CURRENT ELECTRICITY

In electrostatics, we studied the charges at rest. In this chapter we will study the charges in motion.
For example, during lightning, electric charges flow from clouds to the earth through the
atmosphere. The physics of charges at rest is called electrostatics or static electricity.
The study of electric charges in motion is called current electricity.
Electric Current
Electric current is defined as the amount of electric charges flowing through any cross-section of a
conductor per unit time.
Let charge Q crosses through a cross-section of a conductor in time t , then
Total charge flowing  Q  Q
Electric current, I  Or I 
Time taken  t  t
 
If n electrons, each of charge e  1.6 1019 cross through a cross-section of a conductor in time
Q ne
t , then using Q  ne , we get I   . The SI unit of current is ampere  A  .
t t
1 coulomb  C 
1 ampere  A    1Cs 1
1 second  s 
Definition of ampere: If one coulomb of charge crosses an area in one second, then the current
through that area is one ampere  A  .
Electric current is a scalar quantity
Although electric current has both magnitude and direction, yet it is a scalar quantity. This is because
the laws of ordinary algebra are used to add electric currents and the laws of vector addition are not
applicable to the addition of electric currents.
Current density
The current density at any point inside a conductor is defined as the amount of charge flowing per
second through a unit area held normal to the direction of the flow of charge at that point.
If a current I is flowing uniformly and normally through an area of cross-section A of a conductor,
I
then magnitude of current density at any point will be j 
A
Current density is a vector quantity. The direction of current density is the same as the direction of

current. The SI unit of current density is Am2 . 
Electric Current in a metallic conductor
In a solid conductor, atoms/molecules are so closely packed, that valence electrons are no longer
attached firmly to its nucleus. These valence electrons are free to move throughout the volume of
the solid and hence known as free electrons. The
free electrons are in continuous random motion
and they undergo collisions with positive metal
ions. The average thermal velocity of electrons is
zero. The net current is zero. When an electric field
is set up in a metallic conductor, the free electrons
experience force and get accelerated in a direction

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opposite to the direction of electric field. The motion of electrons constitutes electric current.
Ohm’s Law
Statement: The current  I  flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference  V  across the
ends of the conductor provided the temperature and other
physical conditions remain unchanged.
i.e. I α V or V α I
V
or V  RI  R
I
Where R is constant of proportionality called electrical
resistance of the conductor.
Electrical resistance  R 
The resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered to the flow of electric charge in the
conductor.
V
R . The SI unit of resistance is ohm   
I
If V=1 volt and I  1 ampere then R  1 ohm
Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm, if current of 1 ampere flows through it, when
potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.
Factors affecting resistance of a metallic conductor
The resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors
 a  Length of the conductor
R α l ........  i 
 b  Area of cross-section of the conductor
1
Rα ........  ii 
A
Combining eqns  i  and  ii  we get
l  l 
Rα Or R  ρ  
A A
Where ρ is a constant for the material of the conductor called specific resistance or electrical
resistivity.
ρl
In the equation R  if A  1and l  1 , then ρ  R
A
The resistivity of a material is defined as numerically equal to the resistance of a conductor of that
material having unit length and unit area of cross section.
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre  m 
Relation between j , σ and E : If E is the magnitude of the uniform electric field in the conductor
whose length is l and V is the potential difference across its ends, this causes an electric current I
through the conductor.

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Since the field is uniform, V  El ....  i 

According to Ohm’s law, V  IR .....  ii 

Comparing eqns  i  and  ii  we get,

El  IR
ρl  ρl 
El  I  R  
A  A
I
E ρ
A
j  I
E  jρ   j 
σ  A
Where σ is called electrical conductivity of the material.
j  σE
In vector form, j  σE
Drift Velocity
In a metal conductor, the free electrons move randomly at room temperature. In any portion of the
conductor, the flow of electrons is so oriented that the average thermal velocity of total number of
free electrons in a conductor is zero i.e.,
u1  u 2  u 3  ......  u n
u av  0
n
Where u1 , u 2 , u 3 .......u n are the thermal velocities of free electrons and n is the total number of free
electrons. When an electric field is applied across the conductor, the free electrons accelerate in a
direction opposite to the direction of the applied field as in fig. Due to this acceleration, the
electrons gain extra velocity but for a short time because the accelerated electrons collide with
other free electrons or the ions in the conductor and during this collision, the extra velocity gained is
destroyed. Again, the electron is accelerated and comes to rest after collisions with ions. As a result,

 
the electrons acquire a small velocity called drift velocity v d in the direction opposite to that of the
applied field. This flow of electrons constitutes an electric current.
Expression for Drift Velocity
It is the average velocity with which free electrons in a conductor get drifted in a direction opposite
to the direction of the applied electric field.
Consider a conductor under the influence of electric
field E . The force experienced by a free electron in
the conductor placed in the electric field is given by
F  eE
Negative sign shows that the directions of F and E
are opposite to each other.
The acceleration produced in the electron is
given by,
F
a , where m is the mass of the electron
m

