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TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF BRAZILIAN

I •

EQUATORIAL CONTINENTAL MARGIN BASINS

BY

J
RENATO PIMENTA OE AZEVEDO
.. _•• 4

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the

University of London and for the Diploma of membership of tt1e

Imperial College of Science, Technology ana-Medicine

Department of Geology
Royal School of Mines
Imperial College
Prince Consort Road
February 1991 London S\/1/7 2BP
,..
.......
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••
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 To Barbara
with love

.·.~

I •

...;

To my mother

To my father
I wish you were here t o see the end
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

· Working at Imperial College in London has been a cheerful privilege for

which I am indebted to an astonishing number of people. I hope the following
list of acknowledgements is short enough to not exhaust the reader and long .
enough to include those individuals who have made possible, or collaborated
with, the realization of a childhood dream.

I am grateful to my supervisors, Prof. Mike Coward and Dr. Joe Cartwright,

for their interest, encouragement and critical suggestions throughout this study. J.
Cartwright is also thanked for his endless time and advice. Ors. M. Helman and
W. Colliston are kindly thanked for critically reading of several chapters of this
thesis. A. Joy also collaborated to improve the English standard.

I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Jean Mascle and his ~tudents at
the Laboratorie de Geodynamique Sous-Marine at Villefranche-Sur-Mer. France,
for accepting me at their laboratory for fruitful discussions on the geology of the
.·,
Gulf of Guinea and North Brazil. All of the laboratory are thanked for making
my.stay in Villefranche enjoyable, in particular, Kaiser de S~:mza for his
hospitality. J. Mascle and Guy de Caprona are thanked for cession of
unpublished data. Thanks are also due to Dr. J. Fairhead and C. Binks of the
University of Leeds, for discussions which helped to clarify my thinking on
several aspects of the geology of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean.

A number of friends and colleagues at IC are also thanked. Drs. J. Cosgrove

and E. Rutter are thanked for teaching in the class and in the field. The
colleagues of the 1987/1988 Msc. course in Structural Geology are thanked for
their friendship and for memorable fieldtrips around U.K and North Spain.
Henrique Dayan, Michel Seranne, Ralph Gillerist, Alvaro Crosta and Nilo
Azambuja are thanked for their friendship and gertuine interest in various stages
of this research. Ms. D. Georgiou is thanked for her interest and support. Joao
Keller, a treasured friend, is thanked for his friendship and company outside the

Ack1wwledgemerus Page IV
,._ Ttctonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Contintntal Margin Basins

realms of geology.

Petrobras-Petr6leo Brasileiro S.A is gratefully acknowledged for cession of

data and financial assistance during the entire development of this research.
Many individuals of Petrobras are thanked for many reasons. Fernando Fortes,
Eduardo Araujo, Marco Polo:BoaHora, Renato Silveira, Paulo de Tarso
Guimaraes, Iran G. da Costa, Laercio Aranha, Maria G. Feitosa, Dayse Alves,
Alexandre Figueiras, Eglemar Lima, Humberto Lima, Makino,. Edson Ribeiro,
,, .
Antonio Lobo, Carlos Beltrami, Jose S. Brandao and Antonio M. Figueiredo are
thanked for cession of unpublished data. Chang Kiang, Ulisses Mello and Andre
Bender kindly provided the subsidence analysis software. Milton Franke,
Giuseppe Bacoccoli, Sergio Possato, Celso Lucchesi, Murilo Marroquim, Dimas
Simoes, Mario Caputo and Francisco Nepomuceno are thanked for their role on
the approval of my research project and this unique opportunity of personal
development. The latter two together with Peter Szatmari and Laercio Aranha
are also thanked for their support and encouragement.

I am deeply grateful to all my friends of Petrobras/Denor for their

continuous support throughout these years. Many ideas developed in this
research were initially conceived working in that constructive intellectual
environment in the years preceding my move to IC. Cesar Roni and Dagoberto
Encarna~o are thanked for their help and friendship during the field work
carried out in 1989. Francisco Abreu of the Para University is specially thanked
for excursions to the Gurupi region and for a chapter of his Ph.D. thesis in
preparation. The staff of Brasoil U.K. and Eslon, specially Murilo Marroquim
and Margot Rope are thanked for their continuous support.

I also would like to thank my children, Daniel, Leticia and Fabio, for all fun,
love and for keeping me alert during critical periods. Finally to Barbara, how
can I ever thank you for your strength, dedication, understanding and for yo:ur
love over the years. A mere dedication is not enough!

Acknowledgements Page V
 ..
:

ABSTRACT

The structural style and stratigraphic relationships· of sedimentary basins

along the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin were used to
·
..· ..
•..··
construct an empirical tectonic model for the development of ancient transform
mar~ins. The model is constrained by detailed structural and subsidence analyses
of several basins along the margin. The structural framework of the basins was
defined at shallow and deep levels by the integration of many geophysical and
geological data sets. Basin.forming mechanisms and their thermal and
mechanical effects on the initiation and development of the basins were then
evaluated. The results of these analyses, together with a kinematic framework of
the Atlantic opening, helped to describe and constrain the tectonic model for the
equatorial margin of Brazil.
A comprehensive review of the continental and oceanic geology of the
Equatorial Atlantic Ocean and its continental margins shows that fun.damental
discontinuities of the continental lithosphere of the South American and African
plates are correlated across the Atlantic and are linked to major E·W oriented
oceanic fracture zones. The Romanche Fracture Zone, in particular. and its
continental margin extensions, are linked with the Kandi/Sobral-Transbrasiliano
Shear Zones in the continental crust of West Africa and North Brazil
respectively. The extension of the oceanic fracture zones to both continents are
marked by Precambrian age shear zones which show histories of multiple strike-
slip reactivation during the Phanerozoic. The original assumption of strong
rotational rigidity used in earlier kinematic plate·tectonic models is challenged
based on mounting evidence of intraplate deformation of the South American
plate during the Early Cretaceous opening of the South Atlantic Ocean.
The Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, defined as an oceanic basin that developed
between the Ascencion and the Bahamas Oceanic Fracture Zones, was initiallv
formed by fragmentation and breakup of the northwestern Gondwana during the
Aptian-Cenomanian interval. A transtensional shear corridor with dextral sense
of displacement was developed at the site of the present-day northern
continental margin of Brazil which, in the segment studied in detail in this thesis,

Abstract Page VJ
'
·.
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Contintnral Margin /JD.sins

formed the Barreirinhas and Para-Maranhao marginal basins.

The Barreirinhas and Para-Maranhao Basins were divided in three tectonic
domains: the Tut6ia, Caete and Tromaf Sub-basins. The Caete area is.
characteriied by NW-SE striking and northeast-dipping normal faults. A pure
shear mechanism .of basin formation is suggested for its development. The
structure of the Tut6ia and Tromaf Sub-basins are more complex and indicative
of a major strike-slip component with dextral sense of displacement, during early
stages of basin evolution. These two later sub-basins were developed on a
lithosphere characterized by an abrupt transition ( <50 km wide) from an
unstretched continent to an oceanic lithosphere. The transitional lithosphere is
marked by fracture zones in which horizontal shearing along vertical zones was
the dominant process. The subsidence history of these basins do not comply with
the classical models developed for passive margins or continental rifting.
The Gurupi Graben System is an onshore chain of asymmetrical NW-SE
striking grabens developed simultaneously with the offshore basins. The system
was formed by minor upper crustal extension (9-16%) which is suggested to have
occurred as a result of NE-SW extension during the Aptian-Early Albian. A
simple shear mechanism comprising a low:.angle detachment l_inking the crustal
deformation of the graben system to that of the offshore basins is thought to
explain the geometrical relationship with the transtensional shear corridor. The
grabens a re interpreted as being produced by the extensional reactivation of
Precambrian age shea r zones. Basement anisotropy played a dominant role in
the external geometry and internal organization of these basins.
The thermo-mechanical model proposed for the Brazilian Equatorial Margin
includes heterogeneous stretching combined with shearing at the plate margiri.
The tectonic history comprises: (1) Triassic-Jurassic limited extension associated
with the Central Atlantic evolution (Maraj6 Rift System); (2) Neocomian
intraplate deformation consisting of strike-slip reactivation of pre-existing shear
zones and development of the Potiguar Graben; (3) Aptian-Cenomanian two-
phase period of dextral shearing documented in the Para-Maranhao/
Barreirinhas Basin System; and (4) Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic sea-floor
spreading.

Abstrac1 Page VII

(

THESIS PRESENTATION

This thesis is divided into three parts:

Part I - Introduction and Geological Background;

Part II - Data Presentation, Analysis and Results;
Part III - Interpretations and Conclusions.

The first part introduces the research subject, summarises basic concepts of
fault and basin geometries and presents a review of regional continental and
oceanic geology of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean and its continental margins.
Part II is concerned with detailed presentation of geological and geophysical
data sets on selected basins and field exposures as well as results of stratigraphic,
subsidence and structural analyses of surface, subsurface and remote sensing
data. In Part III, thermo-mechanical, kinematic and tectonic evolutionary models
are evaluated and applied to the development of the selected basins and the
Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin as a whole.

Presentation Page VIII

 T(etonic £1,olution of Brazilian £quacorial Cnnrin(ntal Margin Basins

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I
FRONTISPIECE .... . .... .. . . . . ......... . .... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Il
. ;
DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV
ABS'fRACT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI
THESIS PRESENTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII
TABLE OF CONTENTS .. . ....· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XX
LIST OF PLATES . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXIX
LIST OF TABLES......................................... XXIX

PART I INTRODUCTION AND GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . 1

CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

.. ,
I.I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 AJMS OF TI-IE RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 WORKING HYPOTIIESIS AND TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 LOCATION AND INTEREST OF IBE STUDY AREA . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 DATA BASE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Subsidence Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.2 Seismic Interpretation and Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6.3 Gravity Interpretation ......................·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6.4 Magnetic Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 THESIS ORGANISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.8 PERSONAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Contents Page IX
 Tectonic £volurion of Brazilian Equa.torial Continental Margin Basins .

CHAPTER 2: SUMMARY OF FAULT AND BASIN GEOMETRIES 13

2.1 INTRODUCTION 13
22 EXTENSIONAL TECTONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.1 Basic Fault Geometries of Extensional Terrains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.2 Low-angle Detachment Faults of the Basin and Range Province· . . . 20
2.2.3 East African Rift System ........................ ·. . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 STRIKE-SLIP TECTONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3. l Basic Fault Geometry of Strike-slip Systems ....·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.2 Strike-slip Duplexes, Ripouts and Flower Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.3 Basins Related to Strike-slip Tectof'Jc Settings .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.4 Tectonic Rotations About Vertical Axes .......... .· .. ·~ . . . . . . . 39
2.4 OBLIQUE-SLIP TECTONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.5 DEFORMATION OF THE OCEANIC LITI-IOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5.1 Tectonics of Transform Faults and Oceanic Fracture Zones . . . . . . . 46
, ;
2.6 COMPARISON BElWEEN PASSIVE AND TRANSFORM
MARGINS ................. ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.6. l Structure of Ancient Transform Continental Margins . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.7 INVERSION TECTONICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

CHAPTER 3 : CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC REGIONAL GEOLOGY 57

3.1 IN1RODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 GEOTECTONIC UNITS OF SOlITTI AMERICA .. ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2.1 Precarnbrian Geology of the Northern Brazilian Margin . . . . . . . . . 59
The Amazonian Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
The Sao Luis Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Brasiliano Orogenic Belt .......................... 62
The Gurupi Fold Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2.2 Pala~ozoic Basins of North Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
··€.
The Amazonas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
The Parnafba Basin .. . . . . ... ... . .. . . . .. . . .. .. ... ..
~ . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . 71

Contents Page X
 Tectonic Evolmion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

3.2.3 Geology of the Equatorial Atlantic Marginal Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

The Foz do Arnazonas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
The Maraj6 Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
The Para·Maranhao Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
·..·..
The Gurupi Graben System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
The Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
The Ceara Basin ........ ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
The Potiguar Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.3 OUTI.JNE OF THE GEOLOGY OF WEST AFRICA . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.1 The West African Craton ............................... 87
The Volta Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.2 The Orogenic Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
The Rokelides Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
The Beninian Thrust-Fold Belt and the Nigerian Province . . . . . 91
3.3.3 Palaeozoic Geology of West Africa ................... : . . . . . 92
3.3.4 Marginal Basins of the Northern Gulf of Guinea ......... , . . . . . 96
The Benue Trough . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
The West and Central African Rift System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JOO
3.4 THE EQUATORIAL ATI.ANTIC OCEAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4.1 Definition and Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.4.2 The Shape of the Ocean Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.4.3 The Major Sedimentary Sequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4.4 The Structure of the Basement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Fracture Pattern of the Equatorial Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
The Equatorial Atlantic Fracture Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
The Romanche and the Saint Paul Fracture Zones . . . . . . . . . . 109
The North Brazilian Ridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.4.5 Magnetic Field Anomalies and Spreading Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.6 Gravity Field Anomalies and the COB .... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.4.7 Seismicity ................. ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.5 COMPARISON OF THE GEOLOGY OF WEST AFRICA AND
NORTH BRAZIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Coments Page Xl
....
Tectonic Evolulion of Brazilian Equatorial Continimal Margin Basins

3.5.1 The Matching of Precambrian Age Provinces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Archean to Middle Proterozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Late Proterozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.5.2 The Search for a Tectonic Model for the Brasiliano Orogeny . . . . 129
"
3.5.3 Comparison of the Palaeozoic Geology . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.5.4 The Mesozoic Basic Magmatism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.6 CORRELATION BE'IWEEN CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC
GEOLOGY ........................... · . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.6. l Implications of the Precambrian Framework for the Gondwana
Breakup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.6.2 Geophysical Evidence for Correlation of Oceanic Fracture Zones
with major Continental Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.7 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

PART II DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 140

CHAPTER 4: THE BARREIRINHAS BASIN ............. 141

4.1 INTRODUCTION AND PAST WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

4.2 STRATIGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.2.1 Cod6-Grajau Sequence (Aptian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.2.2 Canarias Group (Early Albian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Arpoado.r Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Born Gosto Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Tut6ia Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Barro Duro Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Sobradinho Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.2.3 Caju Group (Late Albian-Cenomanian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Bonfim Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 153
Pregui~as Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Peria Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Contents Page XII

 ·:

T«tonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Coni111entaf Margin Basins

4.2.4 Humberto de Campos Group (Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic) . . . . . . . 154

Areinhas Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Ilha de Santana Formation . ·: . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Travosas Formation ..... .- ........... _ . .... ......... . 155
Pirabas Formation .... .. ... . .
· ·:~ ......................
·. . . 156
4.25 Migration of Sedimentary Depocentres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · t56
4.2.6 Igneous and Volcanic Rocks ...•.............. '· . . . • . . . • . . 157
4.3 MAJOR S1RUCTURAL PROVINCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3.1 Sobradinho Platform ....................· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3.2 Parnafua Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.3.3 llha de Santana Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3.4 Tut6ia High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.3.5 Bacaba and Rosario Highs . . - ... ............................... . 164
4.3.6 Barreirinhas Low . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.3.7 llha Nova Graben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.3.8 Other Structural Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.4 SEISM.IC DATA, MAPPING AND INTERPRETATION . . . . . . . . . 165
4.4.1 Seismic Data and Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.4.2 Structural Seismic Mapping ........ ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Pre-Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Top Albian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Top Cretaceous . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4.4.3 Structural Interpretation of Seisnilc Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Analysis of Fault Geometries in .section View . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Seismic Evidence and Mechanism of Block Rotation ....... 186
Folding as a Consequence of Strike-slip Displacements . . . . . . . 188
Gravity Driven Folds over Low-angle Detachment Faults .. ~ . . 188
4.5 SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.5.1 Data Base, Parameters and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.5.2 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.5.3 Interpretation of the Subsidence Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
4.5.4 Sedimentation Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

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Tectonic Evo/JJ1ion of Brazilian Equatorial Cominenrof Margin Basins

4.6 GRAVITY DATA, MODELLING AND INTERPRETATION 200

4.6. I Crustal models ...................................... 202
4.7 AEROMAGNETIC DATA AND INTERPRETATION ... ·........ 204
4.7.1 Magnetic Provinces ................................... 204
4.7.2 Geological Interpretation of the Magnetic Provinces ... . >. . . .. .. 207
4.8 STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK OF TIIE BARREIRINHAS
BASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .• . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.8. l The Structural Framework Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
·4.8.2 Evidence for Strike-slip Tectonic Regime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.8.3 The Caete Sub-basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.8.4 Tut6ia Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.9 THE AFRICAN COUNTERPART - TIIE GHANA BASIN . . . . . . . 216
4.9.l Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
4 .9 .2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.9.3 Subsidence ......................................· . . . . 223
4.10 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

....-
CHAPTER 5: THE PARA-MARANHAO BASIN 229

5.1 INTRODUCTION 229

5.2 STRATIGRAPHY 230
5.3 MAJOR STRUCTURAL PROVINCES ............. : . . . . . . . . 232
5.3.1 Ilha de Santana Platform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.3.2 MAS-9 High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.3.3 Gurupi High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.3.4 Ilha de Santana Graben ............... . q • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 235
5.3.5 Trornaf Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
5.3.6 Caete Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.4 SUBSIDENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
5.5 STRUCTIJRAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.5.1 Basement Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.5.2 Gravity Driven Structures ........... . .............. , . . . . 241

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Tecronic Evolurion of BrazjJUin Equatorial Contin~ntal Margin Basins

5.6 DEEP .CRUSTAL STRUCilJRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

5.6.1 Gravity and Aeromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Gravity Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Aeromagnetic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.6.2 Crustal Thickness Map . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.6.3 Crustal Cross-sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.6.4 Deep Seismic Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Deep Seismic Profiling of Extensional Terrains . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Deep Seismic Data of the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Geological Interpretation of Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
,. Integration with Gravity Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
5.7 THE AFRICAN COUNTERPART-TIIE IVORY. COAST BASIN . . 256
5. 7.1 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.7.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.8 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

CHAPTER 6: THE GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM............ 262

6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262

6.2 THE BRAGAN~A-VlSEU BASIN ............. : . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.2.1 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.2.2 Seismic Reflection Data and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Nature of the Intrabasement Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.2.3 Seismic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.2.4 Subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.2.5 Bouguer Gravity Data, Modelling and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.2.6 Structural Analysis and Extension Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Major Structural Features and the Upper Crust Deformation . . 280
Extension Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Shallow Basement Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Extensional Reactivation of Compressional Structures . . . . . . . 282
6.3 THE SAO LUIS BASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

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 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

6.3.1 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

6.3.2 Reflection Seismic Data and Interpretation ......... · . . . . . . . . . 285
6.3.3 Subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.3.4 Bouguer Gravity Data and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
. ..
6.3.5 Structural Analysis and Extension Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
6.4 THE ILHA NOVA GRABEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.4.1 Stratigraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.4.2 Seismic Data and Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.4.3 Subsidence . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.4.4 Structural Analysis and Extension Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
6.5 TI!E FERRER·URBANO:SANTOS ARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
6.6 THE COD6 BASIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.7 GEOMETRY OF THE GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.8 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304

CHAPTER 7 : BASEMENT CONTROL ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THE COASTAL BASINS OF NORTHERN BRAZIL . . . . . 306
7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
7.2 FIELD DATA.......................................... 306
7.2. l Gurupi River Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
T ectono-stratigraphy of the Gurupi River Region . . . . . . . . . . . 308
The Sao Luis Craton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
The Gurupi Fold Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
The Tentugal Shear Zone ............... ; . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Gurupi River Cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
7.2.2 Rosario High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
7.2.3 Pedra do Sal Granite ............................ , . . . . . 315
7.3 LINEAMENT DATA EXTRACfED FROM REMOTE SENSING
IMAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.3.1 Fracture Pattern of the Gurupi River Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
7.3.2 Fracture Pattern of the Parnaiba Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
7.4 INTERPRETATION OF AEROMAGNETIC DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

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;'>

~
Tectonic Evolution of Braziii.aJt Equatori41 Co~inental Margin Basins
,-.
.,,.. 7.5 ROLE OF PRECAMBRIAN STRUCTURES ON THE MESOZOIC
TECTONICS OF NORTIIERN BRAZIL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.5.1 The Influence of Basement Structures in the Origin of the
Gurupi Graben System ................... ~- ....... 1 • • • . • 332
7.5.2 Models for the Basement Influence in the Origin and Deformation
of the Bragan~a-Viseu and Sao Luis Grabens . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 333
, 7.5.3 Strike-slip Deformation in the Pinheiro Sub-basin Related to the
Basement Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
7.5.4 Accommodation of Large Basement Displacement in the
Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.6 CONCLUSIONS 336

PART Ill INTERPRETATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 337

CHAPTER 8: EVALUATION OF BASIN MODELS ...... ~ . . . . 338

...
8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.2 BASIN-FORMING MECHANISMS IN EXTENSIONAL AREAS . . . 338
8.2.l Mass Change (Gravity Driven) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.2.2 Active Thinning (Thermal Driven) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.2.3 Lithospheric Stretching (Stress Driven) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
U niforrn Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Non-uniform Extension (Two-layer Model) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Multi-layer Non-uniform Extension Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
Simple Shear (or Detachment) Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Pure Shear Versus Simple Shear in Lithosphere Extension . . 349
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
8.3 SEDIMENTARY BASIN MODELS IN TRANSFORM SETTINGS . 352
8.4 A BASIN MODEL FOR TIIE BARREIRINHAS BASIN . . . . . . . . . 354
8.4.1 Comparison of Modeled and Observed Subsidence . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
8.4.2 Reconciling the Shallow Structure with Thermo-mechanical Models 361

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 Ttctonic £1'0/wwn of Brazilian Equa1oriat Comi~tntal Margin Basins

8.5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM BY

EXTENSIONAL DETACHMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
8.6 SUBSIDENCE MECHANISM FOR THE COD6 BASIN . . . . . . . . . 365
8.7 SUBSIDENCE OF TIIE PARA-MARANHAO BASIN .... : . . . . . . 367
8.8 REGIONAL CROSS-SECTIONS ....... , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.8.1 Maraca<;ume and Tromai Sub-basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
8.8.2 Pinheiro and Caete Sub-basins ............... ~ . . . . . . . . . . . 372
8.8.3 Tut61a Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
8.9 COMBINED SUBSIDENCE MODEL FOR THE BRAZILIAN
EQUATORIAL CONTINENTAL MARGIN ........... .·. . . . 375
8.10 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

CHAPTER 9 : TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE BRAZILIAN

EQUATORIAL ATl..ANTIC CONTINENTAL MARGIN . 379

9.1 INTRODUCI10N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

9.2 KINEMATICS OF THE SOUTH AND EQUATORIALATI.ANTIC
OCEANS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.2.1 Basis and Problems of Kinematic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
9.2.2 Plate Tectonic Reconstructions of the South Atlantic . . . . . . . . . . . 381
9.2.3 Plate Tectonic Reconstructions of the Equatorial Atlantic . . . . . . . 382
9.2.4 Kinematics of the Equatorial Atlantic Fragmentation . . . . . . . . . . 387
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
9.3 TECTONIC EVOLUTIONARY MODEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
9.3.1 Previous Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
9.3.2 Simplified Multi-stage Plate-tectonic Model . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
9.4 TECTONIC HISTORY OF 11-IE BRAZILIAN EQUATORIAL
MARGIN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
9.4.1 Precambrian-Early Palaeozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
9 .4.2 Palaeozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
9.4.3 Triassic-Jurassic ~ .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . . .. . . . . .. .. "' . .. .. . . .. . . .. . . . ~
399
9.4.4 Neocomian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Contents Page XVIII

 ,
T«lonic Ew>lu1ion of Brazilian Equa1orial Con1intn1al Margin Basins

9.4.5 Aptian-Early Albian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

9.4.6 Late Albian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
9.4. 7 Cenomanian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
9.4.8 Late Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
.·-.·
9)t9 Cenozoic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
9.4.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

CHAPTER 10: CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

10. I BASIN DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

10.2 TECTONIC EVOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
10.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS ..................... ~ ... ·.. . .. 411

REFERENCES ....................................... , . . . . 412

APPENDIX A: Numerical Techniques of Subsidence Analysis

APPENDIX B : The Medio Coreau Fold Belt
APPENDIX C: Tectonic Map of the Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin

Contents Page XlX

 UST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1

1.1 - Location map of the study area along the Northern Brazilian Continental
Margin. . ...... :: ~ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

CHAPTER 2

2.1 - Examples of rheological profiles of the lithosphere. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2.2 - Models of fault geometries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.3 - Kinematic consequence of tilting of blocks bounded by planar faults . 18
2.4 - Terminology and basic geometries of listric normal faults . . . . . . . . . 19
2.5 - Listric normal fault geometries of ramp/flat type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 - Kinematic schemes of evolving low-angle normal shear zones. . . . . . . 21
2.7 - Mesozoic rifting and continental margin development in Afri~a .. . . . . 23
2.8 - Basic half-graben geometries of the East African Rift System . . . . . . 24
2.9 - Differences between the crustal structure of transform versus intraplate
strike-slip fault zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.10 - Geometry and terminology of strike-slip fault zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.11 - Orientation of structures in bulk right simple shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.12 - Geometry of brittle shear faulting in strike-slip systems . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.13 - Helicoidal form of riedel shears and axial fold surfaces in right and left
simple shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.14 - Termination of a strike-slip fault by splaying and bending. It implies
change of the stress conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.15 - Model of possible relationship of strike-slip fa~lt with low-angle

detachment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.16 - Cross-sections through experimental strike-slip fault zones . . . . . . . . 32
2.17 - Cartoon illustrating two possible and contrasting responses of a right·
lateral strike-slip fault bend to changes in dynamics of faulting 33

2.18 - Collection of diagrams depicting positive flower structures .... · · · · 34

Figures Page XX
'
 Tec1onic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Cominemaf Margin Basins

2.19 - Example of ripout structure .............................. . 35

2.20 - Seismic expressions of positive flower structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.21 - Andersonian dynamics of basins. Principal stress axes a 1 >o 2 > a 3 . . . 38
2.22 - Geometry of pull-apart basins iri overstepping domains . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.23 - Progressive formation and deformation of. a ·pull-apart basin !n a dextral
strike-slip system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.24 - Kinematic models for rotation of blocks during strike-slip fault
development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.
2.25 - Block rotation in strike-slip zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.26 - Arrangement structures in strike-slip deforming zones . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.27 - Block diagrams showing complexity of oblique-slip systems. . . . . . . . 44
2.28 - Tectonic settings of transform fault zones based on earthquake studies 46
2.29 - Formation of oceanic crust and structures at "leaky" transform faults 47
2.30 - Comparison between passive and transform continental margins . . . . 52
2.31 - Stages in tbe evolution of a transform margin ........... : . . . . . 53
2.32 - Idealized crustal structure of transform or sheared continental margins 53
2.33 - Inversion structures of sedimentary basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.34 - lnversion structures in orogenic belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.35 · Seismic expression of a inversion structure in the Barreirinhas Basin,
North Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

CHAPTER 3

3.1 - The major geotectonic units of South America and structural provinces of
Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.2 - Late Proterozoic tectonic units of Northern Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.3 - Geological sketch map of the northern region of the Parnafba Province
with alternative interpretations for the location of the craton-fold belt
boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
.\
3.4 - Sketch map of the Borborema Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5 - Geological map of the Medio-Coreau Fold Belt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.6 - Geological profile across the Amazonas and Parnafba Basins . . . . . . . 69

Figures Page XXI

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 Tectonic Evolution of BraDiian £,qut11orial Continental Margi11 Basins

3.7 - Structural framework map of the Amazonas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.8 - Schematic cross-sections across the Parnaiba Basin .. . ........ ·. . . 72
3.9. - Sedimentary basins of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental

' .· Margin. . . ... ..................................... : . . . 74

3.10 - Tectonic sketch map of the Foz do Amazonas Basin......... ~ : ; : .. 75
3.11 - Structural profile·across the Cassipore Sub-basin. . . . . . . . ·. . .. ,~ . . . 77
3.12 - The Maraj6 Rift System. Structural framework map and regional cross-
sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.13 - Structural framework of the Ceara Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.14 - Structural cross-sections of the Ceara Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.15 - Structural framework of the Potiguar Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.16 - Structural profiles across the Potiguar Basin ........ .· . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.17 - Geotectonic units of West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.18 - Geological sketch map and cross-section of the Volta Basin . . . . . . . 90
3.19 - Geological map and structural profile across the Nigerian Province and
Beninian Thrust-Fold Belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1·:... 3.20 • Geological map and schematic cross-section of the Sekondi·Takarodi area,
South Ghana ........................ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.21 - Generalized tectonic map of Liberia. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.22 - Geological sketch map of Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.23 - Model of formation of Aptian-Albian sub-basins along a transcurrent fault
system in the Benue Trough . . ...................... ~ . . . . . . 99
3.24 - Tectonic sketch map of the West and Central African Rift System . . 101
3.25 - Main tectonic features of the Equatorial Atlantic ocean floor . . . . . 109
3.26 - Reflection seismic profile across the Ceara Transcurrent Fault . . . . 112
3.27 - Refraction seismic structure of the North Brazilian Ridge . . . . . . . . 113
3.28 - Total intensity magnetic field of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Margin
between latitudes 41° and 47°W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.29 - Magnetic anomaly axes map of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic . . . 117
.. . ' 3.30 - Bouguer anomalies map of the western portion of the Brazilian Equatorial
Atlantic Continental Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.31 - Bouguer anomalies map of the eastern portion of the Brazilian Equatorial

Figures Page X.XJI

-
'

T«Janic £110lurian af Brazilian Ljuwrial Continencaf Margin Basins

Atlantic Continental Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

3.32 - Pattern of Bouguer anomalies along the Brazilian Equatorial Continental
Margin ......... '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.33 - Free-air gravity anomalies map of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic
Continental Margin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.34 - Free-air gravity anomalies map of the Western Equatorial Atlantic . 124
3.35 - Configuration of the Upper Proterozoic .o rogenic belt system of .w est
Gondwanaland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.36·- The Pan-African and Brasiliano belts in a pre-Mesozoic drift
reconstruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.37 - Recoll9truction showing the position of South America and Africa around
the Gulf of Guinea and suggested matching of major shear zones . . 129
3.38 - Analogical comparative model for the Pan-African Orogeny. . . . . . . 130
3.39 - Suggestion for the Late Proterozoic-Early Phanerozoic tectonic episode of
West Africa and North Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 131
3.40 - Deflection of the vertical Geosat ascending passes ....... ~ . . . . . 136
3.41 - Comparative synthetic chronostratigraphicaI chart of Equatorial Brazilian
and West African sedimentary basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .137

CHAPTER 4

4.1 - Reflection seismic data base for the study of the Barreirinhas Basin . 143
4.2 - Location of boreholes used for the study of the Barreirinhas Basin . . 144
4.3 - Simplified stratigraphical chart of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4 - Major structural domains of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.5 - Semi-schematic depositional model for the Barro Duro-Tut6ia deltaic
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.6 - Isopach map of the Barro Duro Formation based on borehole and seismic
data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.7 - Isopach map of the distal prodelta/slope/bathyal fades of the Canarias
Group .. : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.8 - Isopach map of the fluvial/fandeltaic fades of the Canarias Group . 152

Figures Page XX!ll

- Teaonic Evolu!ion of Brazilian quaiorial Continental Margin Basins

4.9 - Isopach map of the Humberto de Campos Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

4.10 - Migration of sedimentary depocentres of the Barreirinhas Basin through
time ..... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.11 - Miocene subcrop map of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
'
4.12 - Seismic profile 59-117 across the Sobradinho Platform . . . . . . . . . . 159
.4.13 - Seismic profile 224-08 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.14 - Seismic profile 67-87 across the western flank of the Tut6ia High ·_. . 163
4.15 - Part of seismic profile 48-227 tied to well data (MAS-1) by synthetic
seismogram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.16 - Time-structural map of the pre-Cretaceous seismic event in the Caete
Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.17 - Time-structural map o(the pre-Cretaceous in the Tut6ia Sub-basin . 170
4.18 - Time-structural map of the Top Albian in the Caete Sub-basin . . . . 172
4.19 - Time-structural map of the Top Albian in the Tut6ia Sub-basin . . . . 174
4.20 - Time-structural map of the Top Cretaceous horizon in the Caete Sub-
basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
421 - Seismic profile 95-179 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.22 - Seismic profile 95-201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.23 - Seismic profile 95-231 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.24 - Seismic profile 48-227 . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.25 - Seismic profile 48-245 ............................... ~ . . . 181
4.26 - Seismic profile 48-255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.27 - Seismic profile, detail and line drawing of line 48-256 183
4.28 - Seismic profile, detail and line drawing of line 48-258 . . . . . . . . . . . 184
-~ 4.29 - Seismic profile 53-858. Section across the Tut6ia High . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.30 - Suggestion of mechanical model for block rotation in a dextral shear
corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
4.31 - Details of seismic profiles 48-255 and 48-256 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.32 - Seismic evidence of gravity driven thrust faulting and folding over low-
angle detachments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.33 - Subsidence curves for selected wells in the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . 195
.-
4.34 - Subsidence curves for selected wells in the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . 196

Figures Page XXIV

 ...

Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Contin~fllal Margin Basins

,
4.35 - Subsidence pattern map of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.36 - Time-span map of fault-controlled subsidence in the Barreirinhas Basin197
4.37 - Model for the subsidence histocy of the Tut6ia High . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.38 - Bouguer gravity field of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
4.39 - Crustal gravity models of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i03
4.40 - Total intensity magnetic field of the Barreirinhas Basin (offshore) 205
4.41 - Total intensity magnetic field of the Barreirinhas Basin (onshore) 206
4.42 - Simplified structural framework map of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . 209
4.43 - Strike-sip dulex model for the upper crust deform?tion affecting the
Barreirinhas Basin during the ·Middle Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.44 - Profile across the Caete Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4.45 - Profile across the Tut6ia Sub-basin 215
4.46 - Location and regional setting of the Ghana Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.47 - Geological cross-section of the Ghana Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.48 - Structural framework map of the Ghana Basin .......... ·.·. . . . 219
4.49 - Interpretation of seismic profile WGH224 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.50 - Interpreted seismic profile 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.51 • Interpreted seismic profile 65 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.52 - Interpretation of seismic profile 143 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.53 - Structural sketch map of the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge . . . . . . . . . . 220
4.54 · Interpreted seismic sections across the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge . . . 224
4.55 - Subsidence profiles of the Ghana Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

CHAPTER 5

5.1 - Data base used in the study of the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . . . . . . . 230
5.2 - Structural framework map of the Para-Maranhao Basin ...... .". . . 232
5.3 - Geological sections AA' and BB' across the Para-Maranhao Basin . . 233
5.4 - Profile and details of seismic line 53-77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
5.5 - Seismic profile and detail of line 53-118 depicting the seismic image of the
.,
Gurupi High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Figures Page XXV

 Tectonic £valu1ion of 8rozj/ian Equat.orial Continenral Margin BasillS

5.6 - Structural sketch-map of the Para-Maranhao region showing geometric

relationships between the Gurupi Graben System, the Gurupi High and
the Precambrian basement fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.7 - Subsidence profiles of the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
,
' '
5.8 - Free-air gravity field of the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 243
5.9 - Crustal thickness map of the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
5.10 - Crustal profiles CC' and DD' across the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . . 247
5.11 - Typical deep seismic signature of the continental crust around the British
Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.12 - Deep seismic profiles of extensional areas around the world . . . . . . 250

·. 5.13 - f?eep seismic images of strike-slip domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

5.14 - Deep seismic profile 213-998 across the western s!de of the Para-
Maranhao Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.15 - Structural framework map of the western segment of the Ivory Coast
Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
5.16 - Seismic profile and interpretation of line 86-08 across the western part of
the Ivory Coast Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

CHAPTER 6

6.1 - Data base used for the study of the Gurupi Graben System . . . . . . . 263
6.2 - Location of seismic profiles on a Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the
Bragan~a-Viseu and Sao Luis Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.3 - Line drawing and details of seismic line 224-100 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.4 - Seismic profile and interpretation of line 224-103 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · 268
6.5 - Line drawing and details of seismic line 224-101 6 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 270
6.6 - Seismic profile and interpretation of line 224-109 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.7 - Line drawing and details of seismic profile 224-99 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.8 - Time-structural contour map of the acoustic basement in the
Bragan~a-Viseu Basin ....... ·........... : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.9 - lsopach map of the Cod6-Grajau Seq. in the Bragan~-Viseu Basin . 274
6.10 - Subsidence profiles of the Bragan~a-Viseu and Sao Lufs Basins ~. . . 277

Figures Page XXV1

•'
:

Tecumic Evolution of Brazilian Equa1ori.a/ Continental Margin Basins

6.11 - Gravity models across the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

6.12 - Sketch map of the structural framework of the Sao Lufs Basin . . . . . 286
6.13 - Line. drawing and interpreted details of seismic profile 224-111 . . . . 288
6.14 - Seismic profile~ across the Ilha Nova Graben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
6.15 - Structural framework map of the Ilha Nova Graben . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
.· ..
6.16 - BougUer gravity field of the southern region of the
Gurupi Graben System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
6.17 - Model suggested for the formation of hanging-wall anticline due to
interaction between differential compaction and fault reactivation . . 297
6.18 - Proposals for the location of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch . . . . . . 299
6.19 - Tectonic evolution of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.20 - Geological summary of the Cod6 Basin . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.21 - Geometry of the Gurupi Graben Sy~ tem ..................... 304

CHAPTER 7

7.1 - Simplified geological map of part of the Pamaiba Province . . . . . . . 307

7.2 Geological summary of the Gurupi River Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
7.3 - Geological cross-section along the Gurupi River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
7.4 · Gurupi River regional sketched cross-section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.5 · Geological summary of the Rosario High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.6 - Geological sketch map of the Pedra do Sal Granite . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
7.7 - Lineament map of the Gurupi River Region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
7.8 - Azimuthal sets of lineaments of the Gurupi River Region . . . . . . . . 325
7.9 · Lineament map of the Parnaiba area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
7.10 - Photogeological lineament map of the ParnaJba area . . . . . . . . . . . 327
7.11 - Total intensity magnetic field map of the northern part of the Pamaioa
Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
7.12 - Simplified tectonic sketch map of the northern part of the Parnafba
Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
7.13 - Model for basement control on the origin and deformation of the
Bragan~a- Viseu and Sao Luis Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Figures Page XXJ.-1!

 ••
•, ~ Tectonic £volu<ion of Brazilian Equa1orial Co11Jinen1ai Margin Basins

.•
~
7.14 - Suggestion for accommodation of large basement displacement of the
Barreirinhas Basin . .................................... . 335

•• CHAPTER 8

•"
'·

8.1 - Basics of uniform and ·non-uniform two-layer models of continental

extension .........................._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344·
8.2 - Simple shear model of continental extension .... ·....... .· _, . . . . . 344
8.3 - Thermal and isostatic effects of varying lithospheric extension . . . . . 350
8.4 - Comparison between backstripped and theoretical tectonic subsidence
curves for well MAS-I of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
8.5 - lsobeta (.B) contour map of the Barreirinhas Basin for the uniform

.•
extension model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
8.6 - Isobeta (.B) contour map of the Barreirinhas Basin for the two-layer non-

.•
~
uniform extension model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.7 - Isodelta ( o) contour map of the Barreirinhas Basin for the two-layer non-
359

. uniform extension model .......·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.8 · Upper crust deformation of the Tut6ia Sub-basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.9 - Semi-schematic reconstruction of a regional cross-section through the
359
360

Maraca<5ume and Tromaf Sub-basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

8.10 - Semi-schematic regional profiles across the Tut6ia, Pinheiro and Caete
Sub-basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
8.11 - Schematic block diagram of basin eyolution of the central segment of the
Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin 376

CHAPTER 9
c
9.1 - Plate reconstruction for isochron M34 (Late Cretaceous, 84 Ma) . . . 383

• 9.2 - Plate reconstruction for isochron MO (Middle Cretaceous, 118.7 Ma) 384
~
. 9.3 - Pre-rift reconstruction of Africa-South America after Pindell (1985) . 386

..
~
9.4 - Kinematic framework of the proto-Equatorial Atlantic during the Early-
M iddle Cretaceous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388

. Figures Page XXVIII

 Ttctorric Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial ContiJleJUal Margin Basins

9.5 - Concept of transtensional shear corridor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391

9.6 - Schematic ~odel of geometric relationship between the equatorial fracture
zones and marginal basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :. . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403

APPENDIX A

A.1 - Porosity-depth profile of well MAS-4 of the Barreirinhas Basin

APPENDIX C

Tectonic map of the Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 2.1 - Geometry of shear zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

Plate 3.1 - The Equatorial Atlantic Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Plate 7.1 - Mesoscopic structures of gneissic rocks of the Rosario High ... . 318
Plate 7.2 - Ductile, brittle and brittle-ductile mesoscopic structures of the Pedra
do Sal Granite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Plate 9.1 - Plate tectonic model. Qf the Equatorial Atlantic and its margins 396

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 - Characterization of sub-basins of the Barreirinhas Basin . . . . . 228

Table 5.1 - Characterization of sub-basins of the Para-Maranhao Basin . . . 261
Table 9.1 - Finite rotation poles of total reconstruction of the South Atlantic
Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Table 9.2 - Stage poles for rotation of South America with respect to Africa
during period 130-110 Ma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Table 9.3 - Stage poles for the early opening of the Equatorial Atlantic . . 385

Figures f'age XXIX

..
.

_. PART I

INTRODUCTION

AND

GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND
 - !

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

lhe whole of scienu is n()(/ring mor' lhan a

rtfinem(nt of ~ay thinking# A. EinstJ!in

1.1 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The structure of th~ Brazilian F.quatorial Atlantic Continental Margin 1 is very

complex. It departs considerably from the classical architecture of Atlantic·type
passive margins. Its formation is related to the opening of the Equatorial
Atlantic Ocean which is believed to have been created by shearing between the
northern Brazilian margin and the northern coast of the Gulf of Guinea, West
Africa. The tectonic and basin models that have been put foiward to explain this
complex area, are in many cases, modifications of models developed for
continental extension or truly divergent passive margins. These models which
may be successful in those extensional settings have failed to predict and explain
the pattern of structures found along the Equatorial Atlantic margins. It is the
intention therefore, to formulate a detailed tectonic model to account for the
intrinsic complexities of the Brazilian equatorial margin and which could also be
employed in the interpretation of ancient transform margins.

1.2 AIMS OF THE RESEARCH

The primary objective of this research was to formulate a conceptual

(empirical) geological model to account for the basin development and tectonic
' .
evolution of the segment of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic continental margin
contained between longitudes 40°A8° W. The approach to the problem was

1
The Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Co11ti11eflta/ Margin or the Norrhem Brazilian Colllinental Mwgi11
are synonyms for the same geographic region described in this thesis.
Chapter I Page 2
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equa(Orial Continental Margin Basins

therefore regional and required a comprehensive synthesis of geological and

geophysical data. The model should be able to explain the structural complex.it\'.
be capable of predicting the structure of other segments of this continental
margin and be applicable to less weJI known ancient transfo~m margins.

··~--.
Specific objectives were to:

(1) analyse the structural style of selected basins in terms of their

stratigraphic-structural framework;
(2) study subsidence histories along the margin;
(3) compare the timing of deformation of the various basins \~ith each other
and with their African counterparts;
( 4) define the mode and amount of lithospheric thinning; and
(5) evaluate geodynamic models that could provide keys to improved
understanding of the structure and evolution of basins in part~cular, and
the entire Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin in general.

From the start of this study, it was realized that the research topic was vast
and the aims too wide in scope, so that results and conclusions e\·entually
reached would be far fewer than problems raised. Research continued however.
precisely for that reason. It was felt that raising and defining a number of
problems could be one of the most valuable results of the study.

1.3 WORK~NG HYPOTHESIS AND TESTING

The working hypothesis which was initially envisaged was based on two
preliminary and basic observations:

(1) the equatorial continental margin of Brazil comprises physiographic

segments oriented E-W and NW-SE respectively; and

Chapter 1 Pt:i,t' 3
 Tectonic Evolucwri of Brazjjian Equa1otial Comintntal Margin Basins

(2) these directions very closely match the location and orientation of oceanic
fracture zones.

Thus. the tectonic processes taking place along the margin might correspond
to those acting in conjugate segments of the oceanic lithosphere. Consequently,
extension was expected to play a major role in the margin segments oriented
NW-SE whereas strike-slip and pull-apart basin formation were expected to be
more i.m portant basin development mechanisms in the segments with E-W
orientation. These observations were in turn, supported by the notion that the
evolution of any continental margin depends strongly on the nature of the early
phases of continental fragmentation and subsequent drift.

In order to test the hypothesis outlined above, a large area occupying the
central region of the Brazili2.n Equatorial Margin was selected for detailed work
involving the integration of a variety of geological and geophysical data sets. The -
idea was to establish the stratigraphic-structural framework as well as the
tectonic evolution of the area and to make comparisons from basin to basin.
.....
. •.

1.4 LOCATfON AND INTEREST OF THE STUDY AREA

The vast continental margin of Brazil extends for some 7 OOO km from
latitude 33°S to 4°N and has a major inflection point at latitude 5°S. At this
point, the shoreline trend changes from an overall NE-SW direction, assumed in
the southern segment, to a NW-SE orientation in the equatorial region. The
oceanic mass that borders these coastal segments will be referred to throughout
this account as the South Atlantic Ocean for the former segment and the
E,quatorial. Atlantic Ocean for the latter one. The study area is shown in Figure
1.1.

The study of the Equatorial Brazilian Continental Margin is of special

geological interest because:

Chapter 1 Page 4
...
Tectonic Evolmicn of Brazilian Equa1oriaJ Contin~ntal Margin Basins

4 5°
+ EQUATORIAL

ATLANTIC

50+ study area~

BRAZIL
15°+ +
3 5°
1000 km

,. _,-
I'
/ SOUTH
/
/
I ATLANTIC

+
5 5°

Figure 1.1 - Location map of the study area along the Northern Brazilian Continental Margin.

(1) this segment of the South America continent still represents one of the
least documented and more geologically complex regions utilised in
reconstructions of Gondwana;
(2) the equatorial fracture zones constitute an important fracture systems in
the Atlantic Ocean that can be comfortably traced onto the continental
margins; they also provide information about the role of fundamental
lithospheric discontinuities in the evolution of a conjugate margin;
(3) several Mesozoic basins have been sites of extensive oil exploration
activities; and
(4) together with their African counterparts, these basins still offer an
enormous potential for new hydrocarbon discoveries.

Chap.'er 1 Page 5
 Teaonic Evolution of Braziliall Equatorial C<>ntinental Margin Basins

1.5 DATA BASE

, The data base:of.this research comprises several geological and geophysical

•
data sets frotn many different sources. The integration of these data sets
l required a multi-disciplitiary approach. A1though the borehole, gravity,

,' aeromagnetic and seismic data made available for this project were almost
exclusively provided by Petrobras • Petr6leo Brasileiro S.A, the Brazilian
I
t national oil company, they were acquired by several different contractors during
l the last 20 years. This imposes several limitations to a fully integrated approach.

• Fieldwork was also undertaken and contributes to defining the correlation

between surface and subsurface geology.

An asymmetric grid of about 6000 km of seismic reflection data was made

available for this project. The seismic grid used is shown in several maps when
studying specific basins (see Figs. 4.1, 5.1, 6.1, 6.2, 6.12 and 6.15). The .seismic
data base comprises lines acquired by more than 10 different surveys and
presents enormous problems with respect to data quality, standards, intersections
and precise location of some lines. The data is concentrated in the area bound~d

by: latitude 3°S-1°N and longitude 42°-46°W. The surveyed area covers the
onshore basins, the continental shelf and the continental slope to 2500 m water
depth. The seismic grid is highly irregular but the average line interval falls in
the range of 10 to 20 km. A tighter mesh is available in parts of the Barreirinhas
basin. Therefore, detailed seismic mapping was only possible in localized areas
of this basin. In additfon to the commercial seismic grid, a deep seismic profile
(a crude version), 250 km long and 15 s of record, was made available and was
used to constrain deep structural interpretations.

The data bank includes an almost complete coverage of gravity and

aeromagnetic surveys throughout the study area. These data sets also come from

• a variety of sources and attempts at integration suffer from incompatible

formats, different scales, variable quality and processing parameters. The basic
data were Bouguer and free-air gravity anomaly maps as well as total intensity

Chapter 1 Page 6
'\....

Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Contincual Margin Basins

magnetic field maps. All potential fie~d maps were provided by Petrobras. Sea.sat
data, obtained mainly from published studies, have been incorporated to the
data base and helps to form a .regional picture of the gravity field of the margin
under investigation.

Boreholes were the principal source of subsurface geological data. These

were available in many different formats and level of detail. About 100 wells
have provided information for many types of analyses undertaken during this
research. They have been used to constrain seismic interpretations, to enable ·
subsidence studies and have allowed for observations on the deformation pattern
of sedimentary rocks 2. Throughout the mapped area, well data has been tied to
seismic profiles in order to constrain the interpretation. Synthetic seismograms
and biostratigraphic control were used as much as possible.

Lithologic and structural information was collected during field w9rk in the
summer of 1989. Two transects and selected exposures were studied in order to
work out basement-basin relationships, with emphasis on 3-D geometries and the
regional structural framework.

1.6 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

A large number of structural and stratigraphic analysis techniques were used

during the research and qualitative and qu.antitative analysis of natural
deformation, on scales which vary from the mesoscopic (field and borehole
observations) to the megascopic (lithosphere), has been considered. A multitude
of techniques were used to determine the nature of deformation, their rates and
the duration of tectonic activity in various sedimentary basins. A£ the research
progressed, the emphasis shifted from detailed description of geometrical aspects
towards kinematic and dynamic analysis. Several commercial and proprietary
computer programs were used to assist depth-conversion of seismic data,

2
This laler topic docs not form part of this thesis but will be presented elsewhere.

Chapter I Page 7
 Tec1onic Evolution of &a:W.ian Equa1orial Continental Margin ~ns

treatment of directional data, contouring procedures, 2-D fozward modelling of

gravity data, subsidence modelling and graphics capabiHties in general.

In the central part of the Brazilian Equatorial coritinenta~ margin. several

NE-SW and NW-SE sets of lineaments are essential components· of.the structure
of the Precambrian basement and the Cretaceous/Cenozoic .s edirtients. In order
to estimate their .ir;ifluence on the struct~ral evolution of the region, fracture-
lineament analysis and fieldwork have been carried out.

At the basin and lithospheric scales, the assessment of deformation relies

heavily on two major lines of investigation: (1) a very comprehensive synthesis
on several types of geologicaljgeophysical data sets and the results on basement
and basins, from published and unpublished sources; and (2) detailed subsidence
analysis as well as the interpretation of seismic-reflection, gravity and magnetic
data.

1.6.1 Subsidence Analysis

Apart from constraining extension parameters and the constructions of

thermal histories, the subsidence analyses have provided a basis for detailed
structural interpretation of the multiple phases of basin development.

The calculations involved in the subsidence analysis follow the methodology

developed by Steckler & Watts (1978) and Sclater & Christie (1980) (Appendix
A). They were performed by using proprietary software of Petrobras, BASsc·
(Basin Simulation System) (Kiang et al., 1988; Petrobras, 1988). Basic
assumptions of the BASS program are stated and discussed throughout the thesis
when necessary.

1.6.2 Seismic Interpretation and Mapping

Seismic-stratigraphic concepts (e.g. Vail et al., 1977; Bally, 1987, ed.) of

Chapter 1 Page 8
 .~·

Tectonic Ew>lution of Brazilian Equatorial C~ntinental Margin Basins

reflector attributes were extensively used during the seismic interpretation.

However, there was no attempt to split and sub~ivide the first order sequences3.
The regional natur~ of the data base precluded work at a higher order scale with
any confidence. Nevertheless, reflector attributes such as geometry of

, . terminations, character, continuity, frequency and amplitude were examined in

order to extract as much relevant structural information as possible.

Acoustic basement was rarely observed in the shelf area. Near-shore and
onshore data, in many cases, imaged basement and intrabasement reflections
allowing a confident interpretation. Since this project was mainly concerned with
early stages of basin development, the basement reflector was of outstanding
importance and was mapped out wherever possible. The top Albian and top
Cretaceous as well as other events were also mapped.

1.6.3 Gravity Interpretation

Gravity anomalies contain information on the heterogeneity in the Earth's

lithosphere. Usually, when interpreting the data of gravimetric surveys
geologically, the anomalies are examined in reduced form as free-air, Bougller,
and isostatic anomalies. Each of these reductions has its physical sense, its merits
and disadvantages. The first two anomaly types have found the most extensive
application at present. The free-air anomaly is obtained direc!y from sea-level
shipborne gravimetric surveys. The Bouguer is calculated allowing for
topographic or bathymetric correction.

Two and three dimensional interpretational techn}ques were used for the
study of the gravity data. The 2-D methodology consists of the gravitational
evaluation of a seismic-geological interpretation along selected profiles. Depth
models were constructed and then input into a two-dimensional forward
modelling program (GEOSOFfc /GRAVPOLYc):The program uses the depth
model, the observed Bouguer gravity profile and density contrasts between each

3
Major sedimentary sequences separated by regional unconformities.

Chapter I Page 9
 Tectonic £"0/111ion oj Brarilian Equatorial Ccminc111al Margin Basins

layer of the model as input. Intrabasement density contrasts were also modelled.
The software then calculates the theoretical gravitational response of the depth
model. The calculated and observed responses are then plotted on the same axis
for comparison. The. program uses the methodology p~oposed by Talwimy et al.
......
(1959). The 3-D technique broadens the results of the 2-D analysis to the
mapped area. It assumes that the gravitational response is due to a subsurface
consisting of two layers: (1) sediments lying on (2) a basemeni'_which may
comprise continental crust rocks injected by mantle material. As such, the
Bouguer gravity data may qualitatively represent the structure of the region.

The problem of the non-unique character of the 2-D procedure outlined

above was considered and decided not to be critical. for the purpose of this
analysis, provided that a reasonably well constrained geological model could be
used as input. This consideration restricted the number of possible geological
profiles to be analysed to those with a good control of seismic, borehole and
field data.

1.6.4 Magnetic Interpretation .

The magnetic field of the Earth recorded in the rocks is regarded as a

valuable source of information on the structure of the lithosphere. The magnetic
anomalies are produced by rocks which became magnetized in accordance with
the Earth's prevailing magnetic field during their formation. The shape and
strike of magnetic anomalies can be related to (1) structural features of rocks
comprising the crust, (2) intrusions of deep-seated materials, (3) shear zones and
(4) the age of the ocean floor.

In the analysis of the aeromagnetic data sets, interpretational techniques

were utilised to identify and separate magnetic provinces and individual
anomalies. These were given geological meaning by comparison with other data
sets including well and field data.

Chapter 1 Page JO
 r

Tectonic £vc/U(Wrr of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

1.7 THESIS ORGANISATION

As stated earlier, this thesis is organised into three parts. Part I consists of
chapters I to 3 and presents the aims, srudy area, data base, regioJ:¥il setting and
conceptual models on geometry of basins and fault systems. Chapter 1 introduces
the problem to be solved, aims of the research, location of the study area.
working hypothesis, data base available and methodology. Chapter 2 summarises
basic concepts of extension, strike-slip, oblique-slip, and inversion tectonics, as
well as gives preliminary insights into deformation processes concerning oceanic
lithosphere and continental margins. Chapter 3 provides a thorough review of
the regional continental and oceanic geology.

Part II comprises chapters 4 to 7 and presents data and results of

stratigraphic, subsidence and structural analyses; it emphasises the geometric
aspects of the research. Chapters 4 and 5 present data and results ~or the
Barreirinhas and Para-Maranhao Basins, and Chapter 6 examines the Gurupi

" Graben System. These chapters describe detailed basin stratigraphy, geoseismic
profiles as well the results of seismic mapping, subsidence analysis and 2-D
gravity crustal modelling. Chapter 7 is the last section of t~is part and
investiga tes basement control on the development of the marginal basins.

Part III is dedicated to evaluation of thermo-mechanical, kinematic and

tectonic models for the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin.
Chapter 8 discusses application of thermo-mechanical basin models to explain
evolving basins architecture. Chapter 9 examines kinematics of plate tectonic
reconstru ctions based on the geometrical and mechanical constraints derived in
the previous chapters and presents a tectonic model to account for the early
opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean. It ultimately defines a mode of
, lithospheric deformation which leads from an unthinned continental lithosphere
·- to the formation of a transform continental margin. Chapter 10 draws attention
to main conclusions.

Chapter 1 Page 1J
 Tectonic Evolution of Bra.iifian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basins

1.8 PERSONAL BACKGROUND

The ideas presented in this thesis were mostly developed during the last
three years. The research area however, was not new to the author. Between
1984 and 1987 the author had accumulated professional experience in
hydrocarbon exploration _in some of the Brazilian basins discussed here. in the
course of those years, much geological and geophysical data: were acquired,
including a comprehensive bibliographic search in unpublished reports of
Petrobras and exchange of ideas with other geologists. Thus, at the beginning of
the research project, some detailed knowledge had already been acquired. It is
therefore sometimes difficult to separate exactly data acquired at that time and .
ideas decveloped during the production of this thesis. Every effort has been made
to a~knowledge which idea came from other source and to refer to all previous
published and unpublished work. As a result, the reference list at the end of this
thesis is rather lengthy, with many entries of unpublished reports.

Ozapter 1 Page 12

-
 CHAPTER 2·

.. SUMMARY OF FAULT AND BASIN GEOMETRIES

N-?ly should Na1u" nm on just a 1~- diffettnt rypes of

gromelria? May IMrt: not « a vast hierarchy of~ of
geometry jltSI as there is Ott infinily ofgeolcgicaJ srruCJUrcs
thaJ may « buil1 under t~ influence of any one or more
of !hose geometries?

2.1 INTRODUCTION

As a preliminary to the discussion of structural evolutfon of selected basins

in later chapters, the fault geometry characteristics of extensional, strike-slip and
oblique-slip basins are summarily reviewed here. Thermo-mechanical models of
basin formation and subsidence will be discussed in Chapter 8 when evaluating
applicability of available basin models to the study area.

Naturally deformed geological materials react to stresses generated in the

lithosphere in many different ways. The mode of deformation depends on a
number of environmental and compositional variables such as orientation and
magnitude of local stress field, temperature and heat flow, pore pressure,
petrology of mineral aggregates, grain size and the interaction between pore
fluid and rocks. The interplay of these variables define the rheological
·stratification and the strength profile of the lithosphere (e.g. Brace & Kohlstedt,
1980; England, 1983; Sawyer, 1985; Ranalli & Murphy, 1987; Kusznir & Park,
1984, 1987; Lynch & Morgan, 1987). Figure 2.1 shows examples of typical
strength profiles of the continental and oceanic lithospheres. Strength profiles .or
yield-stress envelopes, or still deviatoric stress curves, are based on visco-elastic
theory as well as flow and friction law equations derived by experimental rock
'
deformation studies. A basic assumption behind the generation of these profiles
is that the strength of the lithosphere and hence its deformation can be modelled
hy comparing it with the rheology of crustal and upper mantle materials. This

Chapter 2 Page 13
 TcClonic £vclU1.wn of Bramian Equatorial Continen1al Margin Basins

•oolo, ·~)(MPoJ
COMPRESSION a.. - 0. (MP<tl
TENSION
·I 0 I 2 3

10

..".. ··•. ] 80
20

120 ~
~

......:r 40

1c.y i=.•: iiM~o;

...
0
1 so
C •I 0 2 !I
llo>c1
col
I ~\I
I
10 ..
"E c
-:: eol
1201 8

Figure 2.1 - Examples of rheological profiles or the lithosphere. (A) continental and (B) oceanic
lithospheres Crom Ranalli & Murpby(l987). (C) Deviatoric stress envelope of a continental
lithosphere (Sawyer, 1985). BY=Byerlee's law for frictional sliding; QlZ=quartz and OL=olivine
are from a ductile now law. Inset .shows a typical stress envelope function.

numerical modelling procedure has been strongly criticized (e.g. Ross & Lewis,
1989) on the grounds of limited applicability of experimentally derived single
component flow laws to real geological materials. Nevertheless, quartz has been
used to model the upper brittle crust, plagioclase commonly represents the
ductile lower crust whereas olivine is thought to mimic the lithospheric mantle
rheology. Because a typical oceanic crust is thinner than the average continental
crust thickness, the oceanic lithosphere tends to be stronger (Dewey, 1988).
Thus, tectonic forces applied to continental margins, depending on the
geothermal gradient, are likely to concentrate the deformation in the continental
lithosphere. However, deformation in the oceanic lithosphere also occurs but in
a very localized manner, along the fracture zones. The abnormal lithospheric
profile of these zones aided by geometrical and kinematic constraints are
believed to be .the causes of strain localization in the oceanic lithosphere.

Structural interpretation of geological or geophysical data requires a sense of

structural-style (Sheriff, 1982). This involves conceptual understanding of the

Chapter 2 Page 14
 Tectonic E vclution of Brazilian Equatorial Co111ine111al Margin Basins

system of forces that affected the rocks and the resulting strain field. The
deformation style differs as the stress systems diverge and the environmental
parameters change as the nature of the rocks va·ries. The notion of structural~
. .
style in distinct tectonic regimes tells us about the types of features to look for
and which geological processes are expected to prodµce the structures actually
observed. Thus, in order to prepare for the structural analyses developed in later
chapters, the sections that follow will review structural styles and geometrical
models of faults and basins developed mostly under brittle regimes in different ·.
tectonic settings. Ductile deformation of lower crust and mantle is temperature-
dependent and will be discussed when analysing thermo-mechanical models of
subsidence (Chapter 8). Deformation taking place at oceanic transform zones
will also be considered here. The subsequent section is an outline on the
strucrure of continental margins. Finally, several tectonic models of inversion are
presented. Alternative reviews of structural styles in diverse tectonic settings can
be found in Bally (1983), Lowell (1985) and Foster & Beaumont (1989).

2.2 EXTENSIONAL TECTONICS

Extension occurs in Pl~ny different tectonic regimes. Lithospheric stretching

produces extension in continental and oceanic rifting; gravitational collapse is
responsible for post-orogenic extension in orogens (Dewey, 1988; Seranne et al.,
1989; Seguret et al., 1989; Gaudemer et al., 1990), and downward motion of
oceanic lithosphere slabs in sub.duction zones creates back-arc extension
(subduction roll-back). Rifting is characterized by locc~;.ized extension in
elongated and relatively narrow belts (e.g. East African Rifts; Baikal; rnid-
oceanic ridges). Diffuse extension occurs in areas associated with broad orogen.ic
belts (e.g. Basin and Range Province; Tibetan Plateau) or subduction zones (e.g.
Aegean Sea) (Gaudemer et al., 1990). Some basic geometrical models for
extension are presented in the next sections.

