • Larger payload
• Small payload percentage
Assume the MTGW are Identical, below results from Honeywell
shows all-electric VTOL has the lowest percentage useful payload

Single turbine Twin turbine

All electric Hybrid-electric
engine engine

8% 18%
40% 35%

Payload Mechanical propulsion

Structure Battery
Equipment Fuel
Electric propulsion From data presented by Honeywell at 2019
VFS Arizona eVTOL Conference
Fossil fuel Engine vs. Electric Power

+ = 4000 Wh/kg

12,500 Wh/kg 25% thermal A hybrid could

efficient be in between, or
improve battery’s
specific energy

+ = 190 Wh/kg

200 Wh/kg 95% efficient

How Big Can Electric Get?
 Airbus Roadmap for Electric Flight
From www.newsatlas.com

( 746 Watts = 1 hp ) 20,000 hp

eVTOL

eVTOL
2000 hp

200 hp
2010 “Cri Cri” MTOW 175 kg, 30 min at 60 kts, 2x25
hp
2015 “E-Fan” 2x40 hp, 240v, 1 hour Endurance
Original Engine Powered Walter Extra 300
2016 “Extra 330LE” 260 kw (348 hp), 50 kg motor
Top speed 337.5 km/h, 20 min cruise at 1000 kg
 Airbus Roadmap for Electric Flight
From www.newsatlas.com

( 746 Watts = 1 hp ) 20,000 hp

eVTOL

eVTOL
2000 hp

200 hp
 Both have 260 kw total
Both are 1000 kg MTGWg

CTOL gives 20 min

versus
VTOL gives 10 min
 20 megawatts (26,700 hp)
From www.newsatlas.com
 3. Electric Motors and Hybrids

by Dr. James Wang

SNUevtolclass@gmail.com
For students to use in the 2022 eVTOL Design Short Course at SNU,
please do not reproduce or distribute