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 eE
Or a 
m
This acceleration lasts for a short time and is interrupted (i.e., made zero), when the accelerated
electron collides with vibrating ions of the conductor. This small interval of time between two
successive collisions between electron and ion in the conductor is called relaxation time or mean
free time  τ  .
In other words, the electron accelerates for an average time interval τ .
Therefore, the drift velocity is given by
vd  u  a τ
eE  eE 
Or vd  0  τ  u  0 and a  
m  m 

eE
Or vd  τ
m
eEτ
i.e., vd  vd 
m
4 1
The drift velocity is of the order of 10 m s which is negligible as compared to the average
electron thermal velocity of 10 m s 1 at room temperature.
6

Mobility
Mobility of a current carrier is the ratio of the drift velocity  vd  of current carrier in a material to
the applied electric field E across the material.
vd
i.e., μ 
E
v eτ  eEτ 
μ d   wkt vd  
E m  m 
Thus, mobility of a current carrier is inversely proportional to the mass of the current carrier.
2 1 1 1 1 1
The SI unit is m s V or m s N C
Relation between Drift velocity and Electric current
Consider a conductor of length l and uniform cross-sectional area A . Let V be the applied potential
difference across the ends of the conductor as in fig. The magnitude of electric field set up across the
V
conductor is given by E 
l
Let n be the number of free electrons per unit volume of the conductor. Then, total number of free
electrons in the conductor  n  volume of the conductor  n  Al
If e is the magnitude of charge on each electron, then the total charge in the conductor is,
Q   nAl  e .......... 1
The time taken by the charge to cross the conductor length l is given by
l
td  , where v d is drift velocity of electrons.
vd
According to the definition of electric current,

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 Q nAle
I   neAvd
t l
vd
Or I  neAvd .......  2   I α vd  as n,e and A are constants
Equation  2  gives the relation between Electric current and drift velocity.

Current density, Resistivity and Conductivity

eEτ
Since drift velocity is vd 
m
 eEτ  ne AEτ
2
Wkt I  neA  
 m  m
Current density j is the current through unit area normal to direction of current (or electric field)
I ne2 τE
i.e. j  
A m
From the equation j  σE where σ is the conductivity of the material.
ne2 τE ne2 τ
Hence, σE  or σ 
m m
Since conductivity σ is the reciprocal of resistivity ρ ,
1 m
ρ  2
σ ne τ
Deduction of Ohm’s law
If V is the potential difference across a conductor of length l having uniform area of cross-section
V
A , the magnitude of the electric field inside the conductor is E 
l
eEτ eVτ
The drift velocity of free electrons under the action of the electric field E is vd  
m ml
Where τ is the relaxation time (average time between successive collisions), e is the charge and m is
the mass of electron.
 eVτ   ne τA 
2
The current through the conductor is I  neAvd  neA  
  V
 ml   ml 
V ml
Or  2  R , a constant for a given conductor at a given temperature.
I ne τA
This is Ohm’s law.
ml  m l
Where R  i.e. R   2 
ne τA
2
 ne τ  A
Factors affecting electrical resistivity
 m l
R  2  ......  i 
 ne τ  A
l
R ρ ......  ii 
A

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 m 1 1
From eqns  i  and  ii  we get, ρ  . Thus ρ α and ρ α
ne τ
2
n τ
 a  Since number of free electrons per unit volume  n  is different in different materials. Thus
resistivity of a conductor depends on the nature of the material of the conductor.
 b  Relaxation time  τ  decreases with the increase in temperature of the conductor. Therefore,
resistivity ρ α  1 τ  of a conductor increases with increase in temperature and vice-versa i.e.,
ρ α T , where T is the temperature of the conductor
Dependence of Resistivity on temperature
For most of the metals, resistivity increases linearly with the increase in temperature, around and
above the room temperature. In such cases, resistivity ρ at any temperature T is given by

ρ  ρ0 1  α  T  T0  …….. (1)

Where ρ 0 is the resistivity at a lower temperature T0 and α is the coefficient of resistivity.
Thus, the temperature coefficient of resistivity  α  may be defined as the increase in resistivity per
unit resistivity per degree rise in temperature.
The SI unit of α is 0 C1 . For metals α is positive. For such conductors, the temperature dependence
of ρ at low temperature is non-linear. At low temperatures, the resistivity of a pure metal increases
as a higher power of temperature, as shown in fig.