Chapter 2 Page 15

,
 Tectonic Evolution of Bra:rilian £quatcrial Omtinenral Margin Basins

The fundamental aspects of extensional tectonics have been explored over

the last 10 years (e.g. Coward et al.,eds., 1987; Roberts et al.,eds., 1991) and the
interest in this field has been stimulated by developments in offshore petroleum
explo~ation during this period. Extensional geometries as established for two
'
..• .. #
.• important areas of continenta1 extension are considered below: Basin and Ra.nge
province and East African rift system.

2.2.1 Basic Fault Geometries of Extensional Terrains

There are t\vo elemental geometries of normal faults in extensional terrains:

!istri.c and planar (Wernicke & Burchfiel, 1982; Faure & Chermette, 1989). These
two types can be seen as end-members of a large spectrum of possible
geometries which may or may not be associated with a basal detachment (Fig.
2.2). Typically, these two models of extensional structures are found sharing the
discrete brittle deformation of sedimentary basins with either base~ent

involvement or det!lched within the sedimentary fill. In essence. normal faulting

of the upper crust produces brittle shear zones with an extremely localized
..-
cataclastic deformation. These zones may pass downward to broad sections of
the crust where plastic deformation characterize ductile shear zones. Continental
rifting produces brittle normal faulting of the upper crust. This process generally
leads to formation of sedimentary basins which very frequently are characterized
by asymmetrical profiles (Bosworth. 1985). Both planar or listric shape normal
faults may produce asymmetrical basins.

Planar faults are usually the main components of the tilted block1 or pack-
of-cards models of extension (e.g. Wernicke & Burchfiel, 1982; Axen, 1988). In
these models, brittle fractures lie generally parallel to each other, are planar or
slightly curvilinear and divide the crust up into a series of parallel blocks or
dominoes. Slip occurs along the fractures and the blocks rotate simultaneously.

1
Throughout this thesis the terms tilted block and rotated block refer to rotation of crustal blocks
about horizontal and vertical axes, respectively. More complex rotation mechanisms that involve
both significant horizontal and vertical components are said to occur about inclined axes.

Chapter 2 Page 16

I.
 \.
...
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian £tiuaiorial Ccnrinenral Margin Basins

~---·- ·

.~-~
I
-
------

...
I
··- ..

8
,. - .
I!
I

.
I
·t-YJlfl]
..
,
,
1/J
8
,~
• ...
I::
...z
~
0
o
2

.. : JI

.• .
<l&
.....

.... &Y
....
0 .J
:i
i oC
0 Ii.
0

i.n-.-c I .._
CONFtGUAA TI~
·- ·
OF fAULTS

Figure 2.2 • Mode~s of fault geome~ies (from Faure & Chennette, 1989).

Large rotations on domino-style faults require intense internal deformation of

blocks and the development of curviplanar or splaying faults (Axen, 1988).
Normal faults of planar geometry require much greater extension th~n listric
models to cause any appreciable thinning. The kinematic consequence of
movement of tilted blocks is that the rotation reduces the dip of the faults so
that a new steeply dipping fault system is formed (Jackson & McKenzie, 1983;
Angelier & Colleta, 1983) (Fig. 2.3). Once a new fault cuts pre-existing faults the
earlier faults become locked. The fault displacements observed at higher levels
are thought to be accommodated, in depth, by ductile shear deformation at
middle or lower crust levels. Jackson & White (1989) have suggested that the
size of tilted blocks and the lengths of major basement involved normal faults
(rarely longer than 15-20 km) are limited by the thickness and strength of the
seismogenic upper layer.

Listric normal faults offer another mode of extension (Bruce, 1973; Bally et
al., 1981; Shelton, 1984). Although the fractures may initiate at a high angle to
the surface, they usually flatten off to near horizontal at depth. The depth to
which major boundary faults flatten off at is said to be the brittle-ductile transition
..
. ..
zone or depth-to-detachment. They may also detach at shallow levels within
sedimentary layers undergoing ductile deformation. In listric fault systems, the

Chapter 2 Page 17
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian quatorial Contin~ntal Margin Basins

Figure 2.3 - Kinematic consequence of tilting of blocks bounded by pl&nar fault5 (after Angelier
& Colletta, 1983). A new set of subparallel fault planes is formed at higher angles.

hanging-wall is seen to absorb a great deal of internal deformation as antithetic

and synthetic brittle faulting. Although cataclastic deformation of footwalls is
usually seen in outcrops, at the scale of seismic sections the footwalls have
commonly undergone uplift and erosion. During rotation, the crest of footwalls
of large blocks are uplifted and those of small blocks go down (Moretti et al.,
1988). Commonly, however, the crestal uplift is poorly determined because of
erosion. When the crest begins to move cownwards, an increase in tilt due to
extension and sedimentary loading will amplify the subsidence of the crest.
Several alternative models accounting for footwall uplift in sedimentary basins
have been proposed: (1) lateral heat flow, Cochran (1983), Steckler (1985) and
Moretti & Froidevaux (1986); (2) inhomogeneous stretching, Royden & Keen
(1980), Hellinger & Sclater (1983), Villemin et al. (1986); (3) lithospheric
flexure, Watts et al. (1982); (4) local isostatic effects, Jackson & McKenzie
(1983); (5) area balance constraints, Barr et al. (1985), Moretti et al. (1988); (6)
vertical movement of the sole fault, Barr (1987); and (7) regional isostatic

Chapter 2 Page 18
 .... Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equarori.al Conrine/llal Margin Basins

- - - ~ ·-- - - ----
~_:...::....:....=...;:;.__

'·.

1 I\\:

Anlltnelk Fa11ll

.-

JJ".I. EXTENSIOH

figure 2.4 - Terminology and basic geometries of listric normal faults (compiled from Wernicke
& Burchfiel, 1982; Jackson & McKenzie, 1983; Gibbs, 1984; Etheridge, 1986; McClay & Ellis, 1987:
Boulter, 1989).
Chapter 2 Page 19
 T«tonic £1'()/utio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continent.al Margin Basim

Ho,,9in9 Wall H0"9'"9 Wall : Pat"'tiol Ro"'p

Anticli11r Sync: tin~ Sasin
RoHov~r
/
f'f•t

...

Flot

COHTRACTIONAl
FAULTS

20 % EXTENSION

Figure 2.5 - Listric normal fault geometries of ramp/Oat type (compiled from .Gibbs, 1984b;
McClay & Ellist 1987; Boulter, 1989).

compensation, Wemicke & Axen (1988), Braun & Beaumont (1989), Weissel &
Karner (1989). Figures 2.4 and 2.S illustrate a compilation of geometries of
listric normal faults, mostly taken from Gibbs (1984b) whom has introduced or
compiled a plethora of new terms in extensional tectonics by analogy with better
known models in compressive settings.

2.2.2 Low-angle Detachment Faults of the Basin and Range Province

The Basin and Range Province lies at the Rocky Mountains in the Western
United States. For a fuller discussion of the extensional tectonics of this region
see Coward et al. (eds., 1987) and Lister & Davis (1989). The region is
dominated by flat-lying extensional faults with tens of kilometres of horizontal
offsets (Davis & Lister, 1988). Tl;le province is also characterized by seismicity,
high heat flow and high regional elevation (Stewart, 1978). These terranes
consist of a mosaic of rock sheets bounded by high and low.angle (detachment)
normal faults. These detachment faults have been interpreted as active shallow-

Chapter 2 Page 20.

\.
--i

Ttctonic Evolurion of Brazilian Equatorial Ccncinental Margin Basins

dipping shear zones that acconunodated Tertiary crustal extension (Wernicke,

1981; Davis, 1987) (Fig. 2.6).

Figure 2.6 - Kinematic schemes of evolving low-angle normal shear 2ones. (a) Wemicke (1981)
(b) Reynolds & Lister (1990).

Buck (1988) however, argues that active low-angle normal faulting is difficult
to reconcile with rock mechanics theories, earthquake focal mechanism studies
(Jackson & White, 1989) and the rapid cooling history of core complex rocks
(Dokka et ~L. 1986). In this respect, flexural isostatic response to a localized
high heat flow may explain flat-lying abandoned nor:i.<al faults below slices of
brittle upper plate rocks and a rapid movement of lower plate rocks from mid-
crustal levels to shallower depths. This mechanism may account for the idea that
extension was initiated by high-angle planar faults that flattened and rotated
domino style to low angles due to gradual uplift of a basal detachment (Miller et
al., 1983; Lee et al., 1987). Normal slip along the low-angle faults resulted in the
unloading of the lithosphere which in turn produced regional isostatic

Chapter 2 Page 21
 Tectonic £•'Cluri()n of Brazilian Equatorial Cominallal Margin Basins
,
compensation and uplift of the sole fault (Wemicke & Axen, 1988). This
footwall uplift eventually gave rise to the formation of metamorphic core
complexes (Davis, 1987; Lee et al, .1987; Lister & Davis, 1989; Reynolds &
Lister, 1990). The structural p~ttem of fault geometries may be very complex, as
can be seen in Figure 2.6.

2.2.3 East African Rift System

The rifts of East Africa are part of a much larger regional system which aiso
comprises the West and Central African rift system (Fairhead, 1988a, 1988b;
Fairhead & Green 1989) and the Red Sea-Gulf of Aden plate boundary (Fig.
2.7). The Afro-Arabian rift system consists of a network of ex.tensional structures
which were not all active simultaneously. The network displays well defined
grabens, swarms of extensional faults and strike-slip shear zones. Parts of the rift
network are associated with domal uplifts and volcanism. Four maj9r phases of
extension are documented: Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene and Oligocene-Miocene.
The Jurassic rifting is connected with strike-slip motions in southern Africa
(Agulhas oceanic fracture zone). The second is related to the opening of the
South and Equatorial Atlantic Oceans. Park (1988) has suggested that a
continuous network of extensional basins may have existed then, linking the
opening Atlantic and Indian oceans with the Tethys Ocean. The third is related
to the initiation of the Red Sea Rift (e.g. Courtillot et al., 1987). The fourth saw
the initiation of Gulf of Aden and Suez rifts and in the Late Miocene the East
African System. The architecture of.the East African rifts has been extensively
studied by researchers in the Project Probe (Rosendahl, 1987; Rosendahl et al.,
1989) and others (e.g. Morley et al, 1990).

Rosendahl and coworkers have described the external and internal

organization of many individual basins in this system and presented a
geometrical model based on the interpretation of seismic data (e.g. Rosendahl et
al., 1986; Specht & Rosendahl, 1989; Sander & Rosendahl, 1989). Asymmetry is
a basic property of the East African rift system. The basins are composed of

Chapter 2 Page 22
( I
~

·.
Tectonic Evoi111ion cf Brazilian Equarorial Continental Margin Basins

Figure 2.7 • Mesozoic rifiing and contioental margin development in Africa (after Fairhead &
Green, 1989).

several linked rollover half-grabens bounded by major faults which show dip-slip
of 4km or more (Fig. 2.8). Faults within the grabens may be synthetic or
antithetic and tend to be subparallel the border fault. Both border and inner
fault systems tend to be arcuate in plan view but planar in profile. Although
many linking modes occur, the basic geometry is one of alternating' half-graben
polarities along the strike of the basin. The intervening areas between two
isolated depocentres are said to be accommodation zones. These zones may be
characterized by considerable oblique-slip or even strike-slip faulting. The strike-
slip component may be so important that one alternative interpretation
(Mondeguer et al., 1989) admits a true strike-slip origin for some basins of the
Lake Tanganyika complex. The accommodation zones are typically expressed as
basement highs or monoclines between basins. Measurements of extensional
parameters for these rifts yield less than 15% of upper qust extension, with
estimates of 20-30km for the depth-to-detachment (Ebinger; 1989).

2.3 STRIKE-SUP TECTONICS

The fundamental concepts of strike-slip (also called wrench) tectonics have

been established for a considerable period. The importance of strike-slip faulting
was recognized in the turn of the century during investigations of superficial
offsets associated with major earthquakes (Sylvester, 1988). However, during the

Chapter 2 Page 23
 Tectonic EvoliJtion of Brazilian Equa10rial Cominenral Margin Basins

·· -.... POSSIBLE
1'1.ATFO'<M
AllEAS

E'

A~A'

B ~.:::::-:~::;~!!'

Figure 2.8 - Basic half-graben geornetries of the East African Rift System (frnm Sander &
Rosendahl, 1989).

two last decades there has been a renewal of interest on strike-slip tectonic
settings. Thus, the literature on the theme is vast and cannot be fully reviewed
here. Nevertheless, a short and specific account is produced below covering the
relevant topics for this research. The reader may find a very comprehensive
review in Sylvester (1988). Collections of selected references can be found in
Ballance & Reading (1980), Sylvester (1984) and Biddle & Christie-Blick (1985).

2.3.1 Basic Fault Geometry of Strike-slip Systems

Strike-slip faults may be classified either as transform faults which cut the
lithosphere as plate boundaries, or as transcu"ent faults which are confined to
the crust (Lemiszki & Brown, 1988; Sylvester, 1988) (Fig. 2.9). They may exhibit
a complicated structural framework which is usually difficult to interpret solely
on the basis of surface geology. Thus, geophysical profiling of the Earth's crust

Chapter 2 Page 24
 Tectonic; Evohltio11 of Braxiliafl Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

UPPER
MANTLE

LITHOSPHERE

Figure 2.9 • Uifferences between the crustal structure of transform versus intraplate strike-slip
fault zones (after Lemiszki & Brown, 1988).

(e.g. Harding et Lowell, 197~; Lemiszki & Brown, 1988; Brink & Ben-Avraham,
1989; Calais & Lepinay, 1990) as well as experimental, scaled physical (e.g.
Wilcox et al., 1973; Odonne & Vialon, 1983; Naylor et al., 1986) and
mathematical (e.g. Sanderson & Marchini, 1984; Bilham & King, 1989)
modelling have been extremely useful in investigating strike-slip tectonics. In dip-
slip systems, establishment of kinematic models of fault development are
facilitated by the plane-strain assumption. This basic assumption, is not tenable
in strike-slip settings. Thus, usage of two-dimensional structural balancing
techniques (e.g. Groshong, 1989) in these regions is not viable as mass is not
conseIVed in any profile drawn across these structures.

The positions and orientations of structures associated with strike-slip faults

such as folds, shear planes, tension fractures and reverse faults are closely related
to the bending or stepping configuration of the strike-slip fault zones (Figs. 2.10
and 2.11). In the brittle part of the crust the fault sets accommodate much of the
deformation as finite displacements. Under ductile conditions, the strain is more
pervasive and taken by ductile shear zones. Plate 2.1 and Figure 2.12 are meant
to emphasize that strike-slip shear zone geometry is scale-independent
(Tchalenko, 1970). One of the most distinctive aspects of strike-slip zones is an
en echelon arrangement of structures. Gentle en echelon folds may be the only
expression of horizontal displacements. Fault development commonly starts with
arrays of synthetic riedels of helicoidal shape which are then linked by P

Chapcer 2 Page 25
 nc1onic EWJ!urion of Br02ilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins
,

a. RELEASING RES TRAINING RELEASING STEPOVER RESTRAINING STEPOVER

SEND BENO - OllAllONAl JOG "ANllDILAllONAL JOG

S!R~HT
S PARA I N
EXTE NSION COMPRESSIO;;;; : .AULT TIP
ZONE ZONE .....: :,_ LEFT STEPPING
OVERLAP
RIGHI STE PPIHG
UPllfl IH RESTRAINING PULL APART lN RELEASING
BENO I Slf POVER I BENO I STEPOVER
b.
<;"
~--<$2__.4_,,,>Mlnn>-- ::=.
~~ --
1 ~

t
L-
ANHTHE!IC!R'l ~\\l ~\
SHEAR ~~\~ ~~ ENF~CLHJ~ OH E~O~~HN~~ULTS m .... i:.ot
ENECHELON f..o EXTENSIONAL J. liONTRACflONAL ""f. FOLDS --:?'
ANTITHETIC FAUlTS FAUUS t ·{l!EMSllW
(OKP~IUI
FAULTS

d. l£AOING
EXTENSIOll-AL DUPLEX
TRAILING
EXTENSIDNAL
lf.\BRICATE FAN
HORSETAIL SPLAYS

e.

CONTRACT IONAL
!MBRICAIE FAN

Figure 2.10 - Geometry and terminology of strike-slip fault zooes (compiled from many sources
by Boulter. 1989).

fractures (Naylor et al., 1986) (Figs. 2.13 and 2.16).

Strike-slip faults are usually curved in profile and plan view. The faults bend
and also step sideways in a type of en echelon arrangement. Extension occurs at
releasing bends or stepovers (dilational jogs). Bending or stepping senses opposite
to the slip sense are called restrai.ning bends or stepovers (antidilational jogs) and

Chapter 2 Page 26
 Tectonic Evolution of Brar:ilian Equatorial Coritinenuil Margin Basins

\-----.a
. .. . . . :---
I C I & I
~·'f : I I I I I I
R ANO R'
:;zf- I ~ :--::::::. I
. ~··
• -L_ ·-.:::::::--
, .. SHEAR
: I•'~ t I I FRACTURES
c/·---
1 I I

___ _,,;

~<4
Y77
. .,
~ FOLDS
{/-"'

~x~~
o:0
·· - ,, ~
EXTENSION
FRACTURES

... -/}

-(~V/;Lr- THRUST
FAULTS
o---
JI ,, •
.. ./}
. '< >- I < >--
~~ ".J~ V)o.
SUPERPOSITION
OF ALL
: ; • '/ -C../I" "<>-
'. / I STRUCTURES
c>---·· ~

Figure 2.11 - Orientation of structures in bulk right simple shear (from Sylvester, 1988).

leads to compressional areas. Both stepovers can be single, in localized strain

zones, or multiple (Laville. 1988) in distributed deformation. At leading and
trailing edges of strike-slip faults the lateral movement may be transferred to
dip-slip faults by splays (Fig. 2.14): This implies that the local stress conditions
have changed. Regions of localized extension or compression are also called
transtensional or transpressional2 areas. Strike-slip faults may be whole
lithosphere ~iscontinuities or detach at shallower levels (Figs. 2.9 and 2.15). In
general, major fault zones tend to cut the entire litho:,phere whereas subordinate
shear planes tend to detach in the upper crust or join the master shear zone in
depth (Fig. 2.16). The partitioning of movement among multiple fault planes is a
characteristic of strike-slip duplexes, sidewall ripouts and flower structures.

2In this thesis the terms

tra11stensio1t and transpressio11 are used either in local areas of extension or
compression in pure strike-slip systems or where an external tectonic component of tension or
compression is added to the shear system. In any case the context and the text will clarify the usage.

Chapter 2 Page 27
 Tectonic £\'Olurion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Colilornio toutt~ \hOw•no e•iOence of octivil yin 1olut 15 m.y. { l-IO•o.<d 6 othu1 .
1978)

Dosht-t Boyn eortflquolle foult, l•on ( Teh·oienllo. 1970 l

IOmm

De toil of $heo• bo~ tlperiment l Tcholen-.o. 1'370 I

Imm

Figure 2.12 - Geometry of brittle shear faulting in strike-slip system·s (from Main et al.., 199<1).

Figure 2.13 - Helicoidal form of riedel shears and axial fold surfaces in right and left simple
shear (from Sylvester, 1988).

Chapter 2 Page 28

. I
 t
( ·.
r-
(

.·• Plate 2.1 • Geometry of shear zones.

Le£t: aeromagnetic image or a large scale right-lateral basement

shear zone in North Brazil.
Right: interpretation or displacement of magnetic anomaly across
the .shear zone.

Left: brittle-ductile dextral shear zone in the Pedra do Sal granite

(outcrop scale).
Right: Shear zone is outlined by distortion of pegmatite vein within
the deforming zone.

apter 2 Page 29
 z: <l-C ;
0

{'-.I

,.,..._

--
co
4: LI../
~
<:t:
__,
0-
 Tectonic £,'O/ution of Bra.tilion Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

The generation of a wide range of subsidiary structures in strike-slip systems

cannot be satisfactorily explained by one mechanism alone (Price & Cosgrove,
1990). Geometrical constraints and stress variations at fault splays are discussed
in the literature (e.g. Ron & Eyal., .1985). A third mechanism however, which
. ...
involves dynamic analysis of seismic fa4lting is addressed less frequently and has
been studied recently by Sibson (1989).·: Earthquake faulting is a structural
process which·.c an cause differential displacement along strike-slip faults. Figure
2.17 shows a cartoon map of an isolated fault bend which can develop dilational
or compressional zones depending on which segment of the fault was active. It
exemplifies a situation in which the geometrical pattern and regional kinematics
may develop distinct structures in response to changes in the dynamics of
faulting.

.. -
/ L~~
"'

/
/

~~ ~
I
L~·- __
o,
I :.
! /'
,._!L_c
/ l
IV

Figure 2.14 - Termination of a strike-slip fault by splaying and bending. It implies change of the
stress conditions (from Ron & Eyal, 1985).

Cliapcitr 2 Page 31
 Tectonic £•'0/11tion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Figure 2.15 - Model of possible relationship or strike-slip fault with low-angle detachment
(CbeadJe et al., 1986). SAF=San Andreas fault; GF=Garlock fault; SN=Sierra Nevada.

I ~ _J -ft
-'""°'
toJn ~reiw~
~c..,

\
T-;M oatfcrn.
NOfl..'4tlCOI
fo..,il" \
T 0 b
cd
VI
Soler ~ortr
'~"o
"•Rooelott ~Z>:_.................~..;..;.;..:.....::.._..;.;,.._J

LEGtl-IO: R. Ri•dOI ....,

S ; Sp•or fc,,.a1

P: P "f'MIOt
lrtll~ M'imo1c.h

Figure 2.16 • Cross-sections through experimental strike-slip fault zones (from Naylor et al.,
1986).

Chapter 2 Page 32
 Tectonic Evoluri<ln of Braziliarr Equatorial Comincntol Margin Bzins

: .·::
COMPRESSION

Figure' 2.17 - Cartoon illustrating two possible and contrasting responses of a right-lateral
strike-slip fault bend to changes in dynamics of earthquake faulting. Solid .circles are earthquake
epicentres (after Sibson, 1989).

2.3.2 Strike-slip Duplexes, Ripouts and Flower Structures3

When bends or stepovers of strike-slip faults are linked by other shear planes
they may evolve to form strike-slip duplexes (Woodcock & Fisher, 1986) or
sidei,val/ ripouts (Swanson, 1989). Strike-slip duplexes are geometrically similar to
imbricate fans and duplexes of dip-slip fault systems. They are characterized in
map view by the sigmoidal shape of individual slices and by an overall
anastomosing pattern (Fig. 2.18). Contractional duplexes may rorrn at restraining
bends or stepovers whereas extensional duplexes form at releasing bends or
offsets. The process of formation of duplexes results in uplift or formation of
pull-apart4 basins (Crowell, 1974b). In addition to the strike-slip sense of
movement on individual fault planes, these duplexes or imbricates also have a
dip-slip component. Sidewall ripouts are much more complex structures. (Fig.

3
Botanical terms accounting for strike-slip fault zones are popular in the literature. Flower structure
(Wilcox et al., 1973), palm tree (Sylvester & Smith, 1976), negative flower structure (Harding &
Lowell, 1979) or tulip (Naylor et al., 1986). It is preferred the positive and negative versions of
flower structures to describe those fault zones in convergent and divergent strike-slip systems.
4
The expression pull-apart basin is used throughout this thesis in the sense of Burchfield & Stewart
(1966) and Crowell (1974b). It implies genetic relationship with strike-slip systems.

Chapter 2 Page 33
 Teaonic £w;lution of Brazilia11 Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

916. 50 l.4Pa Cl"J. 1JO MP&

T A

undstonc:

c '-----
0 , ...... D

E F

Figure 2.18 - Collection of diagrams depicting positive Dower structures (compiled by Sylvester,
1988). {C) Compressional strike-slip duplex of Woodcock & Fischer (1986).

Chapter 2 Page 34
 T«lonic Ewilurion of Brazilian Equatorial Comi11emal Margin Basins

I
2.19) which probably result from dynamic variation of friction and adhesion
between fault surfaces. Lens shaped ripouts have sigmoidal shapes and are
internally deformed by a tight network of active shear planes.

Geological transects and ·seismic profiles through strike-slip fault zones. may
show one of three basic geometries: (1) single fault plane, vertical or inclined,
planar or curvilinear; (2) broad zone of cataclastic deformation and (3) flower
structures. Single fracture planes may be evident at crossing locations at straig~t

segments of throughgoing faults. Distributed cataciastic deformation along strike~

slip fault zones is thought to be the cause for blind zones in seismic profiles.
However, flower structure geo:netries (Lowell, 1972; \Yilcox et al., 1973; Harding
. .
& Lowell, 1979; Bartlett et al., 1981; Harding, 1985; Harding et al., 1985; Zalan,
1986; Rotstein & Bartov, 1989; Harding, 1990) better characterize these fault
zones (Fig. 2.20). Flower structures develop by changes in the local stress field at
bends or stepovers. Components of dip-slip may be present but their. subsidiary
nature can be often distinguished. More difficult to recognize is a strike-slip fault
from a single plane structure or a blind zone if a dominant dip-slip component is
evident.
scallop shaped dominont
fault surf ace~.
_lo- lens dpout \ ,

1.0m

Figure 2.19 - Example of ripout structure (from Swanson, 1989). Note the extremely complex
partition of movement among inner structure.

· 2.3.3 Basins Related to Strike-slip Tectonic Settings

Sedimentary basins are formed in strike-slip systems if localized extension is

developed (Burchfiel & Stewart, 1966; Crowell, 1974a, 1974b; Mann et al., 1983;

Chapter 2 Page 35
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equarorial ContiMnta/ Margirr Basins

Biddle & Chrisiie-Blick, 1985). Strike-slip basins are not genuine rifts. The basic
differen<::e being the orientation of the principal stress axes (Fig. 2.21; Hefu,
1986). Unfortunately, however, true strike-slip related basins have often been
called rifts maybe because many modern natural examples of these features run
along narrow de.ep valleys. They can be divided into ·three major classes: (1)
downward, (2) pull-aparl and (3) transform basins. Downward basins or wedge
grabens (Freund, 1982) ~re created by divergence of intercepting strike-slip
faults. This class encompasses many fault-throw related depressions listed by
Mann et al. (i983). They usually have a triangular shape with one flexural edge
and two major intercepting border faults (e.g. Ridge Basin and other Cenozoic
basins in the southern California; Christie-Blick & Biddle, 1985). They are
expectec to occur where rotational strain is the dominant mod~ of upper crust
deformation (Luyendyk et al., 1980). Pull-apart basins (Burchfiel & Setwart,
1966; Crowell, 1974a, 1974b; Aydin & Nur, 1982; Mann et al., 1983) are
developed at releasing bends, stepovers or offsets and often have a r~ornbic

external geometry when fully developed. They are elongated parallel to the
strike of the fault zone and may produce a thick sedimentary pile. Deng et
al.(1986) describe four types of pull-apart basins associated with strike-slip
stepovers in China (Fig. 2.22). They point out that the defor!11ation in a pull-
apart area is controlled by fault length, depth, separation and overlap. Transfonn
basins are composite sedimentary depocentres. They have a lower syn-tectonic
sedimentation developed at a strike-slip plate margin overlapped by an upper
thermo-flexural sag. The transform basins characterize divergent transform
margins. Sedimentary aspects of strike-slip related basins are discussed by
various authors e.g. Crowell (1974a), Ballance & Reading (eds., 1980); Dunne &
Hempton (1984); Hempton & Dunne (1984) and Speksnijder (1985).

Scaled physical modeJs provide an alternative way to study the kinematics

of strike-slip basin formation and evolution (Hempton & Neher, 1986; Faugere
"
et al., 1986). The progressive formation of a typical pull-apart basin can be
observed in Figure 2.23. The progressive displacement along a strike-slip fault
zone sometimes leads to block rotation and the destruction or extinction of

Chapter 2 Page 3o

-
 r·

..
.-.,

vv . 0

-· · 2
...
~
...

·:..--..--
, ...
~ 2 ~"'

D
SOUTH B f liilotnt ft t
NOATH c
.7' ·- ·' ~=-=·~2-~~ \!'~~·;..M/~ ..
;.lt:lfl .... 1(1 :-.• C~;:(:t7.,r-~Eiz"""·, . ·~,..,
.;.-~;<.7"co::-C:!i-..; r;?"~ ' ,.. ~
-- ----
-
•_"!'T":o.•l 1 1. >._..__•. _ .. ·· - ·~·..t~ _'L.a• . 1
~~(-~·~ ........... ....
· ·-· ~;,;,,;., ·~
ri~~.::...
..,,~~~~

1-
~~·""-~=···
I'
u
"'
~
·:=m:=1-·~:
b. ~; ~-:~~- ~
~~
··- ·~~~;.is
~~~'''
. . ~~
-.~.-­

"'
E .~ ~ EE2:l~"'~
-""•'• ' • ~--
~4JzH!
::- ! '•
j: •u' ~S·IS·~ ..
c
~::t;Z ·"'-e::~ .:·~~i$
E
0 , ...
..
~

a:
~

., .., y, .. •

.... ·-·-•.. -..... __ ___... _ . ·-

, - --·___..... ---- ·· ··-··
a
~ Figure 2.20 • Seismic expressions of positive flower structures. (A) Harding, 1985; (B) Sylvester,
~
Iv 1988; (C) Zalan:et al., 1985; (D} Tut61a sub-basin (Barrelrinhas basin).
2'
~
,,
w
 Ttctonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial c.oniinmtal Margin Basins

EXTENSIONAL BASIN <DIVERGENT>

PULL-APART BASIN •SHEARING 1

Figure 2.21 • Ande.rsonian dynamics of basins. Principal stress axes a 1 > o 2 > a 3 (from Hefu, 1986).

O»S .O

S /O • 1
~
R..OM81C CflAM'<. St"Cl.C Sl/8StO("C£ C(,.1(<11

. -
2 ,. .... "''
.. .. '
, ... :.,,.' ,.'
'
.c..._-- , ,' .<---/
.,, ....

"' ' .... _..

_.
-.,....
O»S.0
SIO • 1

....:_
3
AV --,

L_
--::r
/Y
_i·:"
0 < O.S

WO'PUlL "•ll>ACU.. Ot.lt.Y T(._.,., .,.._L [Xl(NSIO•• f'lil4(TUA(S

Figure 2.22 - Geometry of pull-apart basins in overstepping domains (from Deng et al., 1986
redrawn by Sylvester, 1988).

Chapter 2 Page 38
.....

Tecronic Evolwion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

earlier formed basins (Zhang et al., 1989). The cause of basin destruction may
be the _development of new strike-slip faults along the basin margins o~ ·
diagonally across the basin. The migration of boundary faults toward the basin
centre may also cause the extinction· of these basins. This suggests that flower
structures may evolve from negative to positive ·i)'pes during strike-slip tectonic
·events.

Figure 2.23 - Progressive formation and deformation of a pull-apart basin in a d~I strike--slip
system. Based on scaled modelling results (redrawn from Faugere et al., 1986).

2.3.4 Tectonic Rotations About Vertical Axes

ln many strike-slip tectonic settings large rotations of crustal blocks about

vertical axes have been inferred from palaeomagnetic data (e.g. Luyendyk et al.,
1980; Ron et al.,1984; Kissel et al., 1985). One set of faults usually accounts for
much of the lateral displacement. It is termed principal displacement zone or
throughgoing fault. Between two parallel active strike-slip faults the rocks may be
subjected to rotational strain. Tectonic rotations of crustal slices are now widely
recognized in many regions (e.g. California, Carter et al., 1987; Greece, Kissel et
al., 1985; Israel, Ron et al., 1984; New Zealand, Lamb; 1988) and mechanical as
well as kinematic models have been proposed (e.g. McKenzie & Jackson, 1986;
Nur et al., 1986; Nelson & Jones, 1987; Lamb, 1987, 1988) to explain the

Otapter 2 Page 39
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins
,
distributed deformation that happens in these regions.

Common features of the block rotation models are: ( 1) rotation of blocks

and f~ults in the same sense of the motion of plates outside of transtensional
zones or in opposite sense in the case of transpression (Martel et al., 1988; ~ig.
2.24 ); (2) displacements of inner faults is in opposite sense With respect to the
regional strike-slip; (3) development of a new set of shear planes as the original
fault system reaches a critical locking value of rotation in excess of 40° or 45°;
(4) formation of extensional and contractional areas between rotating crustal
blocks and (5) rotational strain facilitated by external components of
transtension or transpression. If no external source of stress is imposed on the
i

strike-slip zone, the aspect ratio of rotating blocks may define the ·sense of
rotation. Blocks with small aspect ratios will rotate in a opposite direction to the
sense of shear in the deforming zone (Lamb, 1987). Some of these models
assume that rigid-body rotations about vertical axes are controlled by the
deformation in the underlying continuously deforming lithosphere as suggested
by McKenzie & Jackson (1983). The rotating blocks would then detach at mid-
crustal levels (floating block model, Lamb, 1987; or flake tectonics, Oxburgh,
1972). Figure 2.25 illustrates some of the structural complexities of block
rotations at strike-slip settings.

=: w00
A --··---

' 1: l
~~
. ) ----="""
(:,ou 8ouncl.1ry/ Gap/
f.J:ul F1ut

070
Figure 2.24 - Kinematic models for rotation of blocks during· strike-slip fault development (after
Martel et al., 1988).

Chapter 2 Page 40
 ·.
Tectonic E:volution of Brazilian £qua10rial Continental Margin Basins

I BEFOR E
ROTATION j i ! PRESENT
a. '1 1
I

I
0 \00
100
km

b. C.

PLATE 8

lo

!1 STRI KE SLIP
FAuLr . ) ROTATION
l

I THRUST
FAULT ~ .
AR EAS OF
EXTE NSION

'I FOLD

Figure 2.25 • Block rotation in strike-slip zones (compiled by Boulter, 1989).

If a strike-slip zone is subjected to finite rotational strain not sufficient for

rigid-body rotation, the structures will nucleate at locations compatible with the
classical wrench tecto nics model (e.g. Wilcox et al., 1973). This seems to happen
only at regions of low strain in strike-slip zones. The progressive development of

Chapter 2 Pagt· 41
 Tectonic Evolu1ion o.f Brazilian &[ua10rial CominenJal Margin Basins

shearing and the addition of external sources of tectonic stresses leads to the
development of transtensional or transpressional belts. In highly deformed zones,
the inner structures will assume distinct angular relationships (Sanderson &
Marchini, 1984; Fig. 2.26). Thus, in transtensional belts !crustal extension and
shear produce folds and reverse faults at a high angle to the zone, whereas the
tension fractures develop at low angles with respect to the principal displacement
direction. In contrast, the shortening across transpressional belts creates foids
and thrusts at small angles to the deforming zone and the extensional features
are disposed at higher angles.

2.4 OBLIQUE-SLIP TECTONICS

In natural deformation it is very uncommon to find dip or strike-slip

displacements only. Usually the relative movement between crustal blocks on
both sides of a brittle fracture are referred to as dip or strike-slip for the sake of
simplicity. However, when analysed in detail, most of the tectonic. movement of
geological materials in the lithosphere is achieved by oblique-slip. The need for
simplification stems partially from our intrinsic difficulty in represent the three-
dimensional geometry of the real world in a two-dimensional frame of printed
information.

The general geometrical and kinematic relationships of structures in oblique-

slip terrains are described by concepts similar to those derived for extensional
and strike-slip dominated regimes summarized earlier. These relationships
characterize a mixed mode of sedimentary basin development (Gibbs, 1987c). In
oblique rifting, both extension perpendicular to the rift trend and_shear parallel
to the rift strike contribute to rift formation and evolution. It is suspected that an
almost infinite number of possible geometries assembled by planar, listric or
detachment fault zones is feasible to occur. Figure 2.27 groups three-dimensional
block diagrams to exemplify the great complexity of structures that can be found
in oblique-slip regimes.

Chapter 2 Page 42
 Tectonic Evolwion of Brazilian Equarorial Conrinemal Margin Basins

TRANSPRESSION
t

STRIKE SLIP

TRANSTENSION

!// t
j CONTRACT!ONA L fa EXTENSIONAL
FAULT FAULT

/ TENSION VEIN " FOLD

Figure 2.26 - Arrangement structures in strike-slip deforming zones (Sanderson & Marchini, 1984
redraw by Boulter, 1989). Note angle changes whm external source of stress is applied.

As was seen earlier, the most common rift geometry found in continental
extensional deformation is that of asymmetrical half-grabens (Bosworth, 1985).
However, mat_hematical analyses of the mechanics of graben formation (Melosh
& Williams, 1989) suggests that the configuration of a pair of antithetically
dipping normal faults, which characterize a symmetrical graben, is the
energetically most favourable fault configuration in brittle rocks undergoing pure
extension. An interesting implication of this study is that the occurrence of
asymmetrical grabens may be indicative of a rifting process other than purely
extensional. On the other hand, the importance of oblique-slip in the
development of extensional basins has already been recognized in natural
.
examples (e.g. Rosendhal et al., 1986; Roberts et al., 1990) and reproduced in
experiments (Withjack & Jamison, 1986). In continental. rifting, the zones of
typical oblique-slip are generally called transfer faults (Gibbs, l 984b ),

Chapter 2 Page 43
 Teaonic Evoluiion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Figure 2.27 - Block diagrams showing complexity of oblique-slip sys~ms . (A) Gibbs (l984b); (Bl
and (C) Gibbs (1987a); (D) Rosendahl et al. (1986); (E) Barr et al. (1985).

accommodation zones (e.g. Sander & Rosendahl, 1989), intrabasinal highs

(Rosendahl et al., 1986), or transform faults5 (BalJy, 1985). Imponant aspects of
oblique-slip are: (1) potential cause for localized footwall uplift due to geometric

5
ln this thesis il is preferred to retain the original meaning of the term tra11sfom1f aull given by
Wilson (1965).

Chapter 2 Page +4
 Tec1onic Ewuution of Brazilian U,uatoriof Continemof Margin Basins

requirements (Barr et al., 1985) (Fig.2.27E); (2) favourable setting to occur

complex block rotation about inclined axes in continental rifting and, (3) also
invalidates plane·strain assumptions of two-dimensional restoration techniques.

..
2.5 DEFORMATION OF THE OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE

Depending on the geothermal gradient, the oceanic lithosphere is generally

stronger than the continental lithosphere (e.g. Ranalli & Murphy. 1987; Dewey,
1988).· One important difference between oceanic and continental deformation is
that regions of oceanic extension, contraction or transform faulting, are very
much narrower than equivalent regions in the continents. The bulk of tectonic
deformation of the oceanic lithosphere is concentrated in the system of oceanic
fracture zones. Oceanic fracture zones may be active or relatively stable. It
depends if they represent present or past tectonic plate boundaries. Transform
faults (Wilson, 1965) are the fundamental structural entities along active plate
boundaries. They may be loci of simultaneous compression, extension ~d shear
deformation. Transform motion is the net response to tectonic stress acting in
the.se zones. They uniquely define the present direction of motion, whilst fracture
zones constitute a geologic record of past relative movements (Vogt,P.R. in
Seyfert, 1987).

As was seen before, major strike·slip movement takes place along

deformation belts rather than in single fault planes. In the case of oceanic
fracture zones, these belts may exceed about 50km in width (Gorini. 1977). A
simple model of strikeMslip or transform motion consists of two plates sliding past
each other, with full conservation of plate area, and no extension or shortening
across the boundary. This simplest model has a very limited applicability. It must
be replaced by a more complex model involving a boundary zone of finite width
within which complex tectonic effects take place. It comprise~ transtension and
transpression acting across the plate boundaries with all their inherent
complexity.

Chapter 2 Page 45
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equa1on·a1 Ccntintntal Margin Basins

2.s.1 Tectonics of Transform Faults and Oceanic Fracture Zones

Transform faults nucleate fracture zones in the oceanic lithosphere. They

form a special class of strike-slip .faults (Wilson, 1965; Gilliland & Meyer, 1976)
in which the sense of displaceme.nt .along the fault plane is reversed with respect
to the observed shift of passive markers on both sides of the fault zone.
Mechanically they can be classified as transcurrent faults but Freund (1974) has
suggested that they are geometrically and kinematically quite dist_i.~ct.

.Earthquake studies (Engeln et al., 1986) indicate that the dominant. tectonic
regimes are: (1) transform-parallel strike-slip on steeply dipping planes between
spreading ridges; (2) oblique-slip at inner corners of ridge-transform connections
and (3) normal faulting at ridge flanks (Fig. 2.28).

POSSIBLE TECTOMC SETTINGS: All.AN'llC RIOGE-TRANSFOfiM EARTHOUAKES

AH()4(AL OUS S Tl!tl<E EXPECTED GE'OMETI'!Y SHAUOWOIP

OklOtJE TO Ac>0£ A...0
~OltM 4.1 ~ CO'tN£R
~"'""'"'°
~... <U.£1. ,.......:t 0-S
Ulll
s...-.:·k• "'°''°"
[MOST '£1'€N1S)
TO •OJtroGEft S0C

REVERSED f>OU.RITY ANOMALOUS suP 08UOVE THIVSTIHC NORM.At FAIJl T'I/,(;

ON '"•CfUlltE Z.OHE Y()l,MO scr ~o fl'0$.$4l_( C()lrr.iill'Cllf~ -oGE.·-.0-W.t.\. (11"t~
f7) flfLA1'1VltQOl..D oA. T NCJt CoO"INE"
m llOI

Figure 2.28 - Tectonic settings of transform fault rones based on earthquake studies (after Engeln
et al., 1986).

Despite many attempts to explain the origin of transform faults, it is still

controversial how and why they develop. Among the ideas to explain their
development are: (I) complex stress between edges of tensile fractures; (2)
various asymmetric growth patterns of the ocean floor; (3) least energy
dissipation (e.g. Froidevaux, 1974); (4) serpentine protruding along pre-existing
fractures; (5) flow lines and shear weakening; (6) therm~~ contraction of the

Chapter 2 Page 46
 :~·

.·

Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

lithosphere (Turcotte, 1974) and (7) mechanical mantle anisotropy (Freund &
Merzer, 1976). The notion of "leaky" transform fault (e.g. Menard & Atwater,
1968; Thompson & Melson, 1972; Garfunkel, I9a6)). h~s introduced an
interesting idea on h_ow to explain a characteristically young alkaline magmatism
along these fault zones. The fracture system of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean, in
some cases, shows young sea mountains or volcanic rocks outcropping on its
floor (e.g. Gorini, 1977), often with an alkaline signature. They have been
explained as oblique spreading centres created by changes in the direction o~

relative plate motion (Fig. 2.29). The new oceanic crust of

fracture zones produced by this mechanism has different petrological
characteristics a~d reacts to tectonic stress differently from normal oceanic crust
formed by longitudinal spreading centres.

0
b

- ---=-- - -11-
·-
- -----~-
--- -11- - - -

r -
-~-
- ____:;;;; -
-~
-

'- / / / -m-
-II-////
~

Figure :Z.29 - Formation of new oceanic crust and structures at "leaky" transform faults (after
Garfunkel, 1986). Shade shows new plate area.

Chapter 2 Page 47
 ·,'

T~ctonic £,.o/urion of BraziJi.an Equatorial Ccntin~ntal Margin Basins

Migration of transform faults (e.g. Karson, 1986) across a transform fault

wne is another mechanism which can led to considerable complexity in .
lithosphere structure and age distribution as a fault evolves through time. Lateral
slip dominates the structure of transforms but transpression and transtension
acting across the fault zones allow important oblique-slip movements creating
ridges and troughs subparallel to each other and transverse to the spreading
ridge to which they are thermomechanically decoupled (Garfunkel, 1986). A
numerical model which includes the effects of lateral heat flow across transform
faults and the shear heating produced during slip events suggests that both
effects generate topographic anomalies in a 30-60km wide zone (Chen, 1988).
These combined effects may contribute to increased uplift of transversal ridges
which may be locked at high regional levels after the fault zone is abandoned.
Shearing and heat transfer produced by transform faulting at continental plate
borders may also cause uplift and erosion of continental margins. A magnificent
example of these effects will be documented for the Brazilian Equatorial
Atlantic continental margin in Chapters 4 and 8.

Oceanic fracture zones (White & Williams, 1986) are broad features of the
ocean floor which sometimes can be traced into the edge of the continental
crust. In the past, they were successively defined as "a sediment-filled trough"
(Cochran, 1973); "a single bathymetric or basement feature (a linear high or
low), so that it could be depicted as a single line on a map" (Burke. 1969; Hayes
& Ewing, 1970; Francheteau & Le Pichon, 1972; Deteil et al., 1974; Emery et
al., 1975); "an active or fossil plate boundary which brings into contact two
lithospheric units of different ages" (Sibuet et al., 1974) or "a rather broad
feature, in some cases up to lOOkm wide, consisting of a series of linear ridges
and troughs in the oceanic basement" (Gorini, 1977). This evolving concept was
stressed in a meeting of The Geological Society in 1985 which was reported by
White & Willians(1986). A number of papers were published in that occasion
and since then. The present view of a number of researchers on oceanic fracture
zones (e.g. Lowrie et al., 1986; Barany & Karson; 1989) seems to converge on

Chapter 2 Page 48
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equarorial Continental Margin Ba.sins

the idea that fracture zones are broad sinuous features of the oceanic floor in
which morphological, bathyrnetric, seismic and petrological evidence suggests
that they are characterized by a m~ive protrusion of serpentinized mantle
material (Bonatti, 1978).

The geometrical arrangement of structures and cru~tal blocks along oceanic

fracture zones can be described by the kinematics of strike-slip fault zones.
Vertical tectonism (Bonatti et al., 1977; Bonatti, 1978) potentially caused by: (1)
horizontal thermal conduction; (2) viscodynamic forces operating near the acti\·e
transform and (3) compressive or tensile stress fields derived from small changes
in the direction of sp_reading (Menard & Atwater, 1969), has also been
documented. The seismic structure of oceanic fracture zones suggests that their
crust is thinner than normal oceanic crust (White et al., 1984; Engeln et al.,
1986; Louden et al., 1986; White & Peddy, 1990). Lowrie et al.(1986) discussed
evidence for either seismic and volcanic activity related to weakness or
lithospheric flexure response (Sandwell & Schubert, 1982) at strong .and locked
parts of fracture zones. They concluded by suggesting that thermomechanical
properties of fracture zones may vary along their length which can cause inc!ease
or decrease of lithospheric strength in these zones. The lower strength is thought
to be due to the low strength of serpentinites relative to other oceanic crustal
rocks at temperatures to be expected at the base of the crust (Bonatti, 1978).
The evidence presented in the references cited above suggests that
inhomogeneous behaviour of the oceanic lithosphere within the fracture zones is
to be expected.

Further details on the structure and evolution of oceanic fracture zones will
be given in the next chapter (section 3.4.4) when analysing the pattern of
fractures of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean.

Oiapter 2 P~ 49
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian £quaroriaJ Continental Margin Basins
..
2.6 COMPARISON BETWEEN PASSIVE AND TRANSFORM MARGINS

Of the three major groups of continental margins; convergent (destructive),

divergent (passive or Atlantic type) and transfonn (conservative), the last one is
... . . I

the least knowri and the poorest studied. Because its relevance to the research,
some ideas and the structure of this. last class of continental margin is briefly
described below. Passive margins are equally important for this work but are
profusely described in the literature (e.g. Almeida, ed., 1976; Falvey & Mutter,
1981; Scrutton(ed.), 1982; Watkins & Drake, eds., 1983; Enacbescu, 1987;
Tankard & Welsin.k, 1987; Le Pichon & Barbier, 1987; Bond & Kominz. 1988;
Edwards & Santogrossi(eds.), 1989; Falvey et al., 1990). Subsidence mechanisms,
'
in both ·cases, will be fully explored in Chapter 8.

2.6.1 Structure of Ancient Transform Continental Margins

Continental rifting may evolve to oceanic rifting in two ways. If the original
rift conserves its orientation perpendicular to the direction of the minimum
compressive stress throughout the rifting process, the continental extension leads
to spreading and formation of oceanic crust. In this case, the resulting
continental margin tends to be parallel to the spreading centre and develops
structures dominated by normal faulting. Rapid initial tectonic subsidence takes
place which is replaced by slower thermal and load driven sinking as the margin
evolves. Two types of passive margins have been recognized: rifted and volcanic.
The fundamental difference between them depends on if there was previous
doming of the lithosphere with consequent graben formation or if active rifting is
the cause of crustal uplift and magmatism. In general, previous lithospheric
doming is interpreted for volcanic margins (White & McKenzie, 1990), whereas
lithosphere stretching and other thinning mechanisms are suggested as driving
processes for rifted (non-volcanic) margins. Various aspects of this ongoing
fundamental discussion can be appreciated in (Bond & Korninz, 1988; Cox, 1989;
Burrus, 1989; Hooper, 1990) and will not be considered further here.

Chapter 2 Page 50
'.

T«conic Evolutio11 of Brazilian Equacorial Conlinental Margin Basins

The second mode of lithosphere evolution which leads from continental

extensional deformation to oceanic rifting is through transform motion along
plate boundaries subparallel to early formed transform faults or oceanic fracture
.,. zones. In this case, the continental margin is segmented in a similar way as mid-
.·.·..•
oceanic ridges. Each segment of margin, depending on its orientation with
respect to the spreading direction, may undergo pure or oblique extension .as in
passive margin basins or alternatively, shearing. Large areas of continental
and/or oceanic horizontal shearing characterize this type of continental margin
(Boillot, 1984). Transform margins are regional features and hence require
regional studies to document their existence and history. Because some basins in
this setting show upper crust structures similar to true passive margin basins and
!)artially because the strike-slip generated depressions are often deeply buried,
some studies include this type of transform margin in the passive group
(Scrutton, 1979; Zalan et al., 1985). Its deep crustal structure however, is very
different from classical passive margins (Mascle, 1976; Scrutton, 1982)~ The term
rift-transfonn. 6 is often used to account for the particular case of ancient
transform margin which has evolved to a more tectonically stabilized situation.
Figure 2.30 compares major features of those types of continental margins.
Perhaps one of the most investigated divergent transform margins in the world
lies on the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea (Masde, 1977; Mascle et al.
1986, 1987, 1988; Mascle & Blarez, 1987). Its conjugate part in North Brazil
however, has been relatively poorly documented in the literature (Zalan et al.,
1985).

Three evolutionary stages are usually described for the initial development of
transform margins (Scrutton, 1979; Boillot, 1984). The first is characterized by
shearing between two continental lithospheres. This is followed by an
intermediary stage of transform motion between a newly formed oceanic crust
against continental lithosphere. The shearing ceases when two segments of

6
In this thesis, in contrast to what is found in the literature, the use of the term rift is avoided when
accounting for fractured basins where transform motion is the dominant tectonic regime. In this
case pull-apart or a longer description for clarification purpose is preferred.

Chapter 2 Page 51
 Tectonic El'Clution of Brazilian Equatorial Co111incn1al Margin Basins

VOLCANIC MARGIN

t-50-IS0•.,.__,--$0-300+1u!t----!

(a)

NON-VOLCANIC MARGIN
---100-XIO+MI .

~~~~idttf:
· · · ······.···.····-··--···.··.-....
..
(b)

~
TRANSFORM MARGIN
I S0-100 IU1\ ---+t- 100 - 150 ""'--to- :;o - \00 .._,.

Fi.gure 2.30 - Comparison between passive and transform continental margins (JOtDES, 1987).
(1) normal thickness oceanic crust; (l) volcanic wedge; (3) structural high; (4) marginal fracture .
z.one; (5) pull-apart basin; (6) thinned crust; (7) unstretched cnasL

oceanic crust come into contact across fracture zones after abandoning the area
of active transform faulting (Fig. 2.31). The effects of shearing at the border of
the continental lithosphere produce continental margin profiles which are
dramatically distinct from typical passive margins (Fig. 2.32). The main
features are: (1) a very steep gradient of crustal thinning; (2) active faulting at
the continental-oceanic basement boundary; (3) basement ridge at the border of
the continental crust; (4) highly variable basement morphology at the lithosphere
boundary, specially if the margin crosses a marginal fracture zone; (5) normal
thickness of oceanic crust when not crossing fracture z~nes; ( 6) pull-apart basin
on thinned crust (Scrutton, 1979; Lonsdale, 1985).

Chapter 2 Page 52
 I
!

T«Wnic Evolwion of Braziliall Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

,

,.,.~
f•oCfvr c
~ ·!'!'f ,!,!·
..,... ...
'" 1 ,
-
,
- l'Of'l4' t I I
.' _;.. t ' • •
I 4 :l I J l I 7 f I
t t I I
I i I I
I l l I

Figure 2.31 - Stages in the evolution of a transform margin (after Scruttoo, 1979). Numbers
indicate phases of shearing: (1) continent-continent; (2) continent-ocean; (3) ocean-ocean.

No ·~··-"'f
.dO""''"-••G'pifl9 ot (
.
,.111 \I

Figure 2.32 - Idealized crustal structure of transform or sheared continental margins (after
Scrutton, 1979).

2.7 INVERSION TECTONICS

The concept of inversion tectonics (sensu Lato) involves a complex of

structures formed by variation of the regional stress field causing deformation of
isolated basins or continental margins. Inverted basins ~nd orogenic belts are
seen to be the results of compressional stress following subsidence and extension.

Chapler 2 Page 53
 TectQnic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conlinental Margin Basins

+ Extensio"al Halt-Graben

__
..--
......

....,............c.,.,.. ....
0~(...-HOl'I

a.ow.-..C..c-"Q . _ . . ................ ~..,. ~=~

~.:S.?;.;.;.;.:.::=.:-;;;.:~

Figure 2.33 - Inversion structures of sedimentary basins (after Cooper et al., 1989).

In a more restricted and useful use, inversion tectonics (sensu strictu) can be
defined as the resulting geometries and acting mechanisms that produce uplift
and partial extrusion of fault-controlled basins due to .compressional or
transpressional stresses following extension (Cooper et al., 1989). It implies fault
reactivation by reversal of slip on pre-existing extensional faults. A meeting
dedicated to this theme was held in 1987 and a selection of papers were
published (Cooper & Williams,eds., 1989). Further discussions on inversion
tectonics can be found in Ziegler (1983), Harding (1985), Gibbs (1986), Ziegler
(ed., 1987) and Gillerist et al. (1987).

Chapter 2 Page 54
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equarorial Conlinerual Margin Basins

Typical inversion structures are: (1) asymmetric inversion anticline; (2) broad
regional upward and backward facing monocline due to inversion on shallow
dipping detachment; (3) folding and complex internal deformation of half-graben
•
1
filling; (4) reverse, detachment, thrust and back-thruSt faults in the graben
sediments and (5) footwall shortcut fault (Fig. 2.33). Figure 2.34:taken from
. .
~ .

GiJicrist (1988) ~ummarizes inversion structures found in t~e Alpine

orogenic belt and illustrates cases of s~ong and total inversion of half-graben
sedimentary basins. Figure 2.35 exemplifies a seismic expression of an inversion
structure mapped in the Barreirinhas Basin.

2 2

4 4

3km

Figure 2.35 - Seismic expression of a inversion structure in the Barreirinhas Basin, North Brazil.
Note biconvex .geometry of seismic events.

Chapter 2 Page 55
; - !