{Thus eqn 1 can be written in terms of resistance R T  R 0 1  α  T  T0  }

Limitations of Ohm’s law

Ohm’s law is obeyed by many substances under certain conditions but it is not a fundamental law of
nature.
V  I Characteristics
The variation of current with the voltage for any device is called its V  I characteristics.
Ohmic device: The device which obey ohm’s law are called ohmic device.
Ex: Ammeter, Voltmeter, Galvanometer
For an Ohmic device the V  I characteristic is linear.
Non-Ohmic device: A device which does not obey ohm’s law are called non-ohmic device.
Ex: Semiconductor diode, transistor
For a non-ohmic device the V  I characteristic is non-linear.

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Resistivity of various materials
Materials are classified into three types based on their resistivity conductors, semiconductors and
insulators based on their resistivities, in an increasing order of their values. Metals have low
8 6
resistivities in the range of 10 m to 10 m . Semiconductors (such as carbon, silicon and
5
germanium) have resistivities in the range 10 m to 10 m . Insulators (such as pure water,
4

glass, rubber and plastic) have resistivities in the range of 10 m to 10 m . Resistivities of

5 16

materials depend on temperature.

Materials whose resistivities have very small (or negligible) dependence on temperature are used to
make resistors.
Resistors
A resistor is a device which offers electrical resistance to the flow of current through it.
The resistance offered by different resistors to the flow of current varies from few ohms to millions
of ohms. Some resistors are wire wound and some are made from carbon. Both can be of two types
i.e. fixed and variable resistors.
Colour code for resistors
The carbon composition resistors are small in size. Their resistance value is indicated by three or four
coloured bands marked round the resistor.
Colour Band A Band B Band C Band D
0
Black 0 0 10
Brown 1 1 101
Red 2 2 102
Orange 3 3 103
Yellow 4 4 104
Green 5 5 105
Blue 6 6 106
Violet 7 7 107
Gray 8 8 108
White 9 9 109
Gold 10-1  5%
Silver 10-2  10%
No Colour  20%
The colour band A and B represents the first two significant digits of resistance in ohm. The C band
gives the decimal multiplier i.e. the number of zeros that follows the first two digits of the resistance
value. The fourth band D , if present, gives the tolerance known as the limit of accuracy or permitted
variation in the value of the resistance. The tolerance in the case of gold is  5% and in silver is

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 10% . If only three bands are marked on carbon resistance, then it indicates a tolerance of
 20% .
{Note: Colour code can be remembered by the following memory aids
BB Roy Of Great Britain has Very Good Wife wearing Gold Silver Necklace}
Electric energy
The work done by a source to maintain a current in an electrical circuit is known as electric energy.
If I is the current flowing through the circuit from end A to the end B for time t . Let q be the
charge flowing from A to B in time t ,
Then q  It
If V be the potential difference between A and B , then work done to carry the charge q from
point A to B is given by W  Vq  VIt
This work done is equal to the electric energy E consumed in the circuit and is given by
E  VIt
Wkt V  IR
 E   IR  It  I2 Rt ......  i  . This is the form of energy which is converted into heat energy.
V
Also I 
R
V V2 t
 From eqn  i  E  V  t E
R R
The SI unit of electrical energy is joule  J  .
Electric Power
Electric power is defined as the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit per unit time.
W
If W be the amount of electric energy consumed in a circuit in t seconds, P 
t
Since W  VIt
VIt
P Or P  VI
t
The SI unit of power is watt  W 
Electric power is said to be 1 watt if 1 ampere current flows through an electrical circuit, when a
potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.
Combination of Resistors
 i  Series
Consider three resistors of resistances R 1 , R 2 and
R 3 respectively connected in series. Let I be the
current flowing through each resistor and V be
the potential difference across the series
combination. If V1 , V2 and V3 be the potential
differences across the resistors R 1 , R 2 and R 3
respectively then

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V  V1 + V2 +V3 ...... 1
By Ohm’s law, the potential drops across each resistances are
V1  IR1 , V2  IR 2 and V3  IR 3
eqn 1 becomes V  IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3

V  I  R1  R 2  R 3  ......  2 
If R S be the effective or equivalent resistance of the series combination, then
V  IR S
Then eqn  2  becomes IR S  I  R1  R 2  R 3 

Or R S  R1  R 2  R 3 ......  3

If there are n resistors connected in series, then eqn  3 can be written as

R S  R1  R 2  R 3 + ......+R n
 ii  Parallel
Consider three resistors of resistances R 1 , R 2 and R 3
respectively connected in parallel. If V is the potential
differences across the resistors. Let I1 , I 2 and I 3 be the
current through resistors R 1 , R 2 and R 3 respectively.
Then I  I1 + I2 +I3 ....... 1
By Ohm’s law the current through the individual
V V V
resistances will be I1  , I2  and I3 
R1 R2 R3
 Then eqn 1 becomes

V V V  1 1 1 
I    V    .....  2 
R1 R 2 R 3  R1 R 2 R 3 
V
If R P is the effective or equivalent resistance of the parallel combination, then I 
RP
V  1 1 1 
Hence eqn  2  becomes  V   
RP  R1 R 2 R 3 
1 1 1 1
    ......  3
R P R1 R 2 R 3
If there are n resistors connected in parallel, then eqn  3 can be written as
1 1 1 1 1
   +...... 
R P R1 R 2 R 3 Rn
Cells, EMF, Internal resistance of a cell
 i  Cell: A cell is a device which provides the necessary potential difference to an electric circuit to
maintain a continuous flow of current in it.

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 ii  EMF (Electromotive force)
E.M.F of a cell is defined as the potential difference between the terminals of the cell when no
current is drawn from the cell. The SI unit is volt  V 
Terminal potential difference: The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when a current is
being drawn from it is called its terminal potential difference. The SI unit is volt  V 
Internal resistance: The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current
between its electrodes is called as internal resistance.
Relation between EMF, Terminal potential difference and Internal resistance of a cell
Consider a cell of emf E and internal resistance r connected to an external resistance R as shown in
fig. Suppose a constant current I flows through this circuit.
E  Work done by the cell in carrying a unit charge along the closed circuit from A to B  B to A
E  V  V'
By Ohm’s law, V  IR and V  Ir
'

 E  IR  Ir  I  R  r 
E
Hence the current in the circuit is I 
Rr
The terminal potential difference of the cell that sends
current I through the external resistance R is given by
ER
V  IR 
Rr
Also V  E  V'  E  Ir ...... 1
Terminal potential difference  emf  potential drop across the internal resistance
From eqn 1 we get

EV EV  EV

r   R
I V  V 
R
E 
Or r    1 R
V 
 i  If the circuit is open I  0 , V  E  From eqn 1 
Thus the potential difference across the terminals of the cell is equal to its emf.
 ii  The potential difference across the terminals of the cell in a closed circuit is always less than its
emf V E
Combination of cells in series and parallel
 i  Cells in series: Consider two cells of emfs E1 , E 2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are connected
in series between points A and C . Let I be the current flowing through the series combination.
Let VA , VB and VC be the potentials at points A , B and C respectively. The potential differences
across the terminals of the cells will be
VAB =VA  VB = E1  Ir1
VBC =VB  VC = E2  Ir2

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Thus the potential difference between the terminals A and C of the series combination is
VAC  VA  VC   VA  VB    VB  VC 
VAC   E1  Ir1    E 2  Ir2 
Or VAC   E1  E 2    r1  r2  ..... 1
If the series combination of the cells is
replaced by single cell of equivalent emf
E eq and internal resistance req , then
eqn 1 can be written as
VAC  Eeq  Ireq Where Eeq  E1  E 2 and req  r1  r2
Equivalent emf for n cells is Eeq  E1  E2  E3  ......  En
Internal resistance for n cells is req  r1  r2  r3  ......  rn

 ii  Cells in parallel: Suppose two cells of emfs E1 , E 2 and internal resistance r1 and r2 are
connected in parallel between two points. Suppose the currents I1 and I 2 from the positive
terminals of the two cells flow towards the junction B1 and current flows out. Then the main current
is given by I  I1 +I2
As the two cells are connected in parallel
between the same two points B1 and B2 ,
the potential difference V across both
cells must be same.
The potential difference between the
terminals of first cell is
V  VB1  VB2  E1  I1r1
E1  V
 I1 
r1
The potential difference between the terminals of E 2 is
V  VB1  VB2  E2  I2 r2
E2  V
 I2 
r2
E1  V E 2  V
Hence I  I1  I 2  
r1 r2
E E  1 1
I   1  2   V  
 r1 r2   r1 r2 
 r1  r2  E1r2  E 2 r1
Or V   I
 r1r2  r1r2
E1r2  E 2 r1 rr
Or V   I 1 2 ..... 1
r1  r2 r1  r2