Tectonic £1'<Jlution of Braiilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

...a:
lL ..
..."'
z ~~

f
a:
"' ... .,g
....
"'.0
........
~ c

... -
.,, ::
..
... o
ffi~
~-

I
~
~
a: . ">::
0
"'w
"'-
< ~o
o_.
J
a:
<
... !
<- ~: "'...
.. - //
I
.. 0 "' > 0
fc
0"
<"
c
.... / o<
~% '\ ...<~
~-:
<-£
0 ~i 0
z .
0; "'e :>
w.
~ J: ~
< c -
2~~
"'"'
~· ~
0 · 11>
!:
z
..
a: - -
~ 2 !: g ~
••"'"' ..
..,0
z);
Q ~ 0

!
a: Q
.... a:
!! ... 0
-'>
<0 ......
!"
.: 0 :>
~~
~i
,.....,
......"'
0

:>
<"'
"' ... y
C[

~
t~ Q
< ... 0 ....
...r--"'
z
s:;; ~
.,"
~~~
...... :i:
-'< ..
a..::l >e
i...
... a: !,) .;
WO<
0.2:o>
..:
-

j!;
.... ~
~ z
"'0z <

..... ...~ I
\I
< a: 0
...
%

..; ii
<
z
"'
.....
!>
..,a:
C[
!)
< ~
z 0.
~ z
~
...io-
.. 0
......
)(
0
0
z
-'
...
:i: w
~ 0
<
~
lS< a:~ 0
ii!:
" ......-'<
" .,...
.. 0 0
~ 2

....
<z
.., <
"' a:
..."' <
"'~
...
.."'
:>
a:
.:t
z
.,;

I T

I
I I
.. a:
/, ~
<

.., ..
~ li
"' ....
... :>
......
<"'
-'
-'
0<
..s"'g
o::i
-' a:
....a:
-' 0
<Z
); . ..."'::>
8~
......
~
Q.
..;

Figure 2.34 - Inversion structures in orogeoic belts (after Gillerist, 1989).

Chapter 2 Page 56
 CHAPTER 3

CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC REGIONAL GEOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The aim of thi~ chapter ~s to review the regional geology of North -Northeast
Brazil and West Africa, as well as provide a general background on the adjoining
oceanic basin. Emphasis is given to the description of lithotecton.ic units, their
geometric aspects and kinematic implications. The a~ount will finish with
comparisons between continental and oceanic geology of this region. The
description that follows will help in: (1) analysis and definition of initial
boundary conditions for later evaluation of basin models and (2) the choice of
parameters for gravity modelling.

3.2 GEOTECTONIC UNITS OF SOUTH AMERICA

The South American continent consists of three major geotectonic units

(Almeida et al., 1981) (Fig. 3.1): (1) the Andean Orogenic Belt; (2) the
Patagonian Platfonn and (3) the South American Platfonn. Brazil is completely
confined to the South American Platform which has not suffered any strong
compressional tectonic activation since the beginning of the Phanerozoic.
Precambrian metamorphic and igneous basement are exposed in approximately
equal proportions as Phanerozoic sedimentary covers.

The exposed basement rocks of the South American Platform are in the

Chapter 3 Page 57
 T«tonic Evclution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

1oookm

Figure 3.1 • The major geotectonic units of South America and structural provinces of Brazil.
=
Geotectonic units: grid= Andean Cordilhera; bachures Patagooian Platform; dots= Phanero%oic
cover; the South American Platform is composed of Archean and Early Proterozoic shields
(crosses) and Late Proterozoic fold belts (black). Structural provinces: (1) Rio Branco; (2)
Tapajos; (3) Sa9 Francisco; (4) Sao Lufs; (5) Gurupi; (6) Borborema; (7) Amazonas and (8)
Parnalba (modified from Almeida et al., 1981).

Guyana, Central Brazilian and Atlantic shields. The sedimentary cover in Brazil
accumulated in three major Palaeozoic interior basins and, following the
Gondwana fragmentation, along the continental. ma~gin. In this later sedimentary
province, the sedimentary pile varies in age from Jurassic to Quaternary. The
Palaeozoic succession is mostly preserved in the Amazonas, Pamatba (also called
Maranhao) and Parana intracratonic basins. Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits

Chapter 3 !'age 58
-
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian EquatorUil Continental Margin Basins

were developed chiefly along the continental shelf and in small grabens onshore.
The crystalline basement core ranges in age between 0.5 and 1.7 Ga for the fold
- belts whereas the cratonic areas were consolidated more than 1.7 Ga ago 1.
Thus, the Brazilian basement has not been subjected to any active mountain
building process since the Early Cambrian. This supports the assumptio~ ·
discussed in later sections, that the development of the post-Palaeozoic basins
took place in a lithosphere of average continental thickness.

3.2.1 Precambrian Geology of the Northern Brazilian Margin

The following account reviews the Precambrian geology of the region

c')ntiguous to the Northern Brazilian Continental Margin. Based on
geochronological data and the nature of the crystalline basement rocks, Almeida
et al. (1981) have divided this broad region into five major structural provinces,
namely Rio Branco, Amazonas, Tapaj6s, Parnaiba and Borborema p,rovinces
(Fig. 3.1). This account however, starts from the Late Proterozoic setting in
which four major geotectonic units can be outlined (Fig. 3.2): (1) the Amazonian
Craton, comprising the Rio Branco, Amazonas and Tapaj6s provinces; (2) the
Sao Luis Craton, characterized in small basement inliers outcropping at the
northern part of the Parnaiba province; (3) the Sao Francisco Craton, defined
along the eastern coast and (4) the Brasiliano Orogenic Belt, embracing the entire
Borborema province and the Gurupi fold belt in the northwestern part of the
Parnafba province. Due to the large area occupied by these tectonic units and ·
provinces, the review will focus only on the regions closer to the present day
continental margin. The Sao Francisco Craton is a tectonic unit of mainly
Archean age located far southeast of the studied area and, therefore, will not be
discussed here.

1
Many radiometric age determinations are known for the Precambrian of Brazil. These were
acquired mainly during regional surveys utilizing mostly K/AI and Rb/Sr methods. These
results, in ge neral, cluster in the ranges: 2.6-2.9, 1.8-2.1, L0-1.3 and 0.45-0.7 Ga. A summary of
published results is given in Almeida & Hasui(1984).

Chapter 3 Page 59
 Tectonic Evolu1io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Conti11emal Margin Basins

+ lTLAITIC 0 CUI
+
+ \.......----~
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+++++++
+++++++
+ +
+ + + + + ~
+++++++,
+ + + + + + + •
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + \
+ + + ++++
+++
+ + +
+++
+ + + +
<D
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + '.:-.
+ + + + + + + +
+ .... + + + + + .j , • •; );..;:· ., • • •'!-,
+ + + + + + + + " -"t·".7' ·:
+ + + + + + + .·,,: .. .
..f· + + + + + + + ......: :..·~~t. ;
+ + + + + + + .. , .::-... . . ..
+ + + + + + + + .· . ;'' .-.
+ + + + + + + · ..;...,
+ + + + + + + .· ~, -., ~· '* • I

+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + +.....---....-
+ +
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
+ + + 400
+ + +
+ + + fr•

Figure 3.2 - Late Proterozoic tectonic units of Northern Brazil. (1) Amazonian Craton; (2) Sao
Luis Craton; (3) Sao Francisco Craton; (4) Brasiliaoo Orogeoic Belt.

The Amazonian Craton

The Amazonian Craton (Fig. 3.2) encompasses the Precambrian rocks of the
Rio Branco and Tapaj6s Provinces of Almeida et al.(1981). It includes the
Guyana and Central Brazilian shields. The craton is composed mainly of
metamorphic and igneous complexes of Archean and Early Proterozoic age. It
has been shown that the oldest cratonic rocks of the northerly located Guyana
Complex and the southern Xingu Complex are older than 2.5 Ga and .were
remobilized and isotopically rejuvenated during the so-called Transamazonian
Thenno-Tectonic Event (2000 ± 200 Ma). The structures are chiefly oriented
NW-SE and secondarily E-W. It seems that, by the end of the Proterowic the
entire area was relatively stable.

Chapter 3 Page 6()

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian £qui:11orial Continental Margin Basins
....
In the Phanerozoic, the central region of the craton saw the development of
the Amazonas intracratonic basin. During this period, the northern and southern
regions of the ciaton: underwent gentle uplift which resulted in erosion of Upper
Proterozoic rocks and provided material for the filling of the sedimentary basin.
.•.
In the Early Mesozoic, southward propagation of .t he Central Atlantic rifting
"
resulted in a tectono·magmatic episode affecting the northeastem area of the
craton. This in turn led to the reactivation of the NW·SE set of older faults; An
important group of NW·SE oriented dykes of dolerite is located near the coast
(Cassipore dyke swarm). This suggests an Early Mesozoic extensional event in
the northernmost sector of the Brazilian continental margin. Similar occurrences
of basic dyke swarms are reported along the coastal province of Liberia and
Sierra Leone in West Africa (Gibbs, 1986).

The Sao Luis Craton

The Sao Luis Craton (Fig. 3.2) is located in the northern region of the
Parnafba Province (Almeida et al., 1981). The craton was defined based on
geochronological correlations (Hurley et al., 1967; Cordani et al., 1968). The
craton comprises a metamorphic basement core of Archean age and supracrustal
rocks which ranges in age from Early to Late Proterozoic (Hasui et al., 1984). or
possibly Silurian (Igreja, 1985). The craton and the adjoining Gurupi fold belt
are exposed in small inliers along the northern coast of Brazil. Santos et
al.(1984) have included the northern inlier of the Gurupi River Region, the
Rosario High and the Granja Massi.f in this cratonic area (Fig. 3.3). Other
authors however (e.g. Cordani et al., 1984; Hasui et al., 1984), exclude the latter
massif from the cratonic domain because it consists mainly of syn·kinematic
granites of younger age. The eratonic area is bounded: ( 1) to the southwest by
the Tentugal Shear Zone (Hasui et al., 1984) which separates it from the Gurupi
fold belt; (2) to the east by an inferred contact at the eastern border of the
Rosario high (see section 7.2.2) and (3) to the south by the Ferrer-Urbano
Santos Arch (see section 6.5) whi~h is defined by seismic, gravity and well data.
The structural fabric of the basement is oriented NNW-SSE in the western

Chapter 3 Page 61
 •:

Ttctonic Evolwion of Brazilian £quaroriaf Continental Margi11 Basins

region close to the Tentugal shear zone and assumes a strong NE-SW direction
eastWard. Results of field work undertaken in areas bordering this cratonic
province will be presented in Chapter 7. It will be argued in chapters 6 and 7
that the geotectonic unit known a.S the "Sao Lufs Craton" was also involved in
the Late Proterozoic compressional episode (Br~siliano-Panafrican) and,
..
therefore, no longer can be considered to be related to the West African Craton.

.!.:················...\
o·

....·,,

• ,,

.· •· >oo_

100 ·-

Figure 3.3 - Geological sketch map of the northern region of the Parnafba Province with
alternative interpretations for the location of the craton-fold belt boundary (modified from
Santos et al., 1984). (1) Gurupi River Region; (2) Rosario High; (3) Granja Massif. Bold lines
mark the southern limit of the Sao Luis Craton (after Santos et al., 1984). Dashed line after
Cordani et al., 1984 and Hasui et al., 1984.

The Brasiliano Orogenlc Belt

The area occupied by the Brasiliano Orogenic Belt includes the entire
Borborerna Province of Almeida et al. (1981) (Figs. 3.1 and 3.2), the Gurupi
Fold Belt and the basement of the Parnaiba Palaeozoic Basin. The rocks of the
belt exposed at the Borborema province have a metamorphic signature
compatible with a strong thermal and tectonic activity during the Brasiliano
Thenno-Tectonic Event (700-450 Ma) (Neves et al., 1982). The belt lies between

01apter 3 Page 62
 ..

Tectonic £1•0/ution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin .Basin.r

the Sao Francisco Craton to the southeast, Sao Luis Craton to the north and
Amazonian Craton to the east. It can be seen as part of a much larger unit,
which includes the Pan-African fold-thrust belts of West Africa (Cordani &
. ... Neves, 1982) .

The rocks of the Borborema Province (Fig. 3.4) comprise three fundamental
types of terrains: (1) gneissic-migmatitic complexes; (2) granitic massifs and (3)
metasedimentary folded belts. These components display a complex arrangement
of linear or semi-linear fold belts and granitic massifs of Late Proterozoic age
interfingering with blocks of reworked Archean basement. The contacts between
these three lithotectonic units are made up of a mosaic of shear zones. These
zones are frequently considered to have been reworked by several discrete
phases of reactivation (Almeida et al., 1981; Neves et al., 1982; Santos & Neves,
1984; Sa, 1984).

The gneisses and migmatites have consistent Archean and Early Proterozoic
geochronologicaJ ages whereas the granitoids exhibit ages in the range. of the
I .:
Brasiliano event (Late Proterozoic). Caby & Arthaud (1986) show that in a large
scale, Late Proterozoic horizontal tectonics affect both the reworked Archean
basement and Proterozoic supracrustal rocks. This event would be responsible
for the emplacement and later deformation of the granitic bodies as suggested by
Hackspacher & Legrand (1989). Crustal shortening leading to thickening of the
crust may have produced the fabrics and the large amount of granites and
granodiorites found scattered within the Borborema province. Their partial
melting occurring at the base of a 60 km thick crust under normal thermal
gradients could account for this extensive magmatic event (Burke & Dewey,
1970). The syntectonic granites range in age from 650 to 540 Ma ago.

There are several discrete fold belts in the Brasiliano Orogen. They comprise
metasedimentary and volcanic-sedimentary terrains. These belts are in general
elongated and, in plan view, they show a fan-like arrangement with orientations
varying in the range N0°-I00°E. The Medio-Coreau is one of the fold belts

Chapter 3 Page 63
 Tectonic Evolwion of Brazilian EquauJrial Continental Margin Basin~

situated in the northwest of the Borborema province (Figs. 3.4 and 3.5), near to
the southeast border of the Sao Luis Craton. The Medio-Coreau Belt comprises
a thick metasedimentary sequence including a massive unit of carbonate rocks
and its structures verge northwest. This fold belt is located in the southeastern
::.-. corner of the area under detailed investigation in this thesis and due its strategic
location is presented in more detail in Appendix B. The Sergipe belt (see Fig.
3.4) is another fold belt of the Borborema province. located in the southeast. It
has a geometry very similar to that of the Medio-Coreau Belt The main
difference is that it verges southeast towards the Sao Francisco Craton. These
belts characterize a double vergence pattern for the Brasiliano orogen in this
region. A number of other fold belts are known in the province. The
metasedimentary content of these intermediary fold belts are more terrigenous
and volcano-elastic than those located more externally, which suggests that
continental margin sediments were present only along the external belts.

The complex structural pattern of the Brasiliano Belt in the Borborema

Province is seen in Figure 3.4. Steep shear zones are among its most conspicuous
tectonic features. They show a sinuous and branched pattern and are nearly. all
composed of mylonites with horizontal lineations. Based on these observations,
Caby & Arthaud (1986) suggested the shear zones may represent lateral ramps
to nappes. The major shear zones, faults and lineaments have a dominant dextral
strike·slip character. The structures trend chiefly NNE-SSW in the northern
region whereas tend to assume an E-W orientation in the eastern domain. The
faults limit and· are parallel to the fold belts in the northwest region and clearly
crosscut and d.isplace them in the central area. In this latter region, the Patos
and Pernambuco lineaments form a large double dextr~~ strike-slip system which
delimits basement, fold belts and Phanerozoic fractured basins (Fig. 3.4 ). The
western continuation of these fundamental discontinuities is overlain by the
eastern erosional limit of the Palaeozoic Parnafba Basin. The Upper Jurassic and
Lower Cretaceous magmatism that took place within this basin was controlled by
¥
the subsurface westward extension of these mega-discontinuities. This
relationship clearly indicates post-Palaeozoic activity of these shear zones.

Chapter 3 Page 64
 Tec10nic Evolution of Brazilian Equaiorial Continental Margin Basins

100 Km

- Brasiliano granitoids

~ Proterotoic

D Reworked Archean

0 Major shear • zone

h2:'.J Major thrust

Figure 3.4 - Sketch map of the Borborema Province (from Caby, 1989). (1} Parnafba (2) Potiguar
(3) Ceara Basins

Other important shear zones are the Sobral-Pedro II Fault and the
Transbrasiliano Lineament (Fig. 3.4). The former bounds the Medio-Coreau fold
belt to the southeast. These megascopic fractures had also a multiple
reactivation history and can be traced into the Parnaiba province, where Late
Cretaceous strike-slip motion has been recorded (Northfleet & Neves, 1966,
referred by Miranda et al., 1986). Hackspacher & Legrand (1989) suggested
40 km as the minimal value for the finite Precambrian dextral displacement of
,.,
one NE-SW oriented shear zone.

Chapter 3 Page 65
 ··~
\ } ·' 'J {

~ flypovoltanit , guniu
41"W
C:J htt 81ui1iano I molauic units
0 CE.UI
AT LA MT IC
~ •r• 10 l•tt - kintmatit g1ani1e

[V!{tf>:) Mittinopolt phylliHs

PEORAOOSH
1.:>·:·.'· :·'..'J Sio Joa~uin> qurnzitu
r ~ -d Undilltrtntiued gneisses ,,....,,,..
...........
~ Gunulitu ind charnockitu
3'S
F"' """' Prt -81a.iliano gntinei (Arthun? l
- - M•jo1 sheu - tone ~ fault

41'

,
.. .
~

.-1
_ ~··'
1/I'

.....
I .•J, -
,\....,_ ',
,......-,, ;,-
8 ,"-)/..... ..t,·
- . .,=,-
'/\ ~'~-
,_ / \
30~m
a ,.:i('~15~1~{~
.§
&
4•

6
/ 1-/~-''-
..... ,",
-f ,,,,....,, ",
_,_ _,_""'~'-'
I'

''/'- /
r , 1_-,~ !. ......, ,..,..,./,'
' ' ,- - ,.
w
/' / I :·~~'",/_ :~'(--.'
,,,,~1-_1,,,~-
~ ..... 1 ... ,.,~ ... _....

~
Figure 3.5 • Geological map of the MMlo-Coreau Fold Bell. Lower inset legend: (l) Granja Massif; (2) Martln6pole Graben; (3)
& Tucunduba Horst; (4) Ubajnra-Jaibaras Graben; (5) Santa Quiteria Massif; (6) Trans braslliano Lineament; (7) Sobral-Pedro II
Fault; (8) Phanerozoic cover (compiled from Caby, 1989 and Costa et al., 1979).
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equa1orial Cominencal Margin Basins

Seismological studies have helped to investigate present day fault activity in

the northern part of the Brasiliano Belt (Takeya et al., 1989). In their paper,
Takeya and colleagues studying the 1986-1988 intraplate earthquake sequence
which occurred in the.northeastern Borborema province found that the activity
..
... .....
was closely confined to a 28 km linear zone with seismic activity in the range of
1-8 km depth. Activity on a planar fault was oriented N40°E with a suggested
steep northwesterly dip of 70°. A ·dextral displacement was inferred for the fault
plane solution which included only a minor component of normal slip. They
concluded that the seismogenic activity was caused by E-W compression, .
apparently in agreement with the regional stress field. As a whole, the major
shear zones present in this province seem to be very old, deep and reactivated
on different occasions with variable structural styles and displacement
magnitudes.

The post-Palaeozoic magmatism of the eastern part of the Brasil~ano Belt

was comprehensively reviewed by Almeida et al.(1988). Three main magmatic
episodes were recognized: (1) a Jurassic-Early Cretaceous event composed of
tholeiitic basalts; (2) an Aptian-Albian phase of olivine-tholeiitic basaltic
magmatism and (3) an Eocene-Miocene series of volcano-sedimentary rocks of
alkaline composition. It is apparent that the Late Cretaceo.us and the Palaeocene
was magmaticaly quiet. In the. northeastern part of the belt, the first two groups
of magmatic centres seem to follow well defined trends oriented roughly E-W
and related to the fracture zones present in the adjoining ocean basin. The third
group was suggested to fall in a rather wide belt striking NNW-SSE sub-parallel
to the eastern border of the province.

The Gurupi Fold Belt

The region of the Gurupi River, in the northwestern pan of the Parnafba
Province (Fig. 3.1), exposes a 's uit of highly deformed rocks overlain by slightly
metamorphosed sediments (see section 7.2.1). These exposures form two parallel
and elongated inliers trending NW-SE (Fig. 3.3). Based on geochronological data

Chapter 3 Page 67
 ' ··'

Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Ujuatorial Continental Margin Basins

(Almeida, 1967) and structural aspects (Abreu et al., 1980; Abreu, 1989), these
rocks have been included in two tectonic domains: ( 1) the Sao Luis Craton, and
(2) the· Guru pi Fold Belt. The two areas are separated by the Tentugal Shear
Zone (Hasui et al., 1984). The belt has been referred to lately as "Tentugal Shear
...
Belt" (Abreu, 1989), meaning that the entire area southwest of the major shear
zone has been also subjected to shear strain during the Brasiliano tectonic event
(Late Proterozoic). The Tentugal Shear Zone itself would be a zone of
Brasiliano and older therrno-tectonic activation. Hence, it would represent a
fundamental lithospheric discontinuity representing multiple phases of
reactivation. Field work was carried out in this region and the data collection,
interpretation and results will be presented in Chapter 7.

3.2.2 Palaeozoic Basins of North Brazil

Two broad intracratonic sedimentary basins are located in northern Brazil,

the Amazonas and Pamafha Basins. They have similar Palaeozoic fills but differ
greatly in shape. tectonic setting and structural style. The Amazonas is an
-.
elongated trough crosscutting the Amazonian craton and extending for some
2000 km in. an approximately ENE-WSW direction. The Parnafba Basin however,
has a more rounded external geometry and is underlain by basement rocks
belonging to the Brasiliano orogenic belt. Mesner & Wooldridge "(1964),
Bigarella (1973) and Caputo et al. (1983) give regional reviews of the geology of
these basins.

The Amazonas Basin

The Amazonas Basin corresponds to the Amazonas Province (Fig. 3.1) of

Almeida et al.(1981), which developed on the South American Platform during
the Palaeozoic. The elongated trough is drained by the Amazonas River and
covered by Cenozoic continental sediments overlying the Palaeozoic structures.
The Palaeozoic units crop out in relatively narrow strips along the basin borders.
The internal architecture of the basin is controlled by the presence of~ main
~O V '1

Chapter 3 Page 68
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

NNW-SSE oriented transverse highs: Iquitos, Purus, Monte Alegre and Gurupa
arches. The influence of these uplifted areas during the development of the
basin was so strong that it i~ possible to divide it into four sub-basins: from west
to east these are Acre, Solimoes, Middle and Lower Amazonas Basins. The
Gurupa Arch failed during the ..:Early Mesozoic to form the Maraj6
intracontinental rift system.

A B
0 0 0 0 0

km

Figure 3.6 - Geological profile across the Amazonas and Parnafba Basins (redrawn from Caputo et
aL, 1983). Legend as in Fig. 3.8.

The stratigraphy of the Amazonas Basin can be summarized in four major

sedimentary sequences separated by regional unconformities. These
unconformities are related to periods of vertical motion on the bordering arches.
The Ordovician-Silurian and Devonian-Early Carboniferous sequences represent
two complete cycles of marine transgression. Their deposits result from detrital
sedimentation ofmarine and glacial origin (Caputo & Crowell, 1985). These
sequences are followed by a Late Carboniferous-Permian sequence during which
the sea once again returned over a basal continental unit, depositing a large
thickness of limestones and evaporates, later replaced by renewed continental
deposition during the Permian. The continental deposits of the Cretaceous-

Chapter 3 Page 69
 ·.
TeClonic Evolwion of Bra.r.ilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Tertiary sequence unconformably overlie the Palaeozoic units. In addition to

these sedimentary packages, there is evidence of Triassic-Jurassic basic
magmatism within the basin in the form of dolerite dykes and sills intercalated
with the Palaeozoic beds. As a whole, the basin comprises a sedimentary
sequence very similar to that of the Parnafba Basin, With which it was linked
throughout the Palaeozoic (Caputo et al., 1983; Fig. 3.6).

• • • • + • + • • • + + • + • + + + + + • + + + .. + • •
+ • • • • + + • + + + • + • + • • + • + + + + + + + •
• • + • • • • • • • • + • • • • + + + + + + + + + +
• + + • • + • + • + .... • • • + • + • + + + + • +
• + • • • • • • + + • + • + + + • • .... + + + + •

...
•
. .........
•
•

.........
• •
+
•

+
+
+

•
•
•

•
•
+

....
•
+
+
....
•
•
+
•
•
•
•
+
....
•
....
•
•
+
.... + + •

+ +
. ~

--·-"=./· .
• • • • + ............ +. +
T + + + + ~ + + + • + ... + + + + +
•
+
+
•
+

+
__..................
..
+
+
.
+
+
+
.
...
•
•
•
•
•
•
+
+-
.
•
+
+
+ ..
•
+
•
+
+
•
~
•
•
•
+
•
+
+
•
•
..
•
+
+
•
•
•
•
+
+
•

+ + • + + + ~ + • + ... • + • • ~ • • • •
+ + • + + + + + • + • • + + • • • ~ • • +
• • + • + + + + + + • + + + • • + + • • + + • • +
• + • • + + • + • + + + + • • • • • ... + • + • • • •
+ • + • • + • + • + + • + + + + + • + • + • + + • +
• + + + + + + • • + +- • + • + • • + ~ • ~ • + + • +
60' • + + • 5 g· • • + + + • .... .... • • + 5 2 .... + + + +-

.I

Figure 3.7 - Structural framework map of the Amazonas Basin (redrawn from Campos & Teixeira,
1988andNeves,1989). ::V''""-'·":; ::...~. .:. -, ;(I) f } o,/:", ~:.:= y 1 ,.. ~ r.::. .. ; (j) '..· jh_,.f .: ': Ac~
] ,,~.~,.. ,~~··)· c;.r -' ~ '/~:.,..,.,...

The structural framework of the Amazonas Basin (Fig. 3. 7) is complex and

still largely undefined since detailed subsurface structural maps remain
unpublished. Two periods of basin deformation have been interpreted (Campos
& Teixeira, 1~88; Neves, 1989): (1) asymmetrical folding and reverse faulting of
Palaeozoic strata and Early Mesozoic dolerite sills are ·;;-eported to have formed
during the Early Cretaceous, while (2) dextral and sinistral strike-slip
reactivations of older structures are attributed to the Tertiary. Observations
made by the author on proprietary reflection seismic data confirm Tertiary
reactivation of Cretaceous and Palaeozoic faults affecting large areas of the
Lower Amazonas basin. The evidence are fault planes propagating from
basement up to the near-surface interpreted on the basis of crosscorrelation of

Chapter 3 Page 70
 .·!
>
Tectonic Evalulion of Brazilian Equatorial Continencal Margin Basins

high amplitude seismic events.

The Parnaiba Basin

The Pamatba (or Maranhao) sedimentary basin (Fig. 3.1) is an important.'

interior sag of the South American Platform in which sediments and igneous ·
rocks dating from Ordovician to Tertiary accumulated. The basin was developed
after the collapse of the Brasiliano orogenic belt. It occupies an area of
0.6x 106km2 along the Brazilian states of Maranhao and Piauf. Four major
dominantly terrigenous sedimentary sequences are present in the basin (Mesner
& Wooldridge, 1964; Caputo et al., 1983; Appi et aL, 1988). The maximum total
thickness of these units do not exceed 3 400 metres (Goes et al., 1989). The Late
Ordovician-Silurian cycle comprises coarse-grained continental and marine
deposits (Serra Grande Group). The next sequence is Early Devonian-Early
Carboniferous in age and represents an important marine transgression and
extensive glaciation (Caputo & Crowell, 1985). Black shales were deposited
during a Late Devonian marine transgression and form a potential source rock
for hydrocarbons (Pimenteiras Formation). From the Late Carboniferous until
the Early Triassic, desert conditions were responsible for an initial deposition of
red beds later succeeded by shallow marine deposits. Jurassic and Early
Cretaceous basic igneous activity is represented in the form of dolerite dykes and '

sills and basaltic flows. The last marine invasion in the basin was restricted to ~
the northern part and took place during the Albo-Cenomanian. Since the Early
Cenozoic the sediments of Parnaiba Basin have been subjected to erosion.

Basic tholeiitic magmatism is an important element in the internal

architecture of the Parnaiba Basin. Two main occurrences are known: (1)
basaltic flows in the central-western region and (2) dolerite dyke swarms and
sills in the central-eastern part of the basin. The basaltic rocks are believed to
belong to two different magmatic episodes: (1) Late Triassic-Jurassic (Mosquito
Formation) and (2) Jurassic-Early Cretaceous (Sardinha Formation). The
dolerite dykes and sills have ages between 0.11 and 0.13 Ga (Sial et al., 1986)

Chapter 3 Page 71
 ·.

Tectonic Evolulion of Brazilian Equatorial Continenral Margin Basins

PARfWBA 8ASIH

D CAMllAIAN
~
Ld
OAOOVICIAN ·
SILURIAN
D CA(TACEOlJS - TEATIAR Y

~::: ~ P R E C A M B A I AM
~
~
Ot:VONIAN·
CUl80NIFEAOUS
r::::q l'fAMIAN•TRIA$$1C

Figure 3.8 - Schematic cross-sections across the Parnaiba Basin (redrawn from Mesner &
Wooldridge, 1964 and Appi et al., 1988).

and also 0.17 Ga (Almeida et al., 1988). The dykes strike in two dominant
orientations N20°-40°W and N50°-70°E. ?Jley are thought to have feed the sills
(maximum total thickness of 500 m) and to be responsible for a massive heat
input into a shallow intracratonic basin.

The basin has a present day spoon-shape configuration tilted towards the
northwest (Fig. 3.8). The tilting occurred during the Cretaceous and promoted
uplift of the eastern and southeastern margins of the basin where the earliest
sediments are exposed (Serra Grande Group). The internal architecture of the
basin is largely unknown. However, localized seismic surveys, inferences from
gravity data and a few boreholes revealed the following features: (1) deeply
buried graben-like structures oriented N-S and NE-SW filled with pre-Silurian
sediments; (2) normal and reverse faulting of limited displacement associated
with Carboniferous tectonism and, (3) reverse faulting and gentle folding of
Neocomian age (G6es et al., 1989). The tilting that occurred in the northern
border of the province during the Cretaceous was followed by a localized linear
uplift forming what is known as Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch (section 6.5). This
elongated tectonic feature separates the interior depression to the south from

Chapter 3 Page 72
...
Teetonic Evolution of Brazilian £quat0riaJ Comintntal Margin Basins

the marginal basins and encompasses the basement exposures of Gurupi River
Region and Rosario High (Fig. 3.3 and Chapter 7).

3.2.3 Geology of the Equatorial Atlantic Marginal Basins

The Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin extends more.than

2200 km from the boundary with French Guyana (latitude 4°N) to the
northeastern corner of the Brazilian territory (latitude 6°S). It is marked by a
chain of Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary basins (Fig. 3.9) underlain by basement
rocks varying from Archean to Palaeozoic in age. A series of eight major
sedimentary ce11tres can be readily ide~tified. Three of these sedimentary
provinces, Foz do Amazonas, Para-Maranhao and Ceara lie entirely offshore.
Two of them, Barreirinhas and Potiguar, rest partially onshore. The remaining
three; Maraj6 rift system, Sao Luis and Bragan~a-Vi seu Basins (Gurupi Graben
System) lie almost completely onshore. This research has concentrated most of
the detailed work on the Barreirinhas and Para-Maranhao Basins as well as on
the Gurupi Graben System. These areas will be presented later in dedicated
chapters (Chapters 4, 5 and 6) and are only briefly described below. The
remaining basins described here, fall outside the area under detailed
investigation. The account that follows is based mostly on previous work by the
author, who has analysed a la~ge amount of exploratory data whilst working in
these areas. Alternative published regional descriptions of these basins are found
in Asmus & Ponte (1973), Ponte & Asmus (1978) and Ojeda (1982b). The
information provided in these descriptions will be integrated later in the
development of the regional tectonic model for the entire margin (Chapter 9).

The Foz do Amazonas Basin

The Foz do Amazonas (Fig. 3.9) is the largest and northwestern-most basin
of the Brazilian equatorial margin. It can be divided into a series of structural
domains which are shown in the tectonic sketch map of Figure 3.10. These
domains are: (1) the Cassipore Sub-basin, (2) the Amazonas Cone area, (3) a

Chapter 3 Page 73
 Tec1onic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

BRAZ I L

5 00 ~- GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM

Figure 3.9 - Sedimentary basins of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin.

wide carbonate shelf, (4) the Amapa and (5) Para shallow basement platforms.
The Mexiana Graben links the Foz do Amawnas Basin with the onshore Maraj6
Rift System. The basin fill rests unconformably on either Precambrian basement
or Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks of the Amazonas intracratonic basin. The syn-
tectonic sedimentary sequences are buried to considerable depths throughout the
entire basin, with the exception of the Cassipore area, beneath a thick series of
Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks.· The oldest sediments reached by
boreholes in the Cassipore Sub-basin are transitional-marine shales of Late
Aptian-Albian age (Dino, 1986, pers. comm.). This unit was followed by an
Upper Cretaceous transgressive sequence (Limoeiro Formation) overlain by a
thick Lower Tertiary unit, dominated by limestones and coeval coastal fan-deltas
(Amapa and Maraj6 Formations). Since the Miocene, the Amazonas River has
deposited a very thick wedge of fluvial, deltaic and deep-sea fan deposits
(Rezende & Ferradaes, 1971; Schaller et al., 1971; Miura et al., 1976).

In the Amawnas Cone area, the mesozoic rocks are overlain by a very thick
deltaic sequence of Post-Oligocene age. These sediments form a huge wedge of
deltaic, slope and deep fan deposits carried and accumulated .by the Amazonas
River. The fluvial system commenced in the Miocene as a result of the uplift of

Chapter 3 Page /~
,. Tecionic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Ccnrinenta/ Margin Ba.sins
.,. .
sa
···... ·· .......... ..
. --
....._
...........
·.
·~

~
'····~~·-.··@·
~-· ..
8 ~.
•' . ..
- · ···- ..

~. ·,_-.:···~ ••
~- · ·· ·
.,__

. ... ~-.
® \_~""::
~-.._:
·· ·. •
·. .... · .,
''--- ·.
@~ ··.:.

·.
·. ·..
·~ 2·,
Oo..
~ ...

@ o·

... x
·.· ... ·.·.·.-...
s ·. ·.·.-. ·. ·. ·.·. +
..... - -. -............
. . . . . . . . . . .. ....
. . . . ..
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
. . .. . . . . . . ... "' ...... .

Figure 3.10 - Tectonic sketch map of the Foz do Amazonas Basin. (1) Cassipore Sub-basin; (2)
Amazon Cone ~rea; (3) carbonate rich platform; (4) Ama~ and Para shallow basement
platforms; (6) Mexiana Graben; (7) Maraj6 Basin; (8) Cassipore dyke swarm in the Guyana
Shield; (9) Gurupa Arch; (10) Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch; (11) area affected by acid volcanism
(based on Miura et al., 1976).

the Andean Cordillera . Within the cone area, spectacular growth faults and
rollover structures supply very large targets for petroleum exploration. These
normal faults seem to be detached from basement structures and display a
characteristic listric profile. They are mapped along a relatively narrow belt at
the present day shelf edge. The deep-sea fan of the Amazonas River lies in a

Chapter 3 Page ;:5

•

Tectonic E1•olutiorr of Brazilian Equaiorial Con1i11ental Margin Basins

broad area about 400 km to the no~th of its actual mouth. Shale (salt?) domes
and ridges in this area are another source of potential targets for petroleum
exploratfon. The maximum sediment thickness under the Amazonas Cone is
unkno~n. but very conservative estimates places the thickness in excess of 12km.

The Para and Amapa platforms are areas of shallow basement limited to the·
north and northeast by major basin boundary faults. A carbonate rich platform
occupies most of the broad continental shelf observed in this segment of the
margin. The limestone sequence is eventually crosscut by Tertiary canyons
produced by relative sea-level changes. Dolerite intrusions aged around 206 Ma
(Asmus & .Guazelli, 1981) are known to occur along the Amapa platform and in
the exposed basement onshore, this later forming the Cassipore dyke swarm of
the Rio Branco province. Basaltic rocks were also recently drilled and yield
whole-rock K/ Ar ages around 185 Ma (Fodor & McKee 1986). In ~.ddition to
the Jurassic intrusives, another magmatic event was recorded in the basin. A
thick unit of volcano-sedimentary rocks, rhyolites, andesites and acid tufts was
also reported (Jourdan, 1987). These rocks yield K/Ar ages of 56-86 Ma which
indicates Late Cretaceous tectonism affecting the area. The dolerite dyke swarm
suggests an earlier extensional episode associated with the fragmentation of the
Central Atlantic.

The Cassipore Sub-basin is the only place in the region where the syn-
tectonic sequence is imaged clearly on seismic profiles and reached by boreholes
(Fig. 3.11). NW-SE trending major bound faults separate two half grabens. They
are sub-para~lel to the border of the Amapa platform and dip northeast.
Although only the shallow structure of these grabens oas been studied using
seismic profiles, their internal architecture has been inferred to be in the form of
tilted fault blocks dipping towards the northeast. Figueiredo (1985) reported
folded rift sediments and suggested transpressional stresses acting during
continental breakup as explanation for such structures. Similarly, Aguiar et al.
(1986) describe transpressional structures. These would affect also Lower
Tertiary strata in the southeastern region close to the Para platform. The main

Chapter 3 Page 76
·- ·.
,,
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian EquaJoriat Concinemal Margin Basins

features gathered to support their interpretation were major strike-slip faults

trending NE-SW, and the en echelon pattern of anticlines and positive flower
structures. Apparently~ the acid volcanism outlined in Figure 3.10 and the Early
Tertiary shear deformation observed in .the basin are associated with some sort
of ENE-WSW reactivation of basin and basement structures. This evidence
seems to support the suggestion that earlier structures of the continental
lithosphe·r e have undergone multiple episodes of reactivation. In the Cretaceous
and Lower Tertiary episodes, the reworking seems to have occurred. in a strike-.
slip mode similar to that reported for neotectonic movements associated with
shear zones in the Borborerna Province (section 3.2.1).

..... • .. +

+ • .. 3~ 10

Figure 3.11 · Structural profile across rhe Cassipore Sub-basin. Location jn Fig. 3.10. Based on
seismic and well data. Crosses= Precambrian basement; shade= Lower Cretaceous; dots =Upper
Cretaceous; blank= Tertiary+ Quaternary. ·

The Maraj6 Basin

The Maraj6 Basin (Fig. 3.9) is a system of three interconnected grabens that
extend onshore from the Foz do Amazonas Basin into the Palaeozoic-
Proterozoic basement (Ribeiro et al., 1987). The northern Mexiana Graben is
oriented NNE-SSW. The Limoeiro Graben strikes NW-SE sub-parallel to the
Cassipore dyke swarm. The southerly located Guru.pa Graben is oriented WNW-
ESE and is apparently bounded to the southeast by a basement uplift known as
the Tapaj6s Arch. The system contains a thick sedimentary column and has an
area of approximately l.Sx106 km 2. The overall geometry of the basin (Fig. 3.12)
is an array of asymmetric grabens which are bounded by major planar normal
faults. These faults show vertical throw reaching more than 4 OOO m. The fault

·chapter 3 Page 77
 Teciomc Evolwio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Contine11tal Margin Ba.sins

orientation reflects the general NW-SE and NE-SW patterns of the precambrian
basement fabric. Strike-slip movements are interpreted to have occurred along
the NE-SW oriented faults in the Mexiana Graben.

l HU!AllA i
or-~~~~~~~~

20km

I Ll110£lll0 •
1

o~~~~~

Figure 3.12 ·The Marajo Rift System. Structural framework map and regional cross·sections (arter
Ribeiro et al., 1986, unpublished).

The grabens contain typical syn-rift features like tilted· fault blocks, hanging-
wall rollover anticlines, footwall rollover synforms and internal basement highs.
The syn-tectonic sediments are very deeply buried and is believed that the basin
has undergone at least two extensional phases. The first phase is thought to be
related to the Central Atlantic rifting (Triassic-Jurassic in age). The second is
more important and is dated as the Aptian-Albian transition. Most of the
sediments filling the graben were deposited during the last episode. This
indicates that most of the crustal thinning took place during this later event.

The thickness o f the first post-rift sequence is unknown. The sequence

deposited during the second post-rift phase is thick and denotes a substantial
thermal subsidence, implying a high degree of lithospheric stretching. Positive
Bouguer gravity anomalies coincide nt with the rift axis also suggest that the
stretchi ng has reached high values and basic material penetrated the extended

Chapter 3 Page 78
 Tectonic £volwion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

continental crust. Therefore, the development of most of the Maraj6 continental

rifting was coincident with the marginal breakup. It then ceased and the
extension was -transferred to the present day continental margin of North B~azil. · ·

The Para·Maranhao Basin

The Para-Maranlziio Basin (Fig. 3.9) is located offshore and occupies an

elongated southeast-northwest belt connecting the Barreirinhas and Foz do
Amazonas Basins. Its main depositional area lies to the north of the llha de
Santana Platform. Cainelli et al. (1986) produced a comprehensive study of this
basin. The stratigraphic succession of the Para-Maranhao Basin, ~s shown by
those authors, can be visualized by considering two main sequences: (1) Aptian
continental to transitional deposits; (2) Albian-Cenornanian marine shales and
limestones and (3) Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic transgressive-regressive
cycles of mainly shales and carbonate rocks. The basin geometry can qe outlined
by considering two sub-basins: (1) the western area where E-W structures are
prominent (Tromaf Sub-basin) and (2) the eastern region with predominant NW-
SE trending structures (Caete Sub-basin).. The inflexion point of both sets of
structures is related to the intersection of three main features: (1) the northern
end of the NW-SE trending sub-basin; (2) the continental extension of the Saint
Paul oceanic fracture zone and.(3) the northeastern extension of the Gurupi
lineament (transfer zone). This basin lies in the western part of the area selected
for detailed study and will be presented in Chapter 5.

The Gurupi Graben System

The Sao Luis and Bragan~a-Viseu Grabens (Fig. 3.9) are two small onshore
basins (20 OOO krn2) linked with the Barreirinhas Basin through the llha Nova
Graben. These three grabens form the Gurupi Graben System. The stratigraphic
record of the grabens is almost exclusively elastic and shorter in duration than
the offshore basins. The deposits recognized are Aptian (Cod6-Grajau
Sequence) and Late Albian-Early Cenomanian (ltapecuru Formation). The

Chapter 3 Page 79
 Tecwnic Evolmion of Brazilian £quarorial Continental Margin Basin.s

maximum sedimentary thickness does not exceed 2 500 metres. Post-tectonic

sediments are absent and the Albian-Cenomanian rocks are overlain. locally only
by Neogene and Quaternary coastal sands. Data sets (well. seismic and gravity)
collected in the southeastem end of the Sao Luis Basin show 1500-2000 metres
of pre-Silurian metasedimentary rocks encased within the graben (Bequimao
Formation). This unit has been correlated to metasedimentary rocks of the
Gurupi fold belt (Aranha et al., 1988). Silurian and Devonian sedimentary rocks
as well as Jurassic basaltic flows are also present in the area. The external
geometry and internal organization of the basins have been only recently
investigated through the acquisition of a regional reflection seismic survey. The
basins have a NW-SE orientation and an asymmetrical profile. A polarity
reversal of the main depocentre has been defined. separated by transfer or
accommodation zones. These grabens were apparently created by a NE-SW
extension. Later strike-slip deformation is observed only in the southeastern
region of the Sao Luis Basin. The Gurupi Graben System is included ~ the area
of detailed studies and will be discussed in Chapter 6.

The Barreirinhas Basin

The Ban-eirinlza.s Ba.sin (Fig. 3.9) is located between the 42° and 44°W
parallels to the east of the Para-Maranhao and to the west of the Ceara Basins.
The main southern boundary fault is called the Sobradinho Fault, separating the
northern deep basin from the shallow basement of the Sobradinho Platform. The
basin has an onshore portion distributed over 15 OOO km2, in a narrow land belt
about 120 km long and 20-80 km wide. It is entirely covered by Neogene and
Quaternary eolian sand dunes. The maximum sedimentary accumulation in the
basin, in a single depocentre, is approximately 10 km. The sediments range from
Aptian to Quaternary in age and lie directly on the Palaeozoic rocks that form
the Parnafba intracratonic basin, or over basement rocks where the Palaeozoic
sequence is missing. Based on stratigraphic and structural criteria Azevedo
(1986) divided the Barreirinhas Basin into two sub-basins. The western Caete
and the eastern Tutbia Sub-basins are characterized by their sedimentary filling

Chapter 3 Page 80
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equacorial Continental Margin Basins

and structural style. The origin and development of these sub-basins are strongly
marked by the shear deformation that occurred along the margins of the African
and South American plates during the initial fragmentation of Gondwanaland
and opening of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean. This shearing is' indicated by
several lines of evidence including the recognition of transpressional (Tut6ia)
and transtensional (Caete) areas within the Barreirinhas Basin. A complete
presentation of data and results of the work carried out in this area is fully
explored in Chapter 4.

The Ceara Basin

The Ceara Basin (Fig. 3.9) is an entirely offshore entity, in which four sub-
basins are linked by prominent structural features (Figs. 3.13 and 3.14). From
West to East, they are termed Piaui-Camocim, Acarau, Jcarai and Mundail Sub-
basins. The Ceara High separates the first two. The Acarau and Icaraf are
isolated by the northern extension of the Sobral-Pedro II Fault. An inflexion of
the southern bound fault separates the last two sub-basins. _The first three areas
share similar stratigraphy and structural style. Folded and faulted Aptian rocks
are covered by Albian-Cenomanian carbonate rocks as well as Upper Cretaceous
and Tertiary units. Compressional and extensional structures compatible with
roughly E-W shear deformation have been described in these basins
(Vasconcelos, 1981; Zalan & Warme, 1985; Zalan et al., 1985; Costa et al.,
1989). The most outstanding features are: (1) E-W oriented throughgoing strike-
slip faults, with dextral sense of displacement; (2) en echelon pattern of NE-SW
oriented synclines, anticlines and shale ridges and (3) NW-SE trending normal
faults.

The Mundau Sub-basin shows a diverse structural style (Fig. 3.14a). The
stratigraphic succession however, is comparable to the other. It is dominated by
tilted blocks bounded by normal faults striking NW-SE and dipping to the
northeast. The oldest sedimentary rocks of the basin are inferred to be of Early
Aptian age (Costa et al., 1989). Three major sedimentary sequences are

Chapter 3 Page 81
 '

Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

.···

... . ...

Figun 3.13 - Structural framework of the Ceara Basin. (1) Piaui-Camocim; (2) Acarau; .(3)
lcaral and (4) Mundau Sub-basins. (5) Atlantico and (6) Ceara Highs. (7) Sobral-Pedro II
Lineament (Costa et al., 1989~ modified).

represented: (1) Aptian-Early Albian fluvial, lacustrine and deltaic deposits

: . (Mundau and Paracuru Formations); (2) an important marine transgressive

sequence deposited during the Albian-Santonian period (Ubarana Formation)
and (3) two marine regressive cycles of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic age (most
of the Ubarana Formation, Guamare and Tibau Formations}. This sub-basin
hosts the northernmost oil production province of the Brazilian continental
margin. The main structural prospects in which oil has been found are associated
with eroded apices of tilted blocks and rollover anticlines.

It is worth-noting that the Icara1 and Mundau areas hold the only
occurrences of evaporites known so far in the Western .Bquatorial Atlantic
Ocean. Two wells penetrated a 100 m thick layer of salt deposits dated as Late
Aptian (Regali, 1989). These occurrences are rather localized. Presently, there is
no conclusive evid7nce of widespread salt developme~t on the continental shelf
or in deep-water domains. Volcanic rocks however, are widely developed in the
Ceara Basin. Basic (Mundau volcanism) and acid (Ceara High) volcanic rocks
are reported to be of Oligocene age (Almeida et al., 1988).

Chapter 3 Page 82
 'J

T«:tonic Evofuiion of Brazilian EqualOrial Dmtineruaf Margin Basins

.:I'.

TERTIA.RV SE.OUENCE ._.h ... ht .,,.,.,.,,_

.,._., '-'" OfllFT SEOUEf<E - • ....,_.
- - - - - - - - - - , # ....,.
St~C'-w••a, ~ -.,_f_.t.1-t
.... CRETACEOUS/ ...
•.... TEATtARY
SlOPE
. ..,.•:•-.C••.-.,
... , . ....... " fl1l'T SEOUENCE
......,INll-M ................. "
S.-. .....- .
SEOUENCE

1oh1

8 ••

Figure 3.14 • Structural cross-sections of the Ceani Basin. See location in Fig. 3.13. (a) Piauf-
Camocin Sub-basin (from Zalan et .a)., 1985); (b) Muodau Sub-basin (from Costa et al., 1989).

The Potiguar Basin

The Potiguar Basin (Fig. 3.9) is located in the eastern extreme of the
Brazilian equatorial margin and has an important onshore component
(25,000km2). The inland graben contains up to 5 OOO m of sediments, whereas
the offshore part accommodates over 10 OOO m. The basin is limited to the
south, east and west by contact with Precam~rian basement rocks of the
Borborema province. The entire basin, particularly the onshore graben, has been
extensively explored and is an important oil producting area (Bertani et al.,
1989).

· Chapter 3 Page 83
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equarorial Continental Margin Basins

The ~otiguar Basin began to form with deposition of Neocomian continental

sediments (Pendencia Formation), the oldest documented sedimentary event in
the entire equatorial margin. This sequence was followed by transitional and
transgressive Aptian-Albian sediments (Alagamar and Ponta do Mel
Formations). The post-rift.sequence consists of deposits ranging from fluvial to
marine deep-water environments. These are represented by two major
transgressive (A~ and Jandafra Formations) and regressive (Tibau, Guamare
and Ubarana Formations) stratigraphic units. Basic igneous rocks are important
components of the basin filling. The basaltic volcanism is dominantly of alkaline
affinity and shows two dominant ages: (1) Early Cretaceous -with one
determination of 130 Ma-(Asmus & Guazelli, 1981) and (2) Eocene-Miocene
(Macau Formation) -with one isotopic age of 42 Ma- (Asmus, 1984). South of
the basin, in the Precambrian basement, is a dolerite dyke swarm called Rio
. .
Ceara-Mirim (Almeida et al .. 1988). This dyke swarm (167-130 Ma; Horn et al.,
1988) extends for 300 km sub-parallel to the southern pinch out line of the
Albian sedimentation and is correlated with the Early Cretaceous volcanics
present in the basin.

.. 4•

..
..
... ~ ... ..

Figure 3.15 - Structural framework of the Potiguar Basin (~drawn from Bertani et al., 1989).

Chapter 3 Page 84
\

T«:tonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial O:mtinental Margin Basins

The structural framework of the onshore basin (Figs. 3.15 and 3.16a) consists
of two parallel ENE-WSW trending and southeast dipping half grabens limited
to the east by normal faults and to the west 'by flexural hinge zones. Some
transfer faults running E-W or NNW-SSE ar~ ·also important first order elements
and shift the main NE-SW set of structures. ()n ·a larger scale, these half grabens
are interpreted as major rotated fault blocks bounded by Iistric normal faults
dipping to the northwest and soling out at mid-crustal levels (Mello, 1987).

A A'

10

B 8'

+
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ + + + + ++ +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + ~:.J.::!:::;:;::.:__~"""'....
. . • .... .... ~•+++ +
.. + + + + + +
+ + + + + + ++ +
+ + + + + +

1~
5

Figure 3.16 - Structural profiles across the Potiguar Basin. See location in Fig. 3.15. (a) Onshore
graben; (b) offshore basin. Ornamentations as in Fig. 3.11 (redrawn from Bertani et at, 1989).

Chapter 3 Page 85
 Te:c1onic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin lJas.in.s
,
The offshore portion consists of an Aptian-Albian fractured basin succeeded
by an Upper Cretaceous-Cenozoic marginal sag (Figs. 3.15 and 3.16b). Half
grabens trending NW are bounded to the southeast by normal faults dipping to
tbe northeast. Recent studies have detected E-W trending fault planes in which
right-lateral transtensional regimes have been interpreted (Bertani et al, 1989).

A number of small Neocomian basins occur to the southwest of the Potiguar

Graben. They are isolated from each other and lie on Precambrian rocks of the
Borborema structural province (see Fig. 3.4 and Appendix C). Their external
geometry is approximately rhombi~ and are distributed in a belt 300 km long and
about 150 km wide. These basins are all associated or bounded by major
Precambrian shear zones. The geometry of these basins, their sedimentary infill
and the regional context have been invoked to assign a transtensional nature for
the origin of these grabens (Matos, 1987; Fran~olin, J.B. pers. comm., 1989).
This implies that the Precambrian shear zones of the Brasiliano fold b~lts were
reactivated at least once in the Phanerozoic, probably during the Neocomian.

Two tectonic models have been put forward to explain the origin and
evolution of the Potiguar Basin and other Neocomian grabens of the Borborema
Province. Fran~lin & Szatmari (1985) suggested that N-S Neocomian extension
generated the NE-SW
.
grabens in response to. clockwise rotation of the South
American plate with respect Africa. Matos (1987) proposed an alternative model
which requires local extension acting in a WNW-ESE direction in the core of the
Borborema Province. It is considered that the Matos (1987) proposal better
correspond to the observations and interpretations discussed in this thesis.

3.3 OUTLINE OF THE GEOLOGY OF WEST AFRICA

Following Affaton et al. (1980) and Black & Fabre (1983), the geology of
West Africa can be outlined by dividing it into three major geotectonic units
(Fig. 3.17): (1) a Precambrian basement with an Upper Proterozoic and

Chapter 3 Page 86
 .
,.

Teaonic £vo/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continema/ .Margin Basins

Palaeozoic cover, the West African Craton (1.6-2.7 Ga); (2) old orogenic belts
bordering the craton. developed during the Pan-African thermo-tectonic episode
(Kennedy, 1964) (650-450 Ma) or the Hercynian/Variscan orogeny (350-300
Ma); and (3) a Phaner'ozoic sedimentary cover.

A tiilI)u11~·

LJ
Proe.,o• ·
81Umetlt

El

.·· ·.

~00 km

Guinean gulf

Figure 3.17 - Geotectonic units of West Africa (from Clauer et al., 1982).

3.3.1 The West African Craton

The West African Craton (Fig. 3.17) comprises a crystalline basement and a
sedimentary cover. The basement is composed of high-grade metamorphic rocks
which are exposed in the north in the Reguibat Arch, in Mauritania, and south
in the Man Arch (also known as Leo Uplift or Dorsal or still Birrimian Shield).
It consists of Archean formations (3.0-2.5 Ga) in the west-northwest and Middle

Chapter 3 Page 87
•
T«:tonic Evolution o.f Brazilian Equazoria/ Conlinelllal Margin Basinr

Precarnbrian (2.2-1.7 Ga) in the rest of the craton. The overlying horizontal or
slightly folded cover rocks occupy the basins of Tindouf (north), Taoudeni
(centre), and Volta (southeast). The sedimentary sequence comprises a relatively
thin Upper Proterozoic sequence, a well-develope~ Palaeozoic unit and a mostly
thin Mesozoic-Cenozoic succession.

Cratonisation of the West Africa took place in two major tectono~

metamorphic events. The oldest Archean cover rocks were subjected to high-
grade deformation during the Liberian event (ea. 2.6 Ga), whereas rocks formed
since then are mostly affected by greenschist facies metamorphism during the
Eburnean orogeny (ea. 2.0 Ga). Clauer et al.(1982) offer a geochronological
summary for metasedimentary Precambrian rocks of the craton.

The southerly located Man Arch (Fig. 3.17) comprises two structurai
domains: (1) a western domain of Archean rocks modelled by the Ll~rian

events and almost unaffected by later deformation, and (2) an eastern domain
comprising both reactivated Archean basement and Lower Proterozoic schist
belts which have been deformed and invaded by granitoids during the Eburnean
event. It consists either of migmatites, amphibolite-grade granitic gneisses and
acid granulites (Liberia unit), or of a volcanic-sedimentary complex represented
by schists, metagreywackes and phyllites (Eburnean unit). The schist belts may
contain greenstones and flysch-like deposits. They are intruded by granites and
granodiorites with a NE-SW orientation, which is also the principal direction of
foliation of the Man arch. The greenschist fades metasedimentary and
metavolcanic _rocks of the Eburnean unit are isoclinally folded, with also a very
dominant NE and N-NE orientation of fold axis (Turr:~r, 1983). The craton is
cut by two sets of subvertical fault systems that can be traced over several
hundred kilometres. The systems are oriented N-S and NE-SW, the latter
running parallel with the foliation. It has been suggested that both systems have
large strike-slip components (Bard, 1974).

Chapter 3 Page 8S
 .....___

Tt:ctonic EvolJJtion of Brazilian Equatorial Corui.nental Margin Basins

The Volta Basin

North of Accra, capital city of Ghana, the West African Craton is covered by
the Upper Precambria~-Lower Palaeozoic basin of Volta (Fig. 3.18). Eas~ard,
the cratonk block is limited by a· series of southeast-dipping thrust faults which
run NNE-SSW and separate this province from the Beninian Fold Belt (former
Dahomeyides; Caby, 1989) to the east. The Volta Basin comprises flat-lying
sediments, except at their eastern margin, of Late Proterozoic age which thick~n

and deepen eastward up to 7-10 km (Ako & Wellman, 1985). The lower
sequence, the Dapango-Bombouaka Group (1.0 Ga), is essentially siliciclastic. It
is unconformably overlain by siltstones, shales, limestones and glaciogenic
sediments of the Pendjar.i Group (680.570 Ma), which .is dominantly flyschoid
indicating a passage from platform deposits to thick marine facies (Trompette,
1983). The continental red beds of the upper Obosum Group represent the
molasse of the Pan-African Orogenic Belt to the east.

3.3.2 The Orogenic Belts

Old orogenic belts surround the West African Craton. Pan-African belts are:
(1) in the southwest, the Rokelides in Liberia; (2) in the east, the Beninian Belt
and (3) in the north, the Gourma and the Hoggar ranges. Caby et al. (1981)
suggested that the position of these Pan-African belts may have been
predetermined by the presence of a high-grade N-S trending Eburnean mobile
belt. On the western side, (4) the craton is bounded by the Mauritanides, mainJy
a Variscan range, whereas its southern front includes Caledoniar. and Pan-
African sectors. In the next sections only the two southernmost belts will be
briefly described.

The Rokelides Belt

The Rokelides Range (Fig. 3.17) stretches along a narrow thrust-fold belt
oriented NW-SE running across Liberia, Sierra Leone and Guinea. It consists

Chapter 3 Page 89
 1 ....

.. + ... + •+ +• •+ •+ + +
..
De ~ ..
+
+ + + +
•
+ + + +
+ +
+ + +
+ + +
+
+ + +
+ + + + •
+ + + + + +,
+ t + + t +
+ + + + +
•
A
-..!.
:
O•et • f'l 10·9 o rnbcu• "-•
VOLTA BASIN
<itovp . . : , _ . _ _ _ _ PendJ•rl O•ovo • 01<
1
non tofdtd lo •ded
=1 Tl• t• U•i•
' Bue"'
[] 1 ~3
. + t + +
+ + + + + + + t +
+ + + t +
I
I
'
:
+ + + +
[je ea 2 ... + + + + + +
+ ... +
+ +
... + + + ++ +
... + + + +,
+ + + + +
+ + +
I

05 ~ 1 .. + + +
+ + + +
I
+ + +
+ +
+ + + + + + OA!iOME YIOE $ 8
+ .. + + + + +
+ .+ + + • .+ • + + + • + A..... •;::,,.u;=; 2 ... "
!_ ..._1.. ..· ~~~~,
· a
?.1.,.1:;.;
,.,~. ~ .
~ " f>~- ..... "(;'~'1
' ·•
1_ \ ...
Unh _J. Hl\ln Pl•I• \1n;t

+ + + + + + :'
I
++ I
+ + + I
I
+ + + + I
I
- 10· + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
+ + +
+ +
+ + t.
++++ I
.. +
+ +
... +
+ + tfrrrit"•~ ..··r
STAi l( IONl DAllOMrYIOU
r
•+·++·.....
. .f
. -~:·r·:···
t·. ••. •• •. •• •• • • • . •. 00 hMJ••l h11. t=- -:j ,...,...,..., ••.
f'ttc'la.t1HW...e11tN
~ .... , .. t.._~.....,...,_.~
Mt'- "-11• w~ ~
~
,..,..,..
......."""
m tz:J =:::: ..tf~
..
+ .. . • . •
t+ · · ·~ ::1:~. :::.';!!!1::;"~··~ . r........, '""' ~ ~ c..... ~ ..... it..
(:.-'.:!
+ +
+
. '~····· ,,. ,
• •,, ....h fll
ITJ _,...,.,... ~ """"1111& ,.M M1t• •~Jw.t.1& ~ , . . . . ,. fWW1u

.. +
+
t +
+ +
+ + ...
+ + +
+ + + +

· · · .. · ~
+
+ + + +
+ +
+ + • .... +
+ + + + + + +
· · . ..
-· x ~.·r. ·
+ + + ,.,,.,,
' . .~ .. :..:.l_: " .
.. :; .. .· . . .. .. :
::•
Figure 3.18 - Geologic11l sketch map and cross-section or the Volta Basin (simplified
from Trompette, 1983). (1) basement or the West African Craton; (2) basement of
+ + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + the Nigerian Province or toe Pan.African Belt; (3) and (4) thrust sheets of the
+ + + + + + + + + Benlnlan Fold Reltj (5) Dapango·Bombouaka Group; (6) Pendjari Groupj (7)
+ + + + + + + + + lltH
+ + + + + + + + + +
. + + + + + + + + + + 6' Obsum Group; (8) post·Palaeozolc sediments.
+ + + + + + + + + + +
9 + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
~ + + + + + + + + + +
&' + + + + + + + + + + 2'
+ t .+ + + t + + +
I..,
~
~
.,.
~
-.
Ttelonic EwJ/ution of Brazilian Equarorial Conlinencal Margin Basins

mainly of Archean mafic granulite-amphibolite fades metamorphic rocks and

schists, as well as folded and weakly metamorphosed Upper Proterozoic
sedimentary units which have been thrusted northeast toward the craton
(Behrendt et al., 1974; Behrendt & Wotorson, 1974; Umeji, 1988). The
metasepiments comprise phyllites, quartzites, itabirites and metavolcanic rocks of
the Rokel River series. The belt is located in a region which presents a very
complicated structural pattern (Venkatakrishna & CUiver, i989). The tectonic
fabric is composed of three main groups·bf structural trends: (1) a set of four
Archean foliations and shear zones trends, NNW-SSE, N-S, NNE-SSW and
ENE-WSW over the Man arch; (2) the NNW and N-S Rokelides trends and (3)
an important NW-SE set of basic dykes running parallel to the coast in Sierra
Leone and Liberia. The Rokelides trends are outlined by westerly-dipping thrust
planes which parallel major fold axis with axial planes dipping southwest.
Together with the dyke swarm they are thought to reflect reactivated Archean
structures. This Pan-African belt has been interpreted as a plate m&rgin
collisional orogen (Burke & Dewey, 1970; Grant, 1973) and alternatively as
either an aulacogen (Umeji, 1988) or a back-arc basin (Williams & Culver, 1982)
oblique to the main trend of the Northwest Gondwana orogenic belt.

The Beninian Thrust-Fold Belt and the Nigerian Province

The Beninian Belt (Figs. 3.17 and 3.19) consists of nappes and thrusts
transported westward onto the older craton during the Pan-African orogeny. The
Accra fault system (Figs. 3.18 and 3.19) marks the western thrust front of this
orogenic belt onto the Volta foreland basin (Ako & Wellman, 1985). The
stratigraphic scheme of the nappes and thrust sheets is complex and includes
continental margin deposits and slices of serpentinites and metabasic rocks. To
the east, the nappes are overlain by orthogneisses of the Nigerian province.
These gneisses derived from pre-Pan-African granites and migmatized
metasediments which are interpreted as remnants of a Lower Proterozoic cover
(Grant, 1973). The foreland molasse of the Beninian fold belt lies at the top of
the Yoltaian basin (Caby, 1989). It is esse!1tially composed of continental red-

Chapter 3 Page 91
 '. T«tonic £vofUlion of Brazilian Equatorial Contiimual Margin BaJilis

type deposits unconformably overlying the Pendjari Group.

The architecture of the orogenic belt can be observed in the cross section
shown in Figure 3.19 (from Caby, 1989). The transition from a flat-lying thrust
and nappe tectonics (Beninian: Belt) to a province dominated by steep faults and
shear zones (Nigerian Province), occurs through an out-of-sequence thrust. This
transition testifies to the emplacement of the Archean reworked orthogneisses
on top of the Pan-African continental margin and suture zone rocks. To the east
of this suture, in the Nigerian Province, a branch of NNE-SSW directed shear
zones and strike-slip faults are mapped (Fig 3.19). Renewed dextral reactivation

I l
under ductile and brittle regimes have been reported on these structures, varying
in age from Late Precambrian to the Phanerozoic (Caby, 1989).

The overall pattern of the shear system is one which shows N-S ductile shear
zones crosscut by pairs of conjugate strike-slip faults. The Pan-African ductile
shear zones are mylonitic and generally have a horizontal stretching lineation,
implying lateral displacement. The brittle deformation is clearly younger (after
530 Ma), consisting of NE-SW dextral and NW-SE sinistral trending sets of
faults {Ball, 1980). The Kandi Fault is a lithosphere-scale mylonitic zone which
can be traced for more than 2 OOO km from the Hoggar range to the southern
Nigerian Province (see Figs. 3.17 and 3.19). Later reactivation of this fault
system by Phanerozoic epeirogenic events was suggested by Ball (1980) in the
Middle-Devonian and in the Cretaceous. An interesting relationship between the
Kandi Fault and its correlative in Brazil, the Sobral~Pedro 11/Transbrasiliano
Lineament, with the formation of the Romanche oceanic fracture zone is
suggested later in this chapter and also in section 9.2.4. _

3.3.3 Palaeozoic Geology of West Africa

The Palaeozoic stratigraphy of the southern pan of the West African

Craton/Pan-African Belt system (Benin, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast)
comprises four main sedimentary sequences separated by regional

Chapter 3 Page 92
 Tecronic £ 1JO!urion of Brazilian Equatorial Con1inentol Margin Basins

C::J ,,..,........."< <-•·

(::::J ,.,••,..... •.. .....
13 ...~ ..,........_, J.... ·- ••< J •••, ... ,,"" ····-~·"
~ n•.~P't
A•41'°olll'• . ••" •••(._J
'E3 v~ ••,,....1.:.••~ ••Ae.1:......... 41 .... • - · • • • •

' m-c--.••-<•"'-•• (~.... ~ ...,.-c ... I

_,..._................._. "~'

.....

:r .. ,.

A B

--- -
30•"
- ~ _?__ "' 0

Figure 3.19 - Geological map and strnctural profile across the Nigerian Province and Benjnian
Thrust-Fold Belt (from Caby, 1989).
unconformities: (1) a Lower Ordovician-Silurian succession of fluvial and
glaciomari ne sediments, the Obosum Group (molasse of the Pan-African belt);
(2) a Lower Silurian-Lower Devonian series of fluviatile and shallow marine
sandstones, graptolite shales and limestones, the Ajua/Elmina Series; (3) a
Lower-Middle Devonian unit of black shales, the Accraian Series and (4) a
Lower Carboniferous-Perrnian unit of marine and glaciogenic deposits, the
Takarodi and Efia/Nkwanta Series. From the Perrnian onwards, up to the

Chapter 3 Page 93
 Tectonic Evolution of Bra2ilio.n Equatorial Continental Margin Basim

Cenomanian, the whole of West Africa with the exception of the continental
margin basins, experienced continental deposition .

.During the Early Palaeowic, the southern margin of the craton underwe~t

repetitive phases of uplift. These vertical movements were responsible for cyclic .·.
regeneration ofpre-Devonian source areas. One important consequence of this is
that in South Ghana, Upper Silurian-Lower Devonian beds (Elmina sandstone
and Ajua shales) rest unconformably upon the Precambrian, indicating a pre-
Lower Silurian dynamically compensated high on the southeastern margin of the
West African Craton. This Cambrian-Ordovician depositional hiatus in South
qhana, would correspond to the collapse and erosion of the Pan-African
Orogenic Belt. Some of the molasse uriits have been preserved in grabens or
along major strike-slip faults. To the north of the belt, the molassic relicts show
marine influence and have been correlated with the marine Cambrian of
Morocco. It seems that the sea extended to the south along the trace ~f the Pan-
African suture zone (Black & Fabre, 1983).

The Palaeozoic rocks of South Ghana were studied by Crow (1952). The
geological map and cross-section presented in Figure 3.20, were taken from his
account and reinterpreted. They describe an easterly plunging Palaeozoic-
Triassic anticline crosscut by a complex fault system. The ~ial plane of the
slightly asymmetrical fold strikes close to the E-W direction. The· hinge zone is
outlined by a strike-slip fault with a dextral sense of displacement. The fault
system comprises normal and strike-slip components. In general, the normal
faults are sou~h-dipping structures showing a semi-circular radial pattern. Most of
them follow approximately the NE-SW trend of isoclin<•: folds of the
Precambrian basement. The transcurrent faults strike within the range 75°-125°
and show mostly a dextral sense of displacement. This structural pattern suggests
that the Sekondi-Takoradi exposure constitutes a transpressional feature
(positive flower structure?) developed in a shear regime. The involvement of
Triassic beds and a Jurassic sill in the structure indicates that the shearing event
post-dated the emplacement of the sill. It is not known whether this event was

Chapter 3 Page 94
 ..

+ , I
/ "/1
,. / //'/:
A .-<:'-or . -• - I~ J . l A' I/' 'I~ I
/ /'

g~
;:;·
~
<S
::::-
:::
<:>"
::i

~
'-. D ~
+ \ 4•55•• + I ~
\ ~
::i

~
\ ss
I ~
... g
I
I
I D 1 ::i

...3·
::i
I I
/ ~l'j.;~i 2 ~
' '~'

•
~
' 3
o.'a
:;·

4 • r...
A 2 I• 5
9 ... +
~
...~ t•&o• 1• A!!'

~
~ Figure 3.20 - Geological map and schematic cross-section or the Stkondl·Takarodl arta, South Ghana (relnterprtled from Crow,
~ 1952). (1) Triassic; (2) Upper Carbonlferous-Permlan; (3) Upper Devonian-lower Carboniferous; (4) Upper Sllurlun; (5)
Precambrian structural fabric; D=dolerlte slit.
....
 '• Teaonic Evolwion of Brazilian Equatorial Corui~ntal Margin Basins

contemporaneous with the Middle Cretaceous opening of the Equatorial Atlantic

ocean or post-dated the opening.

3.3.4 Marginal Basins of the Northern Gulf of Guinea

·.·

The earliest Mesozoic rock units present at the s_o uthern edge of the West
African Craton, on the north shore of the Gulf of Guine~ are Triassic eolian
deposits (Sekondi Series) and Jurassic tholeiitic dolerite dyke swarms and sills.
The dykes present a pronounced NW-SE·preferential orientation and are sub-
parallel to older Pan-African lineaments in Liberia (Fig. 3.21) (Behrendt et al.,
1974) and Sierra Leone (Venkatakrishnan & Culver, 1989). They are also
;

present in Ivory Coast, Ghana and Togo where they intrude the massive eolian
sandstones of the Sekondi Series. The Triassic-Jurassic evaporitic deposition that
took place in the Central Atlantic has no parallels in the equatorial region. On
the African side, the evaporites of the Central Atlantic basins were li~ited in a
southerly direction by a NE-SW oriented basement high located in the offshore
area of the Guinea Bissau-Guinea boundary (Dumestre & Carvalho, 1985). The
Cretaceous-Cenozoic succession present on the southern edge of the West
African craton can be divided into two mega-sequences: (1) ~Cretaceous­

Palaeocene transgressive unit which begin with thin Aptian continental beds
which grade rapidly to marine sands, shales and limestones and, (2) a Cenozoic
marine regressive sequence. The Benue Trough, and the marginal basins of Ivory
Coast, Ghana, Togo, and Benin are major sedimentary depocentres located in
the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea. Due to their critical location and
potential to complement observations made on the Brazilian side, the offshore
basins will be studied, in more detail, in later chapters grouped with the
presentation and analysis of their Brazilian counterparts across the Atlantic. The
Benue Trough and its inland extension will be briefly described below.

. )

.
>
:

Chapter 3 Page 96
,,
•
 ·.

Tec1onic E1JOlution of BrtWJiall Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Figure 3.21 • Generalized tectonic map or Uberia. 1he reatur-es indicated are mostly lineament
data extracted from aeromagnetic survey (from Behrendt et al, 1974). Coast parallel NW-SE
trending lineaments match location and orientation of dolerite dyke swarms. Contour curves in
the offshore region denote depth to magnetic basement (km). Remaining features are mostly
Precambrian age structures or geological cootacts.

The Benue Trough

The Benue Trough, in Nigeria (Fig. 3.22), is an elongated sedimentary basin

extending over 800 km from the Niger delta to the southern end of the Niger rift
(also Lake Chad Basin). The oldest reported sediments so far recognised in the
Benue trough are basal conglomerates in northern Cameroon (Popoff et al.,
1988). The Neocomian-Barremian age attributed to this formation is
questionable because it is unfossiliferous. Aptian sedimentation has been locally
identified (Allix et al., 1981; Uzuakpunwa, 1974) but widespread deposition
along the whole system started only during the Albian (Reyment & Tait, 1983).

The stratigraphjc succession present in the Benue Trough consists of three

mega-sequences: (1) Aptian-Early Santonian; (2) Late Campanian-Middle
Eocene and (3) Oligocene-Recent. The first s_equence comprises three complete

Chapter 3 Page 97
 ••
•• Tectonic Evolurion of Brazilian Equatorial Conunemal Margin Basirt.s

••
•-•
••
••
••
••
••
•
•• E:::::Jt:.·•··~~
~ ~·•~111-c ..._..,... c~..-...

•• - ~
....:;:r......::t::=:-:.•:::.·-·--...
,..-. .......

•• Figure 3.22 - Geological sketch map of Nigeria (from Benkhelil, 1982) •

•• transgressive-regressive cycles with maximum flooding by the Coniacian, during

Lower Cretaceous
•• the third cycle. Allix & Popoff (1983) have subdivided the
series exposed in the northeastem part of the trough into two periods: (a) an

•• Aptian-Lower Albian period of laci..::'..dne sedimentation in narrow isolated

basins and (b) a Middle-Upper Albian phase of a single regional basin

•• dominated by braided and meandering fluviatile sedimentation. This latter fluvial

•• system grades to the southwest along the basin axis into a marine deltaic body.

•• The Aptian-Lower Santonian period of the basin development has been

•• interpreted to be the result of the activity of a sinistral strike-slip fault system

made up of a series of small en echelon pull-apart basins (Benkhelil, 1988). This

•• idea is in opposition to another view which favours uniform lithospheric

extension to explain the basin origin and evolution (Okereke, 1988). A third

•• hypothesis relates the origin of the trough to a failed arm of a triple junction
·-
•• preceded by lithosphere doming (e.g. Burke & Dewey;- 1974). During the

••
Chapter 3 Page 98

•
 Tt!ctot1ic Evo/u1iot1 of Braziliat1 £1/uatorial CcntiJJtntal Margin Basins

Santonian-Maastrichtian, the basin was subjected to a compressional

deformation. Following this a new sedimentary sequence of two transgressive-
regressive cycles (Late Campanian-Middle Eocene) was deposited in the lower
Benue trough. The southwest progradation of the Niger delta has taken place
since the Oligocene. From Miocene onwards, volcanic activity has developed
extensive lava plateaus forming the Cameroon volcanic line. The oceanic
continuation of this· lineament bounded the South Atlantic salt basin to the
north . .:·

BASIN SH.O.PE IN OEPHi

D < 3000M N
D 3000 . 5000 M

[ ::::::] > 5000 M

1
+

~ 8.o.SEMENl !'HOGE

SHE.O.R ZONE

Figure 3.23 - Model of formation of Aptian-Albian sub-basins along a transcurrent ra.ult system in
the Benue Trough (from Benkhelil. 1988).

The model of for,m ation of the Benue Trough as proposed by Benkhelil

(1988), is largely based on field data and interpretation of gravity su:rveys (Fig.
3.23). The trends of the fault systems traversing the Cretaceous rocks can be
grouped into three dominant sets: (1) NE-SW sinistral strike-slip faults confined

Chapter 3 Page 99
 Tec!on;c Evolution of Brazilian £qua1orial Conrimm1al Margin Basins

to the basin axis; (2) N-S trending normal faults and (3) a set of conjugate
strike-slip faults running N-S (sinistral) and NW-SE (dextral). These structures
were active during the (1) initial formation, (2) transtensional and (3)
compressional phases of the basin development. The development of these fault
~ystems created a series of deep isolated pull-apart basins, subsequently ·
· deformed by compressional forces. The folding event is thought to be
diachronous from Santonian in the south to the end of the Cretaceous in the
northeast. At a large scale, the folds created by this event are oriented N45°-
600E parallel to the axis of the basin. In detail, however, the fold axes have
trends ranging from N60°E to E-W and show an en echelon arrangement.

The tectonic evolution of the Benue Trough has been interpreted as having
been closely controlled by transcurrent faulting through the axial fault system,
developing local compressional and tensional regimes ~.nd resulting in basins and
basement horsts along releasing and restraining bends of the faults (Benkhelil,
1988). From the preliminary review of Brazilian equatorial basins (section 3.2.3)
and from the data, analyses, results and discussions which will be presented in
Chapters·4, 5, 8 and 9, it is remarkable that the strike-slip model for the Benue
- -· ... -- -- ··- ·- .
trough is highly consistent
..
with .shear mechanisms
. ..... -···-- .
developed in the Brazilian
equatorial mar~l•:-i at the .same .time..___

The West and Central African Rift System

The Benue Trough and the Tertiary Niger Delta are the southwest end of
what has bee_n referred to as the West and Central African Rift System (Fairhead,
1988a, 1988b; Fig. 3.24). This is a Cretaceous rift system which extends inland
from the Gulf of Guinea for more than 8 OOO km up to Niger and Sudan, which
is controlled by the inherited Pan-African structural fabric. Since the rifts are
blanketed by a thick Cenozoic cover, the recognition of the system has been
based mostly on geophysical data acquired through hydrocarbon exploration
activities.

Chapter 3 Page JOO

 Tectonic Evolwion of Brazilian Equatorial Ccmincmal Margin Basins

, _ Ote.•U• .-••H••
\0 JO

Figure 3.24 • Tectonic sketch map of the West and Central African Rift System (from Fairhead,
1988a).

The major features of the rift system are NE-SW oriented shear zones
terminating northeastward into extensional basins striking perpendicularly to the
shear zone fault directions. The displacement along the shear zones is assumed
to be taken up by NE·SW extension in the stretched areas: Sinistral (Benkhelil,
1988) and dextral (Ngangom, 1983) movements along these zones are thought to
represent Cretaceous reactivation of Pan-African mylonite zones which originally
had dextral displacement (Maurin et al., 1986). Based on calculations of
extension parameters from gravity modelling (Fairhead & Okereke, 1987),
Fairhead (1988a;I988b) has estimated 50-60 km for the total displacements
along these shear zones. These same studies have predicted crustal thicknesses
of 20-25 km beneath the Benue trough and 34 km of normal crustal thickness
away from the rift. Similarly Benkhelil (1988) suggested 20-30 km of present day
crustal thickness in the trough and 35 km on average for the Precambrian
massifs. These values of unstretched crustal thicknesses are comparable with that
suggested for the continental crust in Brazil (e.g. Bender, 1987) and will be
assumed in calculations of extension parameters in Chapter 8 (section 8.4.1).

Chapter 3 Page IOI

 Tectonic E"<Jll/.lion of Brazilian Eq11arorial Continental Margin Basins

The arrangement of rifts and shear zones in the West and Central African
Rift System gives the continental plate a less rigid structure than that usually
suggested for plate-kinematic models of the South Atlantic opening (e.g.
Rabinowitz & LaBrecque, 1979).

3.4 THE EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC OCEAN

This section describes the major geological and geophysical features of the
Equatorial Atlantic oceanic basin. The aim is to provide the basis for a
comparison between continental and oceanic geology. The understanding of the
interaction between the South American and African tectonic plates during the
Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution is the. ultimate goal. The account starts by defining
the studied region in the context of the Atlantic Ocean and proceeds with an
overview on the general structure of the oceanic basement and its magnetic and
gravity signatures.

3.4.1 Definition and Location

Since the Early Mesozoic there have been three major tectonic episodes that
have affected the e::istern South America continent. These episodes are related
to the progressive breakup of Gondwana in (I) the Triassic-Jurassic breakup of
North America from north South America, (2) the Early Cretaceous breakup of
south and southwest Africa from eastern South America and (3) the Middle-
Cretaceous breakup of West Africa from North Brazil. The Equatorial Atlantic
Ocean was created as response to the development of this later tectonic episode.
Since the history of opening of the Equatorial Atlantic, as will be shown, is
discrete from that of the Central and South Atlantic, it is necessary to define its
limits. The Equatorial Atlantic connects the Central and the South Atlantic
Oceans (Plate 3.1 ). Its northern and southern boundaries are assumed here to be
coincident with the Bahamas and the Ascension Island Fracture Zones,
respectively, as suggested by Binks & Fairhead (1989). Its western and eastern

Chapter 3 Page 102

 ..r
,...
' Tectonic £1'olution of Brazilian Equmorial Cominmtal Margin Ba.sins

limits correspond to the continental margin basins of northeast South America

and West Africa. The western border extends from the Demerara, offshore
French Guiana, to the easternmost edge of Brazil. The Africar:i boundary runs
from the continental shelf of Uberia to the southern region of the-Gulf of
Guinea. This broad region (8.0x106 km2) comprises important geological features
such as the Roman:che Oceanic Fracture Zone, the Niger Delta and the
submarine fan of the Amazonas River. The first is one of the longest and largest
offset transform faults in the oceans. The second is a major petroliferous
Tertiary province and the third is one of the largest present day deep·sea fan in
the world.

3.4.2 The Shape of the Ocean Floor

Most of the sea floor of the Atlantic Ocean is classically divided into five
main physiographic provinces: (1) continental shelf, (2) continental ~lope, (3)
continental rise, (4) abyssal plain and (5) mid-oceanic ridge. In general, the
shelf-slope-rise system constitutes the continental margin, underlain by a .
"
continental lithosphere whereas the abyssal plain and the oceanic ridge are
underlain by the oceanic lithosphere. Because the Atlantic continental margins
have relatively little seismogenic activity they are often called as_eismic or passive
margins (see section 2.6). Transform mM3ins, in contrast, are those continental
margins with active seismicity which outline a conservative or destructive plate
boundary. In these margins, the shelf-slope-rise profile is characterized by (1) a
frequently narrow platform, (2) a steeper slope and (3) a sharp transition from
shallow waters to abyssal depths. In the continental margins of the Equatorial
Atlantic, both types of profiles are found. It suggests that processes of creation of
passive and transform margins were shared and acted perhaps simultaneously.

A great number of seamounts are present on the Equatorial Atlantic

ocean floor. In the north-northeastern continental margin of Brazil they fall into
two categories: (1) seamounts or guyots located within the confines of fracture
zones and (2) seamounts aligned oblique to the fracture zones and situated

Chapter 3 Page 103

 PLATE 3.1

,, .. ~--......
\

BRAZIL
 Plate 3.1 - The Equatorial Atlantic Ocean.

Top : Shaded relief map of the Earth's solid surface (Open University,
1989).The Equatorial Atlantic separates the Central from the
South Atlantic.

Middle: Main fracture zones of the Equatorial Atlantic.

" . Bottom: Shaded relief map of the gravity field (Seasat) of the Equatorial
AtJantic (Bostrom, 1989).

Chapter 3 Page 104

 Ttctonic £V()/ution of Bra:zilian Equatorial Continental Margi11 8asins

within segments of normal oceanic crust. The North-Brazilian Ridge (see section
3.4.4 and Figure 3.25) is a chain of seamounts belonging to the two categories. h
runs in the slope and continental rise for about 1 300 km sub-parallel to the
shore line and is comprised of three distinct segments. Two of them are oriented
E-W, linked by a third NW-SE sector.

3.4.3 The Major Sedimentary Sequences

Considering the entire Atlantic Ocean, three major sedimentary sequences

with variable ages and thicknesses can be outlined on its continental margins: (1)
a lower se:ies of continental deposits including mainly eolian, fluvi~l, deltaic and
lacustrine environments; (2) an intermediary section of evaporites and
transitional to shallow marine deposits and (3) an upper sequence of dominantly
marine nature. In the case of the Equatorial Atlantic, the former sequence is
very thin, dominantly Aptian in age with rare, localized and questio~able records
of older sediments. The second interval is characterized by s~rrJ-isolated basins
of Albian-Cenomanian age. The later sequence is represented by several cycles
of transgressive and regressive marine deposits very similar to those found
outside the equatorial domain. It should be noted that with the exception of two
restricted occurrences of salt deposits detected by boreholes in the Ceara Basin,
no significant occurrence of evaporites has been found so far on both sides of
the Equatorial Atlantic ocean. The evaporites are present in the Central Atlantic
basins, from northwest Europe to Senegal in Africa, and on the eastern coast of
the North America, where they are mainly Triassic in age. In the South Atlantic,
Aptian salt deposits are known from Angola to Nigeria, in Africa (Guieu &
Roussel, 1984) and from Campos to Sergipe-Alagoas Basins in Brazil. The
stratigraphic succession thus indicates that the evolution of the Equatorial
Atlantic was (1) distinctive during the first phase, (2) partially linked to the
evolution of the entire Atlantic by the end of the second stage and (3) very
similar to the development of the whole ocean during the third phase.

Chapter 3 Page 106 .

 Ttc1011ic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinental Margin Basins

3.4.4 The Structure of the Basement

The fracture pattern and the magnetic and gravity fields of the ocean as well
as the present day seismicity can provide .useful information on the s~ructure and
evolution of the oceanic crust and its adjoining continental margins. .

Fracture Pattern of the Equatorial Atlantic

The oceanic basement has a well developed fracture pattern which played an
important role in its formation and development. On the Equatorial Atlantic
ocean floor several systems of faJlts traced both at the ~ontinental margins and
the ocean bed have been found. A significant group of them are the latitudinal
transform faults (Wilson, 1965). The landward projection of the active transform
faults constitute the oceanic fracture zones. These fracture zones as well as other
systems of faults traced on the sea floor are identified by several
geomorphological, geophysical and geological characteristics: (1) existenre of
linearly elongated steep scarps; (2) narrow and deep trenches; (3) zones of
submarine relief breakup; (4) existence of offsets and ruptures of crustal layers
defined by geophysical methods; (5) typical magnetic and gravity anomalies; (6)
seismicity; (7) linearity with known onshore shear zones; (8) existence of
seamount chains; (9) zones of ultrabasic intrusions and (10) direct obsetvation of
tectonites recovered from the sea floor.

The fracture zones are morphologically expressed by an arrangement of deep

trenches and ridges along which a lateral displacement of the mid-ocean ridge
can be observed. Outcrops of ultrabasic rocks are frequently met on the slopes
of transverse features which is indicative of the intrusion of deep seated material
coming from the upper mantle (Bonatti, 1976). These rocks frequently have
radiometric ages older than the surrounding ocean floor (Bonatti, 1978). The
' .
fracture zones are therefore older than the spreading-centres and are the
controlling factor in the formation of the mid-ocean ridge segmented structure.

Chapter 3 Page 107

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian &juatorial Continental Margin Basins

The nature of the mo"".ement of lithospheric plates in the region of the

transform faults explains the peculiarities of the structure of fracture zones (see
section 2.5.1). In the sections of transform faults situated between active spread-
centres, lith.o spheric J?lates move in opposite directions. resulting in a shear strain •I

along the transforms. Beyond the limits of active ·transform faulting, the
adjoining plates become welded and cease to display active movement. In some
instances, however, local shifts are established also along fracture zones outside
of the transform area. Thus, the fracture zones constitute fundamental
lithospheric discontinuities. In their continental exte_nsion, they usually have a
long history of tectonic reactivation constituting fundamental discontinuities of
the continental lithosphere (Sykes, 1978).

In the past, many authors have attempted to correlate the equatorial Atlantic
fracture zones with continental features (e.g. De Loczy, 1970; Behrendt &
Wotorson, 1974; Williams & Williams, 1977; Rezende et al., 1977; Benkhelil,
1982). Only recently however, have more successful efforts been made (e.g.
Blarez, 1986; Mascle & Blarez, 1987; Benkhelil, 1988). The reason for this late
success seems to be linked to the development of the concept of fracture zone
itself. In the early days of the geological mapping of the oceans in the 1960's and
1970's, a great deal of effort was dedicated to tracing out fracture zones across
the oceans as straight or sinuous lines of single ridges or troughs with negligible
thicknesses (e.g. Burke, 1969; Hayes & Ewing, 1970; Francheteau & Le Pichon,
1972; Cochran, 1973; Delteil et al., 1974; Emery et al., 1975; Houtz et al., 1977).
Gorini (1977) was one of the first to recognise that fracture zones are better
described as belts rather than linear features. This notion has made easier to
map the fracture zones and to begin to understand complex aspects of the
interaction between two divergent plate margins.

The Equatorial Atlantic Fracture Zones

Several E-W trending fracture zones are located in the Equatorial Atlantic
(Plate 3.1). From a tectonic perspective, they are the most prominent features of

Chapter 3 Page 108

,.;
.·

Tec1onic EvoWlion of Brazilian Equatorial Continuual Margin Basins

the sea-floor in this ocean basin. They are characterized by generally large offset
and slow-slipping active transform faults. The Saint Paul and Romanche zones
were defined by Francheteau & Le Pichon (1972) and mapped by Gorini (1977)
(Fig. 3.25). Together with the Bahamas, Verna. and Guinea to the north, and the
.Chain, Fernando de Noronha and Ascencion Islands fracture zones to the south,
they form a set of transversal structures that displace the ntid-oceanic ridge for
more than 1 500 km. Gorini (1977) described in detail the Saint Paul and
Romanche fracture zones and by:·virtue of their importance in the context of the
study area, a short summary of these features follows.

o'

'lllZll
•o· ..
Figure 3.25 - Main tectonic £eatun:s of the Equatorial Atlantic ocean floor (redrawn from Gorini,
1977). SP=Saint Paul; R=Romanche; C=Chain; FN=Femando de Noronha; JC=Jean Charcot;
CVL=Cameroon Volcanic Line; NBR=Nortb Brazilian Ridge; IGR= lvol)'. Coast-Ghana Ridge.

The Aomanche and the Saint Paul Fracture Zones

The Romanche Fracture Zone (Fig. 3.25) .is a major feature of the Equatorial
. Atlantic Ocean. It is situated between 5°N and 3°S and transects the entire
length of the ocean floor from West Africa to North Brazil. The axial segment of
the Mid-Atlantic ridge is displaced by 940 km across this zone. The fracture zone
is characterized by alternating peaks and depressions generally separating
regions of smoother topography which lie at different depths on either side
(Gorini, 1977). The main trench, in the region of the active transform fault
exceeds depths of 6 500 metres. The ridges whith outline the extremes of the
Romanche are buried by continental margin sediments on both sides of the
Atlantic. In Africa, the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge is seen as the extension of the

Chapter 3 Page 109

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basin:;
5tJ c1fJ,..v, ~
ridge which forms the ~n flank of the fracture zone (Mascle & Blarez,
1987). This feature abruptly separates the continental shelf from the Guinea
abyssal plain. In the Brazilian side, the ridge which marks the southern limit of
the zone is buried beneath the shelf sediments in the offshore Barreirinhas and
Piauf-Camocim basins (Zalan et al., 1985; see Chapter 4 ).

The collection of rock samples recovered in several sites along the

Romanche fracture zone were discussed by Bonatti & . Honnorez (1976).
Serpentinites, as well as in oceanic fracture zones worldwide, were the most
abundant rock types recovered. Together with a large number of basic rocks,
sediments and mylonites, they can be used to point out (1) the intrusive
character of the serpentinites (Bonatti, 1976; 1978). (2) that vertical tectonic
movements were indeed very important in the development of the zone (Bonatti
et al., 1977; Bonatti, 1978) and, (3) that there is a decoupling between fracture-
zone tectonics and mid-oceanic ridge processes. One of the main co~clusions
(Bonatti, 1978) is that the relationship between the age of the ocean floor and its
-·
subsidence (Sleep, 1971; Steckler & Watts. 1978) cannot be applied in regions of
the ocean floor outlined by fracture zones. A major implication of this, as will be
discussed in Chapter 8, is that continental margin basins developed on regions of · .
the lithosphere deformed by fracture zones (transform margins) have tectonic
and thermal histories distinct from those of passive rifted margins. ~/
I

Analysis of seismic data acquired in the Ceara and Potiguar Basins has
shown conclusive evidence for the connection between the Romancbe and the
Fernando de Noronha fracture zones with structures shaping the continental
slope and underlining the shelf of these basins (Lobo, 1987). In the case of the
Romanche, the connection was achieved through an E-W striking fault plane
underlying the steep slope of the Acarau, and Piauf-Camocim basins. Figure 3.26
shows a seismic profile in which a fault is seen controlling the slope gradient and
outlining the continental-oceanic crust boundary. This particular fault'is the
"Ceara Transcurrent Fault" and is seen as have being active until recent times.

Chapter 3 Page 110

• J

......
Tectonic Evolu1io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Contfnemal Margin Basins

The Saint Paul Fracture Zone (Fig. 3.25) is located in general, 1° to the north
of the Romanche. Its geomorphological structure is also complex and very
similar to that of its neighbour. It also cons'ists of alternating ridges and troughs
that are located between two distinct topographic levels of the oceanic basement.
A significant difference is that it is wider wheri .'approaching the continental
" .
margins (Fig. 3.25). This observation is highly relevant because it suggests that
the early stages of development of the Saint Paul fracture zone this was the site
of a greater extensional component of the divergence between the two plates
(see kinematic model in Fig. 9.6).

Multiple transform faults have been reported for fracture zones with large
offsets. In the case of the Saint Paul zone, at least two active transforms have
been mapped (Searle, 1986). The zone offsets the mid-ocean ridge for at least
600 km. In the African projection, the southern flank of the zone underlies the·
northern shore of the Ivory Coast Basin. Its northern boundary, when projected
to the Liberian shield, is collinear with the Precambrian structural fabric (see
Fig. 3.21). On the Brazilian side, its southern boundary marks the western sector
of the Para-Maranhao Basin (Tromai Sub-basin). The entire zone disappears
toward the Foz do Amazonas Basin and is buried by the Amazon deep-sea fan
sediments. Between approximately 40° and 43°W, the southern flank of the
fracture zone is marked by the northern E-W segment of the North Brazilian
Ridge.

The North Brazilian Ridge

The North Brazilian Ridge (Fig. 3.25) as defined by _H ayes & Ewing (1970)
and reinterpreted by Le Pichon & Hayes (1971) and Cochran (1973), is a
discrete and continuous chain of topographic and structural highs running for
1300 km parallel to the coast of Brazil. It lies 150-200 km oceanward from the
continental slope between 34°-46°W and 2°S-2°N, possibly extending farther
eastward beneath the Amazon Cone (Bryan et al., 1972). It is compounded by
three distinct "segments: (1) an E-W oriented western segment coinciding with

Chapter 3 Page I J1
 ~

0 --- __::::
NE
( 36'
\
\
-- -,

~
§
~·
l'>i
~
~
~·
~
Qi
?.
~
::i

~
~
c
[
5
~
~
5·
:;
§.
~
~
...... ,.
s·
aa·°"
S~m

Q
~
~
w
~
~ Figure 3.26 - Reflection
"~ feature connected with the
 Ttctonic fa'OIWion of Brazilian :Eq11a1arial Continental Margin Basins

the southern flank of the Saint Paul Fracture Zone; (2) an intermediary sector
oriented N30°W which links the Saint Paul and Rornanche zones and (3) an
eastern segment also oriented E-W corresponding to the southern edge of the
Romanche fracture zone. The ridge as a whole, was assigned a probable age of
80-100 Ma (Hayes & Ewing, 1970). The ridge is a narrow feature with a roughly
symmetrical double·peaked structure in its southern half. Figure 3.27 shows the
structure of the oceanic crust across the ridge, based on seismic refraction data.

,, .A.
.. s
••
·~ ..

···....--.- - - -- ---...,

--- ..
tt__
u
ll
~:··~
!!------
I\ ,'\

. .. ·- -
"'
.-.--
,. :
c
___::_ "°
••

Figure 3.1.7 • Refraction seismic structure of the North Brazilian Ridge. Numbers are sonic velocities
in Km/s (redrawn from Houtz et al.. 1977).

Typical oceanic crust apparently underlies both the landward and seaward
sides of the ridge (Houtz et al., 1977). This evidence suggests that it may
represent an ancient position of the mid-ocean rift valley which might have
jumped to another longitude during a past tectonic episode. Jumping of
spreading axes is a mechanism often invoked to explain sharp changes in the
magnetic zebra patterns of the ocean floor. Hayes & Ewing (1970) supported by
Gorini (1977) concluded that the ridge was probably formed by excess oceanic
volcanism associated with sea-floor spreading mechanisms taking place in a
spreading centre. This would have taken place shortly after the initial
fragmentation. Bonatti (1978) however, suggested that aseismic ridges like this
could also be produced by vertical tectonism, whi<;h is reasonable to expect in
ridges aligned with fracture zones but unlikely to occur in ridges parallel to the
spread~centre.

Chapter 3 Page 113

 Tectonic £.''Olution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Based on the (1) double peak characteristic, (2) volcanic origin of the ridge,
(3) oceanic nature of both landward and seaward crusts and (4) on the
presumable age of 80-100 Ma. it is reasonable to. consider that: (a) the NW-SE
oriented. segment mimics the position of an early spreading-centre and (b) that
.· ..
the E-W sectors were produced in the ancient transform fault wne by shearing
of two freshly disconnected tectonic plates. This implies that westward of the
NW-SE oriented segment, the continental crust might thin gradually until it is
completely replaced by oceanic material approaching the ridge from the west. To
the east of it, normal oceanic basement is expected to occur. Landward from the
ocean, across the E-W oriented arms of the ridge, average oceanic crust is
r~placed by anomalous fracture zone crust to the south. Further to the south,
across the southern limit of the fracture zone, the transition to the continental
domain is accomplished trough a sharp contact outlined by a vertical strike-slip
fauJt zone (Lobo, 1987).

3.4.5 Magnetic Field Anomalies and Spreading Rates

The magnetic field of the Western Equatorial Atlantic was studied by

Cochran (1973), Fainstein et al. (1975) and Cande & Rabinowitz (1979). These
early studies demonstrated that the most prominent magnetic anomalies are
associated with the E-W striking fracture zones. The magnetic evidence shown,
coupled with gravity measurements and petrological information, lead to the
suggestion that the large fracture zones (50-100 km wide) served as the site of
diapiric intrusion of large quantities of serpentinized peridotites from the upper
mantle. The diapirism would be triggered by the lower density of serpentinites
and facilitated by the presence of weak zones consisting of vertical fault planes
(Thompson & Melson, 1972; Bonatti, 1976; Bonatti, 1978).

The map illustrated in Figure 3.28 represents the magnetic field 2 over the
continental shelf-slope-rise of the northern margin of Brazil between latitudes
.·

2
This aeromagnetic data set was acquired by an aeromagnelic survey commissioned by Petrobras
in late 1%0's.

Chapter 3 Pafie 114

 ~.

,,
\\ PARA·MARANHAO BASIN
\ ~ o·
,N

A
EQUATORIAL ATlANTIC OCEAN

' .....
8ARREIFUNHAS BASIN

2·
BRAZtL

100km

9
.g
~ 46. 44• 42•
w
~
~ Figure 3.28 • Total intensity magnetic field of the 8raziUan Equatorial Atlantic Margin between Jatftudes 41° and 41'\V (vintage
._
~

nt•romngnctic dnU\ commlssiom·d by Pctrolm\s) •

v,
 Te<:1onic £vol111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

•41° and 49°W. Figure 3.29 shows an interpreted version of the total magnetic
field data of Figure 3.28. Two types of anomalous fields are observed: (1) a
linear pattern, characterized by the predominance of linearly extending
alternating phase magnetic anomalies and (2) an isometric pattern, consisting of
a mosaic of anomalies with a complex arrangement. The existence of both
patterns indicates the occurrence of different types of crustal structures. The
isometric type is found mainly in the Foz do Amazonas and Para-Maranhao
Basins. They are associated with moderate subsidence of the top of the magnetic
basement which in these areas is of continental nature. The pattern of linear
anomalies exhibit two main sets of trends: (a) a set of NE-SW oriented hi&h
amplitude, high frequency and short wavelength anomalie~ and (b) a group of E-
W directed magnetic lows and highs of long wavelength.

The first group is better represented in the sector between 45° and 48°W
and changes laterally to a more diffuse isometric pattern toward the Foz do
Amazonas and Para-Maranhao Basins. This group deno.t es very shallow
basement and its orientation verges on the structural fabric of the onshore
Precambrian provinces (see Chapter 7 and Fig. 5.6). As mentioned before, this.
same relationship has been documented in West Africa for the magnetic field
offshore South Liberia (Behrendt et al.,1974). The second group is closely
related to the extension of the equatorial fracture zones toward the continental
margin. It is interpreted either as intrusions of asthenospheric material into a
thinned continental crust or the oceanic fracture zone itself composed of a suit
of basic and ultrabasic rocks. Whichever of these is valid, the magnetic response
of the basement is modulated by a thick sedimentary cover. Among the evidence
for the oceanic nature of the E-W anomalies are: (1) collinearity with structures
of the oceanic basement mapped in deep water areas; (2) close relationship with
seamounts of basaltic nature in the slope and continental rise of the regions
outlined by these anomalies and (3) correlation with very steep gradients of
gravity field anomalies. Further ·details about the correlation between the
magnetic and gravity fields and the Precambrian structural fabric will be given .in
later sections wbefl exploring selected basins (Chapters 4,5 and 6) or presenting

Chapter 3 Page 116

 !
,•

Tectonic £1'olution of Bro.ri.lian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

field data (Chapter 7).

Figure 3.29 • Magnetic anomaly axes map of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Margin. Simplified
version of total field map of Fig. 3.28. Toothed lines are positive anomaly axes. Continuous Jines
indicate negative anomalies.

Based on the analysis of magnetic anomalies, the present day rate of sea-
floor spreading in the Atlantic has been estimated in about 2 cm a· 1 for the
Sout!'l Atlantic, 1.4-1.9 cm a· 1 for the Central Atlantic between latitudes 22-30°
North (Litvin, 1984) and about 1 to 2 cm a·1 for the Equatorial Atlantic (Parson
& Searle, 1986). Litvin (1984) also suggested that the anomalies corresponding
to earlier stages of developmen~ could be either higher or lower indicating
changes in the rates of tectonic processes taking place in this wne of plate
accretion. For the Mesozoic history a higher rate of spreading, reaching 3 to 4
cm a· 1 has been suggested.

3.4.6 Gravity Field Anomalies and the COB

The gravity field of the Brazilian margin of the Equatorial Atlantic can be ·
represented by the Bouguer maps in Figures 3.30 and 3.31. They show the

Chapter 3 Page 117

 · Teaonic Evolution of Brazilian Equa/Qrio.f Cominental Margin Basins

Bouguer anomalies corresponding to the coastal region of North Brazil and the
continental shelf-slope-rise of the adjoining ocean floor. The negative anomalies
represent major sedimentary depocentres whereas the gravity highs correspond
either to shallow basement areas over the shelf and onshore or thinned
_. continental crust oceanward. The .Bouguer anomalies, when passing from the
land to the ocean, increase from -85-0 mGal along ihe coast up to + 100-140
mGal -on the continental rise fomung a belt (150-350 km in width) of large
horizontal gradients.

The pattern of the Bouguer anomalies is better illustrated in Figure 3.32,

where only the anomaly axes are represented. Two sets of anomaly trends can be
seen. The first set reflects the overall NW-SE trend of the continental margin.
The second is characterized by regions where the anomalies are E-W oriented.
These latter are meridionally located at (1) 3°30'-3°00'N; (2) 1°00'-0°30'N; (3)
2°00'-3°00'S and (4) 4°00'-5°00'. The E-W trends outline the (I) southern limit of
the Amazon deep fan in the Foz do Amazonas Basin; the (2) northern segment
of the Para-Maranhao Basin (Tromai Sub-basin); (3) the entire length of the
Sao Luis, Barreirinhas and Piaui-Camocini. Basins and, (4) the offshore part of
the Potiguar Basin. They also mark the continental extension of the (I) northern
and, (2) southern limits of the Saint Paul Fracture Zone, and (3) the Romanche
and ( 4) Fernando de Noronha Fracture Zones. A third subtle set of anomalies
can also be observed following a NE-SW direction. This set fits the group of
magnetic anomalies related to the Precambrian structural fabric (previous
section and section 7.2).

The gravity field of the Western Equatorial Atlantic can also be represented
by the free-air anomalies maps shown in figures 3.33 and 3.34. The map of
Figure 3.33 cover most of the continental margin between longitudes 43° and
50°W. It reveals that from the ocean towards the shelf, anomalies increase up to
+ 85 mGal, and then decrease toward the shore. This decrease of gravity values
is interrupted by a broad positive anomaly ( + 30 mGal) striking NW-SE over the
shelf, which in this area is particularly wide. This anomaly cannot be assigned to

01apter 3 Page 118

figure 3.30 - B-0uguer anomalies map of the westtnt portion of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic
Continentai Margin. Contour interval 5 mGal. Colour scale: blues=-90/-4-0 mGal; gn::ens=-4-0/0
mGal; yellow=0/10 m<.;aJ; oranges= 10/SO mGal; reds=S0/90; purple=90/135 mGal.

Chapter 3 Page l 19
 N

BRAZIL

5·

('\
~'
~
;:::.
~
...
...., 40' 36.
'"ti
:~
-
~v
<::::
Figure 3.31 • ffouguer anomalies map or the eastern portion of the Bruiiliun Equuturiul Atluntk
Contlnentul Margin. Contour lntervid 2..5 mGal. Colour imde: blues=-S0/10 mGul; greens= 10/50
mGi•J; ydluw= 50/60 mGul; oranges =60/100 mGal; n:ds = 100/120 mGal; browns= 120/ 150 mG&ll .
 .·
,...
Tccionic Evolurion of Brazilian Equatorial Continemal Margin Basins

Figure 3.32 • Pattern or Houguer anomalies along the Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin. (1)
positive anomaly axes; (2) negative anomaly axes.

the gravity effect of any bathymetric relief and is therefore, related to mass
distribution within the crust (Mello & Bender, 1988). Locally (e.g. eastern sector
of the Para-Maranhao Basin), the free-air anomalies form a characteristic belt of
conjugate positive ( + 75 mGal) and negative (·30 mGal) anomalies caused by the
mutual influence of crustal boundary effect and a thick sedimentary sequence.
The same overall pattern of NW-SE and E-W trends of the Bouguer r;:;:;uction
map is observed here. To the north of the mouth of the Amazonas River, a large
isometric positive anomaly (up to + 45 mGal) is related to the location of the
Amazon deep-sea fan, which breaks the overall NW-SE steep gradient of the
free-air anomalies.

ln the oceanic domain (Fig. 3.34 ), the free-air gravity field is characterized
by the following features: (1) a gravity high ranging in amplitude from + 25
rnGal to more than + 75 rnGal near the shelf break; (2) free-air gravity
anomalies directly related t0 the bathymetric relief of the ocean floor (positive
anomalies over major linear ridges of fracture zones and gravity lows over
trenches within the Romanche and Saint Paul fracture zones) and, (3) steep

Chapter 3 Page 121

- Tectonic E<"olution of Brazilian £ q11atorial Co11tinental Margin Basins

gravity gradient across the North Brazilian Ridge positive anomaly. Based on the
close resemblance of the isostatic and free-air anomalies of the fracture zones,
Rabinowitz & Cochran (1978) suggested that there was a lack of local
compensation for these features. Hayes & Ewing (1970) however, indicated that
the NW-SE striking segment of the North Brazilian ridge is compensated at
depths typical of the Moho. This suggestion may support the idea drawn.from
geometrical considerations that this segment of the North Brazilian ridge marks
the position and orientation of an extinct spreading-centre.

The Bouguer and free-air anomalies patterns show, when passing from the
continent to th e ocean, the reduction of,.crustal thickness. In general, in regions
dominated by the NW-SE trend, the anomalies show a .smoother gradient
indicating a gradual crustal thinning. Alternatively, the pattern of E-W anomalies
show steeper gradients, better observed in the Bouguer maps (Figs. 3.30 and
3.31 ). A good example of this is provided by the Barreirinhas Basin, between
longitudes 43°30'and 4 I 0 W, where in less than 100 km the anomalies of the
gravity field increase from -60 up to + 105 mGal, characterizing a high rate of
crustal thinning and a sharp transition between continental and oceanic crusts.
These indications will be fuller investigated later in this thesis by 2-D gravity
modelling exercises (see sections 4.6 and 5.5.3).

3.4.7 Seismicity

Earthquakes are known to occur in the Atlantic Ocean (Sykes, 1967). They
show an important concentration along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, but are
particularly strong and have a rather high frequency in the equatorial zone of
large transverse fractures (Litvin, 1984 ). The equatorial region therefore, is one
of the most seismically active zones of the entire Atlantic. The others being the
Mediterranean (East Azores Fracture Zone) and the Caribbean and South
Sandwich Islands island-arcs (Litvin, 1984). In the equatorial regi on, the
earthquakes can reach magnitudes of 7.0-8.5 on the Richter scale and occur at
rather shallow depths, 30-35 km. Two principal types of mechanisms for

Chapter 3 Page 122

 Teaonic £\'Olurion Gf Brazilian Eq11aron·a1 Continental Margin Basins

gravity gradient across the North Brazilian Ridge positive anomaly. Based on the
close resemblance of the isostatic and free-air anomalies of the fracture zones
' '
Rabinowitz & Cochran (1978) suggested that there was a lack of local
compensation for these features. Hayes & Ewing (1970) however, indicated that
the NW-SE striking segment of the North Brazilian ridge is compensated at
depths typical of the Moho. This suggestion may support the idea drawnfrom
geometrical considerations that this segment of the North Brazilian ridge marks
the position and orientation of an extinct spreading-centre.

The Bouguer and free-air anomalies patterns show, when passing from the
continent to the ocean. the reduction of,crustal thickness. In general, in regions
dominated by the NW-SE trend, the anomalies show a .smoother gradient
indicating a gradual crustal thinning. Alternatively, the pattern of E-W anomalies
show steeper gradients, better observed in the Bouguer maps (Figs. 3.30 and
3.31 ). A good example of this is provided by the Barreirinhas Basin, between
longitudes 43°30'and 41°W, where in less than 100 km the anomalies of the
gravity field increase from -60 up to + 105 mGal, characterizing a high rate of
crustal thinning and a sharp transition between continental and oceanic crusts.
These indications will be fuller investigated later in this thesis by 2-D gravity
modelling exercises (see sections 4.6 and 5.5.3).

3.4. 7 Seismicity

Earthquakes are known to occur in the Atlantic Ocean (Sykes, 1967). They
show an important concentration along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, but are
particularly strong and have a rather high frequency in the equatorial zone of
large transverse fractures (Litvin, 1984). The equatorial region therefore, is one
of the most seismically active zones of the entire Atlantic. The others being the
Mediterranean (East Azores Fracture Zone) and the Caribbean and South
Sandwich Islands island-arcs (Litvin, 1984 ). In the equatorial region, the
earthquakes can reach magnitudes of 7.0-8.5 on the Richter scale and occur at
rather shallow depths, 30-35 km. Two principal types of mechanisms for

Ozoprer 3 Page 122

 ~\
\
_).

.,,. ._,
-.:........
l
I
~;
-r·· r-..:1,;/.
,, J

I··~

I : :,.·..., - - ,
,>n· •.,:r- ~ .../
l ,-; <\ •- • -~!.
.
~~~--
..- .(Qj ,__ ..::;.......
-~-- ..... '··· .
. - ·- ... · -;.:.... . .

·1~
-~• f •I J
$1~ ~o· \'

Figure ~~"\3 • Free·uir gru,·it~· anomalies

ma p of the Bra:dllun Equatorial Atlantic
i)
...~ - Continental Margin (source Pdrobnis) • 2'
..;:
Contour intcnat 5 m(ial. '\ dlow oulline-s BRAZIL
~ ..;~. :·::, ~ ·,~.···~ :
(...,
po5itive values. .~ .:- .~f.? r,. .fr.·,11~
):!
l;::
A!. b --·..,(;ro.
~ -...1 --:.

-
~

l"
·~....
 36 3 2·
a·
...
EQUATORIAL
... ~ "
ATLANTIC OCEAN
4 lw 4 I (I
_,
<'
0

·---
4'

o·
-...
I f'"'!"'~t.--1..,..
~
: ,1,
.; ,:;
. ..........11/"'#?
<>,..

~
'"'\

r.a,,~ -...---.__ ~~--''·,

'ij =
/
.-!/
BRAZIL
. d ,--., . """

p' ·"-\...
9 4
-.......
-
~
~
1
...... 48 4 4· 40
'-....... . . . .
~-~
·:...
~
~
Figure 3.34 • Fn-e-air gravity auoniaJle.s map or the We.stem ltquatorial Allanlk (from RulJIO(IWiti & Coclarun. 11'7~) .
~
 TeclQnic Evolurion of Brruilian fAluacorial Continental Margin Basins

earthquakes on the ocean floor of the Equatorial Atlantic have been suggested
(Sykes, 1967). Earthquakes on fracture zones are characterized by a
predominance of strike-slip motion on a steeply dipping plane. The strike and
sense of motion is in agreement with that predicted for transform faults.
Earthquakes located on the crest of the mid-oceanic ridge are characterized by a
predominance of normal faulting. The inferred axes of minimum compressive
stress are· approximately perpendicular to the local strike of the ridge (Sykes,
1967).

3.5 COMPARISON OF THE GEOLOGY OF WEST AFRICA AND NORTH

BRAZIL

The aim of the following discussion is not to make a comple te comparative

study of geological links between the African and South Affierican co~tinents.

This is covered in a number of papers and comprehensively summarized by

Torquato & Cardani (1981). Only geological and geophysical aspects relevant to
the main goal of this research by comparing continental geology on both sides of
the Equatorial Atlantic will be considered here. This is a prerequisite for a
better understanding of the geodynamic evolution of the region and w obtain a
clearer picture of the basement architecture and its degree of anisotropy prior to
the development of the Mesozoic basins.

3.5.1 The Matching of Precambrian Age Provinces

Archean to Middle Proterozoic

The pre-Brasiliano/Pan-African geological history of the equatorial regions

of Africa and South America is a very controversial subject. The main point of
dispute being whether the continental crust of these regions, formed to a large
extent during the Archean was: (1) produced by fully developed plate tectonic
process including the creation and consumption of oceanic lithosphere; or (2) the

Owpter 3 Page 125

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian EqtUJtorial Cominental Margin Basins

result of an ensialic development with no accretion of oceanic material.

From evidence presented earlier (sections 3.2.1 and 3.3.1), the Middle
Precambrian structure of both continental blocks, greenstone belts are important
components of the crust in both regions. This suggests an oceanic stage for the
Eburnean (in Africa) and Transamazonian "(in South America) orogenic episode.
The NE-SW oriented linear schists belts are the remains of this event and may
constitute zones of fundamental discontinuities within the Lower Proterozoic
basement. Due to the limited geochronologicaJ and field data coming from these
regions, however, the possibility of localized continental evolution cannot be
dismissed. It is possible that the NW-SE structures of the Gurupi fold belt, of
uncertain age, may represent one of these Lower Proterozoic ensialic domains,
although they are more likely to represent younger Pan-African events.

Late Proterozoic

Late Proterozoic events are better documented than those of the Archean.
All the major tectonic provinces are better defined on both continents, and their
boundaries are reasonably delineated (Fig. 3.35). The Pan-African/Brasiliano
belts are widely believed to have formed by operation of the Wilson Cycle (e.g.
Windley, 1983). Some of the important diagnostic elements indicative of modern-
style plate tectonic activity of these belts are described in Burke & Dewey
(1970), Grant (1973), Pedreira (1979), Ball (1980), Caby et.al (1981), Liegeois et
al. (1983), Lesquer et al. (1984), Caby & Arthaud (1986) and Caby (1989). The
Beninian belt, in particular, contains rocks characteristic of both plate accretion
and subduction environments and is a paratectonic orogen developed during an
episode of ocean closure (Burke & Dewey, 1970).

Taking into account the geographical location as well as the similarities in

the geological and geochronological patterns, the following main provinces of the
two continents are usually correlated: (1) the Gurupi and the Rokelides fold
belts; (2) the Sao Lufs and the West African cratons and (3) the Brasiliano fold

Ozapter 3 Page 126

 Tectonic EWJlucion of Br~lian Equatorial Cohtinenral Margin Basins

Figure 3.35 - Configuration of the Upper Proterozoic orogenic belt system of West Gondwanaland
(from Porada, 1989). Black= Upper Proteroz.oic thrust-fold belts; hatching= areas of Upper
Proterozoic to Lower Palaeozoic basement rejuvenation.

belts of Nor_theastern Brazil and the Pan-African belts (Figs. 3.35 and 3.36) (see
sections 3.2, 3.3 and 7.2 for descriptions of tectonic elements).

The Rokelides were described as a fold belt surrounding the western side of
the West African Craton. This fold belt can be linked in a reconstruction of
Gondwana as a continuation of the Gurupi Fold Belt bordering the southwestern
edge of the Sao Luis Craton. Both comprise NW-SE oriented structures in
basement and metasedimentary rocks. The northeaster~y vergence of both belts
is another striking similarity. There is little doubt that both belts share a
common evolution and that they represent a moderately extended
intracontinental rift followed by the Brasiliano Orogeny. Uplifted lower crustal
rocks are present at shallow levels and no ophiolites have been found to date.

The great geological similarities between the Borborerna and the Beninian-

Chapter 3 Page 127

'·

Tecronic £1'0fution of Brazifian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

~ ~ 2Ga 01tons.
.. nucle-4

}'::..:._.J t=~rcl•nd .n.. o~"'

~ Wl:s.tct,, t40QO~
t.="'~ l.Jp(>ec- Pt01~f0lO~C

Acwo..k,ed Af'chc-.a('\
+
1ftd Ptot~fo1.ojc ~ovier -+ 20·

M•jo' '"e1r aon:e· . · !l

l••e p,.ot~ro10<
SU1"tC
+

+
+
0
...
.·

.~·
. +
1000ltm

BRAZIL
+ -J9
,o·

+ +

Figure 3.36 - The Pan-African and BrasiJiano belts in a pre-Mesozoic drift reconstruction (from
Caby, 1989). Arrows Indicate movement directions in nappes and along shear zones.

Nigerian provinces support the conclusions drawn by many authors that these
two regions share a similar tectonic evolution. A number of Hnes of evidence can
be cited: (I) the overall NE-SW oriented structural pattern given by
metamorphic foliation, mylonites and thrust faults is similar in both regions; (2)
. the continental scale dextral ductile shear zones are found in both areas and are
easily correlated across the younger provinces; (3) there are stratigraphic
similarities between the Beninian and the Medio Coreau thrust-fold belts and,
(4) the radiometric ages in both cases duster around 600 Ma (Hurley et al.,
1967). Major shear zones that correlate across the Atlantic are: (a) the Sobral-

Chapter 3 Page 128

'

Tecronic Evolution of Brazili.an Equa1oriat Continemaf Margin Basins

Pedro II/Transbrasiliano lineament is collinear with the Nigerian Kandi fault

(Caby, 1989) (Fig. 3.36); (b) the· Patos shear zone correlates with the central
shear system rooted beneath the Benue trough (Popoff, 1988) or alternatively
with the Ngaoundere fault (Benkhelil, 1988;· Cab.y, 1989) and (3) the
Pernambuco lineament is colinear with the Central Af:rican shear zone (Popoff,
1988;· Fairhead, 1988b) or the Sanaga fault (Benkhdil, 1988) (Fig. 3.37).

AFRICA

·P ·-- -..
... . .

BRAZIL
SFC

Figure 3.37 - Reconstruction showing the position of South America and Africa around the Gulf of
Guinea and suggested matching of major shear zones (from Benkhelil, 1988).

3.5.2 The Search for a Tectonic Model for the Brasiliano Orogeny

R ecent investigations carried out on a broad area of the Borborema province

(Caby & Arthaud, 1986) have suggested that the steep shear zones of northeast
Brazil exhibit typical features generated by horizontal tectonics and involved
both the Arcpean basement and the Proterowic units. The authors interpreted
some of the steep shear zones as lateral ramps of nap :~es of Archean rocks
thru sted o nto Archean baseme nt and having a core of Proterozoic rocks. The
deduced transport direction is towards west-southwest and took place during the
Brasiliano Orogeny. Based on the similarity in structural style and associated
reverse metamorphism, they consider the northern sector of the province as a
former Hjmalayan-type thickened crust generated during a continent-continent .
collisio n. This supports earlier views (e.g. Burke & Dewey, 1970) that a complete

Chapter 3 Page 129

 ·'

Tectonic Evolucion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Wilson Cycle is present in this belt (Caby et al., 1981), covering the time period
900-550 Ma. An Upper Proterozoic rifting episode along the eastern margin of
the West African/Sao Luis cratons led to the development of a passive
continental ·margin (Caby et al., 1981). A succession of typical continental margin
sedimentary sequences are found in the Gourma and Volta basins (Caby et al.,
1981; Trompette, 1983), in Africa, and in the Media Coreau fold belt (Abreu ef'
al., 1988), in Brazil. These sediments thicken eastward ~nd are characteristic of
passive margin deposits adjoining a matt.ire wide ocean basin.

The Gourma embayment, in Mali, is thought to be a failed arm of this rift

system which evolved as an aulacogen. Similar development is suggested for the
Gurupi River region. If the analogy drawn with the Himalayan-type continental
collision model (Burke & Dewey, 1970; Caby et al., 1981) is correct (Fig. 3.38),

IN DIAN

,. lAT E

l
N

SOOl(m

Figure 338 - Analogical comparative model for the Pan-African Orogeny. Comparison between
Cenozoic and neotectonics of Eastern Asia and Pan-African tectonics in West Africa (from Black
& Fabre, 1983).

the amount of dextral displacement along the NNE-SSW trending shear zones in

Chapter 3 Page 130

'·

Teaonic Evolurion of Brazilian Equarorial Continental Margin Basins

the Pan-African belt may well exceed 1 OOO Km and these shear zones hence
represent major lithospheric scale discontinuities. These shear zones, well
represented in the Brazilian Borborerna Province, would be the agents for a
northeastward directed crustal extrusion outlined by the mylonitic zones.

It is suggested here (Fig. 3.39), that in the Late. Proterozoic tectonic episode
the Rokelides-=Gurupi belt fits reasonably well to an intracratonic orogen.
development whereas the region further northwest was involved in a collisional
process which produced a larger linear mountain belt. This western belt parallels
the Pan-African belt located at the eastern side of the West African Craton.
That same region was later affected by the Appalachian-Caledonian and
Hercynian-Variscan orogenies, which affected the southern Rokelides and
Gurupi fold belt only to a limited degree. Thus, an aulacogen-type evolution is

...
Figure 3.39 - Suggestion for the Late Proterozoic-Early Phanerozoic tectonic episode or West Africa
and North Brazil. WAC=West African era ton; AC=Amazonian craton; RB= Rokelides belt;
GB=Gurupi belt.

predicted for the Gurupi belt. This would imply (1) no accretion of oceanic
material, (2) little convergence, (3) no significant thickening of the lithosphere
and ( 4) a possible component of lateral slip on major faults. Alternatively, the
crustal shortening event could be tentatively linked to plate motion along a

Chapfer 3 Page 131

 Tectonic fa•ofwion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

NNE-SSW direction and to the closure of a NW-SE trending sub-oceanic

domain. In this context, the southwestern edge of the West African/Sao Lufs
Craton could possibly conceal a remanent of oceanic crust hidden beneath
trough deposits. A third hypothesis is one that assumes that the oceanic crust
could have been entirely abducted during the closure and lately removed by
erosion. In Chapters 6 and 7 new seismic data will be presented together with
gravity modelling exercises and field data which will give new insights into the
structure and evolution of the Precambrian terrains of the Gurupi River Region.

3.5.3 Comparison of the Palaeozoic Geology

The Palaeozoic stratigraphic record of southern West Africa and North

Brazil show an unbalanced pattern. Sedimentary rocks ranging in age from
Ordovician up to Permian are well represented in the Brazilian Arnazonas and
Parnafba Basins, whereas Palaeozoic beds in the African side are pre.served in
the small Volta Basin and a narrow belt of coastal outcrops in south Ghana
(Sekondi-Takarodi). These Ohanian rocks are correlated with the Palaeozoic
succession in Brazil. The establishment of these basins follows the collapse of . .
the Brasiliano/Pan-African orogen and therefore, might be related to later stages
of isostatic compensation of the lithosphere. The entire region had achieved
stabilization by the Permian, implying that the crust had reached an average
crustal thickness3.

The Palaeozoic of West Africa was affected by a post-Jurassic shearing event

which produced at least one well documented case of folding associated with
dextral strike-slip faulting (see Fig. 3.20). Northfleet & Neves (1966) (referred by
Miranda et al., 1986) documented sub-horizontal striation on slickensides of
vertical fault planes in Triassic and Albian-Cenomanian rocks of the Parnafba
Basin. This evidence suggests that post-Albian strike-slip tectonics has affected

3
32 km is a figure considered close to an average crustal thickness for a continental crust reaching
isostatic compensation after the collapse of an orogenic bell. At this stage, the Earth surface is
assumed to be levelled to the mean sea-level position at that time.

Chaprcr 3 Page 132

- Ttc1onic £volu1ion of Brazilian Equaiorial Contifzental Margin Basins

the Palaeozoic succession in northeast Brazil, in addition to that previously

indicated for West Africa.

3.5.4 The Mesozoic Basic Magmatism

Mesozoic basic intrusive and extrusive magmatism is widespread in West

Africa and North Brazil (Sial et al., 1986; Gibbs, 1986; Almeida et al., 1988).
Major occurrences were referred in earlier sections. These occurrences cover a
large area of the Brazilian platform and are not particularly associated with the
marginal be.sins. In fact, the contribution of these rocks to the stratigraphy of
some of these basins (e.g. Barreirinhas Basin) is minor. The Triassic.-Jurassic
rocks (Cassipore dyke swarm; M-araj6 rift system) are usually correlated to the
extensional event that preceded the opening of the Central Atlantic. Their
orientation is consistent with a NE-SW extension direction. Effects of crustal
anisotropy on dyke directions is an important problem but shall not be discussed
here. The extension direction suggested for the initial subsidence of the Maraj6
rift system however, derives from well established kinematic models of opening
of the Central Atlantic (e.g. Pindell, 1985; Pindell et al., 1988). The Lower
Cretaceous magmatism (Parnafba basin; Ivory Coast-Ghana) is attributed to the
northward propagation of the South Atlantic rifting. The younger occurrence of
E-Vv' oriented dykes in the Borborema Province have been interpreted as related
to a complex stress field established in the northeastern corner of Brazil
(Szatmari et al., 1987).

3.6 CORRELATION BElWEEN CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC GEOLOGY

3.6.1 Implications of the Precambrian Framework for the Gondwana

Breakup

As seen above, the West African Craton is a large geotectonic unit

exhibiti ng multiple Precambrian tectonic episodes. The Sao Lufs Craton, in

Chapter 3 Page 133

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinental Margin Basins

North Brazil, seems to have witnessed similar episodes and is usually seen as a
small piece of the same large unit that was separated during the Mesozoic
drifting event. This aspect of the evolution of the region leads to the question of
"Why the northward propagation of the South America rifting did not follow an
easier path through the chain of Pan-African belts along the eastern side of the
West African craton?" Why, instead, did it bend westward and separate the two
cratonic areas whose structural fabric was in an unfavourable orientation with
respect to the rifting propagation? These questions are a main objective of this
research and the answers are thought to rest on the interaction between the
inherited basement structural pattern (Chapter 7) and the Mesozoic kinematics
of the plate motions (Chapter 9).

The geometrical and mechanical aspects of the question are partially

explained by the correlation between the Brasil~ano and Pan-African

~ deformation belts and the major oceanic fracture zones. Since the structural
fabric of the cratonic areas and eastern orogenic belts have no inherited

I dominant features other than those of the NE-SW trend, the E-W rupture must

~
have been caused by a stress regime which was not favourably oriented for the
reactivation of the Precambrian structures. However, the importance of these

~ older lithospheric zones of weakness for the rupture propagation is apparent in

~ the pattern of equatorial fracture zones of the Atlantic Ocean (see next section).
~ These fracture zones and their related transform faults, which separate two

• tectonic plates, are linked to continental shear zones in both continents. A

• number of authors have already suggested that the equatorial transform faults
• may have been formed (initiated) preferentially on pre-existing zones of

••• weakness present in the Pan-African/Brasi1iano basement (e.g. De Loczy, 1970;

Sykes, 1978; Ball, 1980). Almeida & Black (1968) emphasized that NE-S-W
~
directions can be found in the Late Proterozoic terrains of North Brazil and
•
II
West Africa on reconstructions made before the opening of the Atlantic. This
~ close relationship indicates that the fracture zones partially owe their origin to
II those fundamental discontinuities of the continental lithosphere.
I

••
• Chapter 3 Page 134

•
't~
.I

.·

Tectonic E"olution of Brazilian EqualOriol Continental Margin Basins

3.6.2 Geophysical Evidence for Correlation of Oceanic Fracture zones

with major Continental Features

Geophysical data sets have been useful to support geological correlations

across the Eql}atoria! Atlantic. In addition to the multi-institutional geophysical
data sets acquired in the region during the 1960'_s and 1970's (compiled by ·
Cochran, 1973; Cande & Rabinowitz, 1979; Rabinowitz & Cochran, 1978 and
Gorini, 1977), more recent data sets obtained by· geodetic satellites (Bostrom,
1989) have also been used. Plate 3.1 reproduces an image of Haxby's (1985)
shaded-relief map of the gravity field of the Equatorial and South Atlantic
oceans. The map was prepared from Seasa t altimeter data and mimics a free-air
anomaly map obtained by conventional shipborne gravime ters. In this map, the ·
shades represent relief illuminated from the north. The figure displays values as
follow: blues =-45 / 0 mGal, yellows= 0/ + 20 mGal and orange-red= higher than
+ 20 mGal. The most striking feature of the map is the outstanding continuity of
the equatorial fracture zones, particularly the Romanche. It can be seen that, in
the Brazilian half, this fracture zone assumes an E-W orientation whereas its
Africa n part strikes ENE-WSW. Approaching the Ghanian coast, the fracture
zone bends and assumes a NE-SW trend compatible with the Kandi suture
(Caby, 1989) (Fig. 3.19) and the Preca mbrian structural fabric detected onshore .

The projection of the Rornanche into the Brazilian ma rgin is perhaps better
observed in the map obtained from Geosat altimetry data (Fig. 3.40).
This map depicts the signature of the variation of sea surface slope in the
Equatorial Atlantic and emphasises the extreme continuity of the Romanche.
This fracture zone can be easily traced into the area :' ccupied by th e Piauf-
Camocim and Barreirinhas Basins (see Fig. 3.25). This zone can be traced
furth e r to the west trough the Sao Lufs Basin and the Tentugal Shear Zone.
Alternatively, the Romanche could also be linked to the shear zones that border
the Ba rreirinhas Basin to the east. These zones, belonging to the Medio Coreau
Fold Belt, can be traced furthe r to the south into the Parnafba Basin through the
T ransbrasiliano Lineament or the Sobral-Pedro If Shear Z one. In either

Chaprer 3 Page J35

 Tecronic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Omrinemal Margin Basins

AFRICA

BRAZIL

Figure 3.40 • Deflection of the vertical Geosat ascending passes. Note the pattern and continuit:· of
the fracture zones in the Equatorial Atlantic (unpublished data provided by J.Mascle).

interpretation, however, the Romanche fracture zone is confidently <;orrelated

with major discontinuities (sutures) of the Precambrian basement on both sides
of the Atlantic. This strongly suggests that the fracture zone, although showing
an orientation apparently incompatible with a continental origin, is related to
ancient lithospheric scale discontinuities. Having established the geometrical and
mechanical links of the Romanche Fracture Zone with onshore suture zones. the
present rlav configuration of them can be explained as a result of the kinematics
of the Equatorial Atlantic opening, which will be examined in Chapter 9.