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If the parallel grouping of cells is replaced with a single cell of emf E eq and internal resistance req ,
E1r2  E 2 r1 rr
then eqn 1 can be written as VAC  Eeq  Ireq where E eq  and req  1 2
r1  r2 r1  r2
We can express the above results in a simpler way
E eq E1 E 2 1 1 1
  and  
req r1 r2 req r1 r2
For parallel combination of n cells, we can write
E eq E1 E 2 E 1 1 1 1
   ....... + n and    ...... 
req r1 r2 rn req r1 r2 rn
Kirchhoff’s Law
Kirchhoff extended Ohm’s law to complicated circuits and gave two laws, which enables us to
determine current in any part of such a circuit. We first define a few terms
 i  Electrical network: The term electric network is used for a complicated system of electrical
conductors.
 ii  Junction: Any point in an electric circuit where two or more conductors are joined together is a
junction.
 iii  Loop or Mesh: Any closed conducting path in an electric network is called a loop or mesh.
 iv  Branch: A branch is any part of the network that lies between two junctions.
Kirchhoff’s first law or junction rule:
In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum of currents at any junction is zero.
Or, the sum of currents entering a junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving that junction.
Figure represents a junction J in a circuit where four currents meet. The currents I1 and I 2 flowing
towards the junction are positive, while the currents I 3 and I 4
flowing away from junction are negative, therefore by junction rule
 I0
Or I1  I2  I3  I4  0
Or I1  I2  I3  I4 i.e., Incoming current  Outgoing current
First law is also called as Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL).
Kirchhoff’s second law or loop rule:
Around any closed loop of a network, the algebraic sum of changes in potential must be zero.
Or, the algebraic sum of the emfs in any loop of a circuit is equal to the sum of the products of
currents and resistances in it.
Mathematically, the loop rule may be expressed as
 V  0 Or  E   IR
Consider a closed electric circuit as shown in fig
containing two cells of emfs E1 , E 2 and three
resistors of resistances R 1 , R 2 and R 3 .
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop ABEFA
I2 R 2  I1R1  E1  0 Or I1R1  I2 R 2  E1

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Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the loop BCDEB
E2  I3R 3  I2 R 2  0 Or I3R 3  I2 R 2  E2
Sign convention for applying loop rule
 i  The emf of a cell is taken positive if one moves in the direction of increasing potential (i.e., from
negative to the positive terminal) and it is taken negative if one moves in the direction of decreasing
potential (i.e., from positive to negative potential)
 ii  The product of current and resistance is taken as negative if one moves in the direction of
current and it is taken positive if one moves in a direction opposite to the current.
Wheatstone’s Network
It is an arrangement of four resistances used to determine one of these resistances quickly and
accurately in terms of the remaining three resistances. Thus if two resistances are known, the ratio
of the other two can be found.
A wheat stone consists of four resistances P , Q , R and S connected to form the arms of a
quadrilateral ABCD . A battery of emf E is connected between points A and C and a sensitive
galvanometer between B and D as shown in fig. If S be the resistance to be measured. The
resistance R is so adjusted that there is no defection in the galvanometer. The bridge is said to
balanced when the potential difference across the galvanometer is zero.
Condition for balance: Using Kirchhoff’s first law, at node B , I1  I3  I g or I3  I1  I g
And at node D , I4  I2  I g
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the mesh ABDA ,
I1P  I g G  I2R  0 ...... 1
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the mesh BCDB ,
I3Q  I4S  I g G  0

   
Or  I1  I g Q  I2  I g S  I g G  0 ......  2 
When the network is balanced the current through the
galvanometer is zero i.e., I g  0

Then eqn 1 reduces to I1P  I2 R  0 or

I1P  I2 R ......  3
And eqn  2  reduces to I1Q  I2S  0 or I1Q  I2S ......  4 

Dividing equation  3 by  4  we get

P R

Q S
This proves the condition for the balanced Wheatstone bridge.
Metre bridge or Slide wire bridge
It is the simplest practical application of the Wheatstone bridge that is used to measure an unknown
resistance.
Construction: It consists of one metre long manganin wire of uniform cross-section, stretched along
a metre scale fixed over a wooden board and with two L- shaped thick copper strips. Between these
two copper strips, another copper strip is fixed so as to provide left and right gaps. A resistance box