The discussion above, supported by the Seasat gravity image (Plate 3.1;
Haxby, 1985, image reproduced by Bostrom, 1989) and accurate mapping of the
tectonic fabric of the Equatorial Atlantic (Gorini, 1977; Blarez, 1986; Mascle &.
Blarez, 1987; Blarez & Mascle, 1988), permitted a very confident correlation of
marginal basins across the oceanic basin. Thus, within the area studied in detail
during this research, the following conjugate pairs of basins are correlated
(North-Northeast Brazil followed by the West African counterpart): (1) basins
located in fracture zones or in their continental extensions: (la) Saint Paul
Fracture Zone- western Para-Maranhao (Tromaf Sub-ba~in) and southern Foz

Chapl<r 3 Page J36

 + + + + ...
.... + • ++++
... + + + + + +
+++++++
+ + + + + + +
1' + + + + + +
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+ ... + +
+ ... +
+ + ... +
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+ + + +
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..
.. .. .. .... .. + .. ..... + ..+ + ..+
+
+

+
. . .
. ... ... . . . ... +
v
8 e + +
_J

N
':(
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';
.. + .. + + .. +
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+

<
a:
;;;
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+
.. + + + + ..+ + + + +
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Ill @~ +
.. + .. ...
+
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-=,,..,.
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< . .,. ""
'Zw ..
c ¥'1 ••

a: ~ ~;.
0 ~:

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+ + + + + +
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. .. . .. .. .. ..
. + + .. + .. ..
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x
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w u u 0 w
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....
::>
0
lt< !~O lH 1'<!~0!Yl ~· WI• •n IH<01
::
AH' l l l l l 1no1:>¥n1:i
"'
Figure 3.41 - Comparative synthetic chronostratigraphical chart of Equatorial Brazilian and West
African sedimentary basins. Modified from several sources: (1) Ponte & Asmus, 1978; (2) Ribeiro
et al., 1987; (3) Schaller et al., 1971; Miura et al., 1976; (4) Cainelli et al., 1986; (5) Aranha et al.,
1988; (6) Figueiredo et al., 1982; (7) Costa et al., 1989; (8) Bertani et al., 1989; (9) Benkhelil et al.,
1988; (10) Latreille & Vernet, 1987; Elvsborg & Dalode, 1984; (11) Kesse, 1986; Akpati, 1975; (12)
SEC, 1987.

Chapter 3 Page 137

 Tectonic £••olutioll of Brazilian £qua1orial Continental Margin Basins

do Amazonas Basins with southern Liberia and northern Ivory Coast offshore
basins; (lb) Romanche Fracture Zone- Piaui-Camocim and Barreirinhas Basins
with offshore Ghana Basin; (k) Fernando de Noronha/Chain/Jean Charcot .
Fracture Zohes- offshore Potiguar Basin with Benue Trough. (2) Basins.loca.ted
in the interval between fracture zones; (2a) eastern Para-Maranhao Basin with
most of the Ivory Coast offshore· Basin; (2b) Mundau Basin with offshore basins ·.
of Togo, Benin and Nigeria in the northern part of the Gulf of Guinea. A
chronostratigraphic correlation chart relating these basins is presented in Figure
3.41 .

3.7 CONCLUSIONS

The major conclusions related to the structure and co rrelation of the

continental and oce anic geology of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean drawn from
this chapter a re summarized below:

(1) The Brazilian basement has not been subjected to any active: mountain . .

bui ld ing pro cess since the Early Cambrian. This supports the a ssumption that
post-Palaeozoic basins were initiated on continental lithosphere of average
thickness.

(2) There is no apparent record of strong Palaeozoic tectono-thermal activity in

the West African and North Brazilian borders of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean.
Magmatism was intense and episodic during Mesozo ic and Cenozoic times.

(3) With the excepti on of minor Triassic deposition (Sambafba Formation, in

Brazi l and Se kondi Series, in Africa), by the Permian the entire region had
a chieved relative vertical stabilization.

(4) From Pala e o.zoic ti mes until the present day, rea ctivation of the e arlier N -S
shears a nd NE-SW strike-slip faults has been of considerable importa nce in

Chapter 3 Page 138

I

Tectonic £yo/111io11 of 8"1~i/ian £q11a1onal Co;uwcntal Margin Jlasi11s

con trolling the structure o f a large part of West Afr ica and North-Northeast
Brazil.

(5) The original assumption of the !;>late T ectonic theory that the plates have a
strong rotational rigidity d uring the drift is shown to be unte nable for the A frica-
South American case.

(6) The R omanche Fracture Zone a nd its extensions are geometrically and
mechanically iinked with the Kandi/Sobral-Pedro II suture zones in the
continental crust of West Africa and North Brazil.

(7) The relationship betwee n the age of the ocean fl oor and ·its subsidence
(Sleep, 1971; Steckler & Wa tts, 1978) cannot be applied in regions of the ocean
fl oor or continental crust close to fracture zones or their continental extensions.

Chapter 3 Page 139

,...

PART II

DATA PRESENTATION ·

ANALYSIS AND

RESULTS
 CHAPTER 4

THE BARREIRINHAS BASIN

"In the field of obsen'ation, chance on!y :·~-•ours those

mind5 which hal'<' been prepared.. L..Pastcur

4.1 INTRODUCTION AND PAST WORK

The Barreiri.nlzas Basin is a major depocentre of the Brazilian Equatorial

Atlantic continental margin located be~ween 42°-44°W, to the east of the Para·
Maranhao and west of the Ceara Basins (see Fig. 3.9). The main southern
border fault is called Sobradinho Fault which separates a northern deep basin
from the shallow Palaeozoic basement of the Sobradinho.Platfomz:The basin has
an onshore portion distributed over 15,000 km2 in a narrow land belt about 120
km long and 20-80 km wide.

The basin was discovered in 1958 after interpretation of a re£ional gravity

survey. Since then, about 80 wells have been drilled with minor oi: and gas
strikes. Following its discovery, a large number of geologists have ~tudied various
aspects of the geology of the Barreirinhas Basin. Among the mos: relevant
regional studies are Rezende & Araujo (1970), Miura & Barbosa ( 1972) and
Figueiredo et al. (1982). The stratigraphy was initially defined onshore by
Pamplona· ( 1969) and later reviews extended it to the offshore portion (Ojeda \..\:.
6

Motta, 1975; Brown et al., 1976 and Figueiredo et ai., 1982). Studies of
diagenesis (Correa & Truckenbrodt, 1988), sedimentology (Noguti. 1964;
Rodrigues et al., 1969; Pamplona et al., 1972), sedimentary petrology (Noguti.
1964a, 1967; Tibana & Toniatti, 1969; Carozzi et.al., 1970), geothcrmometry
(Zembruscki & Azevedo, 1987), organic geochemi::.try (Rodrigue~ et al., 1984)
and hiostratigraphy (Noguti, 1966; Lima. 1971; Regali et al., 198:: Uesegui,
1986) have also heen carried out. The petroleum potential of the tiasin was

Chapter 4 Pag.,· j.J I

 Tecto,,ic fa•olution of 8razilia11 Eq11a1oria/ Conti"':ntal Margin Basins

discussed in Pamplona et al. (1971), Ojeda & Mota (1975), Brown et al. (1976),
Juca et al. (1977), Ojeda (1982a), Figueiredo et al. (1982), Lima et al. (1985)
and Azevedo ( 1987). Many aspects of the structure of the basin were discussed
in Rezende & Pamplona (1967), Rezende & Araujo (1970), Ojeda & Mota
(1975), Juca et al. (1977), Ojeda & Guazelli (1981), Ojeda (1982a); Figueiredo
et al. (1982), Figueiredo et al. (1983), Azevedo et al. (1985), Azevedo (1986) and
Rici & Goes (1988).

This chapter presents the results of seismic mapping and interpretation, as

well as gravity modelling and the establishment of the stratigraphical-structural
framework of the basin. The results of detailed subsidence analysis are reported
for the first time.

The data base utilised in this study consists oi 3 OOO km of reflection seismic
profiles (Fig. 4.1), variable forms of well data from circa 80 boreholes (Fig. 4.2)
and complete coverage of gravity and aeromagnetic surveys.

4.2 STRATIGRAPHY

The stratigraphy of the Barreirinhas Basin is a direct response co its comple.x

tectonic history. This stratigraphy will be described in some detail, 10 enable the
extraction of structural data from the stratigraphical record.

Th e onshore portion of the basin is entirely covered by a blanket of Late

Ce nozoic eolian sand dunes. The maximum Mesozoic-Cenozoic sedimentary
accumulation, in a single dcpocentre, exceeds 10 km. The sedimentary rocks
range from Aptian to Quaternary in age and lie directly on Palaeozoic or
Triassic units which form the Parnafba intracratonic basin, or over crystalline
basement rocks, where the Palaeozoic sequence is missing. The pre-Cretaceou~
rock units were briefly reviewed in section 3.2.2.

Chapter 4 Pagt' 142

. ·.

Tecionic Evol111it>11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

' ...._
A
...._
- --" \
50Km

\ figs. 4.16
\
\
\
.\.18 \
.\.20 '-...
-- ......._

Figure 4.1 • Reflection seismic data base for the study of the Barreirinhas Basin. Boxes outline
location of time-structural maps. Straight lines represent the seismic grid available. Labelled
seismic lines are presented in this chapter.

Chapter 4 Pag.: J.:3

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conti11cn1al Margin Ba.sins

....
' \
N
I..
' - ~·,.,'~A-/)
.
....
'
A
2· '
II
0
c
II
" -_,,_,
l
•
1l
• rll ·I.
o.

Figure 4.2 - Location or boreholes used for the study of the Harreirinhas Hasin. Full cirdes
indicate wells utilised in the subsidence analysis.

Cretaceous subsidence and sedimentation in the Barreirinhas Basin

commenced in latest Aptian to earliest Albian times (Fig. 4.3). The sedimentary
column infilling the basin has been subdivided into four major
Jithost ratigraphic1(units; (1) the Aptian continental Codb-Grajau. Se.quen.ce; (2)
the Lower Albi:H• continental to marine Caniuias Group; (3) the Upper Albian
to Cenomanian carbonate rich Caju Group and (4) the Upper Cretaceous to
Tertiary mixed siliciclastic and carbonate rich platform Humberto de Campos
Group. Pamplona ( 1969) has established the stratigraphy of the basin which has
been modified, using facies analys is concepts by Brown et al. ( 1976) and
Figueiredo et al. (1982). The following description is based mainly on these
works, on Santos et al. (1984) and partia lly on investigations carried out during
this research.

Based on stratigraphical and structural criteria, Azevedo (1986) djvided the

Barreirinhas Basin into two sub-basins: the western Caete and the eastern Tutoia
Sub-basins. They are characterized by their sedimentary infilling and distinct

Chapter 4 Page 144

 Tectonic b'Clusion of Brazilian Equasoriol Continensal Margin Basins

structural style. The descripti ons and interpretations give n below improve the
definition of these sedime ntary and structural domains. Figure 4.4 helps to locate
major structural elements of the basin which wi11 be described in section 4.3.
N

l" : : : : : : : : : : : • : : : :

..

Figure 4.4 - Major structural domains of the Barreirinhas Basin. Shade outlines shallow basement
areas.

4.2.1 Cod6-Grajau Sequence {Aptian)

This basal sequence comprises the Grajau and Cod6 Fomzations. These units
re present the fluvio -deltaic a nd lacustrine deposits of a transgressive cycle. They
are ve ry well defi ned in the nea rby Sao Lufs (subsurface ) and Parnafba (surface)
Basins (sec secti ons 6.3. 1 and 6.6) but have neve r been drilled in the
Barrei rinhas basin. Their prese nce however, is infe rred from geochemical
evide nce. Co mpa rison of chromatograms and isotop ic data o btained from
orga nic extracts of the Cod6 Formation a nd from oil recovered in Barreirinhas
(Sao Joao Field ) has shown their simi lari ty and strongly suggests a common
source ( R odrigues et al. , 1984).

Chapter 4 Page N.~

 .
.... NEDSEME
--- ....
a:
w
t- PAlltD&U ..............
•
..
-·•u=-•
...---~..,.--~~~~-+-~~~~-1 ~

"= CENOMA.
et
.....
u
c
...,
t-
1111:
u
AlBIAN

A,TIAN
'C

-
.:
c
u

!!!m
&~ OG
-u
a
N
., DU
....c C~D
Q

....
,...._

~
~!

·-%
I ..
c . ..... . r "' ..!'\':
~s-*
~ ~~
t··' .......
,,);. . ,
·:;-
·.· - .. - - - ,.- - ~ - . . • - •
. ·~ -

•
'
-4\. ·~. . .• ""'~...~ -.-.. - - . • ... .• <.., ~ • • ~. ~ ' f.
I P-£
~""
<;

._
Fibrure 4 ~1 • Slmpllricd ~tratlgruphkul churt of the Uarrrirlnha:, bu~ln. Colour code: yellow= sundstoncs; green = sfwlt:s;
c!;:
liluc =carbonate rich rock~: n:d = cry~lalllnc bast'ment 11ud b1&l>lil' magruathm (unpublished di11gram from l'ctrubras, bast'd on
Pamplom1 1969 aod J<' iguein:do et al. 19821.
 Tectonk E,•olution of Brazilian £q11a1orial Co111inc111al Margin Ba.sins

4.2.2 Canarias Group (Early Atbian)

The Canarias Group consists of the Arpoador, Bom Gosto, Tut6ia, Barro
Duro and Sobradinho Fom1ations. Its stratigraphic_?{ thickness exceeds 10 km and
was deposited during only a few million years.

Arpoador Formation

The Lower Albian Arpoador Formation records the earliest phase of

sedimentation in a fractured basin. The lower strata of this formation are
continental and are found ov.~r the Tut6ia High in the Tut6ia Sub-basin (Fig.
4.4 ). The upper portion of this formation marks the initial marine transgression
into the basin. T he very rapid vertical transition from red siltstones to deep
water shales shows that the floor of the basin should stand below sea level within
the very first million years of its formation, suggesting a rapid relative sea level
nse.

The top of the Arpoador Formation is chiefly of Early Albian age but its
base is not dated. In the only we ll where it might have been sampled (MAS-23)
the reddish section precludes biostra tigraphical dating. The actual thickness of
this formation is unknown hut gross estimates based on seismic interpretation
vary from 0 m on structural highs to over 6 500 m in the western flank of the
Tut6ia High. Its distribution is also unknown due to lack of data as well as the
tectonic inversion with consequent differential erosion. Apparently, the southern
depositional limit of the formation coincides with the Sobradinho faulr zone (Fig.
4.4). Such structu ral control on the deposition of the Arpoador Formar ion seems
to be persistent in space and time, since it has also occurred with overlying units.
This indicates that the Sobradinho fault zone was the main southern fault
boundary limit for the early stages of basin developme nt.

The Arpoador Formation overlies basement ranging in age from Archea n to

Jurassi c-Triassi c, depending upon the degree of erosion prior to its deposition.

Chapter 4 Page 14~

 Tectonic Evofurion of Bra:!ilian Equatorial CoMinental Margin Basins

The sediments are of siliciclastic composition and are chiefly shales, siltstones.. ,r1 ·,•... /. •. ~
h.:..
and fine to very fine sandston~s. Figueiredo et al. (1982) suggested slope to b£?iin ·
depositional environments for these sediments and interpreted them as coeval
with distal pelitic facies of many individual deltaic (Barro Duro-Tut6ia) and fan -
deltaic (Born Gosto) systems.

Born Gosto Formation

The Bom Gosto Fonnation consists of up to 1 100 rn of turbidites

interbedded with bathyal and slope shales. Its distri bution extends 10 the south
up to the Sobradinho fault. ·1bis unit of Early Albi ~n age documents syn-tectoruc
sedimentation in an npen-marine environment. Fauna! assemblages characteristic
of ma rine waters with normal salinity (salinity of present-day oceans) .have been
described (Rodrigues et al., 1969; Correa, 1986). The sediments are of
silici clastic composition containing shallow marine palynomorphs and such fauna!
associations as planktonic foraminife rs, gastropods and echinoids.

The informally called "Passagem do Lago Conglomerates" are included in this

u nit and were drilled in only two wells. These conglomerates denote the only
coarse-grained siliciclastic deposits in the entire basin. Based o n the fairly
extensive borehole da ta set available, it is assumed he re that the lack o f such
deposits is rath er the general case than an obscure particularity. This
observation suggests that most of the initial subsidence was under deep marine
conditions, which support the interpretation of a very rapid transition from
continental· to deep marine facies.

The Born Gosto Formation is interpreted as turbidite beds incl uded in the
Arpoador bathyal facies. Towards the west (Caete Sub-basin) this unit is
overlain by prodelta shales ascribed to the Tut6ia.Formation.

Chapter 4 Page 148

!

Tectonic Evolmion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Figu~ 4.5 - Semi-schematic depositional model for the Barro Ouro-Tutoia deltaic system. Based
on borehule data. Contours in the Caete Sub-basin indicate thickest sand rich portions of the
Barro Duro Formation. (1) Oeltaic medium to fine.grained sandstones; (2) flm"ial coarse-grained
sandstones. Note fluvial systems coming in Trom the llha de Santana platform area and shedding
the Caett! Sub-basin with medium to fine-grained sandstones.

Tut6ia Formation

The Tut6ia Fonnation, 2 OOO rn thick in places, consists of lower shales which
grade upwards to an interbedded sandstone-shale with increasing sand/shale
ratio. Like the previous formations, this unit extends itself to the southern
faulted basi n margin. Its age ranges from Early to Late Albian and is coeval with
the upper parts of the Arpoador and Born Gosto units.

The Tut6ia Formation is in essence a prodeltaic unit. It gives way upwards

to more sandy deltaic fades of the Barro Duro Formation. The source area of
these prograding deltas is thought to be located mostly in the Ilha de Santana
Platform. The sedime nts were shed into the Barreirinha.s Basin through the Ilha
Nova Graben. The entire system resembles the basin-ward migration of a large

Chapter 4 Page J.:9

 Tectonic £wJf1111on of Brazilian £qua1orial Continental Margin Basins

constructive deltaic body (Fig. 4.5).

Barro Duro Formation

The Bq.rro Duro Fonnation involves up to 2 200 m of deltaic fine-grained

sandstones and shales (Fig. 4.6). Its distribution extends mainly over the Caete
Sub-basin and the thickest parts are found in the neighbourhood of the Ilha
Nova Graben.

llha de s .. ntan11 Platform Caete Sub·bu!n

Sobradlnho Platform

2 5 km

Figure 4.6 • lsopach map of the Barro Duro Formation based on borehole and seismic data.
Contour interval 0.5 km. BJack dots show well control. Note depocentre in the Caete Sub-basin
and llha Nova Graben. NNW-SSE oriented curves in the eastern part of the map indicates
capturing of sand bodies by collapsing hanging-walls. Arrows indicate input route of sand-rich
deposits. Contour curves were partially used in the depositional model shown in Fig. 4.5.

Lithofacies and thickness variations are seen to be controlled by tilting of

faulted blocks. The sand bodies are preferentially arranged stretched along the
hanging-wa lls of normal faults. The pulses of fine sands being shed into the basin
did not reach the Tut6ia Sub-basin. Observations made on well data (cores and
electrical logs) and seismic sections as well as suggestions of other studies (e.g.
Lima, 1971; Lima et al., 1985), have shown almost continuous sedimentation ·
during the Albian. The tilted blocks .acted as sediment dams to the progradation

Chapter 4 Pag2 ."50

 Tectoni<: Evol/llion of /3razilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

of the deltaic system.

Sobradinho Formation

The Sobradinho Formation is the uppermost unit of the Canarias Group and
consists of a few hundred meters of medium to coarse-grained fluvial sandstones
with minor amounts of shale. Its stratigraphical position was deduced from
sedimentary facies studies since it has not yet been dated ·by palaeontological
means. Its distribution is presently confined to the Sobradinho Platform and its
top is marked by a regional unconformity.

Due to lack of precise time markers, Figueiredo e.t al. ( 1982) combined the
Arpoador, Born Gosto, Tut6ia, Barro Duro and Sobradinho Formations in a
faciological tract and produced the tentative distal prodelta/slope/bathyal facies
and fluvial/fan delta facies isopach maps shown in Figures 4. 7 and 4.8.

4.2.3 . Caju Group (Late Albian-Cenomanian)

The Caju Group consists of the Bonfim, Pregui~a.s and Peri.a Fomzations. The
lithological assemblages present in the Caju series vary from deep water shales
and marls up to shallow water limestones deposited in a cyclic sequence fashion.
Its thickness approaches 1 500 m on average and reaches 4 OOO m in places
(Barrein.nha.s Low) but is absent in most of the Tut6ia Sub-basin.

In former stu dies it was believed that the Caju Group was separated from
the underlying Canarias Group by a regional unconformity sometimes called the
"pre-Albian unconformity 1". Re-evaluation of available data has sh0\\11 that at
least in the most subsi ding areas (Caete Sub-basin), there was almost continuous
sedimentation; the unconformity is restricted to eroded top corners of tilted l

1Thc age of the unco~formity derived from forme r studies indicated Apcian age (Alagoas stage in
the Brazilian Reconcavo series) for the Canarias Group (Figueiredo et al., 1982; Regali et al..
1983). Uescgui (1986) has reviewed these earlier determinations and proposed an Early AJbian age
for the group.

Chapter 4 Page ; 51
 Tectonic £volurior: of Brazilian £quaton·a1 Conrinen1al Margin Basins

i
20 •·

,..
'''•
~~~~~-~

·----
• l"

Figun: 4.7 - lsopach map or the distal prodeltaic/slope/bathyal fades of the Cana rias Group.
Contour interval I km (redr.twn from Figueittdo et al., 1982).

Figure 4.8 - lsopach map of the lluvia l/fandeltaic fades of the Ca narias Group. Contour interval
0.5 km or less (redrawn from Figueiredo et a l., 1982).

Chapter 4 Page 152

 Tecroni< £1•o{ution of Brazilian Eq11at0rial Continental Margin Basins

blocks or other uplifted areas. Clear evidence for this unconformity is seen on
the basin shou lders, where only later depositional cycles.of the Caju Group
reach the Sobradinho platform. Major contributions to improve the
understanding of sedimentary fades and stratigraphical succession of the Caju
Group were made by Tibana & Toniatti ( 1969) and Carozzi et al. ( 1970).

Bonfim Formation

The Bonfim Fonnation represents the massive carbonate rich platform facies
of the Caju Group. The calcarenites· are chiefly of shallow water biodastic or
oolitic nature. Feitosa (1987t pers. comm.) working with sed imentary petrology
has suggested that the basin was under extension at the time of the development
of these platforms. The potential source areas for terrigenous particles were
hence being submerged.

Pregui9as Formation

The Pregui~as Fonnation is a dominantly slope sequence consisting of

alternating heds of limestones and shales. The limestones are mainly calcilutites
with calcispheres and lhe shales derive from pelagic mud. Compared with the
previous unit of massive limestones it represer.t". lower levels of environmental
energy. The second order lithol ogical cyclicity of the Pregui~as Formation is
another indicator of deeper water environments (Carozzi et al., 1970).

Peria Formation

The Peri/1 formation was upgraded by Figueiredo et al. (1982) and since
then has been used to designated two different sort of deposits: ( 1) lagoon marls
and shales on the western side of the basin, thus representi ng the low energy
proximal facies of the Ca.ju Group and {2) deep water shales and rare turbidites
occurring beyond the carbonate platfo rm.

Chapter 4 Page 153

 Tecco11ic Evolution of Brazilian Equaroriol Cominc11tol Margin Basins

4.2.4 Humberto de Campos Group (Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic)

The Humberto de Campos Group consists of the Areinhas, llha de Santana

and Travosas Fonnations (Figueiredo et al., 1982) as well as the Pirabas
fonnation. It encompasses sediments varying in age from Late Cretaceous up to
Recent. Original detailed seismic-stratigraphical studies carried out by Brown et
al. (1976) and further contributions to that study made by Figueiredo et al.
(1982) and Ojeda (1982a) have helped to reach the present understanding of the
stratigraphical relationships of this unit.

i
20 ..

·-------

{>
))
?

Figure 4.9 · lsopach map or the Humberto de Campos Gr<lup. Contour interval 1 km or less
(redrawn from_Figueiredo et al., 1982).

The Humberto de Campos G roup is a thick wedge shape sequence

composed by siliciclastic and carbonate rich deposits. It includes a variety of
depositional fa cies and environments such as fan-deltas and carbonate platforms,
as well as slope and bathyal deposits. The depositional systems are synchronous
and the stacked cyclicity observed suggests relative sea level fluctuations. The
isopach map in Figure 4.9 indicates the ove rall geometry of this sequence.

Chapter 4 Page J54

I
 ,...

Teaonic £.,o/wion of Brazilian Equatorial Contmcnral Margin Basins

Areinhas Formation

The Areinhas Formation is the fan-deltaic portion of the Humberto de

·..•. Campos Group and comprises fine to coarse-grained silieiclastics with fragments
of coal. The distribution of sandstone bodies has a markedly E-W orientation
(Figueiredo et al., 1982).

llha de Santana Formation

The !!ha de Santana represents the set of carbonate rich platform facies of
the system. It consists of bioclastic- calcarenites and calcirudites grading upwards
to coquinas.

Travosas Formation

The slope and bathyal fades of the Humberto de Campos series are grouped
under the denomination of the Travosas Fonnation. This embraces a thick shale
section with rare intercalations of sand bodies probably deposited by gravity
flow. Based on their seismic studies Brown et al. (1976) recognized three major
sub-sequences in this formation : ( 1) a Cenomanian offlap unit overlain by (2) a
Turonian to Maastrichtian onlapping section which, by its turn, is overlain by an
offlap sequence ext:nding from the Maastrichtian up to the Recent.

During the course of this research at least one large Early Tertiary
submarine canyon was mapped cutting through the Upper Cretaceous beds over
the Tut6ia Sub-basin, on the western flank of the Tut6ia high (also shown by
Figueiredo et al., 1982). These canyons are probably tectonically controlled, and
their importance is that they represent by-pass areas for sands being transported
from the proximal relatively immature facies to deep water fans. This

,., observation is important in the search for potential oil reservoirs in deep water
regions of the basin.

Chapter 4 Page 155

 Tectonic Evolution of Brarilian Eq1101orial Continental Margin Basins

Pirabas Formation

The Miocene Pirabas Formation is a 200 m thick unit consisting of

limestones and sandstones with occasional shales. It represents a mixed platform
environment extending over the present day shelf area and covers virtually the
entire basin. It was originally defined onshore where it lies unconformable over
Upper Cretaceous rocks. Since there is insufficient evidence to separate this unit
from similar and conformable lower sections within the offshore portion of the
basin, the Pirabas Formation, as considered in this work, is included in the
Humberto de Campos Group.

4.2.5 Migration of Sedimentary Depocentres

Figure 4.10 summarises the migration of the sedimentary depocentres of the

basin through time. Four major depocentres are recognised: (1) Early Albian; (2)
Late Albian; (3) Cenomanian and (4) Tertiary. Active sedimentation was shifted
among these centres mostly as responses to structural and tectonic changes in
basin development. The westward migration of Albian sedimentation left
continental and deep-water marine fades in the Tut6ia Sub-basin (Arpoador and
Born Gosto Formations) whereas shallow-water marine and deltaic deposits
(Barro Duro and Tut6ia Formations) were concentrated in the Caete Sub-basin.

By the Cenomanian, under shallow marine conditions, the most active

sedimentary centre was dislocated to the onshore basin centre. This.depocentre
is located in the Barreirinhas Low area and was progressively expanded to the
entire onshore region during the Late Cretaceous (Fig. 4.11). The last major
depocentre shift occurred during the Early Tertiary and developed the offlap
sequences of the Humberto de Campos Group. Further structural implications of
these depocentre shifts will be discussed later in this chapter and in section 9.5.

Chapter 4 Page 156

•

Tec1011ic Et'Olution of Brazilian Equatorial Continemal Margin Basins

N
!
'---

Early Alblan

c:==---
3 0 ka

Figure 4.10 - Migration of sedimentary depocentres of the Barreirinhas Basin through time
(based on isopach maps from Figueiredo et al., 1982). Ornaments outline some discrete
depocentres. Arrows indicate progressive shift. It is suggested that these depocentre shifts are
related to tectonic changes during basin development.

4.2.6 Igneous and Volcanic Rocks

Tho leiitic basaltic rocks occur in the Barreirinhas Basin as dolerite sills
interbedded with Palaeozoic rocks. They have maximum thicknesses of 200 m
and are found mainly in the Sobradinho Platform where they seem to be
harmonically folded together with the country rocks (Fig. 4.12). Their ages have
been determined by K-Ar method which indicated 0.11-0.13 Ga for the youngest
sills (Sia! et al., 1986). Until now such rocks have not been drilled within the
main depositional area.

Chapter 4 Page 157

 '• '.'
ill

BARREIRINHAS BASIN l
20 k.,

ILHA DE SANTANA

;> '
PLATFORM
'·-.~
Ollgoeene

: . ·:-: Early Alblan

..

SOBRAD1NHO PLATFORM

9
- :1' BARREIRINHAS LOW
.g 43• 4 i•
~
"'"-
2' Figure 4.11 • Miocene subcrop map of the Barreirinhas ttasln. Note that Lower Cenomanlan deposits are partially enveloped by
~ Upper Cenomanian rocks which suggests basin widening. Arrows show suggestion for migration or extension during the Late
......
Cretaceous. Extension is assumed to be normal to the arrows shown.
~
 .
...

Teaonic El'Olmion of Brazilian EquaJorial Collfinm1al Margin Basins

SW NE

0.0

1.0

5km
~ t.AJ.Yrt• wrnz:o~t.~ZJUlv.'I
1.5 ..

Sobradinho Platform Sobradinho fault

Figu~ 4_12 - Seismic profile 59-117 across the Sob.radinbo Platform. It shows a dolerite sill
harmonically folded ~ith the Palaeozoic sequen:-e. The Solmidinho fault zone is the right-hand
side fault interpreted. Note that the folding does not alle('t the block to the west of well S0-1,
whid1 sugges ts that the shortening event was limited and probably related to the development of
the Sobradinho Fault. See location in Fig. 4.1. ·

Volcanic rocks are a very r~re phenomena in the Barreirinhas Basin. Tuffs
and lavas of alkali composition were recovered from only one well (MAS-2).
This volcanic occurrence is reported within the Travosas Formation which
indicates a probably age between the Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary. Sykes
(1978) noted the common association of alkaline volcanism with continental
extensions of oceanic transform faults. In the Eqm1torial margin of Brazil, the
close relationship between alkali igneou~ rocks and oceanic fracture zones next
to the COB2 has also been demonstrated. The Meccjana volcanism (30 Ma) is
associated with the Fernando de Noronha Fracture Zone (Almeida et al., 1988)
and the alkaline rocks of the Ceara High are connected with the Romanche

2 Continent-ocean crustal boundary.

Chapter 4 f'age 159

 T~ctonic £\'Olwio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Contin~ntal Margin Basins
'·'·
Fracture zone (Zalan & Warme, 1985). The MAS-2 vokanics are suspected to
be also related to the continental extension of the Romanche Fracture Zone.

4.3 MAJOR STRUCTURAL PROVINCES

The Barreirinhas Basin comprises a number of struc~ural provinces which are

briefly described below in order to facilitate the descriptions and discussions that
will follow in the subsequent sections. These provinces are locate d in Figure 4.4.

4.3.1 Sobradinho Platform

The Sobradinho Fault.zone separates the m ain onshore depocentre from the
southern shallow basement platform called Sobradinho Platfonn. This structural
province constitutes the northern upper flank of the Ferrer-Urbano Samos Arch
whic~ plunges gentle to the north. A sedimentary pile 200-1 600 m thick,
comprising mostly pre-Cretaceous rocks covers basement in this platform. Figure
4.13 shows a seismic example of reverse faulting affecting the pre-Cretaceous
rocks in the eastern region of the Sobradinho Platform (Tut6ia Sub-basin),
which is regarded as evidence of local transpress ion associated with the main
basin border fault zone (Rici & Goes, 1988). Figure 4.12 may exemplify the
seism ic expression of the Sobradinho Fault.

4.3.2 Parnaiba Platform

The eastern continuation of the Sobradinho Platfc,.":n toward the Piauf-

Camocin Basin is terme d Pam.alba Platfonn. This structural feature is defined by
ve ry strong magne tic and gravity a nomalies (see Figs. 4.40/41 and 7.11). NE-SW
as well as E-W oriented lineaments are conspicuous in this region (see section
7.3.2 and Zalan & Warme, 1985). The role played by this structural province
during the initial development of the Barreirinhas Basin may have been to
acco mmodate the dextral displacement along the Sobradinho Fault zone. The

Chapter 4 Page 160

--
'-

·.
Tectonic £w)/t11ion of Brazilian Equawrial Conti11enral Margin Basins

absorption of displacement was possibly achieved by peivasive strike-slip

deformation of the Parnafba Platform, transferring strain to the ancient
Romanche transform fault. Evidence. for pervasive deformation in this province
is presented in Chapter 7.

4.3.3 llha de Santana Platform

In the WNW region of th e basin, lies the eastern end of a major structurat
province of the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic margin called I/ha de Samana
Platform. This vast structural province (approximately 100,000 km 2) separates t he
Gurupi Graben System from the offshore Barreirinhas and Para-Maranhao
Basins. It is a shallow basement area with crystalline rocks outcropping at its
southern border (see section 7.2.1) and a sedimentary cover less than 1 OOO m
thick. This cover comprises dominantly marine sediments of Cenozoic age which
indicates that the area was relatively stable during the time the surrounding
basins .were develope d. The gentle tilt to the north and northeast is thought to
be relate d to bending forces acting at the edge of the continental crust (Bender,
1987).

4.3.4 Tut6ia High

The Tut6ia High is also a major feature of the Barreirinhas Basin (about
25,000 km 2 in area ). It dominates most of the Tut6ia Sub-basin and comprises
the western end of the Atlantico High (Zalan et al., 1985). In contrast with the
platform areas however, this region underwent massive uplift during the Late
AJbian-Cenomanian. The seismic profile in Figure 4.14 is chosen to shov. how
the timing of uplift can be estimated by observing the progressive onlap of
Upper Cretaceous sediments onto the western flank of the high. A t this area, the
top AJbian seismic event is probably Early to Middle Albian in age. Because of
its large size, the high is thought to be produced by deep-seated lithospheric
processes which will be examined in Ch apter 8.

Chapr,·" .J Page 161

 Tectonic Evolurion of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinental Margin Basins

SW NE
Os

Figure 4.13 - Seismic profile 224-08. This line is located in the Parnafba Platform and shows
reverse faulting affecting the top Palaeozoic event. It indicates that compressional strain was
developed in the area.

Chapter 4 Page 162

 .
0
..
0
-
~

w
UJ

I
"m
"m

L
~1
I
I;
''

0 .....
 ••'· ··&-.,.1

•• Tee.ionic £vol11tion of Brazilian £qua1on'af Comin~nta/ Margi_n Basins

• Further evidence favouring uplift of the area was put forward by the
geochemical analysis of Rodrigues et al. (1984). The vitrinite reflectance of wells

• FA-1 and MAS-23, at near surface levels, was shown to be in '. accord with a very
high degree of thermal maturity. This indicates that the area has been subjected
• to high heat flow and undergone uplift during early stages of its evolution.

•• Massive erosion has occurred along the hinge zone of the high which is roughly
oriented NE-SW (Figs. 4.4 and 4.42). Analyses of clay minerals (smectite-to-illite ·

•
•
transition) however, indicate a lower level of thermal maturity (AJves, 1989
written comm.). This apparent contradiCtion has yet to be solved but a
speculative explanation may be that the heat source had a short existence. A
.t
,.
t heat source travelling rapidly across the area may have provided enough heat for
maturation of organic matter but not for the transformation reactions of the clay
minerals. This possibility calls attention to the model proposed by Scrutton
(1979) for the evolution of sheared transform margins (see Fig. 2.34) .

•• 4.3.5 Bacaba and Rosario Highs

The Bacaba and Rosano Highs are also important features of the region but
they are much smaller than the previous provinces (Fig. 4.4). Both are located
over the western part of the Sobradinho Platform and represent outcropping or
very shallow basement. The Rosario High is discussed in more detail in section
7.2.2. The Bacaba High is well marked by a very strong magnetic anomaly (see
Fig. 7.11) and has been interpreted as the footwall block of a Palaeozoic graben
developed on its eastern side (Ojeda & Guazelli, 1981). Lack of seismic data
precludes independent confirmation of the graben which was defined based on
interpretation of regional gravity data.

4.3.6 Barreirinhas Low

•• The term Barreirinlzas Low has been used to describe a hanging-wall syncline

•
I
adjoining a fault zone with 2 000-3 OOO m of dip-slip movement (Barreirinhas
Fault). It li es onshore and has been suggested that this was the focal point for
I
•
l
Chapter 4 Page 16-:
r ·.

Tectonic EFol111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

the development of the Late Albian-Cenomanian carbonate-rich deposits

(Fcitosa, 1987, pers. comm.).

4.3.7 llha Nova Graben

The Jllza Nova Graben connects the Barreirinhas Basin with the Gurupi
Graben System and is examined in detail in section 6.4. The graben comprises
mostly fluvial sedime nts (Itapecuru Formation). It is suggested in Figure 4.5 that
the graben channelized part of the fluvial system which shed the Caete Sub-
basin during the Albian time (Barro Duro-Tut6ia deltaic system).

4.3.8 Other Structural Domains

Other large scale structural features have been given local names such as Rio
Negro High (e.g. Azevedo, 1986) and Queimadas-Arpoador High (e.g. Rezende &
Araujo, I 970). In a variety of cases, these "highs" refer to eroded top corners of
tilted blocks which have undergone footwall isostatic uplift. These zones of local
uplift with flat tOps due to subsequent erosion, are distributed along major
footwall blocks and will be discussed when presenting results of the seisrruc
mapping (sect ion 4.4 ).

4.4 SEISMIC DATA, MAPPING AND INTERPRETATION

4.4.1 Seismic Data and Quality

The reflection seismic data base of the Barreirinhas Basin available for this
research is presented in Figure 4.1. Around 3 OOO km of seismic lines of variable
quality were used. Because the seismic profiles comprising the data bank had
distinct formats, scales, acquisition and processing parameters as well as quality
standard~, the mapping exercise was difficult. The use of migrated sections
however, has minimized geometrical problems and allowed the extraction of

Chapter./ Page 165

 Tectonic Ei·olwion of Brazilian £q11arorial Continenral Margin Basins

some structural data.

The qu ality of seismic data has always been a major problem in the
Barreirinhas Basin. In general, the seismic response tends to improve seaward·
·..
where early sedimentary sequences are deeply buried. Thus, Cenozoic beds are
well imaged whereas Cretaceous units are not seen. Near-shore and onshore,
data quality is generally poor. In these areas, apart from inadequate acquisition
parametifrs, the seismic signal is degraded by two main geological factors: (1)
interbedding of massive carbonate rich platforms with deep-water shales (Bonfirn
and Pregui~as Formations) and (2) intense fracturing and structural
compartmentalization of the Albian rocks. This later factor is evidenced by the
"fract11red aspect" of events seen in seismic profiles, highly inclined strata shown
by dipmeter data; syn-sedimentary deformation patterns observed in core
samples and very rapid pressure and production decline of oil and gas productive
intervals in the Sao loiio, Espigiio and Oeste de Canoas sub-commercial fields.

4.4.2 Structural Seismic Mapping

Structural seismic mapping was performed where the grid of lines was tight
enough to allow confident tracing of reflectors using standard mapping
techniques. The mapping successfully delineated main structural trends in the
offshore area (Figs. 4.16 to 20). The mapped areas are located in Figure 4.1.
Three mapped seismic events are presented here: (1) pre-Cretaceous (red event
in the seismic profiles shown throughout the chapter), (2) top Albian (yellow
event) and (3) top Cretaceous (green event). Synthetic seismograms were used
for calibration to well data (Fig. 4.15).

The aim of the seismic mapping was to supply elements for detailed
structural analysis rather ~ban for an exclusively seismic and sequence
stratigraphic analysis. Another goal was to provide, for the first time, a structural
map of the area connecting the Barreirinhas and Para-Maranhao Basins. Figures
4.21 t0 4.29 ::.how seismic profiles depicting several structural aspects of the

Chapter 4 Page 166

 48 . ~· ')_ 7
1-MAS - 1
! SO~IC LOJ
lYJ!WltllM!l!UmH».llIDim1i.!......t 1i$1:... ~ f' 'EE mmn .r '1...1~
0
0

....... TT' f' . rc:::.cr. ·::··

·imjr;rrr
:--.!~;Il11l 1'i ~-jI zuu
' I
t · -·--... 1oa
"""''•~'.::"' . I ·--· ; .
1---1.: J.! t-to··1:
·~·---~·
i '· I
Hn' , +-t JOO

i~ -t.;·{ ~ 00

50C
' ..
r.oo
700

8()C

Hll!~ 90C
1000

Ll UO

:zau
IHI I 111 llOO
L4!Y.I

Jtt-i.7.::tfl I 5 ~U
16 ) 0

llt-1---;.H LlOO

2.0 HlllH!H-+:t~ I Ov()

1900

..... HJIJlllf- f-ifl ZCU<

c! tOO

'ft I ! 1 I 11111111 J I U c! 1! ~fl,)

Figure 4.15 - Purl or seismic llrolik 48-227 tied to ~di data (MAS-0 b)' s)llthctk M'bllw~n1111. Titis figure iJlustrates how
borehole data was tied to seismic profiks io order to con!>tn1int i ntcq1rct.atio11.

Chapter 4 Page 167

 Tectonic £1'0lu1ior. of Brazilian Equatonal Conti11cntal Margin Basins

mapped area and these will be examined together with the maps. In these
profiles, besides the events mentioned above, the top Cenomanian (blue event)
is also represented locally.

Pre-Cretaceous

The pre-Cretaceous horizon was mapped wherever possible to investigate

basement-involved deformation features and to assess basin-forming mechanisms
(Fig. 4.16 and 4.17). Depending on the region, the pre-Cretaceous reflector may
be the· crystalline basement, top Palaeozoic or the top of Jurassic-Triassic
sequence. The reflector was mapped in the near-shore area, over and near
shallow platforms. Correlations with onshore structures was assisted by
unpublished seismic-structural maps (Figueiredo et al., 1982;
PETROBRAS/DENOR exploration party, 1987) and analysis of selected
profiles.

In the Barreirinhas Basin, the quality of seismic data deteriorates rapidly

with depth. That is perhaps the reason why structural maps of the basement have
not been attempted before. The seismic pattern of the pre-Cretaceous rock units
varies with lithology. Older sedimentary sequences tend to show sets of high
amplitude and low frequency events which are in general very continuous.
Chaotic reflections or lack of reflectors suggest Precambrian basement.

The maps indicate the depth to the pre-Cretaceous reflector as well as the
location and orientation of the main fault systems. In the mapped area, this
seismic event is found from 1.6 to 4.4 s TWIT which approximately range from
1 500 to 9 OOO m depth. These systems tend to show a near-vertical or slightly
listric trace in section (e.g. Fig. 4.24). In Figure 4.16, Caete Sub-basi~ the
normal-slip fault systems are preferentially oriented NW-SE subparallel to the
edge of the Ilha de Santana Platform and dip synthetically to the northeast (see
also Fig. 4.22). Between 1° and 1°15'S a transfer zone oriented NE-SW has been
identified by a 1 s TWTT vertical offret of the basement reflector between

Chapter 4 Page 168 .

 Tectonic E\'Oftuion of Brazilian Equa1orial Cominental Margin Basins

" • =>·la·
\ ' \
\
N
\ '' \

~
\
' .... .... '
\
' \
\
\

\ \
\
\
''
\ ' \
\

\
\
\ , 201<m

8ARR E llHHHAS 11..t..SIM

Pt...Cf'•UIC.OU&
''
"
'\ '
\
\ \
'' ,.
\ ''
•.
'
\
\ '\
\
\ \
'. \
\ \ .>o
Oo- -
I
' ' \
' \ \
/
I "- I

,
\
-
, ..... -..... \ ' \I I

'- .... - - .....

~ -....._:Jc~/''),t't;) \ I ''
~~tioii~3~0~ 1 ' J
, I I ,, I
/ I. /
~ -- - \
(
--
/ '
I '
I ' '·
\

-- ....
'
'

Figure 4.16 - Time-structural map of the pre-Cretaceous seismic event in the Caete Sub-basin.
Contour interval 0.2 ms. Note the dominant NW-SE orientation of main fault systems. They
approximately outline the eastern edge of the Hha de Santana Platform. A NE-SW trending
transfer zone can be interpreted at about 1°IO'S. Thick dashed lines approximately locate seismic
profiles shown in this chapter. ·
 - ··;·«r:·~
-- - - _.._ ._. ~ jl~
:1·1
...,
(»
4'3'00' •no• I()
a:>

·- <00 ,,, ................... .

i
~
C!
<:>
";:;·
t:i
<S
~
~-
~
~
g.;:.,
"'
:::. -, •...
0)'
Z1:::
2'30'-I

l
~
:::.
:::.

•
:i
"' '20 I s§.
STRIKE-SUP FAULT ZONE
~&/• ~ I
,~&
~
~
s·
CJ] ERODED AREA
..,i§:
s·
10 •• ---------- .,, i\\ "'
Q
~
~
~

""'
~
~
..... Figure 4.17 • Time·structural map of the pre-Cretaceous event in the Tut6ia Sub-basin. Contour interval 0.4 ms. Note the
~ eastward transition from NW-SE trending normal faults to E-W and NNE·SSW oriented strike·slip faults a:nd folds. The elliptical
area with eroded top l\t the eastern part of the map outlines the deep structure of the Tut6ia High. Box X identifies structure
discussed In lf•:-:t. Straight dashed lines are seismic profiles shown in this chapter. ·
 ·.
Teaonic £••olmio11 of Brazilian £q11atorial Coniincmol Margin Basins

adjoining blocks along the NW-SE fault system.

In Figure 4.17, Tut6ia Sub-basin, from west to east the normal-slip of NW-
SE trending faults is taken over by strike-slip along E-W oriented faults of
vertical trace in section (seismic section in Fig. 4.25). Locally, as in box labelled
X, the fault displacements seem to be accommodated by flexural symmetric
folding of syn-tectonic sequences (exemplified in Fig. 4.27). At about 42°30' a
major single plane strike-slip fault is associated with relatively broad zones of
intense fracturing of seismic events which have been interpreted as subsidiary
strike-slip fault zones. These zones are geometrically compatible with secondary
synthetic shears (P-shears Tchalenko, 1970) of strike-slip systems (see Fig. 2.14c).
In fact, these zories locally assume geometries similar to positive flower
structures (Figs. 4.28 and 4.29). In the eastern part of Figure 4.17 a very large
anticlinal structure known as the Tut6ia High occurs. Figure 4.29 shows a good
seismic profile across this feature which has an eroded top and axial hinge line
striking roughly NE-SW. The contour lines surrounding this major feature
together with its geometrical relationship with the strike-slip fault systems
suggest that this crustal block has been deformed by clockwise rotational strain.
This suggestion will be further argued later in this chapter. .

Top Albian

The seismic reference event in the interpretation is labelled the Top Albian
(Figs. 4.18 and 4.19). It is a very strong and continuous reflector on the shelf and
is tied to borehole data (Fig. 4.15). This regional seismic horizon is an angular
unconformity or a paraconformity. The event is shallow and has a Middle Albian
age in the Tut6ia Sub·basin (0.4-0.6 s TWTT), whereas in the onshore region
and offshore Caete Sub-basin it is Late Albian in age and lies moderately to

very deep ( 1.0-4.5 s TWTI).

Figure 4.18 shows the structural map for the Caete Sub-basin. Norma l-slip
fault systems trend dominantly NW-SE and locally N-S and NE-SW. A number

Chapter .; Pa1:c J 7 J
 Tectonic £1-ohaio1J of Brazilia11 Equatorial Con1inenral Margin Basins

0
0
'
''
'
' '
'\ N
\
'
\ '
' ' ''
'
'

' ',
i
201cm

8ARREIRINHAS U..SIN

Top Alblan

''
'
''
'
'' '
'
'\
\
I

-,
' 'l
,I
I
I
J
1I ______ _

' '\
,'
,,

I
I
I
,'' ,__
/

,,.--

,'
I
'
''
'

,.

Figure 4.18 - Time-structural map of the Top Albian reflector in the

Caete Sub-basin. Contour interval O.S ms.

ChaptN ~ Page 172

....
Teaonic £volmio11 of Brazilian Equarorial Continemal Margin Basins

of hanging-wall synclines and anticlines trend subparallel to main fault segments

for as much as 20-30 km in length. In Figure 4.19, the Tut6ia High and main
faulted blocks are clearly outlined. Erosional cut-ouczones associated with NW-
SE trending normal faults indicate footwall uplift alohg main fault segments.
These normal faults, similarly as with the pre-Cretaceous horizon, are thought to

1
transfer normal-slip into strike-slit along E-W trending faults. Associated. with
the major strike-slip fault pictured in the centre of Figure 4.19 there are folds,
reverse faults and flower structures, suggesting that transpressive forces were
operating at this time.

Top Cretaceous

The Top Cretaceous horizon is an important high amplitude event which can
be followed trough the entire region from 0.5 to 4.5 seconds TWIT (Fig. 4.20).
The map in Figure 4.20 shows a less strained pattern than the previous ones
which reflects relative structural stabilization of the area. In the northern part of
the mapped area, normal faults trend NW-SE along the present-day shelf edge
and slope. These faults seem tO be geometrically and kinernatically linked to
reverse faults at the toe of the slope area (Fig. 4.21 ).

Other seismic reflectors were tracked locally, a fev, of them converted into
1

maps but space problems prevent their inclusion in this thesis. From Late
Cretaceous onwards faulting still occurred but with relatively minor basement
involvement. These late fault systems detach within the sedimentary pile as
shown in Figures 4.21 and 4.22.

.
~

Chapter ~ Page 173

...

Tectonic £,·olution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

b
:ll

• -
:0
=
E--
8
"' \ ~
....
z-
l :-.·:::.
.·::.:··· ~
1• N
··:·::·:;:-·:.• 0

-~ :.· :· :·:1 .:. f'1

,,;
E
:;:
i
· ·.'V/i1:.. Vii ··:· .... 0

l~;, -1•
~

t
..:c
t..
::
..:;
=
~ ---------
:J
--------
659 i -:r..
~
.;::,
~
::l
~
I

·;. ·•.
I
",0 , I
<tl'
' I '£
-
I
I ::l

·::,/('( '\
~
·-~
"'C
:J
\ \
\ \ c:
t

:.5 -
< ~"·

z~ -- = c
: == N

;..
':
-t
;..

0..
0
a:
0
-
E.E
CD
:::>
en
z
~<
:::>-
o~
...:.<
:::>w
0-'
_, o ~

;t
c:
<9 <
Z:;E
c0 o-...
-~
en_,
0
w
0
c., oa: 0
a:w
... C: <
WW

m D

Chapter~ Page 174

 Tectonic Evolmion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

l
201cm

8ARREIRINHAS 8ASIN

Top Ct.ueeou1
' ...
"o0
,. '
______ , \
I
\

, , .... ..
0
.,
, \

, ,
,,
o" ,'
'l-, , '

(
\---

I
+ "" .. 0

rtn1 de S anUn.A P1•tfotm \ 0

,
0

~
\
2·
~
\
~
o,. ....._
c

..

lln1 NOVI Qtl_, • •• ~.

ll
l
I
~~:~j~f
1
Figure 4.20 • Time-structural map of the Top Cretaceous horizon in the Caete Sub-basin.
Contour interval 0.5 ms. Note in the top third of the map reverse faults in deep-water areas
conjugate to normal faulting at the shelf edge (see also profiles in Figs. 4.21 to 4.23).
Chapter 4 Page 175
 BARREIRINHAS BASIN GAETE SUB-BASIN NE
SW
95 .. 179
0 Os
<a>
1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4
::"'

5 5
0 01

1 1

2 2

J 3

4
' 10 km
j 5

31
Figure 4.21 • Sei!>mic profile 95- l 79. Location in fig. ·U.
(a) uninterpreted section.
(bJ interpreted profile showing low-angle
detachment faults ~ith seaward
youngir.~ direction. Slumps dominate
at the continental slo~.
(c) detail of thrust system deYeloped
at the toe of the low·angle detachment.

Chapter 4 Page 176

SW BARREIRINHAS BASIN CAETE SUB-BAS1N NE
95 .. 201
0 -_...::::-- - -("~
Os
..... --;: -~~~

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

0 Os

1 1

2
2

3 3

4 4

5 5

8 8

Figure 4.22 • Seismic profile 95-.201. Note that high.aaglr normal fauJts dominate tbt llba de Santana Platform wb.enas low-angie
detachment fault~ soling out at the top Albian ren~ction are developed toward the shelf edge. Location in Fig. 4.1.

Qwpu!T ..~ ' • m

•
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

4.4.3 Structural Interpretation of Seismic Data

Analysis of Fault (;eometries in Section View

In the seismic data set examine~ for the Barreirinhas Basin, the trace of fault
,, .
planes varies from low-angle listric up to vertical planar (Figs. 4.21 to 4.28). This
suggests that a spectrum of fault profile geometries may be recognised. The low- ·
angle detachment faults are mostly found in the upper part of the sedimentary
pile and tend to be younger than planar faults. Listric faults are developed
mainly near the shelf edges - present or past- and have a younging direction
oceanwards (Figs. 4.21 to 4.23). In general, these faults have an apparently high
angle in the upper parts of the fault plane and decrease rapidly u_ntil they sole
out on the top Albian reflector or upper stratigraphic levels. Slumps in the slope
area (Fig. 4.21) might be analogous to past processes and indicative of gravity
driven ·mechanisms taking place during the development of the ancient
detachment faults (Fig. 4.22).

Planar fault planes are common on near-shore and onshore data (Figs. 4.22,
4.24 and 4.25). Frequently they have a slightly listric profile on unrnigrated
seismic sections, but assume planar geometry when depth converted. The main
fault zone ~ involve basement displacements and can usually be traced upwards
until, at least, the top Cretaceous, possibly to the surface. This is suggestive of
the later reactivation of fault zones. Minor faulting developed on the hinges of
anticlines indicating both synthetic and antithetic shear deformation in the
hanging-walls of major faults. The faults with planar profiles have two distinct
characteristics: dominantly (I) normal or (2) lateral slip movements. These later
forms are interpreted from seismic data if a number of criteria are observed
such as changes of thicknesses, seismic signature, inconsistent dip of events,
incompatible vertical displacements and fracture intensity across faulted zones
(e.g. Harding, 1983; Harding et al., 1983; Zalan, 1986).

Chapter 4 Page 178

SW BARREIRINHAS BASIN CAETE SUB-BASIN NE
95·231
0 Os

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4
~....-::.o.-=::::'loc::
..... 5 Km
.....
;...

5 "" - -- - -- - -·-· ~= ----- --

- - --......_,._-~ -

5
.. ~--- --~ ---
;.~--:---_. .. ·..::.... --.'
---~
------.,---
--=----;:.,,,._-

1 1s

Figure 4.2J - Seismic profile 95-231. Location in Fig. 4.1.

(a) uninterpreted S«tion.
(b) detail showing divergent pattern or
reflections toward a post·Cenomanian 2 2
normal-fault surface or listric
geometry.

3 3

Chapter 4 Page 179

 MAS - 1 BARREIRINHAS BASIN GAETE SUB-BASIN
sW 0 NE
48·227
0 ---'-- - ... -- - ...,._......._, __
Os
-. _...:..:_ .
-- """- --
-~ ..··-
_ .., . • ·-- ~e ¥ ~ .

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

2 km
5 5

Figure 4.24 - Seismic profile 48-227. Note block tilting with consequent erosion of a top corner. Location in Fig. 4.1.

Chapter 4 Page /80

 w ..,
2 0

z
(/)
<(
coI
co
::::>
(f)
<(
'()
1-
::>
I-

z
(/)
<(
co
(/)
<(
I
z
cc
m
a:
a:
<(
co

0 .... 0 ....
 BARREIRINHAS BASIN TUT61A SUB-BASIN E
48 - 255
~~-- _-.--~------
-;;;-;--.;=....-.~-

-=-~ =
....... ~ - - · -~- - -
---... ~ ~ -~.::::-
- - -==----~~ ~~- --=--;-;..- -~,-.::.~ ~~- ~~~- =--- _.;--_- ~~-~-----~~--~~~--

-=---=-- - - -
~~:;..::;;::: ~ ~~ ~ ~ =-----""':""' -~ - "- ..___-----..::::;;;:
- --
- ·- - · -----=---Cll-
-- ~ -- - - - - -- --- ~--- .. - - - -=-- :z?If2::7T-~_ . - - ---=- ~ - - _-- ~ 5
ea >

0 Os

cb>

1 1
Figure 4.26 - Seismic profile 48-255. Location in Fig. U.
(a) uninterpreted section.
(b) detail showing onlap of Cenomaoian beds
on the top Albian unconformity. This
indicates syn-sedimentary folding
deformation affecting the Caoarias Group.

2 2

~~=-=----....-.'4~rz- _ . . c:: .,. .. ~~,;... 0 --- 1 .- -...rew:=-1·· ..., , ...

~ . ., ...
~ - ---"'t'; ....;:w-,·~ u~~ -~,J3
3

Chapter 4 Pagt 182

 BARREIRINHAS BASIN TUT61A SUB-BASIN
E
48·256
!S
-~ ~ Os
~
~ ,;:
~ -~
S!;l
=-:, ..._. fi'3
Ii ... ~-·:--::
-~
;.

-
,....,
....

_,/~:~~~~x.-
~

·!"~'-:::: _. . ... _
"""'-
;;::
, - ~<"'7
...t;;;::::;.r-.u::;--c:~..,...........;-;,;;;~~.;:
~ 1
~

~~...-=-- :::;.· =--- ~"'7-e*r:::>r:i

;:::>-
v~
2
™~- -
--.....-~~
_?";

I z~
,,., ~·
~
;:;.-; - -
~~~--:_ .... - ~4
--Z{9'~
.......--:::::;
~
-
5

J ~ MAS- 6
0

- --
Os
--

--~ -==::::r- ----

TERTIARY

- --"'-,~LATECRETACEOUS~
~------==-
-~-
-
=----.:_ -"""-:-o:.. ------ . :;: ----:;.- - -~- ' - -- ---
--:::...__
-~ 1

-~ -~. . --- ---- - --

1
---- --~
-·=::::: - - ---
-= - -;;:_
- - - -: -
--
-:.
_ ,,, -
---- -~ - ~-
- ..... ::-=----,___ - - .- -- ·' .-· ;:..::-_
'-._-,
:::---..-........... -- - ----
,~ --: ;:.- -- -
- '- .__,,,.--,,._
- ,, --..- .....
~ ' \ .. ,_. , ...__ ..........
"'-- -- -:
~'·· - --..-,;$
-- - -
~ -
- / - .:;?:;-
..--;:
L80AN
- "'
-- -
- - -..:::..

- ....-

__, _ / ,,
-::::__.. ,,
-
EARLY A

...._
----
----.... .:::::::::__
:::::::::::
--
- 2
-of
2

--- -- '-....

-==---
---
~

-- -::::..
__.,,,
..........
' .......
- -
.... 3
-of
3

--
~
~
~
~ ..........

~~~·- -~· -~-~~

BASEMENT
4 ~~~4

5 ! I ..

Figure 4.27 - Seismic profiJe, detail and line drawing or line 48·256. Observe again oolap or Cenomanian reflections onto a major
pre-Cenomanian folded structure•. Location in Fig. 4.1.

Chapter 4 Page 183

 w "'
0 ,.. N
0"' ,.. N TV\/T C?

0"' ,..

z
(/)
4:
co
(/)
<{
I
··· ··.. z
a:
w
a:
a:
<{
en

\j . ~ • '

'·
. J~
 ~

BARREIRINHAS BASIN
TUTOIA SUB-BASIN
E
53·858

~~2

~4

Os

5
Figure 4.29 - Seismic profile 53-858. Section across the Tutoia High. Note that in this profile the vast aoticllnal structure ls
outlined by pre-Cretaceous events. The eastern end of the section is marked by a strike-slip fault zone. Location in Fig. 4.1.

Chapter 4 Page 185

C 1 :, ' -r ~ f .ige J
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Figure 4.30 - Suggestion of mechanical model for block rotation in a dextral shear corridor.
Block boundaries may comprise (1) single plane of strike-slip, (2) broader zone of strike-slip
deformation or (3) folds. Motion can be clock or a nticlockwise. Compa re with Figure 4.17.

T he seismic interpretation has allowed for the recognition of dominantly

transtensional (Caete Sub-basin) and transpressional (Tut6ia Sub-basin) domains
in the Barreirinhas Basin. The set of seismic sections seen in Figures 4.25 and
4.28 exemplify features associated with local shortening within the strike-slip
system. The interplay of dip and strike-slip movements produced a dynamic
reorganization of basement blocks during their early development (Aptian-
Albian). The blocks were ti lted due to extension, while also being rotated due to
strike-slip displacements. This complex movement can be regarded as an anti-
clockwise rotation around an axis inclined at about 45° plunging towards the SE
(see sketch-map in Fig. 4.30). The final stage of deformation was further
complicated by dip-slip movements and flexural subsidence during late stages of
basin development.

The boundaries of the blocks which have undergone rotation are marked by
shear zones (strike-slip fault zones in Fig. 4.17), vertical single plane transcurrent
faults and flexural folding. The strike-slip zones have directions (NE-SW)
compatible with P-shears and also with the Precambrian fabric (see section 7.4).
In some cases the shear zone dies out laterally into a dome-shaped anticline (see
Fig. 4.30). These reflect variations in the mechanisms by which the upper crust

Chapter 4 Page 187

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continemal Margin Basins

absorbs the rotational strain imposed by the shearing.

Folding is a likely mechanical outcome of block rotation and strike-slip

displacements. Two classes of folds have been recognized in the Barreirinhas
Basin: (1) folds related to strike-slip faults and (2) gravity driven slump folds.

Folding as a Consequence of Strike-slip Displacements

Folding of the Early Albian Sequence (Canarias Group) onshore and on the
shelf area may be a consequence of lateral displacements and the amplification
of such folds probably accompanied seismic-slip episodes on the faults. These
folds are ellipsoidal in plan-view with the long axis oriented NE-SW (Fig. 4.17).
An en echelon arrangement for these folds has been documented in this thesis
(also by Figueiredo et al., 1982 and 1983) and in the nearby Piauf-Camocim
basin by Zalan et al. (1985). Figure 4.31 illustrates a set of two symmetrical folds
caused by strike-slip onto the main E-W oriented near-shore fault pictured in
Figure 4.17. The folds die out to the north and are amplified to the south where
the eastward slip on a N-S oriented normal fault plane is transferred as dextral
lateral displacement along the E-W strike-slip fault. The folds are thought to be
produced during the Early Albian-Cenomanian based on the age of rocks
affected and geometrical relationships between folded sequences and onlap of
seismic reflections (Figs. 4.26b and 4.27).

Gravity Driven Folds Over Low-angle Detachment Faults

In the slope area, the folds are gravity driven and originated by mass
movement down slope out into the basin with consequent thrusting and fo lding
occurring at the tip of the slide. These structures are geometrically and
kinematically linked to normal faults at the shelf break area. Their ages fall
mostly in the Cenozoic range and affect sedimentary sequences of the Humberto
de Campos Group. Figure 4.32 illustrates such features which have potential
interest for hydrocarbon exploration but have little significance for the study of

Chapter 4 Page 188

 w E
Mort h 48·255
0 =-- = . . :..-=e~~.:~~-
) . =.. -:-- - -·~ ~--··------ Os
_ =c ; : ; _ r n
- -
~--- ~
- C
%• " ~
, ;==y;;;:p;:-;.
; ~ ~~;.; ~
s-::s;;:;; :=' _:=·'=;-~-=x=·___.;;---==~------e:=~-==.---
< f § ~;; ~ M ='!

. ~..::.:=~~-~-~:.~ -·~~ ·~~'- ~~-.:::-~~~r:-::Z-- '· . .'-== -------·~,..._:a;_~--=--.. ~~~~~~.;>;.-:.;:=~~-~~~7 :=-: ~-:==~

1
1

2
2

2km
South 48·256
0 --L Os

1 1

2 2

Figure 4.31 · Details of seismic profiles 48-255 and 48-256. These parallel lines show amplification and tightenin§ of fold s (full
arrows) caused by displacement along an E-W oriented strike-slip fault (better observed in Fig. 4.19 at about 42 50'). The fault
Q
.§ runs a few kilometres to the south of the southern profile (256). Figure indicates that the folds die out to the north away of the
fault zone. See location of lines in Fig. 4.1.
~
""'""tl
~
"'..._
~
3 3s

4 4

3s
2km ;

- --_j

4
-... .
--~ . ~ . -=·
~...
-·
-
wt

-
..
· ~ · ~·._.__·
5
I

3s

4 4

figure 4.32 • Seismic evidence of gravity driven thrust faulting and folding over low-angle
detachments. Compressional strain increases from top to bottom.

Chapter 4 Page 190

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Contine111al Margin Basins

basin-forming mechanisms. They may be taken as a model for hanging-wall

deformation over detachment faults that developed during the Late Cretaceous.
figures 4.22 and 4.23 show major low-angle detachment normal faults which may
have developed in association with ancient slumps on palaeoslopes. Such large
scale slumps at steep slopes may occur at rifted passive margins but are more
characteristic of transform margins such as the Agulhas margin in southeast
Africa (Dingle, 1977).

4.5 SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS

4.5.1 Data Base, Parameters and Assumptions

Subsidence studies were carried out at various sites within the Barreirinhas
Basin using lithological and chronostratigraphical information from 34 wildcat
wells (Fig. 4.2). Decompaction and backstripping techniques were applied to
each weJI data set and plotted against time. The basic ~ocedures of these
techniques are described in Steckler & Watts (1978) fand are summarised in
Appendix A. The 34 localities used were selected from over 80 industry
exploratory wells. The selection criteria was the availability of
chronostratigraphical control. This control arises from two palynological studies
(Regali et al., 1983; Uesegui, 1986) since no other palaeontological work has
been extensively done. Where those studies were in disagreement, the more
recent was preferred (in accord with Arai et al., 1987 and Hashimoto, A.T., 1987
pers. comm.).

The studied boreholes are well distributed across the onshore part of the
basin and also comprise five offshore wildcat wells. Electrical logs were used to
obtain thicknesses and lithological information. Sonic and density logs produced
transit time and rock density from which the porosity-depth profiles were
derived. Initial porosity and decay constants were obtained from linear
regression of porosity-depth plots. An average constant grain density of

Chapter 4 Page 191

 Tectonic Evol111ion of Brazilian Eq11a1orial Co111111e111al Margin Basms
w
2.67 g/cm3 pas assumed throughout the stratigraphical column in order to
account for the lithological variation. The data were not corrected for
paleodepth and sea-level variations because palaeoecology interpretations made
from pollen analyses are unable to accurately estimate these parameters. Global
sea-level curves were not used to constrain these parameters because the vali dity
of the global approach has been firmly disputed (e.g. Williams & Dobb, 1991).
Instead, it was preferred to take 0 m as a palaeodepth assumption for all the
sedimentary units. This may have led to a significant error in the subsidence
analysis, but only for Cenozoic beds.

The earliest syn-tectonic sediments in the Barreirinbas Basin were deposited

during the Late Aptian-Early Albian which started about 110 Ma B.P. (Haq et
al., 1987). Because substantial thicknesses of these sediments were accumulated,
for the purpose of the calculations, the initial subsidence was assumed to have
commenced a few million years earlier, at about 115 Ma B.P.

In spite of the many well penetrations, pre-Cretaceous basement rocks were

rarely reached, with the exception of a few boreholes on the Sobradinbo
Platform area. The basement depth assumed in this study was taken from many
sources. For the offshore wells, inferences were made directly from seismic
profiles. Seven onshore boreholes penetrated the Palaeozoic basement. The
depths to the basement for the remaining wells were inferred from: (1) seismic-
structural map for deep horizons (Figueiredo et al., 1982); (2) stratigraphical and
structural correlations and (3) extrapolations from onshore seismic data using
better constrained offshore time-depth functions. It should be noted that these
estimates are conservative. This was deliberatively done in order to minimise
subsidence rates and hence extension.

4.5.2 Results

From the data, it is concluded that the Cenozoic sedimentary succession is

poorly represented on the onshore part of the basin. The Miocene subcrop map

Chapter 4 Page 192

 Tectonic Evolmion of Brazilian Equatorial Co111mental Margin Basins

in Figure 4.11 shows the distribution of Upper Cretaceous rocks and

demonstrates an absence of Lower Tertiary sediments in the southern part of the
basin. Three possible explanations arise from this observation: (1) significant
erosion of the missing interval; (2) limited erosion of a condensed zone or (3) a
non-depositional hiatus. The first hypothesis seems unreliable because it would
imply a major post-Cretaceous/pre-Miocene regional uplift event which is not
observed. The eustatic sea-level changes -with maximum variation around 100 m
for the period (Haq et al., 1987)- could not alone account for the necessary
erosion. If only a few hundred meters were deposited and removed by sea-level
variations or localised footwall uplift, then this would indicate that the whole
area was a condensation zone during the Tertiary and hence had a very low
subsidence rate, contrasting with the offshore region. Based only on the well data
it cannot be decided between the (2) low subsidence rate or (3) non-deposition
hypothesis.

Another observation which can be made from Figure 4.11 is that the
distribution of Upper Cretaceous units roughly delineates a major synform
oriented NW-SE and subparallel to the main onshore fault trends (compare with
Fig. 4.42). The distribution of these sediments might be related to the effective
extension during basin development which may suggest that extensional regimes
have abandoned the onshore area migrating to the northwest (Caete Sub-basin).
Extension is thought to remain oriented NE-SW throughout the Late Cretaceous.

Note also from Figure 4.11 that the Cenomanian subcrops are centred on the
Barreirinhas Low area. Alternative explanations for this observation may be: (1)
the progressive enlargement of the basin during the Cenomanian, as suggested
by Feitosa (pers. comm. 1987) and (2) definitive sea-level rise. Eustatic curves, in
general, predict high sea levels during the Cenomanian (e.g. Haq et al., 1987),
therefore, the first hypothesis is preferred here as a likely explanation which
suggests major change in basin dynamics during this time. It will be seen later
that this event may be equated with a second phase of shearing along the basin.

Chapter 4 Page 193

 Tectonic £1•olwio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

The tectonic subsidence and stratigraphical cumulative curves obtained for

the Barreirinhas Basin show a heterogeneous pattern. Figures 4.33 and 4.34
present example curves from several locations. One important pattern was
detected in 11 sites: a period of initial rapid subsidence (115-105 Ma) followed
by a period of lesser activity, before a pulse of renewed subsidence (98-91 Ma).
Some of the best examples of this "ramp-flat-ramp 3" profile of the subsidence
curves are represented by wells MAS-1, RC-1 and BD-1. In contrast to this
segmented subsidence profile, another pattern of subsidence is characterized by
a more continuous decay and represented by wells E0-1, PT-1 and FS-1. The
map in Figure 4.35 shows the distribution of these two subsidence patterns. Note
that not only wells located in the centre of the basin but also those marginal
(like RA-1 and BE-1) have undergone subsidence in a "ramp-flat-ramp" fashion.
Even the only well located on the Ilha de Santana Platform has evolved in the
same way.

The shape of the subsidence curves beyond the initial segment of the plots
exhibit another striking feature. They have an unusual "flat" character. This
character is not merely a product of poor palaeontological control as could be
argued. A few data sets (MAS-1 and MAS-4 p.e.) also show the flat aspect
despite better chronostratigraphical control. The only exception to this
apparently general shape is the well MAS-3 (see Fig. 4.33). This borehole has
the most complete post-Albian succession of the basin and departs from the
others by its location. It is until now the most offshore well drilled in the basin.
This indicates that differences occur in the structure of the basin to the north
and south which will be clarified in Chapter 8.

4.5.3 Interpretation of the Subsidence Profiles

As deduced from this analysis, subsidence is directly related to extensional

strain and is distributed irregularly within the basin. Subsidence takes the form

3
This is a purely descriptive term related to the shape of the subsidence curve.

Chapter 4 Page 194

 Tectonic £1•olt1tio11 of 8razil1a11 £qua1orial Continental Margin Basins

age (11.a.) age 01. a. )

99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0

I!
.>t

.!. .!.

0. Q.

•
'1) "2
"O

RA-1
IS-1
3

age <M.a.) age Cr1.a. )

99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0

e I!
... 1 .>t 1

..
I.
0. 2
.!.
~ 2
"
'1)
"
"O

3 3
HAS- 4
ttAS- 1

age CM.a. ) age <11.a. )

99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0

E
'
.., I .>t

.!.

0.

"2
1)

3
BE- 1
RC- 1
3

age <11.a.> &91! CM.a.)

99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 82 66 i9 33 16 0

I
.!.
Q.
•
"O
2

Bl>-1 AD-1
3 2

Figure 4.33 - Subsidence curves for selected wells in the Barreirinhas Basin. lo all cases the lower
and upper curves are s tratigraphical accumulation and tectonic subsidence, respectively. The
bottom profile is sediment loaded whereas the top curve is backstripped basement position.
Computer outputs obtained from the BASS program. These wells have in common a "ramp-flat-
run:m• shape of the initial subsidence part of the curves. See Fig. 4.2 for wells location.
Chapter 4 Page 195
 Tec1011ic Evo/111ion of Brazilian Eq11a1orial Co111i11e111al Margin Basins

~
age <N.a.) age <N.a. >
115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0
0 0

e
! 1 .lt

-
.! 2
0.
.!.
~1
~3 Ill
1)

" IH- 1
~

5 2 FS- 1

age <N.a.> age (N,a.>

115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0
0 0

-2
.!
1
L -"

.!.
e
1

0. ~2
Ill
~3 1)

3
" HC- 1 E0-2
5

<N.a.>
"
age age <N.a.>
115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 11~ 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0
0 0.
1
~ 1 e
-" 2 \
-.!.

0.
2 .!.

~"
3

~3
"5
1)

6
" PT- 1 7 11AS-3 ~

5 8
age <N.a.> age <N.a.>
115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0
0 0

~
...e e
-"
I I
\
I.
~2
..
..(

0. 2
II
1) I "
1)

"
l
FA- 1
3

"
NAS-23 -
Figure 4.34 - Subsidence curves for selected wells in the Barreirinhas Basin. These wells have in
common a more continuous subsidence profile. Refer to Fig. 4.33 for comparison and fu rther
details.
Chapter 4 Page 196
 Tectonic Evol11tio11 of Brazilian £q11arorial Co11ti11e11tal Margin Basins

20• ·
llh• de
Santana
,. Platform

.. 0
3

•u-1•
• 0
23

Barreirinhas Low

l'

figure 4.35 - Subsidence pattern map of the Barreirinhas Basin. Shade and full circles indicate
areas and wells which have s ubsided by discrete steps and show a "ramp-flat-ramp" shape of the
subsidence profiles (see Fig. 4.33 for plots). Open circles mark wells which show a more
continuous pattern of s ubsidence.

!
20• ·

llha de
,. Santana
Platform

US ·I 0
.
0
23
0

Barreirinhas Low

1·

Figure 4.36 - Time-span map of fault-controlled subsidence in the Barreirinhas Basin. Shade and
full circles indicate areas and wells with time-s pan of initial subsidence extrapolating 10-15
million years. Open circles mark the wells in which most of the initial tectonic subsidence took
place within the first 10 million years.
Chapter 4 Page 197
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basins

of discrete steps of fault controlled events in some areas (Caete Sub-basin and
llha de Santana Platform) and is more continuous in others (Tut6ia Sub-basin
and llha Nova Graben) as indicated in Figure 4.35. This is interpreted to reflect
a heterogeneous pattern of subsidence and extension. This diffuse pattern of
exLension is not commonly found in basins created by bulk pure shear
deformation of the lithosphere as will be discussed in Chapter 8.

In most sites more than 70% of the gross tectonic subsidence took place
during the first recognisable event of rapid decline (Aptian-Early AJbian). The
time-span of the main fault controlled subsidence is therefore assumed to be
approximately 10 million years. The map presented in Figure 4.36 shows the
allocation of areas within the basin related to the time-span of fault controlled
subsidence. It can be seen that subsidence was more continuous on the
Barrefrinhas Low, the Il ha Nova Graben and the Ilha de Santana Platform,
whilst the remaining areas subsided in a series of steps. Most of the subsidence
took place within 20 million years of its initiation.

The second event of relatively rapid subsidence (Cenomanian) represents a

phase of re-acceleration of tectonic subsidence and indicates renewed fault
activity. It seems that this Cenomanian phase affected mainly the Caete Sub-
basin. It must be emphasised here that the maps in Figures 4.35 and 4.36 are
only crude representations of the regional subsidence pattern since local
variations are poorly constrained. For example, the locations E0-1 and PT-1
included in the continuous type of curves are clearly related to top corners of
tilted blocks which give them the continuous shape instead of a ramp-flat-ramp
geometry.

One of the problems with the application of one-dimension subsidence

analysis to areas with complex structural history is that the method fails to model
inversion events. These are usually represented by horizontal straight lines. The
plots obtained for wells MAS-23 and FA-1 (Fig. 4.34) exemplify this limitation of
the technique. Figure 4.37 shows a schematic plot which might offer a better

Chapter 4 Page 198

 Tectonic Evo/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Co111inental Margin Basins

alternative to the subsidence profile of the Tut6ia High, where the wells are
located. Another important limitation is that a 1-D analysis does not take the
flexural rigidity of the lithosphere into account.

age <H.a.)
115 99 82 66 49 33 16 0
o+-~~'--~--'-~~.......~~-'-~~"--~---'~~-J

\~_ _
.... . ....... .. ... .... .. .. .....~····
··. ·,~
a. 2
:. ~ t
ni
1)

3 ·.:+
.. ..
. .

Figure 4.37 - Model for the subsidence history of the Tutoia High. Continuous line shows the
backstripped basement position at locations MAS-23 or FA-1. Dotted line is a suggestion for
tectonic subsidence for the same datum but allowing for two phases of uplift (bold arrows).

However, in general, the set of curves and maps presented show that the
basin subsided heterogeneously. Two and three-dimensional subsidence analysis
must be attempted in future in order to better constrain the subsidence pattern
of the basin.

In summary, the key results of the subsidence analysis are as follow:

( 1) subsidence was heterogeneous;
(2) time-span of initial fault controlled subsidence vary between 10 - 20 Ma;
(3) two phases of rapid subsidence: Aptian-Early Albian and Cenomanian;
(4) after the two initial phases, little subsidence occurred to the south of well
MAS-3.

Chapter 4 Page 199

 Tecromc £,•0/1111011 of 8raz1/1a11 Eq11a1orial Co111ine111a/ Margin Basms

4.5.4 Sedimentation Rates

As a by-product of the subsidence analysis sedimentation rates were

automatjcally evaluated. Details of the decompaction and backstripping
techniques are given in Appendix A Assumptions were the same as for the
subsidence analysis. The rates have been corrected for compaction and have
shown the following values:

(i) Aptian-Early Albian (Cod6-Grajau and Canarias Seqs.) = 220-490 m/m.y.

(ii) Late Al bi an (Caju group)= 40-64 m/m.y.
(iii) Cenomanian (Caju group)= 68-230 m/m.y.

These are a range of values calculated from five offshore wells (MAS-1, 3, 4,
6 and 23). The high sedimentation rates for the earlier sequences (Cod6-Grajau
Sequence and Canarias Group) are thought to be responses to tectonic
subsidence rather than sea-level variations. Rates for the Cenomanian are
compatible with re-acceleration of basin subsidence.

4.6 GRAVITY DATA, MODELLING AND INTERPRETATION

The regional gravity field of the Equatorial Brazilian Continental Margin has
been presented in Figures 3.30 to 3.34 and discussed in section 3.4.6. Here the
gravity response of the Barreirinhas Basin (Fig. 4.38) is discussed in more detail.
This discussion is based on two crustal sections constructed by gravity forward
modelling (Fig. 4.39). The upper crust geometry and density distribution used in
the model was based on the seismic interpretation and borehole data. The
purpose of this investigation was to gain insight into the deep structure of the
basin.

Chapter 4 Page 200

 -- .... N
'\
\
\

''
l
\
SO k m
''
....................... .
', A
'
,.,~
g
i'\'
~
~
g·
~
to
~
~
::.

~,,,
0
i
bl
::.
:::
s
§_
~
~
:;·
to
~·
....

9
{5
~
~

~
tv +
.._
<:::>

Figure 4.38 - Bouguer gravity field or the Barreirinhas Basin. Contour interval 10 mGal. AA'and BB' are crustal sections Fig. 4.39.
 Tectonic Evo/1111011 of Brazilian Equatorial Co111i11e11tal Margin Basins

4.6.1 Crustal models

The crustal model for the Tut6ia Sub-basin (profile AA' in Fig. 4.39) shows
an almost perfect fit between observed and calculated curves. It is worth noting
the following aspects of the model:
(l) a very high degree of crustal thinning in the region of the Tut6ia High
(well MAS-23). Continental crust thins by a factor of 0.6 between 100 and
130 km from the southern edge of the profile;
(2) unthinned continental crust underlies the Sobradinho Platform;
(3) the model is compatible with a layered continental crust; crustal bodies
are approximated by south-dipping interfaces;
(4) oceanic crust might occur 60-85 km to the north of the shoreline;
(5) the onshore basin may be modelled as a product of upper crust
deformation only;
(6) steep slope of the Moho suggests fault offset between continental and
oceanic crusts.

The crustal model obtained for the Caete Sub-basin is presented by profile
BB' in Figure 4.39. A poor fit was achieved in the northeastern part of the
profile whereas no fit at all was obtained for the southwest end. After several
runs of the forward modelling program, it was concluded that the lack of
adjustment was due to upper crust density variations with little chance to be
adequately anticipated by the gravity modelling. Interesting aspects of the model
are:
(1) a comparatively lower gradient of crustal thinning. Continental crust thins
by a factor of 0.46 between 130 and 160 km of the southwestern edge of
the profile;
(2) many attempts to raise the Moho 4 underneath the Ilha de Santana
Platform failed to mimic the positive anomaly (50 mGal) detected striking
NW-SE (Fig. 4.38).

4
Mohorovicic discontinuity.

Chapter 4 Page 202

 BARREIRINHAS BASIN

~~ Tut6ia Sub-basin ~ 220

Sotndlnh<> Plat1onn R, if" 23 0 KM 50 100 150

1
0 ~ ...
A P= 2.5 0 \J 0 1.0 __J
0 L ' :::::::7 \ \ p - 2 .5 I c:::::: p- +100
-
10
oceanic crust p = 3.0
p =2 .85
10

20
f observed

20 "= 3 .3
mantle 30
301 p = 3 .1 ..J

Moh o

d~~ 20 P =1.0 B' 173

B iJ' llha d• Saman11 PlatfonTI Caete Sub-basin 0 0 KM 50 100

\l \ ~o ....
0
1 :;:;:;;? "'
p = 2.5
10
p =2.8
10
~-.'­
)., v<
~~e~,~ ~~~~~-·"' 20
vO~
20 "= 2.9 p = 3.3
mantle
30
Q Mollo
.§ 30

~
~
"'tl Figure 4.39 - Crustal gravity models of the Barreirinhas Basin. Profile AA' across the Tutoia Sub-basin. Section BB' across the
~
<'> Caete Sub-basin. See text for discussion and Fig. 4.38 for location.
N
~
 Tectonic £1·ol111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

The questions raised by these crustal models are mainly concerned with the
deep structure of the continental margin in the segment occupied by the
Barreirinhas Basin. These models show dramatic changes of deep crustal
geometries in a relatively short distance (150-250 km). These changes will be
furth er discussed in Chapter 8 where semi-schematic geological cross-sections
will be presented.

4.7 AEROMAGNETIC DATA AND INTERPRETATION

Two aeromagnetic data sets were available for the Barreirinhas Basin study.
One was acquired in 1967 and covered mainly the offshore region. This survey
was interpreted by LASA (1968). The other was obtained in 1988 and no
interpretation has been released or published yet. Both surveys produced total
intensity magnetic maps. These are pictured in Figures 3.28 (1968 survey) and
7.11 (1988 survey). These figures are partially interpreted in Figures 3.29 and
7.12 (see text in respective sections). Small portions of Figures 3.28 (Fig. 4.40)
and 7.11 (Fig. 4.41) are reproduced below for further analysis. Overlays on
Figures 4.40 and 4.41 outline magnetic provinces of the Barreirinhas Basin.

4. 7 .1 Magnetic Provinces

Five aeromagnetic provinces (labelled A to E) were recognized in the area.

Individual anomalies are numbered in accord with Figure 7.11. The provinces
are characterized as follow:
A and C - These have a magnetic style of high contrast (50-400y) and narrow
anomalies with very lengthy axes. Anomalies are oriented NE-SW.
B- This area has shorter anomalies of lower amplitude (20-lOOy ).
Preferentially oriented in an E-W direction.
D- This is a magnetically calm zone. Anomalies have very low
amplitude ( <30y) and very long wavelength. An E-W trend is
extremely well marked.

Chapter 4 Page 204

 N 50 km

02°00'

1.'<o~
a
{j
So.aft
IQ'T-401~· ••
tP
'a"~\.."
n,.~"\Y
~ '"l'fo A ~"~
~ l.-4f 1'f:'o,,~
~ ""•oo' 4'2•00' 4'l 0 oo'
~
tv
~ Figure 4.40 - Total intensity magnetic field of the Barreirinhas Basin (offshore). Overlay outlines magnetic provinces (letters) and
anomalies (numbers). See discussion in text.
 ~

N
50 km

~ Figure 4.41 - Total Intensity magnetic field of the Barrelrinhas Basin (onsbore). Overlay outlines magnetic provinces (letters) and
~
anomalies (numbers). See discussion in text and section 7.4 for anomalies.
~
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

E- The magnetic style is very calm with no significant anomalies.

Isogam lines follow a NE-SW direction.

4.7.2 Geological Interpretation of the Magnetic Provinces

The seismic and well data sets analysed constrain the geological
interpretations of the magnetic field of the basin. Boreholes located in provinces
A and C (e.g. BB-1 and IC-1) reached sheared and cataclastic gneiss and granites

at depths lower than 500 m. The Precambrian basement outcrops in the Pedra
do Sal and Rosario High areas (see sections 7.2.2 and 7.2.3). These observations
and the field data presented in Chapter 7 indicate that anomalies 2 and 3
comprise similar strongly metamorphosed complexes oriented in the same NE-
SW direction. This suggests that both areas formed a continuous belt which was
disrupted and split apart by fault movements. Although precise radiometric
dating is not available, this hypothesis is supported by the fact that the boundary
between provinces Band D-E is well marked by the Sobradinho Fault which has
been suggested as having important component of strike-slip (Rici & Goes,
1988). The dextral strike-slip character of the Sobradinho Fault zone is also
supported by this interpretation of the aeromagnetic map. This unusual
interpretation of magnetic data has been successfully attempted elsewhere
(Philippine fault system, Bischke et al., 1990).

Another possibility is that the anomaly 2 could be linked with anomaly 4

(Liandra, 1989 pers. comm.) instead of 3. The difference between the two
hypotheses is the scale of finite displacement along the fault zone, 120 km in the
first model and 50 km for the second. The mode l for the accommodation of such
large displacements is suggested in Figure 7.14.

The magnetic province B corresponds to the portion of the Sobradinho

Platform which is covered by a relatively thick sequence of Palaeozoic rocks. The
Precambrian basement comprises chiefly metasedimentary rocks and lies at 500-
2000 m depth. It comprises the hinge zone and the north flank of the Ferrer-

Chapter 4 Page 207

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian &Juatoriaf Olntinental Margin Basins

Urbano Santos Arch (see section 4.7.1). Its northern limit is marked by the
Sobradinho Fault zone, the main southern basin border fault. Anomaly 7 is
probably the magnetic response to Jurassic dolerite sills interbedded with the
Palaeozoic sequence.

The magnetically calm provinces D and E locate the depocentre of the basin.
The low amplitude anomalies (province D) reflects basement relief modulated by
a thick pile of sediments. Their E-W orientation marks the continental extension
of the Romanche Fracture Zone (see section 3.4.4 ). Thus, the areas might be
underlain by thinned and injected continental crust. The transition to province E
is the likely site of the earliest spreading centre in the region. To the west of it
lies only attenuated continental crust and to the east, transitional or oceanic
basement is expected.

4.8 STRUCTURAL FRAMEWORK OF THE BARREIRINHAS BASIN

This section is intended to integrate most of the data and observations of

this chapter in order to help build up a fuller picture of the fundamental
structural framework of the Barreirinhas Basin. This section also, summarises
kinematic indicators and evidence for dextral strike-slip tectonic regime as well
as characterising the sub-basins in which it has been divided. The division is
based on structural and stratigraphical characteristics.

4.8.1 The Structural Framework Map

The structural framework map of the Barreirinhas Basin can be seen in

Figure 4.42. The map integrates onshore and offshore data and synthesises the
present-day arch itecture of the basin. The fault pattern is complex and involves
mixed-mode displacement. As a whole, the fault systems tend to be parallel and
orie~ed NW-SE in the Caete Sub-basin and assumes an anastomosed E-W
directed pattern in the central onshore area of the basin. This anastomosing

Chapter 4 Page :!08

 ....
I
' KEY
/ I N
/1
"
5
I /
I i
\
'\
\
\

'''
1/ 2 I
% 6

I
10

\
~ 3
~7
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l f. ';
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'-
-'
1 4

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'-.~' ,
)t CAETE SUB-BASIN
..... '\
Fig .4.44

J
'-
' --,~,~
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, 0

I '\

"'- "'~
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.

...._ - .....
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' " '~ - .....
20
", ,,./"'--..._<oo,,, . . .
......... .......... _,,,,,,
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'---,
TUT61A SUB-BASIN
ATLANTIC/ ~ HIGH
--
%~ ~
f- I

I
f
/
..---;

\
·

J /
~
/
:--· ·I
/·~

J
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PLATFORM

SOBRADINHO PLATFORM
~
............... ""
""-... ...............
4 3°
3"·

4 2"
Q
~ Figure 4.42 - Simplified structural framework map of the Barreirinhas Basin. The faults shown affect mainly AJbian-Cenomanian
~ and basement rocks. Note sigmoidal pattern of fault systems at about 43°W between 2° and 3°S. At this region (southeastern end
""
~ -
~
of the Caete Sub-basin), the NW-SE oriented structures swing around to near E-W direction. Key: (1) minor normal fault; (2)
major normal fault; (3) strike-slip fault; (4) reverse fault; (5) anticline; (6) syncline; (7) hinge line.
<'>
I\,)

~
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

pattern in plan-view, is suggestive of a transtensional strike-slip duplex geometry

(Woodcock & Fischer, 1986) (Fig 4.43, see also section 2.3.2 and Fig. 2.22c).
Each individual crustal block or slice of the duplex can present two types of
rotational strain: ( 1) tilting due to dip-slip movement and (2) rotation around a
vertical axis due to strike-slip shearing. When combined, these two motions may
produce a complex three-dimensional movement. Tilting of blocks due to
normal-slip movement produces a very characteristic geometry which is described
by the domino style model (e.g. Wernicke & Burchfiel, 1982) (see section 2.2.1).
Footwall uplift with associated erosion of the top corner and hanging-wall
thickening of sedimentary sequences toward the main fault are the main features
predicted by the model (e.g. Moretti et al., 1988). Figure 4.24 shows a good
example of tilted fault block with footwall erosion in the basin. Important
rotational shear strain is observed when strike-slip is severe, in such cases·
massive inversion of blocks and strongly sheared boundaries may be striking
attributes. In the Barreirinhas Basin, the borders of crustal blocks that suffered
rotational strain are outlined by flower structures (positive or negative) and
vertical highly faulted zones (Figs. 4.25 and 4.28).

The main fault zones in the Barreirinhas Basin are represented on the map
by continuous lines which can be traced for a few hundred kilometres in length.
The same representation has also been used in other regional maps of the basin
(e.g. Figueiredo et al., 1982; Ojeda, 1982a; Rici & Goes, 1988). Although major
strike-slip faults may conserve displacements for large distances, individual
normal faults are seen either to loose displacement, and hence map expression,
proportionally to the maximum central dip-slip vector (Walsh & Waterson, 1988;
Walsh & Waterson, 1989; Freeman et al., 1990) or transfer displacement directly
from one fau lt plane to another linked surface (Gibbs, 1984b and 1990). The
seismic mapping performed has shown that the seismic image of fault systems
varies greatly along strike which leads to the idea that the fault zones
(Sobradinho, Barreirinhas, Canoas, Espigiio, MAS-1, etc.) may be composed of
either mode of fault arrays rather than a single continuous fau lt surface.

Chapter 4 Page 210

 Tectonic Evolwion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Figure 4.43 - Strike-sip duplex model for the upper crust deformation affecting the Barreirinhas
Basin dtJring the Middle Cretaceous. The transtensional duplex geometry of the Caete Sub-basin
is indicated by the association of strike-slip features with the sigmoidal pattern of the fault
systems. Narrowing of the deformation zone in depth is suggested by the likely association with
an ancient transform fault (proposed model based on Woodcock & Fischer, 1986).

4.8.2 Evidence for Strike-slip Tectonic Regime

The recognition of strike-slip faults from seismic data is difficulty because

the vertical seismic profiles are unable to directly record lateral displacements.
In order to support the interpretation of strike-slip faults acting during early
stages of the development of the Barreirinhas Basin, a series of lines of evidence
have been collected from independent data sets. These lines of evidence are
summarised below and help to establish the interpretations:

(1) vertical fault traces imaged by seismic lines separating crustal blocks of
contrasting signatures, fracture intensity, incompatible displacements,
inconsistent dips and thicknesses variation (Fig. 4.25);

Chapter 4 Page 211

 Tectonic Evolution of Bra"ilia11 Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

(2) association of flower structures (Figs. 4.28 and 29), en echelon folds (Figs.
4.17 and 19) and reverse faults (Fig. 4.13 and 19);
(3) geometry of fault systems similar to strike-slip duplex (Figs. 4.42 and 43);
(4) large lateral displacements of the border fault (Sobradinho Fault)
interpreted from aeromagnetic data (Figs. 4.40 and 41);
(5) steep Moho geometries (Fig. 4.39);
(6) rapid migration of Albian sedimentary depocentres (Fig. 4.10);
(7) high sedimentation rates and rapid vertical and lateral facies changes for
early sedimentary sequences (sections 4.5.4 and 4.2.2);
(8) juxtaposition of a broad uplifted area (Tut6ia High) with simultaneous
subsidence in the Caete Sub-basin;
(9) association with the Romanche Fracture Zone (Fig. 3.25).

The right-lateral sense of displacement of main fau lt zones is suggested by:

(1) shift of magnetic anomalies;

(2) kinematic of fault systems;
(3) shift of Albian sedimentary depoc.e ntres;
(4) association with the Romanche Fracture Zone.

4.8.3 The Caete Sub-basin

The Caete Sub-basin, in the western part of the Barreirinhas Basin, is

identified by a NW-SE oriented fault array with a dominant dip-slip component.
Between 2° and 3°S the overall configuration of the fault systems shows an
anastomosing pattern in map view (Figs. 4.42), which resembles closely a strike-
slip duplex in a transtensional regime (Fig. 4.43). In section (Fig. 4.44), tilted
blocks with corresponding footwall uplift are the basic structural elements.

This Sub-basin accumulated most of the Upper Cretaceous sequences of the

Barreirinhas Basin. Late AJb ian deposits are particularly thick. In general, pre-
Cre taceous rocks te nd to lie deeper in th is area than in the Tut6ia Sub-basin.

Chapter 4 Page 212 ·

 NE
SW BARREIRINHAS BASIN
v GAETE SUB-BASIN

I
,
I 59 -151
I

........
I

I
I
I
I
68-65
94-295
__......... ....
,, I
I

- ...
_..,,,.,,....
,,.,,.

_ ....---....-
I
I
I
..
as _, ..........
.....
E0-3
0
PT
0
2
0
1
0
MAS-1
\7 0 .... ....-....
01
._..,,.,...,.. -- - - ---
-~~-=
~

- -,,...=··-' --""'~- ~· --------=----14

- ==--:-==t 2
-~
-~ -:

~~---=~ ~
~

'..:.__---~~=--~
, ,. . ,_,_ ==
--~-=o=-- =--=--
..
~- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- -·--
- __....--....;:.~-=:~
...
-
,,_ ~---=-=-=-.___,_
~-~~~
C>. ~a
-- -
- ---- - ~--=...._ ____ _
6
"" - - ------.;.
~ ~------

Figure 4.44 - Profile across the Caete Sub-basin. {a) composed seismic profile; (b) line drawing and (c) geoseismic cross-section.
Note dominant ulock tilting style. See location of profile in Fig. 4.42. Legend; (1) Precambrian basement; (2) Palaeozoic; (3)
Aptian; (4) Albian; (5) Cenomanian; (6) Late Cretaceous; (7) Tertiary.

shorellne

~I- ! . l\E+t
SW 0 0 0 0 Vo

~ II!'!\: f "'*··: ; : :···;·@:·:11§_!_!·:·:·:: @:;(-

~ NE (o' 2

...
:.
... ..... ""... ... .. -
lr:
Jr
IC"

" ....
.. ..

. J
.. -..
"' ,,, ... ... ....
" • ••••• Cbt.,ouusue...-uc ........ o;;o.,, •••••

~~~-~=---:~--10
"" ···•·•··••·•···············••••·····
·•··•••••·•·········••····•·••••·•·
···••·•·••·············•···•······
·•·••·················•·····
·························~
10k• -·-- ····•·····••··• ············
-···

1 F8l
E8
2 3
D 4 5 6
~ 7

Chapter 4 Page 213

 Tectonic £ 1•olutio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

An interesting aspect of the Caete Sub-basin is the question of the

importance of shale diapirism. Early studies have indicated major shale
movements with the formation of penetrating diapirs (e.g. Tigre, 1970; Juca et
al., 1977). The <:fata base analysed here however, did not give unequivocal
evidence of massive shale motion. Doubtless, some diapirism can be expected,
considering the stratigraphical model described for the Barro Duro-Tut6ia
deltaic system. A highly constructive delta prograding over slopes may induce
shale motion triggered by density contrast between the underlying shale units an
the overriding sandstone bodies. Nevertheless, most of the evidence given for
hypotheses of shale-kinetics such as blind zones on seismic sections or
rapid increase in angles on dipme ter data, may well be explained by considering
fo6twall uplift associated with some strike or oblique-slip deformation along
main fault zones, which would result in zones of poor seismic resolution and
variable dips of beds and fault surfaces.

4.8.4 Tut6ia Sub-basin

The central and eastern areas of the Barreirinhas Basin comprise the Tut6ia
Sub-basin which is characterized by E-W and NE-SW trending fault zones with
dominant right-lateral displacements. Anticlines and flower structures are also
features of this sub-basin. The broad uplifted area at the eastern end of the
basin (Tut6ia High) has an axial plane oriented NE-SW. '1 vgether with sub-
parallel fold structures it forms an en echelon pattern with respect to the
orientation of the main shear direction (Fig. 4.42). Figure 4.45 shows a section
view of the province (compare with Fig. 4.44 ).

Another characteristic of the Tut6ia Sub-basin is the presence of a major

regional unconformity. This erosional surface is structurally elevated and places
in contact Early-Middle Albian rocks with Miocene sediments (e.g. Fig. 4.29).
Tertiary sediments occur only to the north of the Tut6ia High and minor Upper
Cretaceous sequences onlap the western flank of the high (Fig. 4.14).

Chapter 4 Page 214

 SW BARREIRINHAS BASIN TUTOIA SUB-BASIN NE
0 0 0

59-153

, 20-111 / 99/ 107

,,, 68-81 53-859
,,,,,,''
, ,,,,
,,, ,,
I
,,,,,,
,,,,,,
QA FA MAS-3 ,,, ..
,,
0 0 0 ,.,....
--- - -- ..:•_.. -~ --
~~ot..7"•. .:.-..- ~
.. . ...
~. ::
~"': -:-..= :··
·~ ~~--- -:.
:r:.-- , -. - =- -
- --.:-
_ .- - ~":. .M · c ... ;:~
Os
,.:..:"
:~c:~g;r,c:_
'

-
0

~:: 'C':~;;:· {::>-' -~'"~.,.~- ;_. ~-~~ ~;::~'·

" _,... .: . :;.·- _,...-

1
- =

)I
,
.;?~·--
,,,,_-#
:-
-- .;,

-=-;:;_ :,..
---
!.
...
...-.- :f"~
-:;- -::?.:-
.
--
, . .:--;.~
__
-- -~.:.-.:;_ ..~_:--::--
-- ..--~- ---··-·--
-- -::__,.-
- ·:--::- · --:-
~-:!:?--:....~· ~-
~_,_~

.:- - ~~?- - _=--=;::.-

~ -~'
--===-=--=·
.::-== . -_- --
2

3
4
' ~

5
Figure 4.45 · Profile across the Tut6ia Sub-basin. (a) composed seis.nic profile; (b) line drawing and (c) gcoseismic cross-section.
Obscne broad aoticlinal form and major unconformity which occu pies about 011e third or the basin width. ~profile location in
Fig. 4.42. Legend: (1) Precambrian basement; (2) Palaeozoic; (3) A)ltian; (4) AJbian; (5) Cenomanian; (6) Late Cretaceous; (7)
volcanics '?; (8 ) Tertiary.

s 0
shoreline
\I 0 ~/ N
Os

.. .. •"""'~
........ ...':..
.... llr ........ -. - •

.. .. ~....
.. ...... .."......
........
2

.....
. . ..
..... ............................
:I: ... ~ .... - .. . .. "' .. ....
Barreirinhas Low
~
..~~::::::::: t
... ........... "
0 $ 4 I

10 km
4

Sobradinho Platfrirm ® Tut6ia High " .......

____________....................~---------------------------------am..--------------------------~6
D + 1 BB
E3 2 3 04 5 6 7 ~8

Chapttr 4 Page 215

 Tectonic Evo/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Contincmaf Margin Basins

The structural provinces and sub-basins described above characterise the

shallow structure of the Barreirinhas Basin. The deep structure has been
investigated by the gravity modelling presented in section 4.6.1. Additional
interpretations of the deep structure of the basin are presented in Chapter 8
1
when basin models are evaluated. Here all that is required is the notion that the
deep structure of both sub-basins differs as much as the shallow architecture.
The Tut6ia Sub-basin shows a rapid transition from continental to oceanic
underlying basement whereas the Caete Sub-basin presents a gradual thinning of
continental basement over a broader area (Fig. 4.39). These characteristics may
indicate, respectively, dominantly transform and rifted continental margin basin
development which will be further explored in Chapter 8.

4.9 THE AFRICAN COUNTERPART - THE GHANA BASIN

The continental margin of Ghana ("Ghana basin" for simplicity) comprise the
Tano, offshore Ghana, Saltpond and Keta Basins (Fig. 4.46). The aim of this
section is to provide independent constraints and comparative basis for the
tectonic evolution model for the Brazilian margin (Chapter 9).

4.9.1 Stratigraphy

The pre-Cretaceous stratigraphy of Ghana was discussed in sections 3.3.3 and

3.3.4. The Cretaceous and Tertiary rock sequence is similar to that of the
Barreirinhas Basin (see Fig. 3.41). A major variation is that Aptian
sedimentation is very thick and Barremian beds are reported to have been
drilled by offshore wells (Akpati, 1975 and 1978; Best et al., 1985; Kesse, 1986).
The Albian deposits tend to be more continental to the east (Keta Basin) and
marine to the west (Tano Basin). The Cenozoic succession is very thin and
outcrops alo ng the coast. A major unconformity places Miocene-Quaternary beds
in contact with Albian sedime nts (line 65 Fig. 4.51), similarly to what happens in
the Tut6ia Sub-basin. Figure 4.47 schematically summarises the stratigraphical

Chapter 4 Page 216

 (
I ) \
)
'\
..___... '"- ' YI I I
o I
l. (-..) I V 0 R Y
I
I
I

11 I 1

) I I
( Gl
<; L\/ \ COAST I
~ /
(
I G
~
~
-·\ .'-...
\
•
/
•
J
<oo
'</ ( ...

-
100 km

Q 01
CS
'•;,,
..,
~
~
02
Figure 4.46 - Location and regional setting of the Ghana Busin.
~
~
(I) l\frsozoic-Cenozoic; (2) Palaeozoic; (3) Prccarnhrian. 03
Iv
.....
1
 Tecronic Evol111io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Co111i11e111a/ Margin Basins

succession of the Ghana Basin.

,_
0

··- 81RRll.il1A>I GRANITES',',',•.

··-
II OOO+----...------..,.-------.--~
0

Figure 4.47 - Geological cr oss-section of the Ghana Basin (from Best et al., 1985).

4.9.2 Structure

The shelf and slope of the Ghana Basin are controlled by the Romanche
Fracture Zone which passes into the continental domain as the Ivory Coast-
Glzana Ridge (Fig. 4.46). Figure 4.48 shows the structural framework of the
Ghana Basin, redrawn from Best et al.(1985), while Figures 4.49 to 4.52 present
interpreted seismic profiles across this segment of the Northern Guinea Gulf
coast.

The Ghanian shelf, west of Cape Three Points deepens very rapidly and is
affected by WNW-ESE directed normal fau lts. The area south of the Cape is
very complex. Figure 4.49 shows a seismic profile in which onlap of Late Albian
reflectors onto a Middle Albian unconformity has been suggested. The fault
systems affecting this area are dominantly oriented NNW-SSE and E -W. East
and southea t of the Cape, the shelf is crossed by NE-SW trending faults on
which such features as strike-slip displacements and uplift have been suggested
(Clifford, 1986; Best et al., 1985) (Figs. 4.50 and 4.51). The Ivory Coast-Ghana
Ridge is the southernmost inverted block which has controlled the sediment
distribution during Cretaceous time. The structure of the southwest tip of the

Chapter 4 Page 218

 2· o•

5•

p.. ~ [>.
G~
.. ..\
\
i. ..
..
i

!i ;
.:'
\
. ~
~

2 00m ······ ......

\
··.. ....- "'

/,,,.~ .................... ...":.

........... . - //
o ··. ....... .... ... .,,·
').00 • .... ..... ~~.~~..
-t- '·
... ··..
... ... ..........
····· 4•
.· ··

Q
.§ Figure 4.48 - Structural framework map of the Ghana Bnsin (redrawn from Best cl al , 1985 and Blarcz, 1986). Sec location in Fig.
~ 4.46. Bold lines arc seismic profiles shown in Figures 4.49 to 4.52. Circles are wells used in the subsidence analysis. Double
-!>.. shaded line running SW-NE along the offshore region is the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge which marks the prolongation of the
~ southernmost ridge of the Romanche fracture zone into the African continent.
~
"'
._
'C
 ~,,. ·-
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Keta Basin and the easternmost part of the Ghana Basin, is also of considerable
complexity. Figure 4.49 exemplifies this complexity and is useful to emphasise
the occurrence of a top Albian unconformity and the very thin thickness of
Upper Cretaceous sequences over the shelf area.

The seismic image of the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge to the southwest of the
Ghana Basin has been studied by Blarez (1986). Figures 4.53 and 4.54 show the
structural trends and series of interpreted seismic sections. The profiles illustrate
the damming effect of the ridge to the post-Albian sedimentation. They also
depict a highly fractured Albian sequence which displays seismic characteristics
of strike-slip deformation.

l
Figure 4.53 - Structural sketch map of the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge (from Blarez, 1986). (1)
Continental crust; (2) seamount; (3) probable distribution of oceanic crust; (4) Ivory Coast-
Ghana Ridge; (5) normal faults; (6) anticlines; (7) synclines; (8) isochrons of the top Albian
unconformity.

More evidence for intense fracturing and possible strike-slip deformation

affecting large areas of the G hana Basin come from production profiles of small
oil fields (Saltpond and Seme) (Best et al., 1985). It has been reported that all