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is connected to the left gap and the unknown resistance S is connected in the right gap. A source of
emf E is connected across AC . A movable jockey and a galvanometer G are connected across BJ ,
as shown in fig.
Working
Taking out a suitable resistance R from the resistance box, the jockey is moved along the wire AC .
Let the position of the jockey be at J such
that galvanometer shows no deflection. Let
the resistance of the wire between A and J
be P and the resistance of the wire between
C and J be Q . If ρ is the resistance per unit
length of the wire, then
P  ρl and Q  ρ 100  l  . Since resistance
of the wire is directly proportional to the
length of the wire
According to the principle of balanced
Wheatstone bridge
P R Q
 Or S   R
Q S P
 ρ 100  l    100  l 
S  R Or S   R
 ρl   l 
Thus by knowing the values of l and R , we can calculate the unknown resistance S can be
determined.
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a device used to measure an unknown emf or potentiometer difference
accurately.
Construction: A potentiometer consists of a long wire AB of uniform cross-section usually 4m long,
of material such as constantan or manganin. Usually, 1m long separate pieces of wire are fixed on a
wooden board parallel to each other. The wires are joined in series by thick copper strips. A metre
scale is fixed parallel to the wires. The ends A and B are connected to a strong battery, a plug key
 K  and a rheostat  Rh  . This circuit, called driving or auxiliary circuit sends a constant current I
through the wire AB . Thus, the potential gradually falls from A to B . A jockey can slide along the
length of the wire.
Principle: Potentiometer works on the principle that when a constant current flows through a wire
of uniform cross-sectional area, the potential drop across any length of the wire is directly
proportional to that length.
If the voltmeter is connected between the
end A and jockey J , it reads the potential
difference V across the length l of the wire
AJ . By Ohm’s law,
ρl  l
V  IR  I  R  ρ A 
A
For a wire of uniform cross-section resistivity
ρ and area of cross-section A are constants.

DEEPAK HS | 14
Therefore, when steady current I flows through the wire,
Iρ

A
Where  is the potential drop per unit length of the potentiometer wire known as potential
gradient.
Hence V  l or V  l
This is the principle of a potentiometer.
Comparison of emfs of two cells using potentiometer
A constant current is maintained in the potentiometer wire AB by means of a battery of emf E
through a key K and rheostat. Let E1 and E 2 be the emfs of the two primary cells which are to be
compared. The positive terminals of these
cells are connected to the end A of the
potentiometer wire and their terminals are
connected to a high resistance box R , a
galvanometer G and a jockey J through a
two way key. As the plug is inserted between
1 and 3, the cell E1 gets introduced in the
circuit. The jockey J is moved along the wire
AB till the galvanometer shows no
deflection. The balancing length AJ1  l1 is
noted. Then E1   l1
The key is now closed between 2 and 3. The balancing length AJ 2  l2 is noted for cell E 2 .
Then E 2   l2
E1 l1
Hence 
E 2 l2
Determination of Internal resistance of a cell using potentiometer
The positive terminal of the cell of emf E whose internal resistance r is to be measured is
connected to the end A of the potentiometer wire and its negative terminal to a galvanometer G
and jockey J . A resistance box R is connected across the cell through a key K1 .
The key K is closed. Keeping K1 open, move the jockey along AB till it balances the emf E of the
cell. Let l1 be the balancing length of the wire.

Then emf of the cell will be E  l1 ..... 1 . Now key K1 is closed and suitable resistance R is taken
in the resistance box. The balancing
length l2 when the galvanometer shows
zero deflection is noted.
Thus, V  l2 .....  2 

Dividing 1 by  2  ,
E l1
we get  .....  3
V l2

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Wkt internal resistance of a cell is given by
E 
r    1 R
V 
 l1   l l 
Using in eqn  3 , we get r    1 R or r   1 2  R
 l2   l2 
Knowing the values of l1 , l2 and R , we can determine the internal resistance of the cell.
Conductance
Conductance of a substance is equal to the inverse of its resistance
1
G
R
 
The SI unit of conductance is ohm1 1 or mho or Siemen  S 
Electrical conductivity or conductivity of a substance is equal to the inverse of its resistivity
1
σ
ρ
The SI unit of conductivity is 1m1 or Sm1

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