Chapter 4 Page 220

 OS

.
0
s

7
Figure 4.50 • Interpreted seismic profile 7. Note footwall uplift with ero~ion or pre-Cretaceous
sequences associated with a fault plane on which strike-slip displacement is also interpreted. See GHANA BASIN
Fig. 4.48 for location (from Best et al., 1985).
W6H224
0 OS
.----.--- - ---
'
·- --- - -· ·- · ----·-· - - -- . ··-. - ·-
-----·-·--- ··- · · - ·- -· -
··---·- ------ -- ----·- . -.
- ---,' -------- - .- ·.....-.-
·· ·- ----·---~---
-------·-- -------·- . --- . ·----- ..-- -----------------
.. - -.---- --- _ ....... - --

~~~~~~~~~::>~~~~~~~i""--~';
- ~-~ ~- ~ ~~~~~~~~~I
- -·-· - - - - - - - .. ·- . f.--,.- - -
.. ·--·-
,.________ ____- ·-- --· - ·-- -- ····· - -· ....
---·- - -- - --- - -~ -~~ - --
1 ··--· - ~~~
-------
'
___ ,,, -._____ . ---- -·- ·---. -

Figure 4.49 • Interpretation of

2
seismic proflle Wf~H224 (from
Best et al., 1985). Location in
Fig. 4.48.

5 5

......,,........,.._~·~'~~ 6

Chapter 4 Page 221

 "'
0

0"'

,_->:w -z V • WLJC z O V'I

- - X\J -;.1. \nWJUOZCJV'I

 Tec1011ic £1•0/111io11 of Brazilia11 Equatorial Co111ine111a/ Margi11 Basins

productive wells show a rapid decrease in flow after a relatively short period
(days or weeks) indicating highly compartmented reservoirs. This characteristic is
also common to small gas and oil fields of the Barreirinhas Basin (Sao Joao,
Espigao and Oeste de Canoas Fields).

4.9.3 Subsidence

Subsidence analysis was performed, during this investigation, on three sites

along the shelf of Ghana. T he lithological and chronostratigraphical data were
taken from Best et al.( 1985). Figure 4.55 presents cumu lative (loaded) and

age (11. a.) a9e (11,a.)

115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0 115 99 82 66 i9 33 16 0
0 0

r. I!
.,,, I .)/,

-
.!.
Q. 2
.!.
~I
~
"
'1)
GI
'1)

AMOCO 1~-1

2 AGRI 10 t A

a 9e <It.a.>
99 82 66 i9 33 16 0

-.!.

Q. ..
3

"5
1)

6
7
HORTH TANO
8

Figure 4.55 - Subsidence profiles of the Ghana Basin. Note subsidence pattern similar to what has
been found for the Barreirinhas basin. Fig. 4.47 for wells location. See text for discussion and Fig.
4.33 for details of the plots.

Chapter 4 Page 223

 Tectonic £vol111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

dp ~

01 ', JJ . .I ... . • • • • • •
•J
•
~ 2 - .
[}·::,:::,=:::: I 3

Figure 4.54 · Interpreted seismic sections across the Ivory Coast-Ghana Ridge. See location in Fig.
4.53 (from Blarez, 1986). (1) Continental crust; (2) oceanic crust; (3) highly deformed Lower
Cretaceous rocks.

Chapter 4 Page 224

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conunental Margin Basins

tectonic (unloaded or backstripped) subsidence curves for all wells. In two cases,
AGRI-lOlA and AMOCO 16-1, the profiles reflect the fact that both wells have
drilled through major unconformities which place Late Tertiary or Quaternary
deposits on Early Aptian syn-tectonic sequences. This is similar to the history
described for the Tut6ia Sub-basin and indicates that the area has undergone
uplift after initial subsidence and stayed elevated throughout the remaining
depositional history of the basin. The North Tano well in contrast, shows
subsidence profiles typical of an area undergoing continuous tensional collapse,
which allows preservation of a more complete stratigraphical succession. These
contrasting results may suggest that simultaneous extension and shortening might
have been operative during early periods of ba in development which can be
attributed to strike-slip tectonics. This suggestion may support the interpretation
of a post-Jurassic shearing event discussed in section 3.3.3.

4.10 CONCLUSIONS

(1) The stratigraphy of the Barreirinhas Basin is a direct response to its complex
tectonic history.

(2) Based on several geological criteria the basin has been divided into two sub-
basins: the western Caete and the eastern Tut6ia Sub-basins (Table 4.1). They
are characterized by their sedimentary infill and distinct structural style.

(3) Th e Aptian-Albian-Cenomanian sedimentation was strongly controlled by

tectonics. Tilting of blocks (Caete Sub-basin) and uplift of broad areas (Tut6ia
Sub-basin) are among the major controls on sedimentation.

(4) Two main observations arise from the subsidence analysis: (i) two patterns
of initial subsidence occurred, segmented and more continuous patterns; (ii) flat
behaviour of the segment beyond the part of the curves corresponding to the
initial subsidence.

Chapter 4 Page 225

 Tecronic E\lol111io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

(5) A second event of relative rapid subsidence (Cenomanian) represents a

phase of re-acceleration of tectonic subsidence and implies renewed fault activity
in most of the basin.

(6) In the seismic data set examined for the Barreirinhas Basin, the traces of
fault planes vary from low-angle listric up to vertical planar. The low-angle
detachment faults are mostly found in the upper part of the sedimentary pile and
tend to be younger than planar faults. Listric faults are developed mainly near
the shelf edges and have younging direction oceanwards. Planar fault planes are
more often found and frequently have a slightly listric profile in unmigrated
seismic data but assume planar geometry when depth converted. The main fault
zones involve basement displacements and can usually be traced upwards to the
top Cretaceous, eventually reaching the surface.

(7) The fault pattern of the Barreirinhas Basin is complex and involves mixed-
mode displacement. Finite fault displacements have normal and strike-slip
characters. Documented normal-slip can reach 2 500 m in one discrete fault zone
while interpretation of aeromagnetic data suggests a maximum finite strike-slip
displacement between 50 and 120 km for the Sobradinho Fault zone.

(8) The fault systems tend to be parallel and oriented NW-SE in the Caete
Sub-basin and assume an anastomosing E-W directed pattern in the central
onshore area of the basin. This anastomosing pattern in plan-view, is suggestive
of a transtensional strike-slip duplex geometry.

(9) Folding of the AJbian sequence onshore and on the shelf area may be a
consequence of lateral displacement.

(10) Forward gravity modelling shows that the thinning of the continental crust is
'(.) f .l
more ~iCl in the Caete than in the Tut6ia Sub-basin. It results in a steeper
Moho morphology in the later area.

Chapter 4 Page 226

 Tectonic Evol111io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basins

(11) Magnetically calm provinces define the depocentres of the basin. Low
amplitude anomalies reflect basement relief modulated by a thick pile of
sediments. Their E-W orientation marks the continental extension of the
Romanche Fracture Zone.

(12) The structural-stratigraphical framework of the Ghana Basin is very similar

to that described for the Barreirinhas Basin. Dominantly sheared or extended
segments of this part of the African plate are mirror images of their Brazilian

counterparts.

Chapter 4 Page 227

 Tectonic £vol11t1on of Brazilian Equatonal Continental Margin Basins

Caete Sub-basin Tut6ia Sub-basin

Faulting dip-slip dominant strike-slip

style tilted blocks

Dominant
fault NW-SE E-W
orientation

Subsidence almost continuous Late Albian uplift

since Aptian

Albian
sedimentation deltaic deep water

Tectonic
regime transtension transpression

Table 4.1 · Characterization of sub·basins of the Barreirinhas Basin.

Chapter 4 Page 228

 CHAPTER 5

THE PARA-MARANHAO BASIN

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The Para-Maranhao Basin is a major sedimentary depocentre of the

Equatorial margin of Brazil. It connects the Barreirinhas Basin (Caete Sub-
basin) to the east, with the Foz do Amazonas Basin to the west. The basin lies
entirely offshore along the coast of the Brazilian states of Para and Maranhao
approximately between 43°-46°W and 1°N-2°S (Fig. 3.9). Based on structural
and stratigraphic analyses Cainelli et al. (1986) have characterised two unnamed
structural domains in the Para-Maranhao Basin. The eastern and western
domains are separated by the so called "Gurupi High'~ Because of their similarity
and also because there is no geological discontinuity between the eastern
province and the adjoining Caete Sub-basin, for the purpose of this thesis, this
area will be also referred as the Caete Sub-basin. It comprises the northern
continuation of the western sub-basin defined in the Barreirinbas Basin. The
western portion of the Para-Maranhao Basin is termed the "Tromai Sub-basin",
after the name of a small town of the region.

Cainelli and 22 collaborators (1986) have produced a very comprehensive

report (8 volumes) assessing the hydrocarbon potential of the basin. This
pioneering work was a valuable source of information for the synthesis provided
below. This chapter however, presents a reappraisal of the structural-
stratigraphical framework of the basin focusing only aspects relevant to the
purpose of this research. Subsidence and structural analyses were performed
utilising subsidence data presented by those authors and seismic profiles were
examined which are located in Figure 5.1. New data as well as the interpretation
of a deep seismic profile acquired in the area are also presented.

Chapter 5 Page 229

 Tectonic Evol11rion of Bra:dlian Equatorial Con1111e11tal Margm Basins

~.-:
~
"00
~
~
41 N
~: .
'?
'
A
) ">
I

•
•
• •

o•

ILHA DE SANTANA PLATFORM

44•

Figure 5.1 - Data base used in the study of the Para-Maranhao Basin. Open and full circles are
locations of wells and hypothetical wells used in the subsidence analysis of Cainelli et al.(1986).
Bold linei, are seismic profil es available for this research.

5.2 STRATIGRAPHY

Palaeozoic and Neocomian rocks have not yet been drilled in the basin.
Cainelli et al. (1986) suggested that the former have been removed by erosion
whereas the latter have not been deposited.

Chapter 5 Page 230

 Tecronic £1•ol11uo11 of Brazilian £q11a1orial Cominental Margin Basins

The post-Jurassic stratigraphic succession of the Para-Maranhao Basin is

very similar to that described for the Barreirinhas Basin (Fig. 3.41 ). The main
exceptions to this are that it has: (I) a shorter Late Albian and Cenomanian
record and (2) a more extensive Cenozoic carbonate rich platform. Cainelli et al.
(1986) have divided the stratigraphic succession into three major sequences.
These are correlated to the Canarias, Caju and Humberto de Campos Groups of
the adjoining Barreirinhas Basin.

Sequence I comprises Late Aptian to Early Albian siliciclastics of continental

origin with marine influence in the top of the sequence. It lies over Precambrian
basement and is unconformably overlain by Albian or younger deposits. Its
distribution is clearly controlled by basement structures characterised by half-
graben geometries. The sequence thickens very rapidly from 800 to 5 OOO m
within these half-grabens. The half-grabens are located at the edge of the Ilha de
Santana Platform (Fig. 5.2). In this area the sequence can be penetrated at
2000m depth. The sequence is strongly tilted in a seaward direction.

Sequence II involves mainly transgressive marine shales ranging in age from

Albian to Santonian. It lacks the massive carbonate rich deposits which
characterise the sedimentation in the Barreirinhas Basin during this period.
Palaeontological studies have shown that Late Albian and Cenomanian intervals
have not yet been proven in the basin.

The last major sequence, Sequence Ill, comprises a large mixed carbonate-
clastic platform system ranging in age from Campanian to Recent. It is a
wedged-shape pile of sediments of mainly carbonate rich nature which has an
overall homoclinal geometry dipping to the N and NE. The Tertiary section is
characterised by progradation of the carbonate platform till the Early Oligocene
whereas the younger section was built up vertically.

Chapter 5 Page 231

 Tecconic £1·0/111io11 of Brazilian Eq11acorial Continencal Margin Basins

' ......
" ' ' , CAETE SUB-BASIN
ff-

ILHA OE SANTANA PLATFORM

SO Km
a•s·

Figure S.2 - Structural framework map of the Para-Maranhao Basin (redrawn from Cainelli et
al., 1986 and Guimaraes et al., 1989). Irregular bold lines are fault segments mapped at the
basement level with black areas showing cut-off zone. Curved thin lines are listric faults
detaching within the sedimentary pile.

5.3 MAJOR STRUCTURAL PROVINCES

The shallow architecture of the basin has been defined by Cainelli et al.
( 1986). The structural framework map (Fig. 5.2) and two geological cross-
sections (Fig. 5.3) may be used to describe the major structural provinces and
highlight important structural aspects. They are as follows.

Chapter 5 Page 232

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

5.3.1 llha de Santana Platform

The !Iha de Santana Platfonn (Fig. 5.2) is a very large structural province
which occupies the southern region of the basin. Refer to section 4.3.3 for details
of this province.

s N
0 A A'

llha de Santana Graben

--- - -

SW etl8lf bfMk NE
0
0 B 25 50 •m \ B'

:I
llha de Santana Platform

10 (bi
·~

Figure 5.3 - Geological sections AA' a nd 88' across the Para-Maranhiio Basin (modified from
Cainelli et al., 1986). (a) Tromaf Sub-basin. (b) Caete Sub-basin. Note that t he external
structural high in (a) is absent in (b). See location in Fig. 5.2.

5.3.2 MAS-9 High

The so called MAS-9 High is a narrow (10 km wide) elongated structural

high trending E-W parallel to the northern border of the Ilha de Santana
Platform (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3a). Seismic-stratigraphic relationships (Fig. 5.4) and
geochemical a nalyses suggest that this was a positive feature since the Aptian
(Cainelli et al., 1986), and started to subside by Late Cretaceous.

5.3.3 Gurupi High

The Gurupi High is defined as a narrow (8 km wide) elongated structural

high oriented approximately N20°E (Fig. 5.2). It lies in the area where there is a

Chapter 5 Page 233

 PARA-MARANHAO BASIN TROMA f SUB-BASIN
SW NE
53-77
OS

2 2

3 3

4 4

ea>
5

Figure 5.4 • Profile and details of seismic line 53-77. (a) Uninterpreted seismic profile; (b) detail
showing seismic image of the MAS-9 High; (c) detail of normal fault exhibiting a ramp-flat-ramp
geometry.

cb > MAS-9
/
------------------------------------------------,-os
CC)

_ ..__
0 ~ -----.-..-..-....--------------
- -- -·-·-·---- --- - ·----
_._ ~··-------:--- --
~--
- --- --· - -----· . . - -· . - - _____ _________..._ ..... _. -----·-- ··
-- ·-------- ...

Chapter 5 Page 234

 Teetonic Evolu11on of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

sharp change of structural directions from dominantly E-W (to the west) to NW-
SW (to the east). This area marks the intersection of the extension of the Saint
Paul Fracture Zone with the continental margin (see also section 3.4.4 and Fig.
3.25). Cainelli et al. (1986) have suggested that the Gurupi High was inverted
during the Albian-Cenomanian. However, the seismic data analysed does not
support this suggestion (Fig. 5.5). Nevertheless, it seems evident that the
southwestern continuation of this high is lined up with the lineament (transfer
zone) which separates the Bragan~a-Viseu and Sao Lufs Grabens of the onshore
Gurupi Graben System (Fig. 5.6; see also Chapter 6), which suggests that the
lineament is a fundamental feature of the continental basement. It is possible
that this NE-SW oriented lineament may have been later reactivated similarly to
other fundamental features of the Brazilian Precambrian platform as
documented in Chapter 3. To date however, there is no conclusive evidence that
the Gurupi High has been uplifted after the initial rifting. Gentle normal-slip
reactivation of its border faults is however suggested by seismic data (Fig. 5.5).

5.3.4 llha de Santana Graben

The llha de Santana Graben is a E-W striking half-graben 25 km wide,

limited by the MAS-9 High to the north and the Ilha de Santana Platform to the
south (Figs. 5.2 and 5.3a).

5.3.5 Tromai Sub-basin

The Troma[ Sub-basin corresponds to the "western part" of the Para-

Maranhao Basin of Cainelli et al. (1986) (Fig. 5.3a and Table 5.1). The sub-
basin comprises the Ilha de Santana Platform and graben, the MAS-9 High and
the northern deep-water basin. The sedimentary depocentres strike dominantly
E-W parallel to the northern border of the Ilha de Santana Platform and thicken
rapidly to the north of the MAS-9 High.

Chapter 5 Page 235

 PARA-MARANHAO BASIN
NW SE
0 OS

2 2

4 4

Figure 5.5 - Seismic profile and detail of line 53-118

depicting the seismic image of the Gurupi High.

TROMA i SUB-BASIN GAETE SUB-BASIN

0 • i;o.-:w;;• .,.,.,..... 9 2Q019' os

n:iw-;;"1::J::r
~···-· :·; ·: -- ·· m " :&?-::~""'.s~q: ...l

1 1

2 2

Chapter 5 Page 236

 Tec1onic fa·ol111ion of Brazilian £q11a1orial Continental Margin Basins

4 6°

SAINT PAUL FRACTURE ZONE

N ------,
\ GURUPI HIGH

'
\
\

\
\
\

\~
. , 4.~
',':f
''
' '\
\
\
\
''
''

2•

Figure 5.6 • Structural sketch-map of the Para-Maranhiio region showing geometric

relationships between the Gurupi Graben System, the Gurupi High and the Precambrian
basement fabric. Basement fabri c is taken from fi eld observations as well as aeromagnetic and
lineament ma ps of figures 3.29, 7.8 and 7.1 2. Note that the Gurupi High is roughly aligned with a
NE-SW oriented transfer zone.

5.3.6 Caete Sub-basin

The Caete Sub-basin is equivalent to the "eastern part" of the basin as

defined by the same authors (Fig. 5.3b and Table 5.1). The basin trend is roughly
NW-SE. T he Gurupi High separates both sub-basins. This province plunges
faster to the northeast than the previous sub-basin. No structural high is found

Chapter 5 Page 237

 Tectonic E1•oltmon of Brazilian Equatonal Co11t111ental Margin Basins

between the Ilha de Santana Platform and the northern deep basin, wh ich may
indicate that the structural development. of the Caete and Tromaf Sub-basins
were fundamentally distinct. This observation is believed to be highly significant.
It raises the question as to why an external high was developed in the Tromaf
Basin, but not along the Caete Basin. It is suggested that the crustal process that
produced the MAS-9 High did not effect the Caete Basin as a consequence of
the distinct structural development. In a search for possible explanations, the
influence of basement structures may be minimised because both sub-basins
intersect the inherited fabric (dominantly NE-SW) at high angles (Fig. 5.6). This
geometric connection makes difficult to accept the reworking of older structures
as a likely cause for the dissimilar structural style. The reason for the distinct
structural development might thus lie in the angular relationship between the
basin axis and the regional extension component of the Gondwana breakup
episode (see model in Fig. 9.5).

5.4 SUBSIDENCE

Subsidence plots obtained by Cainelli et al. (1986) are compiled in Figure 5.7
and were corrected for palaeowater-depth. These authors have studied
subsidence data of boreholes and hypothetic wells using one-dimensional
approach. Jn Figure 5.7, backstripped basement depths are shown for the entire
basi n (a) and individually depict the subsidence pattern of each sub-basin (b and
c). A few groups of curves are identified (letters) and allow the following
interpretation.

A- The most offshore wells show a pronounced post-tectonic subsidence.

B- A consistent pattern of subsidence shown by locations distributed over the
shelf area. It is characterised by a "flat" shape of the curves after the
initial subsidence. This pattern suggests lesser extension than set A.
C- Profiles obtained from wells and control points over the MAS-9 High.

Chapter 5 Page 238

 Tectonic £, olmion of Bra;:ilian Equatorial Conti111:n1al Margin Basins

11 1

PARA-MARAN HAO
13 1
, .___,____,__,_..__,__,____,__,.----.__.--.--.-..---.--.----.--,--.--.-,---.--.-r---.--.r---.-f
120 M o 100 80 60 40 20 0

I
B

TROMAf GAETE I CI
0
I

Figure S.7 • Subsidence profiles of the Para-Mara nhao Basin (redrawn from Cainelli et al.,
1986). Datum top of the backstripped basement. (a) Data set for the entire basin. (b) Tromai
Sub-basin. (c) Caete Sub-basin. Roman numerals correspond to discrete phases of rapid
subsidence. Letters indicate set of curves referred in text. In all plots vertical and horizontal axes
are depth a nd time before present.
The subsidence diagrams also indicate that after the initial tectonic I

subsidence phase, labelled I in Fig. 5.7a (120-112 Ma = Late Barrernian-Early

Albian), the basin has undergone two further periods of relative rapid subsidence
during the Late Cenomanian-Santonian (II; 92-85 Ma) and Early Eocene (III;
55-48 Ma). An important observation drawn from Figure 5.7 is that the MAS-9
H igh has started to subside only during the second period of rapid subsidence,
which is corroborated by seismic data (Fig. 5.4b ). This implies that the origin of
this structu ral high might be related to basin-forming process active during the

Chapter 5 Page 239

1ge 243
 Tectonic Evo/111ion of Bra:1/1an Eq11a1onal Cominenta/ Marg111 Basins

early stages. It is suggested here that this feature is likely to be produced by

local dextral transpression related to an early shearing mechanism which ceased
to be active since at least the Cenomanian. Alternatively, the high could be
interpreted as a horst block surviving from the early phase of continental
extension. This latter alternative does not support the shearing hypothesis but
does not completely reject it either.

5.5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

Two major classes of faults exhibiting important dip-slip components have

been interpreted in the shelf area of the Para-Maranhao Basin: (1) basement
involved planar normal faults and (2) listric low-angle faults detaching within the
sedimentary pile.

5.5.1 Basement Structures

The planar or slightly curved normal faults are generally basement-involved

structures. They are seen to affect mainly Sequence I and terminate upwards at a
Late Albian-Cenomanian unconformity (Fig. 5.3). In the MAS-9 and Gurupi
Highs areas (Figs. 5.4 and 5.5), they are observed to propagate up to the top
Cretaceous. Figure 5.3 indicates finite normal-slip of about 2.5-3.0 km along
main block-bounding faults. Hanging-wall deformation is achieved by synthetic
faulting to main fault segments at the Caete Sub-basin whereas antithetic
faulting dominates in the Tromaf Sub-basin (Fig. 5.3).

A series of normal fault arrays are developed bordering the Ilha de Santana
Platform which involve basement deformation (Fig. 5.2). In the Caete Sub-basin
are predominant fault segments with N10°W and N50°W orientations. In the
Tromaf Sub-basin however, fault segments trending E-W and N30°E dominate
(Cainelli et al., 1986). It should be emphasised that with the exception of the
border faults of the Gurupi High and a few short transversal fault segments in

Chapter 5 Page 240

 T1•cronic £1·0/111ion of Braziltan Eq1101orial Co111i11e11ral Margm Basms

the Il ha de Santana Graben, most of the fault systems cut the Precambrian
fabric at high angles (compare Figs. 5.2 and 5.6). This may suggests that the
original crust was deformed in a stress regime which did not favour extensional
reactivation of older structures.

Oblique-slip or strike-slip along the planar fault systems have been suggested
(Cainelli et al., 1986; Zanotto & Szatmari, 1987) but no conclusive evidence has
yet been presented for this phenomenon. The investigation undertaken during
this research also failed to reveal definitive evidence of strike or oblique-slip on
major fault surfaces. Features such as flower structures, folds, strike-slip duplexes
or en echelon arrangement of structures have not been unequivocally interpreted.
Perhaps, the only positive evidence for st rike-slip related deformation is
exemplified in Figure 5.4b. The seismic image of the MAS-9 High is clear and
composed of discontinuous segments of horizontal and tilted events. A highly
fractured pattern of the high may be suggestive of a shearing mechanism but has
to be taken with caution. Main problems with this interpretation of the seismic
data are the as umptions that: (1) the upper basement is layered and (2) the
observed shift and tilt of reflections is related to strike-slip displacements. A
layered pre-Cretaceous basement is feasible to assume given the occurrence of
metasedimentary rocks shown by the MAS-9 well. Interpretation of strike-slip
displacements from seismic data alone however, has the problem mentioned in
section 4.8.2. Nevertheless, one might expect a dextral sense of movement as a
kinematic requirement for the E-W fault system, to make it compatible, given
the likely motion of the ancient Saint Paul transform fault. The lack of
preservation of strike-slip features may therefore be related to superposition of
an important normal-slip component (see model in Fig. 9.5) or further
development of the basin.

5.5.2 Gravity Driven Structures

Listric low-angle detachment faulting is a very common mode of syn-

sedimentary deformation in the Para-Maranhao Basin. Listric faults are

Chapter 5 Page 241

 Tecronic £1•0/11cion of Brazilian Eq11at0rial Co111i11e11ral Margin Basins

preferentially developed near the shelf edge and assume a NNW-SSE orientation
in the Caete area whereas trend WNW-ESE in the Tromaf Sub-basin (Fig. 5.2).
These faults affect Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. They may detach at
various levels within the sedimentary pile, the Top Albian unconformity being a
common detachment surface. The configuration of fault plane reflections (Fig.
S.4c) commonly takes the form of ramp-flat-ramp geometries analogous to thrust
systems (e.g. McClay & Ellis, 1987)(see section 2.2.1 and Figs. 2.4/5).

I mbricate thrust-faults and associated folds have been also reported in the
continental rise areas (Guimaraes et al., 1989)(Fig. 5.2). The faults are toe-
thrusts related to the detachment surfaces of the normal listric faults. The thrusts
are mechanical and kinematically linked to the listric fault system and dominate
syn-sedimentary basin deformation at deep-water positions similarly to what has
been found in the Barreirinhas Basin (see Figs. 4.21/32). The detachment
horizon is likely comprised of Upper Cretaceous shales set to move by gravity
forces acting on the surface of fault planes which may or may not be associated
with palaeo-slopes. A natural analogous model may be found at the complex of
folds and toe-thrusts in the Gulf of Mexico (e.g. Shaub, 1983).

5.6 DEEP CRUSTAL STRUCTURE

The deep structure of the basin was investigated by analysing gravity,

magnetic and deep seismic data, with additional reference to the earlier work of

Cainelli et al. (1986) and Bender (1987).

5.6.1 Gravity and Aeromagnetic Fields

Gravity Data

Figure 5.8 represents the free-air gravity field of the basin. Yellow areas
outline positive values and letters are main provinces briefly described below.

Chapter 5 Page 242

 N

A
' 40

o·

. D
R
)

Q
.§
~
Vi

~
~

~ Figure 5.8 - Free-air gravity field of the Para-Maranhao Basin. Contour interval 10 mGal. Yellow colour outlines
positive values. Letters are gravity provinces discussed in text. Bold lines are crustal sections (CC' and DD'; Fig.
5.10) and deep seismic profile (EE'; Fig. 5.14) .
 Tectonic Evol111ion of Brazilian Eq11a1orial Co111inen1al Margin Basins

Province A - Chain of very positive anomalies (40-85 mGal) along the shelf
break and continental slope. This is a common feature recognised at the edge of
continental shelves on most continental margins (Litvin. 1984).
Province B - Main shelf depocentre of the Caete Sub-basin.
Province C - Relatively thick sedimentary basin over the shelf of the Tromai
Sub-basin. Northeastern corner corresponds to the Ilha Nova Graben. From the
negative anomaly, the southwestern area is expected to contain a significant
sedimentary accumulation. It is suspected that the true sediment thickness of this
latter area has not been properly revealed by seismic surveys.
Province 0 - Broad, very gentle positive anomaly ( > 30 mGal) which may suggest
imbalance between a very thin sedimentary cover ( < 1 OOO m thick) and
lithospheric thinning (see discussion in section 5.5.4).
Province E - Province similar to 0 with a shorter wavelength and a distinct E-W
orientation. It intercepts the province A where there is an inflection in the shelf-
break line. The interception zone coincides with the extension of the southern
limit of the Saint Paul Fracture Zone toward the continental shelf (see also
section 3.4.4 and Fig. 3.25).

Aeromagnetic Data

The total intensity magnetic field of the western margin of the Equatorial
Atlantic Ocean was shown in Figures 3.28 and 3.29. The Para-Maranhao Basin
corresponds to the coastal segment showing a dense pack of magnetic axes
mapped in Figure 3.29, between 44°-48°W. It is worthwhile emphasising two
features: ( 1) the NE-SW general orientation of axes which are correlated with
the basement structural fabric (see sections 3.4.5, 7.2.1 and 7.3.1) and the
orientation of the Gurupi High (Fig. 5.6); and (2) the fact that this general
orientation is truncated to the north by E-W oriented anomaly axes wh ich
correspond to the gravity anomalies of province E (Fig. 5.8). Th is truncation is
also suggestive of the continental extension of the Saint Paul Fracture Zone,
where shearing and mantle diapirism were dominant lithospheric processes.

Chapter 5 Page 244

 Tec10111c Ei•olulion of Brazilian £q11a1orial Cominemal Margm Basins

5.6.2 Crustal Thickness Map

Figure 5.9 shows a crustal thickness map for the Para-Maranhao Basin
(Cainelli et al., 1986). The map contours are based on the extension parameters
calculated for each location studied in the subsidence analysis. The comparison
of backs tripped curves with theoretical 1 profiles has yielded beta (B) values.
T hese were converted to thicknesses assuming an original undeformed
continental crust 35 km thick, which is reasonable to assume given the long time-
span (400 Ma) between the last convergent episode (Late Precambrian-Early
Palaeozoic) and the initial fragmentation of the Equatorial Atlantic (Aptian-
AJbian). This map however, should be viewed cautiously because the subsidence
plots are very approximate and must be taken together with other data sources.

T he most striking feature of the crustal thickness map is that seaward of the
isoJine of 24 km, the crust th ins faster in the Tromai than in the Caete Sub-
basin. As a consequence, a sharper transition from continental to oceanic
domains is expected in the former area. It is also observed that the E-W
orientation of contour lines in this region is precisely along the projection of the
Saint Paul Fracture Zone. It is concluded therefore, that the abrupt thinning of
the continental crust is a manifestation of processes taking place at the time
when the Saint Paul transform fault was active in this region.

5.6.3 Crustal Cross-sections

The crustal cross-sections shown in Figure 5.10 (Cainelli et al., 1986 and
Bender, 1987), give a concept for the crustal structure based on an integration of
conventional seismic profiles and gravity modelling. Both sections are located on
the gravity anomaly map of Figure 5.8. Among the basic assumptions in these
models were: (1) original crust 35 km thick; (2) constant continental basement
(p =2.8 g/cm 3), oceanic crust (p =3.0 g/cm3) and mantle (p = 3.3 g/cm3)

1
The uniform extension model of McKen7ie (1978) was used in this approach.

Chapter 5 Page 245

 Tectomc £1·ol111ion of Brazilian Equatonal Cominemal Margin Basins

<>oo
' ' 'oo --
o~
N
m- ......... \

'
----.....),.... -
'- .....
- - - - 20

ILHA DE SANTANA PLATFORM

44°

Figure 5.9 - Crus ta l thickness ma p of the Para-Maraohao Basin (redrawn from Cainelli et al.,
1986). Contour interval 4 and 2 km. The ma p was contoured based on the s ubsidence data.

densities; (3) shape of low frequency anomalies is the gravity response to

changes in crustal thickness, discounted the effect of a layered basin fill and
density of the seawater. The gravity modell ing performed using these basic
assumptions gives a simple and very approximate view of the crustal structure.

The section CC' crosses most of the Ilha de Santana Platform where a 30
mGal free-air gravity anomaly is modelled as a gentle Moho slope, equivalent to
about 15% of crustal extension. At the edge of the platform, about 150 km from
the southern end, the crust has almost returned to its original thickness

Chapter 5 Page 246

 Tec1onic Evo/u1ion of Brazilian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basins

150

- - - - -- /
/

0 /
..,Gol

10 0 200 km c·

30
l,m 100
mG o l

[ ; ] sediment

0 100 o·
CJ
l.tm
0
0
continental crust +
+ + +
+
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
[I] oceanic crust
+ + + + + +
+
+ + + + +
+ + +
i
30 + + +
""'
Figure 5.10 - Crustal profiles CC' and DD' across the Para-Maranhao Basin. (a) CC' from
Bender (1987). (b) DD' from Cainelli et al.(1986). Both were constructed based on commercial
seismic lines. well data and gravity modelling. Top curves show observed (continuous) and
calculated (dashed) gravity profiles. Observe steeper gr.:tdient of continental crust thinning in (b)
and rapid transition to oceanic lithosphere. See location of profiles in Fig. 5.8.

(indicating no significative extension), before a sharp zone of crustal thinning

under the main depocentre. In this region, in less than 90 km the continental
crust is thinned and replaced by oceanic basement. The region of maximum
thinning is less than 50 km wide.

The profile OD' crosses a region of the llha de Santana Platform which has
a different gravity signature. No positive anomaly has been mapped and the

Chapter 5 Page 247

·.
Tectonic Evollaion of Brazilian Equatorial Con1ine111al Margin Basins

profile shows a normal thickness crust until the edge of the platform. There,
80 km separate unthinned continental crust from oceanic basement, and again an
abrupt thinning takes place in a zone only 40 km wide. In both cases, the crustal
profile strongly re.sembles much more the geometry of transform margins (Keen
et al., 1990; Scrutton, 1982) than classical rifted passive margins (see section 2.6
and Fig. 2.35 ).

5.6.4 Deep Seismic Profile

Deep seismic profiling has been a powerful source of geological information

from the Earth's crust and lithospheric mantle (e.g. McCarthy & Thompson,
1988; Pinet, 1989; I3Iundell, 1990). It bas been a valuable aid to the study of the
deep structure of sedimentary basins which is fund amental to improve the
understanding of how basins develop. Before discussion of the deep seismic
profile acquired in the Para-Maranhao Basin, it may be useful for comparison
purposes, to make a brief review on deep seismic profiles of extensional terrains
around the world.

Deep Seismic Profiling of Extensional Terrains

Deep seismic profiling in Northwest Europe has shown a very consistent

picture which involves a transparent upper crust, a highly reflective lower crust
and a clear reflection Moho (e.g. Matthews & Smith, 1987; Leven et al., 1990)
(Fig. 5.11). In the western United States, where extension can be greater than in
other continental extended areas, the zone of lower crustal reflectivity may
thicken at shallow levels whereas the Moho reflection remains horizontal and
does not seem w retain records of past tectonic episodes (McCarthy &
Thompson, 1988).

The rifted Atlantic continental margins of Canada (Keen .et aL, 1989) and
western Europe (Peddy et al., 1989) show a deep seismic image similar to those
of continental extension (Fig. 5.12.Ilb/c). The horizontal lower crust reflections,

010pter 5 Pa1:e 248

 Tccronic En1/11ritm of Brazilian quo1orial Con<inenral Margin Basins

SHET

WINCH

.... -_ -
SHET
---, - =->::.-

WINCN
,f27
"TYPICAL BIRP"
'V 1;;;,\

~---= --=­
'
- - '- ' -....- .....

Wt NCH

S-'LT

SWAT

SWA.T
S WAT

Figure S.11 - l)'Pical deep seismic signature of the continental crust around the British Islands
(from McGeary, 1987) . A "typical BIRP" profile comprises discrete reOedions in the upper crust
and mantle corresponding to features related to brittle deformation, and highly reflective lower
crust related to ductile deformation during extension (Reston, 1990c).

however, tend to dip strongly in the area of attenuated crust accompanying the
rising of the lithospheric mantle. Transform margins have received comparatively
less attention by deep seismic techniques, but when available, show a typically
sharp transi tion between oceanic and continental regions (Keen et al., 1990)
(Fig. 5.13). Figure 5.12 compiles some deep seismic profiles from extensional
areas on the continents (Fig. 5.12.I) and their margins (II) as well as on oceans
(III).

Chapter 5 Page 249

 Unc dra wfngs of
un.rnlgr a l ed aelamk
,.tlectiot\ pc"OfU••
NSOP-1
a r:·:'. _,~~::.:""'.;;7--:;::~-1
• •
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- _,

i
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-.-..:.-.,;..;·.~~· ----"
.. ::."-;...- ~.:.:
- ·- • r_ : =--= ~ -::-~ -.. _.,
·- .. . . .. -::. : .
\~
::; 10
s

~ ::k:i:~~
·~~---- .~ ·
~ ~ ':" ,....:7t~~?,':_-~~~~~~;'.~~~~-;-· : :;~~~.,
pa,P("f f fS E • SIH --
h
~

..:~ ·- - -~~::r . - . .
I
• - WNW .oo 190 ~ >OC1 • - ESE -
~
•"'•G...,•Uo..,
•> L....=.fil~v . .--- .. . -- - - - - .-...: "
.c o .... rue ••
,.., • ·-'--< ...c~y SM(Tl.AtoeO 11'1..AT'f"Q«M V..:.U.CG"-~
of , .. - .• t
NSOP-4
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b c<"'o ~'~-~:;,;-;';;;;_: _· ~;_---~.......-~

~:;:; .
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"'~ ...,
-:;" , 'i'-· ._;- - .• · ~ .-°'?""""?£.-..-..::.-- - . - --· -. --=-··---~-::: -=· :: .· .. : --=-- =· -·- :.<!~ ..;;:

· - sw tie-SO-- > :"r-, -- :;::~b?- -· -~-=~

,,,,_....._.,,..,!

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90o MSoft-l' 20 2-.. t
N~-· -..a-. N€
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NSOP-2
SHl'r&..ANO r-L..AT'f'OAW
........... ~Pl.AlYO ,...
~~ ::;?.:_~"'.:=·~-:~-..?.-. :~·-::i; ::.:=--I..:_:_:::?:;-'-
-. ...,.. ..--«:::
c ~:~5~:·~;,f\~i~~-~-~- -- -- ~'L------------------------------~~~~~~~---------
~;;._-'"-:- --.
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-~==--:::~;<':' OISDl" '4• 00.-.P"Ul'I
c;:a c:::s:::ii- ~ -.._~ ~ E...S~

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~i. o.i-;<>.-:::~-:.:: <;~~-:- "C. ~~;;.,;Ji'd~·

WEST ><
NSOP-3 - - EAST-

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f'A(tllO( T"°4..t01
,
S....CfUt«> G&..AN OS
--....... S10N> e..i.
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,'>::~~~p-r:~i §~?'%~:~;~ ?'~~~:- ;::·~~':':_;,~~~<
H()~ .......t'FO....

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d
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...,
..o
'
~-~
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- ...... ~ - .._,..,,,., CO&

---
_.,_.._.._
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u -- ~?-
~ _
;;:
--.. .--_= - - ... ---~-
n~--~~_:.:::S:.-~~=-~~ ~- =
-:;- ~-
St G~otoe Ctunn ~ I 8astn Welsh Ri d oe 8 1'istol Channel Bat. i n
Co • n wall P 1a 110~ "":': d '°'I' _-...,;:-_ ?;-::.,.~.;_-
.::-- - .::-=- ~-=- - ~~-;;~
e' '£"'"""~
_,

~ : .-- ~.
'l ~·-- - -- :-.::: . :-- - ~~ ... ...
II ...
~ ..,..,
--!WT ZOHE--

··~~~- =--~~-
•\....

• - :;:....c:;.--= :_~~ -- =' ~--

L_ · - .l:J"\,. ~~MllC>C

.. r ~~~-:::--::-:::: ,,., ..=-- -_:_,, _,. ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - - ~ ~p

'- SWAT 2
"""' SW4T 3
: •C • -
I III s .. -- ./"'->. . . ...

..
uw
North C •tttc: S.a 8a:&i"
a t
So"'"' Celtk: S•• Ba'l.in H•ig-f f A$ Gr•nite t4ai9-~ras 8a'l.in
f: · ,.,~~-:· · ~-,--·-7 1-T- -· ·~:
Figure 5.12 - Deep seismic profiles of
a •I 0 --~ :..;::: v
'- ~ ""'-
.......... .....
=- ~Q// v I- • .o

v ,.,.__ ~- -- ..

~:~~-_:-_ -~=- ~ ~_:_ ~~~~-~ ~: extensional areas around the world. I • - - --~
=
•-I ~ ~::::::_
~- 1- • .0
- -
~=-~-
·..• ~- ~~-""'~~~-=--~
..:::::_------::----.·-=- -.::...-;:. ~~~~?:::: -::~·
' -~c: '7- - - - _...... ' .. - ..:: ... _- ·
Continental extension - (a) to (d) Northern
North Sea (Holliger & Klemperer, 1989); (e) M - .::::::::::::__ ~= --- --~-::= u ~: ....,.., \\. u
~
':?""'- ..
• ~-- SWAT 5 - - ~ ' ..: ...... io • • f~ and (f) unmigrated line drawings across the
-- -- t•
Celtic Sea (Dyment et al., 1990); (g) Paris
basin (Pinet & Colletta, 1990); (h) to (k)
Late Cenozoic extensional terrains in the
-:-_-._.. __ ~ .. . ._ ,...,,.__
SW PAIUS BASIN

u·r , _
. .~.- --.---J- 1 -· .1 , r:=-T-.1rw-.;......--· _....
V"""5CM -
::::::2: __
II( United States (Serpa & Voogd, 1987). II •
Rifted continental margins - (a) Parentis
:::; ' basin, strike line along the northern shore of b
·~ · ·- .= ., the Bay of Biscay (Pinet & Colletta, 1990);
-'.~ (b) and {c) line drawings and (d)
~

reconstruction of North Atlantic rift (Keen et

al., 1989). III - Oceanic extension • (a) and
(b) Seismic section and line drawing across SW NE
UTAH the Juan the Fuca plate, offshore western
RIO GRANDE DEA TH VALLEY
Canada. S=sediment; O=igneous crust;
-
*.~·r~l~ I -_,.- _,_~- ~~--- - - ---....- §·:·:.· V E 1:1.S

>~.:,,}f
~. .='-<-:-, ........ ~~- U = underplate; M = mantle (Calvert et al.,
• i.:- ---:"'~---= t:-"!: ...... · •
I i=:.....:..:::~- ,..,,.~;:
J ·. -- ..--_-·-
._
.. ··- 1990); (c) reflection section in the western 7

North Atlantic (McCarthy & Thompson,

1988). This collection of deep seismic profiles 8
t---1

20 km
emphasise distinct styles of extensional c
NEVADA 9
tectonics. A simple basin subsidence model
cannot account for all observations which
-,~-;-;{' ;.~,:.. ·:;:- .-_l
k ~:z..:~~-:-- -~?:::;:~~~~:~;-~:: -.:c ·:':---::: 10
_... - ..... ._, >•~
-
-~-., .... ~o· .- . . .. -~- ~~-,
can be drawn from these examples.
11
SEC

Chapter 5 Page 250

 Tecronic Evolwion of Brazilian Equatorial Conti11e111al Margin Basins

WALLS BOUNOARY FAULT

0
OISTANCE: (km)

:I:2()
l-
o.
w
0 IcI COl<TIN ENTAL
40 SHEAR ZONE

Figure 5.13 - Deep seismic images of strike-slip domains. (a) Moho offset near a major strike-slip
fault zone (McGeary, 1989). (b) and (c) Line dra\\ings of deep seismic data across the southern
Newfoundland transform margin (Keen et al., 1990). Note very rctpid t ransition from unthinned
continental crust to oceanic lithosphere.

The nature a nd age of crustal reflections has been a highly de bated issue
(e.g. McCarthy & Thompson, 1988; Peddy et al., 1989; White & Peddy, 1990;
Warner, 1990). In general, discrete dipping refl ections at upper crustal levels
have been correlated to major normal basin-bound fau lts or pre-existing
compressional fau lt zones which have suffe red normal-slip reactivation during
later extension (e.g. Snyder, 1990; Stein & Blundell, 1990). In these cases, the
seismic events are interpreted as corresponding to brittle shear zones which may,
or may not, have a previous ductile history.

Chapter 5 Page 251

 Te,1011ic Ei'olurion of Brazilian Equororial Continental Margi11 Basins

The origin of lower crust reflections, however, are more controversial

because they cannot be correlated with exposed geology. Among the three most
discussed causes for them are: (1) free fluids in the lower crust; (2) layered
fabric g~ven by ductile shear zones and (3) lithologic contrast caused by intrusion
of mantle derived magmas (Warner, 1990). The last two are the most likely · ·
candidates for the dominant process and have been interpreted pre-dating,
occurring simultaneously and post-dating extension.

Deep Seismic Data of the Para·Maranhao Basin

Figure 5. l 4a shows a line drawing of a deep seismic line acquired by

Petrobras over the Tromaf Sub-basin (Fig. 5.8 for location). Conventional
methods of multichannel acquisition were employed including a two-ship
operation, an air-gun source of 5750 in3 and record length of 15 s. Shots were
spaced at 50 m intervals and were recorded with a 3 km long, 120 channel
streamer with a 25 m hydrophone group spacing. The original data were
processed by standard processing techniques. The line runs for 250 km along the
NE-SW direction over regions of water-depth between 25 and 3 500 m. The
unrnigrated section used shows strong water-bottom multiples beneath the
continental slope which partially obstructs the interpretation in this area (Fig.
5.14c). The interpretation is also impaired by lack of refraction data or even
stack velocity analysis.

On the continental shelf, the crust is characterised by a reflection pattern

very similar to those obtained in extended areas elsewhere (Fig. 5.14a). A highly
reflective lower crust (zone A) underlies a relatively transparent upper crust
(zone B). Lower crust reflections are sub-horizontal or dip slightly to the
soutbwest and are characteristically short ( < 3 km) and discontinuous. A chain of
high amplitude events which may be approximately correlated mark the base of
the reflective layer (event C). At shallow levels, the sedimentary pile (rone D)
thickens very gently seaward. The top basement event (event E) outlines the Ilha
de Santana Platform and is underlined by a relatively thick zone of sub-

Chapter 5 Page 252

 . SW PARA-MARANHAO BASIN NE
0 213-998 iOs

~---:::;:;~~~~-~-~~-
' ~5'~--=J~- ~~,,.==-~-~~:;~"'"'~~.'~""':'~'~":":
. ..~--
1-~£-;~; ~-~-~~C·--"S~~~~~--~-~-~~~~-~~-~--~,' -1-- :-~, .-~.,-----··--'-·-"""
-_.~~"-~-==- -,-- ?'~~~
'.~''":~~
-_,"G.: '"'"-''~
:..._-~, ... ---- -- - ~- - --_
, ..~~==_,JI
'>-~-,,,_'='-
~ ~r~ ~~>; .:·:~';J;;~;~~~~
- --~ ~~.

-- ..:,. -' '~~~ ... '.' ' ' - "'-= --:<"' -------- ----------

B E ' 0 --

-..-. .-----,~-~-:L-~::,;.:}~~"'":~~::;o::~~-
·~" ,,-,..,,,,,.'""----..---.:. -
] 15 5
::c ..7:-

~ ~~
--(
~
-
lr- ;; -. -: -. -. :. --
: ' ~
a..
LU
c
L~
CIO
><
~
c.
30 ......
~
~-

.. · -~
.;> -·
•
.-. -- -, ..::"---
- • " .. ·'12
- ._ - 10
C1
et ~---

-- ~:_-_,. --.---- -c~-:_,_;;,,;__..:' ~~-~----

i.. ___.. ________ J I
20km '
·::.----
.
-'<..-
~ M -:::~

45 ---- 15

Figure 5.14 - Deep seismic profile 213-998 across the western side of the Para-
Maranhao Basin. M's indicate reflection multiples. (a) Line drawing from original
unmigrated data. Letters refer to reflections discussed in the text. (b) Detail of
reflective lower crust underlined by relatively strong Moho reflections (indicated by
arrows). (c) Detail of buried seamount near to the COB. See Fig. 5.8 for location.

7
4~~~:""'

8
5 5

9 r,,;
r.

~.
~~ """-~"J!": ., . -';../-

~
-~~
:;-;~_,...-...r,,;>';'
._,....,.. ~
~-

6 r"'
...
_ ~ ~~
.:" ·~ ~
~
\(<;;
~

'@.a
~
~ '~ .;:--
.
~--,-;;:..·~

~
·--~­ 'C -~
.:-..:
·""
~
~ ..:;;;-·
. . . ._J
!(,
-._..... .,...~ ~--''
~
-~
-~
7 m;;
-,.,,,---,;..
~ ~.c""
_...--.
7
11
.,.,.,,. ... :s
-~
. ~·- ..
~~'\:~~ ~

m ~ ~-
~"'"~ ~

•
,..-;.,,...
~-
c~
._ .
. ~ ~~'.::----..
~-~-::
~-·

~---­
::-- •'h.'~ ...,_,..,.

8&~
........ .:.·
.,,..~
·-.
·~ ·- . ~~ ~
~
~7,;;,~·
,,-.....
........ ,~- ' _____... - - . ~
71'.
• • :t....r'i:__.
~~77~=:$ 8
12 ·~;>::::-.. ..
........ . ....._r-

x~
t..~~ _.......
'i"v>~~ . -.~
=~-
~~-~
~- ~~... ~..~~..; - ._,.
~----~
"'i_," _"'!l: ·~·..!' ~

9~~~~~~ ~.;;~:~:g:§frF~?:~
<;;;: :;A""

13 ~·------
~........
.........~ ,,. . •• -~............~.......... 9

Chapter 5 Page 253

 ·.

Tectonic £1•olu1ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

horizontal reflections (zone F) which· may be correlated with metasediments of

the Brasiliano orogeny outcropping onshore (see sections 3.2.1 and 7.2.1).

Near the shelf edge, the poor quality of the profile -is striking. Only the
uppe r post-tectonic wedge of sediments can be recognised (zone G). It dee pens .
to about 2.5 sand seems to tpin again toward the shelf-slope break.

At the continental slope, a thick layer of Upper Cretaceous and Cenozoic

sediments lies over a blind zone characterised by several diffraction patterns
(zone H) which pinches out seaward onto the flank of a triangular shape zone
(zone I). Zone I see ms to lie, on either sides, at times of 7.8 s over a set of
horizontal intrabasement high-amplitude reflections (event J), about 0.4 s thick.

Under the continental rise, a thick layer of undeformed sediments (layer K)

lies horizontally over the top of oceanic basement which is marked by laterally
juxtaposed hyperbolic patterns of diffractions (zone L).

Geological Interpretation of Reflections

Zone A - Layered lower crust. The broken aspect of reflections may suggests
that these are old features which have been deformed later or that
they may be young features but subsequently and progressively
broken up by out-of~plane strain during the diverge nce betwee n the
conjugate margins.
Zone B - Transparent upper crust.
Event C - Base of the reflective lower crust. It is fo rmed by several segme nts
of high ampli tude reflections which are interpreted as the Moho
discontinuity. When depth converted, however, the eve nt still is
deepen by 5-10° to SW. This plunge is difficulty to reconcile with
the gentler seaward deepening of the top of basement reflecror
(Event E).
Zone D - Flat-lying Cenozoic sediments over the llha de Santana Platform

Ch apter 5 Page 254

.· -
·~
Tectonic Ew1l111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

gently deepening seaward. It reaches 1 OOO m of thickness at

location L
Event E - Top of the basement reflection.
Zone F - Intrabasement reflections correlated to the metasedimentary cover
of the Sao Lufs Craton or Gurupi Fold Belt. Similar events have
been interpreted in conventional seismic data in the Gurupi
Graben System (see section 6.2.3).
Zone G - Thick wedge of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic beds with a very
· high proportion of carbonate rich rocks. Energy attenuation by
these carbonates may be the cause for the poor seismic resolution
for deep events.
Zone H - Blind zone saturated with diffraction patterns which is interpreted
as a zone of imbricate thrust sheets over a basal detachment
nucleated within the sedimentary success ion. This interpretation is
supported by other migrated lines (Guimaraes et al, 1989) as well
as the folding of layers in tht base of the overlying sedimentary
package.
Zone I - Oceanic basement ridge of triangular cross-section. A volcanic
origin is suspected based on the cross-sectional symmetry and on a
few reflections beneath the surface of the seamount which are
interpreted as sequences of Java flows or buried talus near the base
of the steep slope. The seamount is an old feature which is buried
by 2 OOO m of sediments and rises 4000 m above the oceanic
basement. 1be COB might stand to the west of this feature.
Event J - Intracrustal unit of the oceanic basement. By a nalogy with seismic
images of the oceanic lithosphere elsewhere (NE Pacific Plat~ -
Calvert et aL, 1990; Fig. 5.12.IIlb ), this horizontal set of reflections
may be interpreted as a sill complex formed during underplating of
the oceanic crust.
Zone K - U ndeformed sedimentary pile, characterised by passive onlap fill of
the northeastern margin of the buried seamount.
Event L - Definitive "normal" oceanic crust.

Chapter 5 Page 255

 7'ecronic Et•olution of Brazilian Equatorial Cantinental Margin Ba.sins

Integration with Gravity Data

The deep seismic data was also interpreted in conjunction with free-air
gravity data (Fig. 5.8). The profile runs across the western region of the Ilha de
Santana Platform where the gravity signature is marked by two opposite
anomalies. From the western edge of the profile until one-third of its length,
these anomalies give a total of 60 mGal of gravity relief which is consistent with
the rising Moho topography imaged in Figure 5.14a/b. This combined
observation from gravity and deep seismic suggests that the strong reflector at
the base of the reflective lower crust is a well defined representation of the
Moho. This implies that, in this region. the basin is in isostatic disequilibrium.
This proble-m of lack of mass conservation must be solved by a coherent basin
model which might contemplate heterogeneous thinning of the lithosphere (see
Chapter 8).

5.7 THE AFRICAN COUNTERPART-THE IVORY COAST BASIN

The fvmy Coast Basin is the pre-Atlamic spreading conjugate margin for the
Para-Maranhao Basin. There is little published data on the Ivory Coast Basin.
Most of the information discussed here comes from an unpublished report
(S.E.C., 1987). This basin occupies the northern shore of the Gulf of Guinea.
Based on the physiography of the continental margin (see Fig. 4.46), it can be
divided into two distinct segments: (1) a segment oriented WSW-ENE which
runs from the boundary with Liberia until parallel 4°30'W and (2) a segment
trending N\V-SE extending to the east of the previous segment until the Three
Points Cape in Ghana. The basin has a narrow extension on shore, known in
Ghana as the Tano Basin, where Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks outcrop.
The southeastern limit of the basin is marked by the Ivory Coast-Ghana aseismic
ridge.

Chapter 5 Page 256

 Tectonic £volurio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinmtal Margin Basins

5. 7 .1 Stratigraphy

The stratigraphic record of the Ivory Coast Basin is similar to that of the
Para-Maranhao Basin (Fig. 3.41). 111e oldest confirmed Cretaceous sediments
found are marine elastics of Aptian-Albian age. A major distinction between the
stratigraphic successions of the two conjugate basins is that a more significant
development of Cenozoic carbonate platforms are found in the Brazilian margin.
LOcalised deposits of continental red beds are inferred to date from Jurassic-
Neocomian (SEC, 1987). On the basis of what has been found in the Brazilian
side it is suspected that such occurrences are not older than Barremian or
younger than Triassic.

5.7.2 Structure

The overall geometry of the Ivory Coast Basin is closely related to the Saint
Paul Fracture Zone (see Fig. 3.25). The western segment is developed over the
fracture zone itself whereas the eastern and deeper basin occurs over a region
adjoining a segment of "normal" oceanic crust between the Saint Paul and the
Romanche Fracture Zones.

l11e known structural framework of the northern segment of the basin (Fig.
5.15), is remarkably similar to that of the Tromai Sub-basin (compare with Fig.
5.2). An important distinction is that there is a dear major fault separating the
shallow basement platform from the main sedimentary depocentre forming a
full-graben on the continental shelf. In the Para-Maranhao Basin however, a
half-graben geometry is observed and the platform is outlined by a hinge line
instead of a bounding fault (compare Figs. 5.16 and 5.3). The Ivory Coast Basin
comprises a very continuous system of mostly synthetic normal faults with respect
to the border f~ult. This fault system strikes sub-parallel to the coast line.
Secondary faults segment the major blocks and are dominantly oriented NW-SE.
Low-angle listric faults have also been interpreted detaching at various levels
within the Cenozoic (Fig. 5.16). An external high is mapped running sub-parallel

Chapter 5 Page 257

 Cl)

0 __ ......
___;__~· ~

....
I '
I•
~

0 ,...

Ch amcr
• •5 p O}?.C 258
 Tectonic £"0/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Conrincnral Margin Basins

to the basin border fault which limits to the south a major sedimentary
depocentre on the shelf area. Both, the structural high and the depocentre, are
similar to the MAS-9 High and Ilha de Santana Grabe n.

Figure 5.15 - Structural framew-0rk map or the western segment of the Ivory Coast Basin
(redrawn from S.E.C., 1987). Note orientation of external structural high (shade) and
confinement of main sedimentary depocentre (dots). See regional setting in Fig. 4.46.

The eastern part of the basin is poorly documented. Two oil fields (reserve
of 220 mmbbl; Clifford, 1986) have been discovered during the last decade.
Since most of the seismic surveys conducted in the area are proprietary, there
are no published structural maps. It is known, however, that the main fault
systems strike roughly NW-SE in a continuous down-to-the-basin fashion
(Clifford, 1986), resembling the architecture of the Caete Basin.

5.8 CONCLUSIONS

(I) There is no geologi cal discontinuity separating t·he Barreirinhas and Para-
Maranhao Basins. It is suggested here that the western Barreirinhas and eastern
Para-Maranhao areas can be treated as a self-contained geological entity under
the single denomination of the Caete Basin.

Chapter 5 Page 259

 T«tonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial ComiMnial Margin Ba.sins

(2) Analysis of subsidence data indicates that after an initial phase of tectonic
subsidence (120-112 Ma = Late Barremian-Early Albian), the basin has
undergone two further periods of relative rapid subsidence during the Late
Cen<?manian-Santonian (92-85 Ma) a.nd Early Eocene (55-48 Ma). The MAS-9
High, an external structural high of the Tromaf Sub-basin, started to subside only
during the second period of rapid subsidence.

(3) Two major classes of dip-slip faults have been interpreted in the shelf area of
the Para-Maranhao Basin: (a) basement involved planar normal faults and (b)
listric low-angle faults detaching within the sedimentary pil e. lmbricate thrust-
faults occur in the contine ntal rise areas and are kinematically linked to the
detachment system.

(4) The investigation unde rtaken during this research failed to reveal definitive
evidence of strike or oblique-slip on major fault surfaces. Features such as flower
structures, folds, strike-slip duplexes or en echelon arrangement of structures
have not bee n unequivocally interpreted. Perhaps, the only positive evide nce for
strike-slip related deformation is the internal highly fractured pattern of the
MAS-9 High.

(5) The ltick of preservation of early strike-slip displacements on fault surfaces is

a ttributed to superposition of an importa nt normal-slip component.

(6) E-W oriented aeromagnetic and. gravity anomaly axes represent the
continental extensio n of the Saint Paul Fracture Zone.

(7) Crustal profiles presented by early studies indicate geometries closely

resembling the configuration of transform rather than those of classical rifted
passive margins. The most important observation is that they are characterised
by a very rapid transition from unthinned continental crust to ocea nic crust. The
region of maximum thinning is typically less than 50 km wide.

Chapter 5 Page 260

 ·.

Tectonic Evolulio11 of Brazilian £qua1orial Conririental Margin Basins

(8) The crustal deep seismic image of the .basin in the shelf area is similar to
typical profiles over extended areas worldwide. A transparent upper crust and a
very reflective lower crust are bounded at the base of the crust by a strong Moho
reflection.

(9) The deep seismic profile interpreted in conjunction with free-air gravity data
indicate a total of 60 mGal of gravity relief in the shelf area which is sufficie nt
to explain a rising Moho morphology toward the shelf edge. This implies that, in
this region, the basin is out of isostatic equilibrium.

Caete Sub-basin Tromai Sub-basin

Faulting dip-slip strike-slip

style tilted blocks superimposed
by dip-slip

Dominant
fault NW-SE E:-W
orientation

Subsidence almost continuous external high subside

since Aptian from Cenomanian

Albian
sedimentation deltaic-rnarine ?

Tectonic
regime transtension transpression

Table 5.1 - Characterization of sub-basins in the Para-Maranhao Basin

Chapter 5 Page 26 l
 CHAPTER 6

THE GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM

6.1 INTRODUCTION

A linear system of grabens was developed in the central region of the

Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin in the Late Mesozoic. This
system lies mostly onshore between 43°-47°W, to the west of the Barreirinhas
Basin and to the south of the Para-Maranhao Basin (see Fig. 3.9). This system
extends itself for some 500 km along the coastal province and comprises the so
called Braganqa-Viseu and Sao Lu£s Basins as well as the /lha Nova Graben. For
the purpose of this account the system is here named the "Gurup i Graben
System", after the main river of the region which runs to the north and separates
the Bragan~a- Viseu and Sao Lufs Basins. Since 1958, when the occurrence of this
extensional province was established through gravity surveys, 23 wells have been
drilled for hydrocarbon exploration, with no success. There are very few
published geological studies of these basins and the information provided in this
chapter is drawn from regional reviews by Mesner & Wooldridge (1964),
Rezende & Pamplona (1970) and Aranha et al. (1989), synthesis (Carvalho,
1987) and the author's observations made on proprietary data sets.

This chapter presents geological and geophysical subsurface data as well as

the results of seismic interpretations and gravity modelling exercises. Also
discussed is the development of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch, a major tectonic
feature which separates the graben system from the Parnaiba intracratonic basin
to the south. Finally, data is presented on the Cretaceous Cod6 Sag Basin and
the importance of this as an indicator of early tectonic processes taking place in
the region is discussed.

Chapter 6 Page 262

 Tectonic Evolwion of Brazilian Equatorial Co111ine111al Margin Basins

The seismic lines and borehole control used in this study are located in
Figure 6.1. More precise location of profiles is given when necessary, in
appropriate sections.

44• 1·

Atlantic Ocean

50km

Figure 6.1 - Data base used for the study of the Guru pi Graben System. Key: straight lines=
reflection seismic profiles; circles= well control; labelled full circles= locations of subsidence analysis.

6.2 THE BRAGAN9A-VISEU BASIN

The Bragan<;a-Viseu Graben covers for some 5 OOO km2 the northeastern
region of the Brazilian estate of Para. Two boreholes, 340 km of reflection
seismic profiles and gravity data comprise the data base used in this study.

6.2.1 Stratigraphy

The stratigraphy of the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin is poorly known (Fig. 3.41).

Mesozoic syn-tectonic sedimentary sequences were drilled only by two

Chapter 6 Page 263

 Tectonic Evol111io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

exploratory wells. Precambrian basement rocks are exposed at the western,

eastern and southern borders of the basin (see Chapter 7 for field data on
basement outcrops). Well VN-1-PA (Vila Nova) reached phyllites and schists of
Pre-Silurian (Late Proterozoic ?) age at 2 OOO m depth. Mesozoic rocks overlie
the basement and are overlain by a very thin Cenozoic cover.

The Cod6-Grajai1 Sequence (200-800 m thick) of Late Aptian age comprises

medium-grained reddish sandstones (Grajau Formation), interbedded with
organic matter rich black shales (Cod6 Fonnation). In this later formation also
occur subordinate amounts of limestone lens, fine-grained sandstones and
anhydrite nodules. Wavy laminations are common primary sedimentary
structures (Aranha et al., 1989) which suggest a very shallow lacustrine
environment.

The ltapecuru Formation lies partially concordantly on top of the Cod6-

Grajau Sequence and by stratigraphical correlation is thought to be mostly
Albian in age. It reaches more than 1 OOO m of sediments and practically fills the
trough. The Itapecuru Formation comprises mainly coarse-grained sandstones
with a very low shale/sand ratio. It is believed to represent fluvial facies coeval
to deltaic deposits of the Canarias Group in the Barreirinhas Basin. On top of
this formation only a thin layer of Miocene(marine) and Quaternary(continental)
deposits is found. Analysis of the sonic log of the EG-1-PA well indicates no
major compaction discontinuity. This suggests that there have been no important
erosional events since the Late Cretaceous.

6.2.2 Seismic Reflection Data and Interpretation

The seismic profiles studied were primarily designed to image the basin floor
and to locate inner structures for potential prospects. The quality of the data
however, made further interpretations of intrabasement reflections possible.

Chapter 6 Page 264

 ·-

....
... -
E

...
0

z........c:

.
>
<
;.;,·
z:
<
'-'
<
lit
::

~-· 265
Gui;:tr:>r"· v" Pa-
 Tectonic Ewlfution of Brazilian Equatorial Con1i11entai Margin Basi..,s

The location of the seismic profiles is shown in Figure 6.2 together with
Bouguer gravity data. A set of four dip and one strike rime-migrated sections
were used during this investigation. The lines were acquired within a few
kilometres from the basement-cover boundary to image basin borders and enable
correlation with the exposed geology. The seismic profiles provide good cross-
sections of the entire basin and show interesting intrabasement reflections. All
profiles show an abundance of laterally continuous reflections within the basin
and fewer and weaker signals from the middle crust and upper basement. These
intrabasement events are interpreted as true primary re flections due to lack of
periodic refl ectio n times and corresponding reflection dips. The possibility of
diffractions was minimised by the migration process and the lack of hyperbolic
patterns seems to confirm it.

Line 224-100 (Fig. 6.3) is loc3.ted in the northwestern end of the surveyed
area. As well as the other dip lines it was shot along a NE-SW direction. In the
northern part of the profile, between 3.2 s and 4.1 s TWIT, there are some
arcuate and straight southwest-dipping reflections which can be linked to the
basin border fault in depth. In the same way, reflections at about 1.5 s and 2.5 ~

in the southern part of the profile may be tied to a basin fault. The basin itself is
divided in two conjugate half-grabens separated by a basement anticline. Within
these two sub-basins, hanging-wall synclines and steeply inclined sedimentary
strata near to the surface are observed.

Line 224-103 (Fig. 6.4) is apparently devoid of intrabasement reflections. If

this is caused by the processing parameters or nonexistence of such
discontinuities is not known. A significant change fro m the previous profile is
that the basin is restricted to a single half-graben. This time, the slip onto the
northern border fault has been partitioned in two fa ult zones and the main
sedimentary depocentre has been shifted some 8 km away from the northeastern
graben limit by a basement step. Aptian sedime nts (Cod6-Grajau Sequence)
seem to be confined to the west of this basement step and show a divergent
pattern of reflections indicating fault activation during development.

Ch apter 6 Page J.M

 BRAGANCA-VISEU BASIN LINE 224·100
NE
0
.. • ;--~-6
SW - . -~-~·~-_,._
-~
~ ._,_,~ --- 4~·-_;p- . . '
_ .______ ' ·...::.s-. _c. ' ,a- -
, _ ~~.._
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1· ... - --
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-,-.., "--~-==---:-.:--
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- .. ,'--
.: =- ·
---~-~-:.. -~_:_...,_. '-:_::: . ~~:.:-,-_-q--~-~--
:· -~~~,,=--=.-:
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-==~~-
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-
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2

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Ir-----------------------~-----~~---~-~
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.__ _ .- ::... ---:.:. --· - -- --- - I
.- ..i? -~- - --·- •- _,_.. -::.·
II ,,, -- - -- • - ,...::.h
6

--
- -~ "<- :._
Skm .. . - -
·1
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4
-- ' 1 - -
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-
~..;.-- -
~. - •-
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- - - -
- ---~
--·--
"--1 - --..
-.
. --=- - ----:::.;::::.._- - -::. =..-
4
-. I I

~-----------·------------------------~

Figure 6.3 - Line dra~ing and details or seismic line ~.2·MOO. Sotc conjugate pair or
half-gnbcns as ftll as southwest and nortbcast-dipplng lntrabasemcnt reflections,
See location In Fig. 6.2.

31

1 1

Chapter 6 Page 267

2
M
....0
I

z
en
<(
cc
:::)
w
en
~
<(
0
z
<(

"
<(
cc:
'°

[SI 11M1
 Tl!ctonic £110/ution of Brazilian £</.uacoriaf Continl!ntal Margin Basins

Some of the most striking intrabasement reflections are seen in line 224-101
(Fig. 6.5). In the northeastern portion of the profile, between 0.7 sand 42 s
TWIT, an anastomosing pattern of southwest-dipping arcuated
.
events
. can be
seen.which cannot be· linked to any basin structure. This part of the seismic
section shows that the basement rocks might be outcropping or underlying a very
thin sedimentary cover. Sub-horizontal and inclined reflectors are obse:ved
underneath the basin and all the way along the line, which cannot be correlated
with basin structures. Comparing with line 224-103, it is evident that there is a
reversal of polarity of the main basin border fault. The major sedimentary
depocentre shifts from the northern border to the southern basin limit This
change is apparently related to a NE-SW oriented fault mapped on the
basement exposure area (see seciion 6.2.6 and Chapter 7). In the nonheastern
part of the line, reflections corresponding to Aptian and Albian layers are
truncated at the surface. This suggests that some sort of uplift took place in this
part of the basin.

The southeastern end of the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin was imaged by line 224-
109 (Fig. 6.6). As with line 224-103 (Fig. 6.4), no deep reflections have been
interpreted. In this case, the task of discerning true signal from noise, turned out
to be difficult due to overmigration. The basin is very shaJ!ow in this area,
maximum depth 0.8 s TWIT (approximately 1 200 m). The northeastern end of
the profile imaged another small half-graben and definitive basement exposures
stand a few kilometres from this edge of the line. The conjunction of
overmigration, edge of line effect and presence of a fault plane near to the edge
has diminished the chances of confident interpretation of intrabasement
reflections. Within the basin fill however, near surface erosional truncation of

i reflections are again observed in the northeastern side of the section (Fig. 6.6c).

il In this case, the erosional event is likely to be related to foorwall uplift as well
I as the effect of later uplift probably within the Late Cretaceous.

l Line 224-99 (Fig. 6.7) is the strike line and the last to be considered here. It
il
!
is the longest profile, running for some 90 km in a NW-SE direction. Borehole
;'
•
l Chapter 6 Page 269
i

I
SW BRAGANCA-VISEU BASIN L I NE 2 2 4 • 101
NE
"'Tr:-=--=~::::;.~;?:=;_-:.~-~~==......~-~--=-::-::-~~:::-::.:-::.:=-~::-;:~·~-:--.:_:-:_:_~.:-.~~~-:--_::_--::=_,:::;--~_;_:;-:_=_:_;_~-_-:-·_-::;:-,_,__:-.:;;-
===-=~-=~~-:-::-~~::;:.;:,.,,.._;:_?-::._,,.~~~~..:"""l~:;io-.;.;:::-~.::::--.::,____::::-:::-:-:::-""'.'.:::---------:'.'_~----:_:--1pa11111"•.,•...•ni4JRii~!lln•"•.,•mJ•l"IPllm.,J.!lr•ll"l•nanw...anan-•~W' ...•n•.,•r-•...al"lar1ar.1anar1ar.a1r.11.---------------:.r OS
...l:l!l:ll_ll!:iJl!"-"*"*.,*•!'.#T•

-~~~~i~~~f.~S~~~~~~~~l*~i~f~~.:: ' - -Y' '-""""' ' •...... , I

=- - -~ = L~.-:~~~~;::~-~
~~- -·..a-- p.:-/~ - - ;:;
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·--:..:::... -.:- ... _-
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:~ ,_
-~~~~. . /-~- =-·-.,,--_ - -- ..... I -- --=- ~- :- ;:_- -£~;:::;;~- ..
:?- - ;-~...:._.. -
----.=-·.,c.-- .. - ; -~~~~=~::t·~? -_-- : ---=:~; _
-- _ -~ -:_€_'::--:_ :..==-::.:-;_;:. ---
--
__- --- ~--
-~

... --=:. =- -::;?_, ....-:- ~.,.,_~ 7--- - __...1. - ..;::-

-
~--=.~ .. - ~~~;. ;;- ~_,. - II --::..::-
Skm ~...:.-_.. - =-.=-..;-----. :-..:._ - - - r--=
I
· ' ,____... ~.-
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I
I 4
I .,, , ,,,. I
I ~7 I
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I

"'l;..":';!f.:".:!I' ~::-."'!.~~-"! ~ ..~ 0 s

-- ·- : ~ _ ..
...
. -..• :;.--:_ ~--~ , ~
~---=-=~~ :.-:-. . . . 2

r···--------------- , ~-:~ ::.5~~;J . , f:'!" • ·I: ' - ·:-:i.-:-;-~r -..:..r ~~i'IV"7t""· ';'f:'-'1'1·"'-f-'"~;>_1·
'r".,,,.
.IL"'T""' ~·~-.t,I

~
iils

II
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~
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:;.;;> :;., ;;;,
'ii :i::; ii-;
~.Z<;'..

~
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~¥~---~~ ;:- '"'
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.~ . ..: .

- _'i0i22· •
~~-~· ~~~ '5'.~

.!.:,., ·--=~" .
~~ ~~~~
• . .:A;

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L-----------·-·---- ~~
~:,...

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2
·~
~-
i
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rs:
~-
....
I ~~
~~~
":-?~
Figure 6.5 • Line drawing and details of seismic line 224-101. Ob~erve
truncation of Cretaceous reflectors and intrabasement events. See Fig. 6.2 for
location.

. . . . _....._ _ _ _ _...
; __ - ·;;-- --~: ~ "'"':·~~ ~ ·" t t .

Chapter 6 Page 270

 BRAGANCA-VISEU BASIN LINE 224·109
SW NE
o -&Sift~ .-J¥&.~~--~4'1£:..:::::±5$'£__~~~:_. . __s:~~--'*-----~-- ~,.;-~~ ._:.__ -1 ~ :-IC"~::--.:,~~~~~~~~s~~~~~::;;%t~ J-

2 2
Skm

~·-~~~ ~
3
3 ~··

ea>
,,
.,,.' , '
.,....,
,

depocern footwall upfffl:

Top Albilln
{/ 9Ubeldence and wo9k>n
..pecuru Sequence
<b>
baement
,,
Top Aptlan \i 9
subsidence
Cod6-Grajllu Sequence

(C)

0 .c;:;:----
c _ .... _ ·- - .
<.......,. qcw_ -- --- --
------ -·r;::~;:=:-=-~----:-=::::::;x-
a _w;;a;a9!lillll...:_~ =~~
• ~ .... ... # - -- . .-...f0..-.. ---- - ~ . ;;.. -_
_ 9".. 15 ; OS
:.--...-.#
.·- - . ., ~- .--:;· . >"
-· ~~;- . ·.:. ~~·~~ ~:~ ,. --._~~:\f~~\
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. . . -- - _,.·~
- ............ ,,.. -,.,..JI'- ,._,._,...~- _, _. . . . . . . .·'.,,..~
~~ . . ,_ .. __. ~ ..--··· ~..;.: ...::..:~·,.
__, ';.I_ -'"··· ---J 0

'~<~.A,:. ~'-.7'... _..,.. ...;..... J :-:.~... - .-"""_{~....~-... '-_: . • ~~~~~,. .. • ..

-·~· .-·..~ -- ,.;,, ·-~ -------- - _.:-.;· ~-~~· :_,.. _,_. ,,...-· _...·--·"'r:-., ~:i..,...,"). ~ . ~-- _ , - ... ..,,
·#f'1'J!d°"""'C.-.:.A:.>.-/ .. ., ~ _.,,,.,,c~V&.~:"- • . . . . . _ ..... y,. _... •_ . .._\.-. .-·.'....:--..·-,.~ -··*·"_.. --~--.. ---_... _...., .
........ ,n ......... ,, ..... - ~·- - · .,, .. ~ .... -~ r·~ ~ · ' -.'" i~"~"- ~
,,,,.,,:;i·;.,;;-~ : -:::,-. ,. .;; . ~~~. . . .~· _:.-.-.. •·1".,.... · .. ~~~~ :,~· : - -·... -·. -;~.~1·:~·-. ...:~~"':,'.. .
r*.•
~~- ~
..,... •'_J_
~,.
, ,.,.
Figure 6.6 - Seismic profile and interpretatlon or line 224-109. Sec location in Fig. 6.2. --~··
---·->- :.. ... r·_ .,, , ,. ~~ . , .. .:::~'""''
~r •• _..~-,r-~ "··: ;;.::.....: _ :
. ,..... ,, . - -, ....... -- ......'...,. ,_ . . . .,...-.,·_::".
. j·. . ,. . . . '\. ..
·-,.,.. :,_;,__:·~-,.:--:-·_..! ''..;,;~ ~~---_
~
#>•

~.l'f'-_.'·.:}'-1 .·. ' ........ ,,,.-:~ ·

.. ,

':.#-
••

•
.. ....

...-~
_::at:: a.,1.. -"~-
.. . . , . .

- .· ·"'. -.--·. ~. ~
,,.
• • ,. - ....

..
'

~ ~ .-' -#..•-- , ., . .. ·• ~ _,, .- ."'- · "·~ -."r.._-- ... , . -'\ ........ "\' ...... .:....~•' " - -
:
l"'(e"•' I,.

··~:.:?~>~-'-:_-; -~~-- -_-~r:&,': .·;.::_,'.,~: '>.•:::~~: ·~ ~ ~ :~ ·~<: :':"~·:{) ~}:' ~~:~1~-:-~-,;. •. ~ •-. _. :-~ ~~~;::'::< ·-::: :.,.
<). ' ' • '\..' 11>

a) uninterpreted seismic data.

- .:;..;p; ~--- • ..,/ "'-..~.. ·-..'-· .... ~ ..... - •• .· --_·... . ·"' . . . , ........ ~........ ,,. ..~- - ~-_,_..... , . .. _.... - -.,.,,.,~ - . "
-:~::-:_-~':':-.-~.-:.:.~Vjg;·.:....~-:..:-.::~~-..i._ ..... _ .... _.'(·:.... • ::,-:.::~...~::~:~r·-=· . ......:.~· -_ ......-.. _ -~~ -: .
,.rl ..
-~,... ·";:..rl.I?>-~
...,,,,~ -·/.:..!:
...... . .... . . • • . ., . _ •• > ·- •
.. , . .. 1
b) Oattening or the Top Aptian reOector (Cod6-Grajau 1 ~~ ·
,'~..,"">"-::....~~ .:~/:;.:;..-.'•·- . ..:"~ •. .,_;_, .. ,: •>:"'.'-~'-':';.f.-y--;.<-.~-..t;....;;;,.;~~
·~· ·.-:.....,,-•"'!', c-~ .~ •., -·~.... r.· . ....... - .... , ... · ~ .. ... ---c--~411J,._,__,,.,/ _; ~""' •
' -....;,.;"k·" ""i.,<"~-_,;.J
•1.:..c~~

'" "-.r-. .-:-:· ""., :- _. . ; _

. . ·----"""*
*"II(. . . . . \.. ""
!t- ..... :"W,.-
Sequence). Note change or subsidence pattern denounced by ~.
~Ji•
-,-.-.,;..1.·.~--~~--~.- ...-:::""··--- .-:-.-,.:·;;:·-..
-- · ..'. . .... ,,,7-. _. . _... ·, .. -- -.-- ._,_-.., -....""":·~·-'':.¥#
-.,::...·•.;....,,-•......#_.- ·-·-<;., ' ........ ~-""' ~- ··' •• ·' .. -
depocentre migration. _... t:
'.. 79' ~ ~~.,·.t. ·V'"' .. .....,... .,_
.~...-,.:-v;.'":"'~r· ...:g'-.~---\.!'-- _J._;:-:·-· ..·..... ~")-",..._·_-...- -- •<
.. - • •

·r • . _.. \. . . , _ . _
·...c;:- . . . . . ""'..
_'lff"":-.~ ••1,.,..
• J\.o,.__-~
~~.;,.:...;-~"',~..,~ ~
-, '-
r ''-.c:t"
..,-

c) detail or (a) showing Cootwall uplift. ~-

, ..
•

[.~: ......,
, •• ,,. -.._..r·'"O..""""'

~:~>:;~:--'.<;~~·\
.. ,'."; .... ···1:"'- .
c. - ~.:. -·.- ........ }'.·.-•.;.· .•
--~~~::--·--....·.. y
~. "'T~ -·~
";" ' .. - ''.,......,,_~:--..-
.c.1:- ... _....
w . . --i:;--~.......
.......-;.,-.....,... • .. <
·~·---=:.~·.,...,. ___ -·.
~--,.~·-1-·--:--"" . ~-:~-..
• '"-,..r._.
"""'.: _.......:--'·,
~~":f: . .:·. <: -
.... .
• , ·..
.
-..

•. .,,._.. -.
. . -~~.
.,. . .
...

.- - -.r.-
- ...
..

...--·~·...-.... .-:--'.·?r~
,<~., ~~~-:...... •:-~:.:-;:-"
~
. . -:~~---·,-..:_.'":.:,
-
..-~·-.-
~- ~· _,

-~~~
~ ~- ?7.~-~~:;
·~)·
. . . ....... \-"'...
~ ..,.~,
~-
-·

r,,
- • ·"
?;-~-~ .~-~~.~~-.:-: ~:~--~
...,,.1: .
-. :
,..
~
, . ._,. . . . . :,. . . . _
~

... .
..---:.,,.~
-¥".
-~~
~.:;,/:;-y:'~ ;_·~" . . ~ ~·

··-··~7=-··Y'tc:.~"'· -~#OJ'-$,._:,.;.;..t•~·
.r-·!
-r,....,,- ..... ...
,
.•
·'~ t-i:.c ._,_,,..
-
._

.,.,
J • ..__~-...
--~ - "C--....
•

... ~
..J
Y'

. • :-6,~- "t ~-~~~~- :-. . ; . ·. ·.- .... ~ .--:_I;·~~".......: a:-",_.~-~·-;::_-:._~--· ........... ~ :;..._,,_-,,-;
./·· .·-·-.. ,.,.,..._,...J'I._;.·
.1:.,.,'•'.,_ -~..... .... . ·. .... -•.< -:- -.. . ,,II:
~.,.__;::;.r_->_
........ :.•
. .c r--..~ ~.,· - __ , . . .. . .... • ... _ ,;_;,~, ~~~ -.~~
• •• • •- -.,, --r"' • •- . .,. .. ...... ."\'.;..,, ,· • • -, ·'-
. --<;," ... •• --_,., - , ·~-=-~
.....-..~~- · -~~ --.~ .... < • · 1-
.,. .....:-·
-
..-
·:C.~-?"
J
~::.·- .::.,· . -- .
. ~:"
. -
.
••
.- ....- '
- ""
.._'.;r.J.-¥.·-'•.• ·, -
1L•;f.• ... ~•. ',
.
.._
J

.:
-

,-~.•: . •.•. ...:

··

•.
•

';··-:·
""
--

- •
-

.-,. •
': ··
. ·~ ~-"':"
·..
.. --
·• ....r,-d-·

.~ -~..r.·..;. \;'~~
--.....

t',r.c.'-~
lo,.,.
r
. ...: ··
~~--~~=-.-,~~"-::•·:<'!6'· ;-.. ~ .....,._
··, . ...~ ......~.·-~. / .......... ·. ··.- . ·.
~
.• ... "'~-t,-,~;
~
.. -~ ... _-_
,~.:·.,;-..::./'
Ollc:-~-?-~ ,...._,. ••
"'
·'

2 ~...Q~~ ~ :,~ . :~"lL:.~~....· -· -~ .. : -....~~··yt•;_,I; 2

Chapter 6 Page 271

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian qua1orial Continental Margin Basins

information tied to this line has permitted a good degree of certainty in the
interpretation of the top basement reflector. The interpreted deep events present
"':-;~,....
~ ~
-~-r- ~ a pattern similar to the-precedent lines. Sub-horizontal and inclined
intrabasement reflections show an anastomosing array and this time again cannot
be directly linked to basin .features.

Nature of the lntrabasement Reflections

The precise nature of the intrabasement reflections imaged by the Bragam;a-

Viseu seismic profiles is unknown. However, from the apparent correlation of
some of these reflections with basin faults, the seismic signature of these events
and analogy with seismic images of the upper crust elsewhere, the interpretation
that these reflections represent old shear zones withiri the continental basement
is preferred.

6.2.3 Seismic Mapping

The seismic grid and well control have allowed to track down two continuous
seismic events in a regional scale. They were correlated to (1) top of the acoustic
basement and (2) top of the Aptian. The first may represent top of Pre-Silurian
metasediments or crystalline basement. The latter is seen to be sequence
boundary between the Cod6-Grajau and Itapecuru Sequences. These two units
are seismically characterized by: Oxl6-Grajl1ll- mostly parallel but also divergent
very continuous pattern of high amplitude and low frequency reflections,
eventually truncated near major faults; ltapecwu- very discontinuous sub-
horizontal and chaotic reflections of variable amplitude and frequency.

Two contour maps are presented here: (1) a time-structural map of the
basement and (2) an isopach map of the Cod6-Grajau Sequence. The time-
-'· structural map (Fig. 6.8) mirrors the geometry of the basin floor. It shows the
,.
half-graben asymmetry and the position of major boundary faults as well as a
transfer fault zone. The deepest parts of the basin ar~ located in the northern
..
Chapter 6 Page 272
.~
 BRAGAN<fA-VISEU BASIN LINE 224 ·99

Vl-1 -PA EG - 1-PA

NW 0 0 SE

I
I 2
I

..._
'::::; ·--
I
..,_.
•t.• J
-... -- -
~=­

•a -e~~
_p;
-
:!!;- -~ :::--
~ ............... 10 km
4

Figure 6.7 • Line drawing and details of ' • :t. d. ,___.. ...H 'iLGiff ..,f.. 51 .. ... Ht_. .. F . • ~..~..........ffit. i _f ••!f. . . ~II! , .. . .I .. ..,.;a":_._ , !~!" YJ~:.r!i.u l'!',...~ .~ · r,;_. .. T" 0$
seismic profile 214-99. Note intrabasement
reflectors (lower left box) and seismic
expression or a transfer fault zone (right
box) . See line location in Fig. 6.2.

wr• ~-- ~- "'~-:~.::.n --- .. r 'P!.- .~ 7• -.. r _.. LJI -:t - .c:.•_,, "!~'l!'... 1~,.. - .... . OS

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2

Chapter 6 Page 273

·I Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

I and central regions, the latter one adjoining to the transfer fault. The isopach
map (Fig. 6.9) indicates an overall thickening of the Cod6-Grajau Sequence to
the northeast and toward the major faults. This indicates fault activity during
I Aptian time. The situation of the upper sequence (Itapecuru) although not

I represented here in map, is very similar to the lower. sequence. A major

distinction is clearly seen in section 224-109 (Fig. 6.6b) where the ltapecuru

I Sequence seems to thicken to the southwest in contrast to what happens with the
underlying sequence. In this case however, the thinning of the ltapecuru
Sequence might result from later uplift given the lack of seismic onlap
relationship to the northeast.

Braganya
• N

A
Vlseu
•

2 O km

Figure 6.9 • lsopach map of the Codo·Gr.ajat'.i Sequence in the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin. Contour
interval 200 m. Shade highlights areas with expected thicknesses higher than 800 m.

Chapter 6 Page 274

 .i • f'> •c·

:0
:~ {1r:~ ~~ \;:l.tl•t·~·~(t'
,~

-----------~ ~-'---

~no· (no·
+ + r uu·

BRAGAN<;A~VISEU BASIN
( meJ°' la~H
f mln0< l•uH :;.-i
"c;
:.

+ + v,+
f. hinge llne
<\'

~
~
+ + ~· + I ::.
<:>
:.
+L~ +
+ r+ +
f/} transfer fault
~
y'+ + + I ~
~· + + + ~.
~ + + + +
+ + + +
j basement :::,
Cl
;:i
+ ·.... + + + , structure
+ . c-.,
+ +\+ + +
I++ I ~

+
+
+
+· +
~ ~·
+ :f v + + "()
Cl

+ + ..\ + .y+ + +
• + +
I ::i.
~
++ + ' j - k < /
+ + + + + + + + ~
++ + + +\ + + + anticline b1
+ + + + .41( + +
+ / + + 1'30· I :.
!i·
+ + + + ,/-1..-'\.. +.4 + ~ + + + ..,
~ + + .y + "'? '("+ + +
., . + + + + \ I :.
§.
++++ + l"'t+++ + + + +
+ + + + +
~ + + + + + "1> ~ + + y.· +
+ + + + + + ~·r + ~ + + 7+ + + + + % ~
+ + + + + + Od
... + + + + + + .,. '-:+- I" + + +~ . /+' + + + + + + I syncline ;;·
I·
+ + + + + + + -1 \ef + + + \
+
+ + + + + + +Att" ·\.+ + +
+ + + + + + /' ",+ + +
o/+
+ +
+ + +
+{
\, + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + +
I
t::i
a
a·
+ + + + + + ~~ '+ + ~ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + -?~ ·,+~ + \+ + + + + + + + + + + + 0 W1lll
+ + + + + + _,..+ + +. + + + +' ~ + + + + + +
a + + + + + +r + '+ + + + + t - """++++++
.g + + + + ¥' + + ' + + + + + + +'
+ + + + / ' + + +\ + of.\ + + + + +' +-4'.. + + + + +
+ + + + + +
+
..,
~ + + + + + + + +· + + + + ~ \ -I· \ .. .., + + + +·
+ + + + + +· + ~ +· ~ + -+ I'. + • I i .f-'fl... + + + + +
°' + + + + + + + + ~ ~ + + + ~ +\+ + ,~· .+ + + + + 10 km
+ + + + + + + + ~. + + + + • + + .+; +' + + + +
~ + + + + + + + + ~ + + + +\ + \+ + I+ +'" .+ + + +
~

""Cl Figure 6.8 - Tinll'·Structurul contour 11uq1 of lhc acoustic basement In the Hrngnn~a-Viscu Basin. Contour interval ls 0.1 ms.
Crosses outline Precambrian basement outcrops. Hlack area of major faults indicates the cut-out zones for the basement reflector.
Sl111dc lndk11h:s reduction of hnsln fill thkkm~ss hy Inter uplift.
 Tectonic Evolwior! of Brazilian Equazorial Continemal Margin Basins

6.2.4 Subsidence

The subsidence history of the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin starts as early as 110 Ma

(Late Aptian) as indicated by the stratigraphical record. The subsidence rate
expressed by the sediment accumulation ratio, corrected for compaction, was
initially moderately high (460 m/Ma) and decreased during Albian times (90-130
m/Ma). The Late Albian marks the end of sedimentation during active extension
and deposition ceased until the Late Tertiary. This important sedimentary hiatus
is documented not only in this area but also in the nearby Sao Lufs Basin. In the
Bragan~a-Viseu Basin the well log and seismic evidence point to lack of Upper

Cretaceous-Cenozoic sedimentation and limited post-Albian uplift.

The subsidence curves shown in Figure 6.10 illustrate loaded and

backstripped profiles for both wells drilled in this basin. The chronostratigraphic
control comes from Lima (1987), quoted by Carvalho (1987), and from
stratigraphic correlations using borehole and seismic data. In the calculations the
following parameters were used: 39.6% as initial surface porosity; 0.30 for the
decay constant and 2.65 g/cm3 for sediment density. These parameters we-re
taken from lithology and son ic log information of well EG-1-P A (Emboraf
Grande). h is important to note in these curves that the portion that would
correspond to the thermal phase of subsidence is characteristically "flat". This
reflects the lack of Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary sedimentation and
confirms that after an initial stage of rapid tectonic subsidence the basin has
stopped to sink. It furthermore indicates that the extension of the upper crust
was not accompanied by sub-crustal extension or thermal perturbations of the
lithosphere.

As discussed in Chapter 4, the one-dimensional approach of these subsidence

plots preclude identification of uplift phases after the initial tectonic subsidence.
As a consequence, the late uplift interpreted using the seismic data is not
represented in Figure 6.10. The suggestion of subside nce profile made for wells
in the Tut6ia Basin (Fig. 4.37) may be partially valid for the Gurupi Grabens,

Chapter 6 Page 276

·.• Tecro11ic E•·olwion of Bro!ilian Equatorial Co111i11cmo! Margin Basins
<>.9e rn. a.> <19e CM. a.>
110 S1 7S 63 il 31 16 0 110 9i 79 63 17 31 16 0
.· 0 0

~
E E

~
)4

""
1 l
.!.
-
Cl -
.£

11
QI
QI !
1l 1)
2 2

VN- 1-PA
EG- 1-PA
3 BACKSTRIPPIHG 3 BACKS TRI PP ING

Braganca · Viseu

age <11. a.>

Si 79 63 i7 31 16 0

,,E.

ll
QI
1l
2

110-1 - t<A
c.g e <n. a.)
110 91 79 63 i7 31 16 0
3 0

E:
""
..(
- 1
0.
QI
1)

B0- 1-MA
2 age (M. a.>
79 63 9 31 16

E
Sao Luis )4

[.

0.
Q'.
1)

AL-1-MA
2 BACKSTRIPPIHG
Figure 6.10 - Subsidence profiles or the Bragan~a-Viseu and Sao Luis Basins. Lower and upper
curves are loaded and backstripped subsidence profiles, respectively. Shade indicates subsidence due
to sediment loading. See well locations in Fig. 6.1. Time scale after Haq et al.(1987) .

Chapter 6 Page ?77

 Tecionic £ l'Olurion of Brazilian £quawrial Continenral Margin Basins

although the uplift observed in the graben system is one order smaller than in
the Tut6ia area .
......•. .
6.2.5 Bouguer Gravity Data, Modelling and Interpretation

Figure 6.2 presents a Bouguer anomaly map for the Bragan~a-Yiseu and Sao
Lufs Basins. The gravity lows correlate very closely with sedimentary basins
whereas the gravity highs do not correlate precisely with basement highs. This
suggests that the positive gravity anomalies are probably associated with the
distribution of mass within the shallow basement. The series of positive gravity
anomalies outlined in Figure 6.2 have already been interpreted as high density
lower crustal rocks (granulites ?) brought up to near-surface levels by thrust-
sheets related t6 the Tentugal Shear Zone (Abreu et al., 1985; see Chapter 7).

Figure 6.11 shows two gravity models across the Bragan~-Viseu Basin. They
were designed to test two hypotheses: (1) that the gravity response of the
basement rocks northeast of the basin can be produced by southwest-dipping
discontinuities and (2) that the positive anomaly striking NW-SE in the area
adjoining the southwestern basement inlier (see yellow area in Fig. 6.2) can be
modelled as higher density metamorphic rocks at shallow levels. The geometry of
the models is controlled by surface and subsurface geology, seismic and borehole
data.

The simple and well constrained gravity models presented in Figure 6.11
closely match the observed gravity. The fit between the observed and modelled
gravity is consistent with the presence of a southwest-dipping shear zone along
the northeastern border of the basin. It is also consistent with the occurrence of
a relatively thick (2 OOO m) metasedimentary unit preserved in the core of the
graben. The positive anomalies in the western end of the profiles can be
modelled as slightly denser rocks. This supports the hypothesis of rising of lower
crust rocks within the Precambrian fold belt.

Chaprer 6 Page 278

 't:'t.4 V/4 tl.. L.;' VHttl \.I •• VJ " "' '~'•'" _, •. -··1 "• ·· .. .....

'·
• ~.!.·
_ .:~-·
SW NE

...,
0

-20

- 40

50 100 150 km

-224-100-
0
··········
+-+++++++

+ + + +.
• • • + + • • • • + • + + + + • • • • • • + • • 4 + + + + •
• + • •
+ +. + + + + + ... + + • + • • • + • + + • • • 4 + • • '~
• • + + + + + + +- + . . . . - • + + ... + • + • + • • • • • • .. • • • , ...... '
. ._ .......... ._. ,\'.,-.-:-
20

SW NE

+20 calculated
0

-20
nl
-40 c.:J
E
-60
50 100 150 km

0 ... + • • •
-224-101 -
,,_
• • + • • ... • + • • • • + •
______., ...........
•
,.. .....
+ + + • + + ... + + + • • + + • • • + • + • • • + • • • + •

20

~2.80
~2.82

Figure 6.11 - Gravity models across the Bragan~-Viseu Basin. Location or profiles in Fig. 6.2.
Crosses indicate average continental crust; dashed and shaded patterns represent denser wedge-
shaped southwest-dipping crustal slices; dots are pre-Silurian metasedimentary rocks and blank
areas are Mesozo'.c grabens.

Chapter 6 Page 279

 Tccwnic E»olution of Brazilian Equatorial Con1inental Margin Basins

6.2.6 Structural Analysis and Extension Measurements

Major Structural Features and the Nature of Upper Crust Deformation

As ·seen in the seismic profiles shown earlier (Figs. 6.3 to 6.7), the Bragan~a­
Viseu Basin is a small half·graben in which a central reverse polarity is present.
The transfer fault zone on which the reversal is achieved is oriented N40°E. It
exhibits the seismic expression of a narrow sub-vertical fault zone topped by a
positive flower structure (compare Figs. 6.7 and 2.24).

The graben is limited on either margins by alternating normal-slip faults and

flexural hinge lines (Fig. 6.8). Minm faults which were successfully imaged by the
seismic method are synthetic and antithetic. The alternating character 9f the
basin borders, the polarity reversal of depocentres and the upper crust
deformation by either synthetic and antithetic faulting suggest that the Bragan<;a-
Viseu Basin conforms to a model of basin geometry similar to that described for
the East African Rift System (e.g. Rosendahl et al., 1986; Morley et al., 1990;
see section 2.2.4 ). A significant contrast from these African models is that in the
Gurupi Graben System the rift architecture is not independent of the basement
structure.

The correlation between basement and basin structures will be explored in

Chapter 7. It is tempting however, to correlate the major normal fault which
limits the basin to the northwest (line 224-100 Fig. 6.3) with the NW-SE oriented
high-angle shear zone (Precambrian age) identified in the basement exposure of
Gurupi River (Tentugal Shear Zone; see Figs. 3.3 an~ 6.8 as well as section
3.2.1).

The erosional truncation observed on lines 224}01 (Fig. 6.5) and 224-109
(Fig. 6.6) indicates that the eastern part of the basin was uplifted by a few
hundred metres. In that later profile, the erosional effect is interpreted to be
rel ated to syn-rift footwall uplift, later c:.mplified by uplift of the northeastern

Chapter 6 Page 280

I Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equarorial Continental Margin Basins

basement inlier. Figure 6.6b schematically represents the syn-rift structural

evolution of the area. Note that the Cod6-Grajau Sequence thickens to the
northeast where the early depocentre might have been located, whereas for the
Itapecuru Sequence ~t has moved southwestward. This pattern remains even if
allowance for the later uplift and erosional truncation is made.

Extension Measurements

The orientation of the transfer fault zone mapped close to the centre of the
graben is normal to the strike of the basin and thought to be parallel to the
extension direction (N40°E) (Fig. 6.8). Depth conversion performed along the
line 224-100 has allowed the measurement of finite extension. Bed length
conservation and vertical shear were assumed as fair approximations to the
hanging-wall deformation. This procedure yield 16% (9 km) of finite upper crust
extension to the northwestern end of the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin. Ar~a balancing
of the depth profile supplied values of 5.3 km and 11.2 Km for the depth to
detachment in the western and eastern edges of the 224-100 line. These values
closely match the two different levels of intrabasement reflections observed on
both sides of the seismic profile (Fig. 6.3).

Shallow Basement Structure

Although the relationship between the southwest-dipping intrabasement

reflections and the geology exposed on the Precambrian inliers is not simple, the
seismic and gravity data suggest a consistent geological interpretation. The
intrabasement reflections in the Bragarn;a-Viseu profiles are interpreted as
Brasiliano (Late Proterozoic) thrust faults within the Sao Luis cratonic basement
which indicates that this geotectonic unit has also been involved in the Brasiliano
orogeny (see section 7.2.1). The evidence for this is: (1) the seismic signature of
the intrabasement reflections, arcuate and anastomosing, suggests that these ·
reflections are older shear zones; (2) the association with metasedimentary
sequences of the exposed geology which implies thin-skin tectonics (Chapter 7);

Chapter 6 Page 281

 Tectonic Evol111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

(3) the results of the gravity modelling (section 6.2.5) which indicates the
presence of southwest-dipping crustal sheets as a valid hypothesis; and ( 4) the
suggestion that it would be extremely difficult for the Mesozoic breakup to
crosscut an intact piece of craton about 2 Ga old at high angles with respect to
its fahric (see section 3.5.1 ). This interpretation .of reworking of the Sao Lufs
Craton is in contrast to early studies which did ~ot consider that any major
remobilization of this tectonic unit took place during the Late Precambrian
collisional event (Almeida, 1967; Abreu & Lesquer, 1985). The apparent
geometry of the reflections is consistent with southwest to northeast transport
direction of the thrust-sheets, from the Gurupi Fold Belt towards the cratonic
basement. These reflections would thus represent thrust planes on which middle
and lower crust rocks were carried onto the border of the craton. It implies
major involvement of this latter region. The location of the thrust front is
unknown. It might lie offshore, in the region of continental crust affected by the
Mesozoic thinning.

An integra1ed interpretation of the data presently available leads to the

cross-section shown in Figure 7.4. Crustal scale shear zones associated with the
Brasiliano crustal imbrication and thickening were reactivated during the
Mesozoic in an extensional sense. Thus, frontal ramps of Late Proterozoic (a)
thrust faults and (b).h ack-thrusts were reworked as Mid-Cretaceous extensional
normal faults. They correspond to the present day (a) northern and (b) southern
basin border faults. It is thought that they switch polarity along strike (NW-SE)
because the NE-S\V pre-existing fabric was also eventually reactivated and
local ised the deformation involved in the transfer zones.

Extensional Reactivation of Compressional Structures

The data and interpretations presented above show good examples of

reactivation of inherited structures. The profile in Figure 6.3 is strongly
suggestive of extensional reactivation of an earlier compressional feature. Also,
when comparing Figures 6.4 and 6.5 it was seen that the major down-thrown

Cliaprer 6 Page 282

 . . ..
:...'1,{.;,o
,- T~tonic EiVJ/111ion of Brazilian £q11a1orial Contincn1al Margin Basill.S
.:.
...,.. .
.,..,:,:-\.
'!..~:-
2'......
block of the Bragan~a-Viseu Basin reverses its polarity along strike. This change
seems to be controlled by the presence of a NE-SW orientated Early Proterozoic
basement structure (see Fig. 6.8 and section 7.2.1).

Despite the indications shown above, the presence of intrabasement •·

discontinuities does not'necessarily mean that these features will be reactivated.
This can be demonstrated by observing line 224-101 (Fig. 6.5 ), where the imaged
deep reflections cannot be linked to any extensional feature. T hus, the
reactivation of inherited structures is not only dependent on the presence a nd
favourable orientation of those structures within the stress field. A factor that is
not always considered is the stress concentration. The Bragarn;a-Viseu data set
offers a good opportunity to study this problem, provided that paleostress fields
could be accurately calculated.

- ,
6.3 THE SAO LUiS BASIN

The Sc10 Luis Basin is located in the central part of the Gurupi Graben
System at the northwestern region of the Brazilian estate of Maranhao. It
occu pies an area of a round 18,000 km 2 . The data bank available for this study
comprises lithological information from seve nt~en wildcat wells, 420 km of
reflection seismic profiles and gravity data (Fig. 6. 1).

6.3.1 Stratigraphy

T he stratigraphy of the Sao Lu is Basin is better known than that of the

Bragan~a-Vi seu Graben (Fig. 3.41). Nineteen wells already drilled in this graben
coupled with a more extensive seismic coverage have provided a sound base of
subsurface data. The stratigraphic succession has been outlined by Mesner &
Wooldridge (1964), Cerqueira & Marques (1984), Carvalho (1987), and Aranha
et al ( 1989). Precambrian crystalline basement is overlain by pre-Silurian
metasedimentary rocks, Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments as well as limited

Chapter 6 Page 283

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinental Margin BasinS

Upper Tertiary and Quaternary deposits.

Precambrian basement rocks were intersected in most of the wells and also
outcrop at the western region of the basin. These com prise gneisses, granites and
metasedimentary rocks of the Gurupi Fold Belt and Sao Lufs Craton, with
radiometric ages ranging between 2.36 and 0.58 Ga (Cordani et al., 1984). Refer
to sections 3.2.1 and 7.2.1 for a more detailed description of these teccono-
stratigraphic units.

A pre-Silurian succession (2 OOO m in places) of unfossiliferous dark grey and

reddish phyllites inte:rbeded with metasandstones, metaconglomerates and
diamictites is found overlying earlier Proterozoic rocks and are informally called
Bequimiio Fonnation (Aranha et al., 1989). Based on lithologica l and
stratigraphical co rrelations as well as a radiometric dating of unquoted origin
(480 Ma, Rb/Sr method) Aranha et al.(1989) suggested that this unit is
equivalent to late deposi ts of the Brasiliano/Pan-.African orogeny (Late
Proterozoic-Early Palaeozoic). Based on tectonic considerations and lithological
correlations these molasse deposits are tentatively correlated with the Piria,
lgarape de Areia and Camiranga Fonnations of Abreu (1989) in this study.

The Palaeozoic strata are represented by coarse-grained sandstones of fluvial

a nd delta ic deposition of Silurian age. They are equivalent to the Serra Grande
Group of the Parnafba Basin. lts distribu tion is limited to the sourhwestern part
of the basin whe re it reaches circa 500 rn in thickness.

The Cod6-Grajail. sedimentary sequence, of Aptian age, comprises fluvial

and lacustrine sandstones of the Grajau Fom1ation and black shales, limestones
a nd anhydrite layers of the Codo Fomiation. The occurrence of these units are
not confined to the graben system. They are also widely developed in the
southern Parnafba Basin. Because its importance as potential source rock and
indi cator of earlv tectonic events, the Cod6 Basin will be considered in more
detail in section 6.3.6. Earlier studies suggested that this sequence conserves its

Chapter 6 f'age 284

 .·· Tec10nic £volu1ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

•: ~ ! average thickness (50-200 m) across the entire Sao Luis Basin (e.g. Petrobras,
·'·.jr
:;:~,,...·
1983; Aranha et al., 1989). This would imply that the deposition of this sequence
preceded graben development. This does not apply in the case of the Bragan~a­
Viseu Basin. This difference is examined using seismic data in section 6.3.3.

Geochemical analyses of black shales of the Cod6 Formation have ir:tdicated

that the organic matter, in all wells analysed, did not reached the oil generation
window (Cerqueira & Marques, 1984). This observation suggests that the basin
has not undergone high heat flow in the past. Its present day thermal state is
undoubtly of average temperature gradients (Zembruscki, 1985).

The /tapecwu Sequence overlies the Cod6-Grajau Sequence and comprises

mostly coarse-grained fluvial sandstones in its lower section. Its age is considered
to range from Albian up to the Cenornanian. This sequence almost completely
fills the fractured basin with thickness of 1 000-4 OOO m. Its lower portion is
equivalent to the Canarias Group whereas its upper part is coeval to the Caju
Group of the Barreirinhas Basin. Miocene and Quaternary subordinate deposits
of marine and coastal sands complete the sedimentary succession of the Sao Lufs
Basin.

6.3.2 Reflection Seismic Data and Interpretation

A limited amount of reflection seismic data of the Sao Luis Basin was made
available for the purpose of this research project. The seismic profiles examined
(420 km) are located in Figure 6.2. Although reflections such as top Aptian and
basement were correlated, the grid was not su fficiently close-spaced to allow
confident mapping of these horizons. The interpretation is presented in Figure
6.12 as a sketch map of the structural framework of the basin.

Within the acoustic basement, it was possible to recognise a thick sequence

(1 000-2 OOO m) corresponding to metasedimentary rocks of the Bequimao
Formation (Early Palaeozoic) overlying crystalline basement. This sequence

Chaprer 6 Page 285

 0 0
('j (')
·'•

I
•'\\:..
..
z Q,

"'
c(
CD
:!
~
~
·-"'
~
..J
•
'V
0
•c( ~
(IJ

0
co
•
e
~

0
It)

Figure 6.12 - Sketch map of the structural framework of the Sao Luis Basin. Wavy line marks
northern erosional limit of Palaeozoic rocks. See Fig. 6.15 for legend. Crosses outline basement
exposures; shades indicate Bouguer gravity anomalies. A fuller interpreted fr.amework map, compiled
from other source, is presented in Appendix B.

Chapter 6 Page 286

.~

Tectonic EvolutiorJ of Brazilian Equacorial Cominencal Margin Basins

occurs in a large area of the basin and is limited laterally by planar faults. The
seismic pattern of the Bequimao Sequence comprises short and discontinuous
reflections bounded vertically by very high amplitude and more continuous
events (Fig. 6.13).

The Cod6-Grajau Sequence is characterized by just a couple of high

amplitude reflections 0.1-0.2 s thick. The only place where it seems to be thicker
than that is in the southwestern edge of line 224-111 (Fig. 6.13). There it may.
reach 400 m in thickness. The seismic pattern of the Itapecuru Sequence
comprises a thick set of divergent reflectors. They present variable aspects of
amplitude, frequency and continuity. An .i mportant feature is the presence of
synclines and anticlines near to faults interpreted to have been active during this
interval (Fig. 6.13 ).

6.3.3 Subsidence

The subsidence curves calculated for three wells of the Sao Luis Basin are
very similar to those obtained for the Bragan~a-Viseu Graben (Fig. 6.10). The
chronostratigraphic control was also taken from the compilation presented by
Carvalho (1987). A1l boreholes reached basement rocks between 1 500 m and
2100 m depth in the central and eastern regions of the basin. the calculations
assumed the same values of parameters used for the Bragan~a-Viseu Graben. In
general, the subsidence profiles show the same "flat" behaviour of the thermal
subsidence part of the curves which represent the absence or non-deposition of
Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. Thus, in this graben, the upper crust
deformation also appears not be accompanied by lower crustal extension.
Observing carefully the results for well AL-1-MA (Alcantara), there is a slight
tendency for the curves to assume an already familiar "flat-ramp" profile
(compare Figs 6.2 and 4.33). As seen in the previous chapter (section 4.5.3), this
pattern is suggestive of re-acceleration of subsidence during the Albian-
Cenomanian transition.

Chapter 6 Page 287

SW SAO LUIS BASIN MaracaQume sub-basin LINE 224-111 NE
, OS
0 ---~ -===••••=•
- - -4J!!&•=z::~ __
- -- -~-~_....~~--=--C""--=::::::- . - -_;S.~-
~'!i!!!"t..."'uc::;;:x:aww:•:i::;
_..:::z.s:::;="...;.:.-- ~~~-- -=--~ ~- - - ~ .!=rm
- = .,~""~·o-=:tte:-•
~ - - ___ --·-- - ~- _ ~r~ ; ._,_-._ .· ..·""··,·..
.· . . ..
~-. ,.
•.·~.r;;:.. . '<.:i·•.. .~. .. :n_qe?i'ir OS
•.~.~.

2
I
--== -:::::-- = ---~

-......_
I
I
I
I ¥'
,,,.
7
.;:::::;-
~~
--
______________ .... J K . 5km
----
~

Figure 6.13 - Line drawing and interpreted details of the seismic profile 224-111.
(a) gravity driven hanging-wall anticline;
(b) inversion structure and
(c) trace of strike-slip fault zone.
1a1

2
(c)
~~
-~ -. -_:m1 9' --- ~..,...,-
;:u+4.-v.-:f' "!".'!"'..,~f.: 4:F-?>i I ( q WQlii t"""i'(if.Cff'""
1b1
. --.-.--.---:"'I...~+ .......... .i -- +J*('I_;;: • . ( F. 9 _! ' • r.. PJ!!l>*.......~ '" .... ~...,..o s

~~~~~-~~.;;;~~:.,;;;;,::-_;~ 4

Chapter 6 Page 288

 TeclOnic Evol1uion of Braxilian Equatorial Comin~ntal Margin Basins

6.3.4 Bouguer Gravity Data and Interpretation

The Bouguer gravity field of the Sao Luis Basin can be seen in Figure 6.2. It
is basically a broad negative anomaly (-100 mGal} with a steep slope at its
northeastern limit and a gentler gradient to the south. Correlations with seismic
and borehole data show that the centre of the negative anomaly corresponds
closely to the area where the pre-Silurian sequence (Bequimao Formation) is
thicker. This is consistent with the light den$ity nan.ire of these siliciclastic
basement rocks .

. The matching of negative gravity anomalies and depocentres in this basin

and in the Bragan~a-Viseu Grabe~ ind~cates that in both cases the upper crustal
deformation is not compensated in depth on an Airy model. The removal and
replacement of basement rocks by lighter sedimentary sequences is reflected by
the gravity field. The gravity field does not show any sign of lower cru.stal
perturbation and intrusion of higher density rocks. This suggests that
heterogeneous stretching of the lithosphere might have taken place during basin
development.

6.3.5 Structural Analysis and Extension Measurements

The map shown in Figure 6.12 is a result of data integration from boreholes,
gravity and seismic surveys. The following analysis considers two structural
domains: (1) the northwestern half-graben confined between basement inliers of
the Gurupi River region and (2) the main depositional area centralised in the
vicinity of the town of Pinheiro. These areas are teL~1ed here as (1)
"Marac~ume" and (2) "Pinheiro" Sub-basins, respectively. Both names were
taken from cities in the region.

The Maracar;ume Sub-basin (3 OOO km 2 in area) is apparently a NS0°W

oriented half-graben tilted to the southwest (Fig. 6.12). The seismic profile 224-
111 (Fig. 6.13) indicates that a yet thick sedimentary sequence occurs to the

Chapter 6 Page 289

 ·.

Teetonic Evolution of Brazilitlll Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

northeastern edge of the line. This raises doubts as to the accuracy of the
available surface geological maps (e.g. DNPM, 1986) which show Precambrian
basement outcropping where the seismic data show a relatively thick sedimentary
pile. The northern limit of the basin is therefore still uncertain. Assuming
however, that the basin border might lie not far from the line end, it was
possible to estimate 12% (8 km) extension a1ong this profile. Strike-slip
displacements are inferred near to the northern end of the seismic line (Fig.
6.13c), and this affects the line-balance calculation. Locally, compressive stress·
fields relating strike-slip displacements might explain the structure shown in
Figure 6. 13b. The anticline featured in this segment of seismic profile has some
characteristics of an inverted structure (see Fig. 2.36 and section 2.7). The fold
with crest centred on the collapsed hanging-wall and the thickness •.1ariations
suggest that inversion took place sometime during the Late AJbian or later.
More precise age cannot be deduced due to presence of a near surface erosional
unconformity.

The Pinheiro Sub-basin occupies a much broader area (15 OOO km2) and the
knowledge of its structural framework so far accumulated is still incomplete. The
northern basin border fault, for instance, has not yet been imaged by seismic
profiles. It is inferred in Figure 6.12 by interpreting a steep gravity slope as
evidence o'. t:iulting. Dominant fault orientation was not possible to deduce from
the seismic data studied. In at least one case however, an approximate E-W
orientation of a well defined normal fault could be established. Aranha et al.
( 1989) referred to E-W oriented dextral strike-slip fault zones in the central and
southern parts of the basin. This could not be independently confirmed in this
study due to scarcity of migrated seismic data. However, intense fracturing and
abrupt changes of thicknesses suggest that late strike-slip movements may have
occurred.

Two seismic profiles imaged the Fe"er-Urbano Santos Arch (see section 6.5).
They document the limit of occurrence of the Palaeozoic rocks that form the
Parnafba intracratonic basin (see wavy line in Fig. 6.12). They also permi:ted

Chapter 6 J>age 290

·I
•.

Tectcnic El'olutinn of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

". .
mapping of the present day subsurface continuity of the arch. Its present
configuration however, does not necessarily reflect the position of this major
feature in the past. This can be deduced by the apparent incompatibility of the
arch hinge line with the erosional limit of the Palaeozoicsection (see further
considerations in section 6.5).

6.4 THE lLHA NOVA GRABEN

The Ilha Nova Graben (2 500 km 2) strikes WNW-ESE for some 70 km

connecting the Barreirinhas and Sao Luis Basins. In fact it is a half-graben with
a major boundary fault (3 OOO m of displacement) located at its northern border.
The basin is limited to the north by the llha de Santana Platform and to the
south by another shallow area dominated by the basement inlier known as
Rosario High (see section 7.2.2). Due to its nearshore location and t.he difficulty
of data acquisition, the area is poorly .studied. Geological and geophysical
information provided by five wells and 200 km of reflection seismic data
comprise the data base examined for this research.

6.4.1 Stratigraphy

The stratigraphy of the llha Nova Graben is known from well data acquired
in three locations and through correlations ·to adjoining basins (Aranha et al.,
1989). The Cod6-Grajau Sequence has similar characteristics to those found in
the Sao Luis Basin and lies on top of metamorphic basement, comprising pre-
Silurian metasediments (Bequimao Formation) or gneissic complexes of
Proterozoic age. Most of the graben is filled with fluvial-deltaic sediments of the
ltapecuru-Canarias system of Albian age. The upper part of the Itapecuru
Formation is still coeval with the Caju Group of the Barreirinhas Basin and
marks a major marine transgression into the area during the Cenomanian. A
relatively thin section of Late Cretaceous and Tertiary coastal sands and shales
complete the sequence.

Chapter 6 Page 29 I
 ·.
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinental Margin Basins

6.4.2 Seismic Data and Interpretation

Only limited seismic data of the Ilha Nova Graben was examined in this
'
study (200 km). It comprised seven reflection lines as shown in Figure 6.1. .The
analysis of these profiles shows that the major sedimentary depocentre lies
offshore (Fig. 6.14a). The major bound fault is oriented N30°W and separates
the basin from the llha de Santana Platform. The acoustic basement may reach(
4 OOO m in depth. A minor half-graben structure lies to the southwest of the
basin near to the town of Sao Luis.

The thickness of the Cod6-Grajau Sequence is greater than in the Sao Lufs
Basin. Well MAS-32 drilled 550 m of sandstones, shales and limestones before
reached cataclastic basement rocks at 2 670 m depth. Maximum thicknesses
occur towards the boundary fault consistent with the presence of a divergent
pattern of reflections. The Albian sequence shows also a divergent pattern of
reflections whereas the Cenomanian and overlying sediments tend to present a
more parallel set of sub-horizontal seismic events.

6.4.3 Subsidence

The boreholes IN-J-MA (Ilha Nova) and IS-1-MA (Jlha de Santana) are the
only locations in the graben area in which chronostratigraphic control was
available. The results of subsidence analysis of these wells were reported in
Chapter 4 section 4.5 (Figs. 4.33/34). The main points to emphasise here are: (I)
the consistent lack of major thermal subsidence sequences revealed by the "flat"
pattern of curves and (2) that whereas the IN-1-MA well shows a continuous
initial subsidence, the IS-1-MA borehole indicates that the subsidence might
have happened in stages, with the last major fault driven subsidence taking place
by the Cenomanian.

Chapter 6 Page 292

..,
., SW ILHA NOVA GRABEN
MAS-32 LINE 104·5 NE
0
- --~ - ~~~:- ~- --~
0 F~=;;;;~~,,-~c;-...,.;-~~---.:::.""F" -- ~- - 0 -~--
.,,...~:;::::- -~zy - --~~~-=~~-~-~~d-
_..,.==-""' ---- ::-:.~~ . .,':r ""'-'~ .~-... .:: ~~~ ~--::-:. - -... _-_y= - -~~~~ --=- OS

- ~--·-;;-~-~~--~~~~v-=-~ ~~_:;7-~ -"7~· .-~~~::-~~~:~~)~HA

0
2 -- = DE SANTANA PLATFORM " 2
" Skm / Curupu High baaement - . i-;~y 1-4
4-I - .

Figure 6.14 • Seismic profiles across the Ilha Nova Graben. Location in Fig. 6.15.
(a) Line drawing of the seismic profile 104-5 showing a northerly
located boundary fault;
(b) and (c) details of line 104-124 showing hanging-wall syncline.

w llllE 104 -124 E

;,~~i..':..'l'iJl
: '.:1
.·.-:-:--
11 · . :1=1·..;-
~--=
·~~~ij -~..:.. "''~ --....-~::::-::· ...........
~

.~
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-~ c· , -~ ;..~~,,.....~
L..~
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~~
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1 km

Chapter 6 Page 293

 Ttctonic £1•0/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Con1intntal Margin Basins

6.4.4 Structural Analysis and Extension Measurements

As a whole, the set of seismic profil_es examined shows normal fau lting as the
predominant structural feature. Figure 6.15 illustrates the structural framework
of the basin based on an integration of the seismic data studied with boreho le
information as well as onshore Bouguer gravity and aeromagnetic data. A
significant difference with respect to the basins previously discussed, is that in
this case low-angle faults a re much more common. This may suggests higher
extension and greater footwall deformation (see section 2.2.1 and Fig. 2.3).

The seismic profile l~-5 shown in Fig.6.14a, strikes NE-SW approximately

normal to the direction of mai n basin structures. It was depth-conve rted and
gave a value of 9% (4 km) of extension for the upper crust. Compared with the
calculations performed for the Bragan ~a-Viseu Basin, there is a tendency for
extension to decrease to the southeast of the Gurupi Graben Syste~ in contrast
to what is suggested by the fault geometries. This apparent contradiction is
probably best explained by very conservative interpretation of dip-slip on the
southern faults. Major extension is suspected to occur to the south of the town of
Sao Lufs, based on a negative gravity anomaly shown in Figu re 6.16.

An important feature observed in post-Aptian sequences is the development

of anticlines and synclines due to differentia l compaction (Fig. 6.14b/c). The
compaction effect is sometimes enhanced by later reactivation of basement
faults. The anticline seen in Figure 6.14b has a western flank form ed by
differential compaction over a hanging-wall block and an eastern limb produced
by normal slip on a growth fault. The syn-sedirnenta ry faul ti ng \l.:as probably
triggered by reactivation of an earlier basement fracture (see model in Fig. 6.17).
Alternatively, this feature could be also interpreted as an inversion structure.
H owever, considering that: (1) che amplitude of the syncline over the hanging-
wall diminishes upwards and is minimum at the level of m aximum rollover, (2)
the syncline dies out vertically and laterally very rapidily, and (3) the correlation
of re flections and drags across the fau lt do not support reverse slip. it is very

Chapter 6 Page 294

 Tectonic F.volution of Brazilian £qua1orial Cominental Margin Basins

>-
~ .
:r::
:J

~
. '!:
f
0
~~
-2 >-
e
~

..
~ .. 0. t> - u
~
.5
Q Eo
go ~
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~
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•
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.
-----.... -----.__ ~
~ ~'~ 0
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ell
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«'!
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~:

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Figun~ 6.JS 4 Structural framework map of the Ilha Nova Graben.

Chapter 6 Page 295

g Figure 6.16 - .6ouguer gravity lie[d oJ the southern regio.q of the Gu.rupi Graben System. See
~ caption of Fig. 3.30 for colour scale and sou.rce. Note gravity fow (blue} to the WSW of S'*o Lui~.
....
~
0..
~
~
tv
~
 Tectonic £vo!111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

difficulty to justify the inversion interpretation.

+ + + + +
+ + + + +
+ + +
+ + ..L
+ + + r+ +

fawlling

c:o mpaclto11
/

Figure 6.17 • Model suggested for the formation of hanging-wall anticline due to interaction between
differential compaction and fault reactivation. Compare with seismic ·data in Fig. 6.14b/c.

Aranha et al.(1989) have described a basement high (called "Curupu High")

separating the Ilha Nova and Sao Luis Grabens. The seismic data available
allowed to identify this feature as being formed by localised footwall uplift of a
tilted block. The structure probably results from erosion of the apex of a
basement block (Fig. 6.14a).

6.5 THE FERRER-URBANO SANTOS ARCH

The Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch is a major basement structure of northern

Brazi l. It has been defined in at least three different ways which do not

Chapter 6 Page 297

 Tec1onic £\'C>ftllion of Brazifian Eq11a1orial Con1inen1al Margin Basins

necessarily coincide in space. The original definition is based in gravity surveys

(e.g. Linsser & Castro, 1963). In this early proposition the arch was conceived by
the alignment of positive Bouguer anomalies that surround the Gurupi Graben
System and the Barreirinhas Basin to the south.

A second definition was proposed by Rezende & Pamplona (1970) in which

the western segment of the arch would cross the centre of the Sao Luis Graben.
This idea was based on the assumption that the erosional limit of the Palaeozoic
rocks should remain to the south of the arch. A necessary consequence of this
view is that this graben could not have developed simultaneously with the other
grahens of the system. This idea cannot be accepted since all these basins share
coeval and interconnected sedimentary systems.

A third idea is based on surface geology and seismic data and shared by
more recent works (e.g. Campos & Lima, 1987). This later proposal Jinks the
hinge line of basement anticlines imaged by seismic profiles and ties known
basement inliers along the southern border of the basins. In this view, the hinge
line is drawn over the Sobradinho Platform, through the Bacaba and Rosario
Highs and reaches the southern basement inlier of the G~rupi River region
across the southern border of the Sao Luis Basin. Figure 6.18 shows the three
alternatives for the location of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch.

It seems reasonable the idea that the initial linear uplift which generated the
arch took place during Neocomian times. Rocks of this·age are not recorded on
either side of the arch. The fact that the present day hinge line of the arch
crosscuts the erosional limit of the Palaeozoic rocks is explained here by
considering the arch as a dynamic feature (Fig. 6.19). The subsurface data used
to construct the model in Figure 6.19 indicates that the axis of uplift in the Sao
Lufs Basin area has migrated to the south with time. It may well be considered
as the outcome of three distinct tectonic episodes: (1) Neocomian uplift; (2)
Aptian regional subsidence and (3) Late Cretaceous differential subsidence.

Chapter 6 Page 298

 ·.
..
. l~~:... Tectonic £volu1ion of Brazilian Equmorial Continental Margin Basins

EQUATORIAL ATt.ANnC OCEAN

111\a Nova graben BarrelrtnhM basin

ParTUilba basin

Figure 6.18 ·Proposals for the location -0fthe Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch. (1) Linser & Castro, 1963;
(2)Rezende & Pamplona, 1970; (3) Campos & Lima, 1987.

The initial uplift caused erosion of older sediments and basement rocks. The
Palaeozoic rocks subcropping today at the northern flank of the arch were
locate d to the south of it in the Early Cretaceous. The mechanism under which
this initial uplift took place is not yet cle arly understood. A number of autho.rs
inspired by R abinowitz & LaBrecque (1979) have invoked regional N-S
compressi o n ca used by the kinematics of the Neocomian opening of the South
Atlantic. This idea is however, strongly criticised by Caputo (1988). It remains an
unanswered question. H owever, based on the assumption that the South
American and African plates did not behave as undeformable rigid plates (as
discussed in Chapter 3), it is highly unlikely that significant compressive stress
field had been generated at such distance from the South Atlantic spreading
centre. The lack of conclusive evidence favouring the proposed shortening event
is another major problem for the acceptance of this later hypothesis. Thus, the
predictions made by Rabinowitz & LaBrecque (1979) for the Equatorial Atlantic
evolution seem not be confirmed by the data a vailable.

Chapter 6 Page 299

 Tecronic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch

s N
Palaeozoic
+ + + + ~ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +

~eocomlan

Aptian
+ + +
+ + + j+ + +
+ + + + +
++
+ + + + + ~++ +
+ + +
reglonar sag

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Sio
, + + + Lui$ baaln
+ + + + + AJblan
+ + +
• , +

~-----1
1.....

arch migration

Figure 6.19 - Tectonic evolution of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch. Note s-0uthward migration of the
uplift axis.

Uplift rates for the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch have not been estimated yet,
but a few thousand metres of rocks are suspected to have been removed. Within
the basement inliers, possible Late Proterozo ic thrust zo nes are correlated with
sub-vertical shear zones which may support the idea of massive uplift and
associated e rosion (see section 7.2.1 ).

l
Chapter 6 Page 300
 Tec1onic £1•ol11tion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basim

Following the major erosional event, subsidence commenced in the Aptian.

The Cod6-Grajau Sequence is the earliest manifestation of tectonic subsidence.
The :subsidence was regional and variable: moderate in the southern Cod6 (see
next section) and Pinheiro Basins and relatively rapid in the Bragan~a-Vis.eu,
Ilha Nova and Maraca~ume Grabens.

During the Albian the subsidence of the Gurupi Graben System was
substantial. The loading of the sedimentary overburden to the north-northeast
resulted in migration of the arch axis to the south in a mode similar to
peripheral bulge migration by flexure of a loaded lithosphe re (e.g. Dewey, 1982).

6.6 THE coo6 BASIN

The area of occurrence of the Cod6-Grajau Sequence extends beyond the

bounds of tl1e area of the Gurupi Graben Syste m and Barreirinhas Basin. The
region occupied by this unit is informally called the OxJO Basin. It stretches for
some 170,000 km 2 in the Brazilian estates of Maranhao a nd Para. The external
g~ometT)' of the Cod6 Basin, as considered here, is semi-circular and closely
corresponds to the shape of the "Maranhao epicontinental basin" of Rezende &
Pamplona ( 1970). The basin envisaged here differs from that of Rezende &
Pamplona in that it includes the occurrence of the sequ ence in the Bragarn;a-
Viseu Graben. This Aptian (Late Aptian?) intracratonic basin has been studied
in detail since it contains potential sources of hydrocarbons (Rezende &
Pamplona, 1970; Carneiro & Juca, 1977; Fernandes & Piazza, 1978) and
potential ore deposits (Calderaro, 1988). More significantly, however, the Cod6-
Grajau Sequence is representative of early tectonic processes of basin· formation.

The Cod6 Basin overlies Triassic-Jurassic and Palaeozoic rocks of the

Parnafba Basin and regionally deeps gently to the north. Figure 6.20 shows a
geological summary of the basin. With the exception of the Bragan~-Viseu,
Maraca~ume and Ilha Nova Grabens, the thickness of the Cod6-G rajau Sequence

Chapter 6 Page 301

 ~beoln
A
:1 I -·
llha de 1-2
N

Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch . ..

"
6
(3)
\ I I I6
SAO LUiS BASIN

IZ-1 SL-1 PM-1 CG-1 C&-2 RP-1

B o o o o o o B'

of ~ I I Hapecu~Sequence- ~ I I ..... _I to•m

;; - -
-- ---- ---- ---------- -
1
Palaeozolc
-- ---- -
---- --
..-+++++'
;::----.__
1

2 (b)
PARNAfBA BASIN
---- ---- ,.. +
+++
+
'+.++++++
++++++++.
+ + + +
+++
+ + + + """:F --.....- + + +
+++++++
+++
Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch
+++
+ + + 2
------ + + + +
/ .,. + + + + .. + +

48° 46° 44°

48° 42° o•

:i•
Figure 6.20 • Geological summary of the Cod6 Basin.

(a) N-S regional cross-section. Vertival exaggeration = 8

(b)
(mod. from Campos & Lima, 1987).

NE-SW well correlation cross-section. Vertical exaggeration=35

(mod. from Rezende & Pamplona, 1968).
-t
0
ff ••
+
+
+
(c) Loca~ion map. + +
PARt~A(BA BASIN '+ +
+ + +
... + •
+ +
+ + t
(d) Isopach map of the Cod6-Grajau Sequence (based on Lima, 1987 + +

.and Calderaro, 1988). 10•

+~""'- - / - +
+ + + (C) 100km (d) 6"
+ +
+

Chapter 6 Page 302

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

does not exceed 300 m and exhibits a regular facies distribution. Its occurrence
in the Barreirinhas and Ilha Nova Graben is still uncertain but is inferred from
geochemical evidence (see Chapter 4). Due its extreme regularity and broad
area of occurrence the l~thospheric process which might have been responsible
for the basin formation must be deep-seated. Extension of the upper crust as
primary mechanism can be invoked only in the areas excepted above. Thus, it
seems clear that during the Aptian, two basin forming processes were active.
One had a long wavelength and was responsible for a slow regional subsidence
with no major upper crust faulting. It meets many aspects of a thermally induced
mechanism. The second was characterized by localised faulting, subsidence and
heterogeneous stretching. These basin-forming processes will be evaluated in
Chapter 9.

6.7 GEOMETRY OF THE GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM

A major result of the analyses performed for individual basins along the
Gurupi Graben System reported in this chapter, is the establishment of the
overall geometry of the system. This, as proposed here, is schematically
represented in Figure 6.21. The main aspect to be considered is the alternation
of polarity along strike in a mode similar to the African Rift Systems (e.g.
Fairhead, 1988a and l 988b; Morley et al., 1990).

The relationship of the Gurupi Graben System with the offshore basins \\ill
be examined in Chapter 8, where will be seen the mechanical link between the
upper crust deformation implied by the development of th e graben system with
thermo-mechanical processes taking place at the transform plate margin.

Chapter 6 Page 303

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

N
EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC OCEAN

100 km

+ +
+ + +
-----c:::=-- + +
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
-
+ + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + -

Figure 6.21 - Geometry of the Gurupi Graben System. Extension was transferred between half-
grabens by transfer zones oriented NE-SW (hachures). Dots outline major sedimentary depocentres.

6.8 CONCLUSIONS

(1) The seismic, borehole and gravity data sets examined, characterize a Middle
Cretaceous extensional reactivation of Late Proterozoic structures which
produced the Gurupi Graben Syste m.

(2) Gravity models support the interpretation of southwest-dipping

intrabasement seismic reflections compatible with Late Precambrian thrust
zones.

(3) The polarity reversal of sedimentary depocentres detected along the graben
syste m is achieved by transfer zones which a re related to the inherited structural
gram.

I (4) The overall shape of the graben system is that of alternating half-grabens.

l
Chapter 6 Page 30-I
 Tectonic Evot111io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinemal Margin Basins

(5) The fault geometries yield 9-16% (4-9Km) of upper crust extension for the
Aptian-Albian along a predominantly NE-SW direction.

(6) As indicated by the seismic data and the sedimentary filling, the basins have
a nil syn-tectonic/post-tectonic thicknesses ratio as a consequence of very little
extension but significant syn-rift thickness.

(7) The extension of the upper crust in the Gurupi Graben System was not
accompanied by thermal perturbations at the base of the crust.

(8) Inversion structures, localized uplift and erosion occurred in post-Albian

times.

(9) A three-stage evolutionary tectonic model is proposed for the development

of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch: (a) Neocomian uplift; (b) Aptian regional
subsidence; (c) Late Cretaceous differential subsidence with southward migration
of the arch.

(10) The simultaneous development of the graben system and the Cod6 Sag
Basin implies two concurrent basin-forming processes: (a) a regional thermally
induced deep-seated mechanism and (b) a process involving simple shear to
account for the heterogeneous deformation of the lithosphere.

Chapter 6 Page 305

 CHAPTER 7

BASEMENT CONTROL ON THE DEVELOPMENT.OF

THE COASTAL BASINS OF NORTHERN BRAZiL

7 .1 INTRODUCTION

The main aspect of the research presented in this chapter is the importance
of the basement tectonic iabric for the origin and evolution of the Mesozoic
basins of the Equatorial Atlantic Brazilian Continental Margin.

The relationship between the basement fabric and the basin structures were
studied through four lines of investigation: (1) structural field data collected in
the areas of Precambrian basement exposures; (2) analysis of structural data
extracted from remote sensing images; (3) interpretation of potential field maps
and ( 4) interpretation of reflection seismic data This chapter presents the field
data integrated with information given by fracture density, gravity and magnetic
anomalies maps. The seismic data is more fully examined in early chapters
corresponding to specific basins.

7.2 FIELD 'DATA

During this part of the study only limited field work was performed. This was
due to the fact that Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary rocks rarely outcrop in the
marginal basins and few basement exposures are found surrounding the basins
under study. Three areas were investigated (Fig. 7.J): (I) the Gurupi River
Region, (2) the Rosario High and (3) the Pedra do Sal. Graniie. The first two form

Chapter 7 Page 306

 Tcc1onic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Conrinenrol Margin Ba.sins

a group of basement inliers whose exposure is due to the formation of the

Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch during the Cretaceous. As sh own earlier, this
uplifted linear feature separates the northern marginal basins from the interior
sags of the Brazilian Platform. At Pedra do Sal there is a small shore exposure
at the northwest extreme of the Medio-Coreau Fold Belt (see section 3.2.1).

Figure 7.1 - Simplified geological map of the northern part of the Paroafba Province.
1 = Precambrian basement; 2 =Palaeozoic; 3 =Cretaceous; 4 = Cenozoic (redrawn from DNPM,
1981).

7.2.1 Gurupi River Region

The Gurupi River Region comprises two elongated inlie rs of highly deformed
Precambrian metasedimentary rocks uplifted into Cretaceous and flat-lying
Cenozoic sedi mentary units. The basement outcrops are oriented NW-SE a nd
are crosscut by the Gurupi R iver which runs northwards to the Equatorial
Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 7.2). Th ese rocks show a complex deformation pattern
whicb have been subdivided into several Prccambrian deformation episodes. The
last of these episodes was the Brasiliano orogeny (680-450 Ma ), correlated with
the Pan-African tectonic event, which produced the closure and amalgamation of
Western Gondwanaland. The Bragan~ - Viseu and Sao Luis Basins (see Chapter
6) were developed in the region located between the two belts of exposure. The
map presented in Figure 7.2 summarizes the Prccambrian geo logy of the area. It

Owpcer 7 Page 307

·.

Tecronic Evo/urion of Brazilian Equatorial Conti11enral Margin Basins

is based on published literature and incorporates the field data collected during
this study.

Based on geochronological data (Almeida, 1967) and structural aspects

(Abreu et al., 1980; Abreu & Lesquer, 1985; Abreu, 1989) the Gurupi region has
been divided into two tectonic domains (see Fig. 3.3): (1) the Sao Luis Craton
and (2) the Gurupi Fold Belt. These two tectonic domains are separated by the
Tentugal Shear Zone (Hasui et al., 1984), which is a Late Proterozoic transition
zone between the northeastern cratonic area and the southwestern fold belt. The
Tentugal shear zone itself is a fundamental discontinuity of Brasiliano and
perhaps older thermo-tectonic activation.

Tectono-stratigraphy of the Gurupi River Region

The stratigraphic scheme of the Gurupi River region is complex and still
unclear. Basically, there is (1) a basal Archean gneiss-migmatite complex
(Maraca~ume Complex), (2) two events of acid magmatism (the Lower
Proterozoic Tromaf Formation and a Brasiliano granitic suit), (3) a Proterozoic
series of metasedimentary units (Viseu, Santa Luzia, and Gurupi Formations),
and (4) three Late Protcrozoic-Early Palaeozoic slightly metamorphosed
sedimentary units (Igarape de Areia and Piria Formations and Camiranga
conglomerates). The supracrustal rocks are found preserved within the fold belt
and covering the cratonjc basement to the northeast (Abreu, 1989).

The Sao Luis Craton

The Sao Luis Craton is the stable area for the Brasiliano orogeny. It
comprises basement and a sedimentary cover. The basement is composed mainly
by gneisses, migmatites and granites of Archean ages and highly deformed Lower
Proterozoic metasedimentary rocks generated during early tectonic episodes. The
structural fabric, shown by faults, lineaments and trends of gravity and magnetic
anomalies, is oriented NNW-SSE in the western region and assumes a NE-S\V

Chapter 7 Page 308

 ·.,,
"' .. M
"'
~
z r.......,,,
£~~~~s .r~~1
~ -.;
CJ ~
~ E3
Cl) ..... ID
~ "'
(:] ~

.."'
-- "

·..,

........
...... .

Figure 7.2 - Geological summary of tl1e Gurupi River Region (modified from ONPM, 1981 and
1986; Abreu & Lesqucr, 1985) Left lower inset: (1) Precambrian; (2} Cretaceous; (3) Ceaozoic.
Main map: 1 =Maraca~ume Complex; 2=Sta. Luzia Formation; 3=Tromai Formation;
4=Transamaz~mian granites; S=Cbega Tudo Formation; 6=Gurupi Formation; 7=Viseu
l'ormation; 8= lgarape de Areia Formation; 9= Bras iliano granitoids; 10= Piria Formation.
Stereonet is lower hemisphe re representation of foliation meas urements along traverses of Gurupi
River (Fig. 7 3) and BR.-316.

Chaprer 7 Page 309

 Tectonic Evolwion of Brazilian Eq11arorial Comi11en1al Margin Basins

direction to the northeast (Fig. 7.2).

The Gurupi Fold Belt

The Gurupi Fold Belt is part of a larger chain of Upper Proterozoic-Lower

Palaeozoic thrust-fold belts (see Fig. 3.35). In Africa, they form the Pan-African
Belt which is interpreted as an orogenic belt produced by the collision betwee n
the West African Craton and the Eastern African Continent (Lesquer et. a l.,
1984). In Brazil, these Brasiliano fold belts are seen as result of the convergence
of the Sao Lufs Craton with two other southerly located cratonic masses, the Sao
Fra ncisco and Amazonia n Cratons (Fig. 3.2). The Gurupi Belt, in particular,
stre tches a long the region that separates the Sao Luis and the Amazonian
Cratons. The stratigraphic scheme of the G urupi Fold Belt is poorly understood.
It seems that all the lithologies present in the cratonic area are also represented
in the folded domain. The distinction between the two is that in the fold belt the
basement rocks show geochronological and structural evidence of strong
reworking during the Brasiliano event. The consistently NW-SE oriented
structural fabric is interpreted as refleeting this Late Proterozoic activation.

The Tentugal Shear Zone

T he Tentugal Shear Zone is defined as a zone of high strain separating the

Sao Luis Craton and the G urupi Fold Belt (Fig. 7.2). In this zone, structures
such as mylonitic foliation, folds, normal faults and stdke-slip faults are pre sent
and have a dominant NW-SE direction. The zone, as described by Costa et al.
( l 988), is a left-lateral shear system with about 5 km in thickness which can be
followed fo r tens of kilometres. The enti re Gurupi Fold Belt has been referred
to recently as the "Tentugal Shear Belt" (Abreu, 1989), implying that the entire
area to the south of the major shear zone, has been also suffered shear strain
during the Brasiliano orogenic event. Within this shear belt the NW-SE fabric is
imposed on an earlier NE-SW pattern. The mylonitic foliation in this area is
orie14'tcd N150°-170°E, steeply dipping (60°-80°) towards SSW (Abreu, 1989).

Chapter 7 Page 310

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equororiol Comincntal Margin Basins

Cataclastic folia6ons, associated with steep faults oriented NW-SE were

generated later than the mylonitic foliation. Quartz veins are associated with this
cataclastic event and host significant gold mineralization. The NE-SW fabric has
been shown to be Early Proterozoic or even older, while the NW-SE orienf;he<l
structures are Brasiliano in age.

In order to aid clarification of the architecture of the Precambrian basement

'
two traverses were performed in the Gurupi River region. One field section was
surveyed along the BR-316 road between Capanema and Camiranga. A second
section was made along the Gurupi R iver itself, between Cachoeira Mamuira
and Gurupi. Th e field data acquired is presented .in the cross-sections of figures
7.3 and 7.4 as well as integrated into the geological map of figure 7.2.

Gurupi River Cross-section (Figures 7.3 and 7.4)

T he regional schematic cross-section shown in Figure 7.4 integrates the

available information of the basic structure of the region. It is mostly based on a
traverse along the Gurupi River (Fig. 7.3), on the geologjc map of Figure 7.2
and on seismic interpretation presented i.n Chapter 6. The striking features are a
steep mylonitic foliation and an overall vergence of the belt toward the
northeast. 111c traverse consisted of geologic stations along the river margins
where description of lithology and structures were thE. :-.1ain geologic
observatio ns. Six localities along the traverse are briefly described below and
located in the referred section:

Cachoeira Mamuira - Amphibolitic body with near vertical mylonitic foliation

(N30°W). Q uartz veins concordant with foliation and offse t by vertical fault
planes trending about N60°E evidence late brittle deformation of the
metamorphic fabric.

Ilha Cabana - Short section of metasedimentary rocks of the Gurupi or Igarapc

Chapter 7 Pa~e 3JJ .

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Con1inen1al Margin Basi11S

0
\< (> 0

~
.> 0 "o ·, ·, < ('0,
~(>
<' <'' o• <- <>
'00 (,0 ~ -_'"O ·,<
~ o°>
~
oq
s II (, o (,;' ,...,Cl 4
I I I/ / / / /
~· H

?~~tr1~..!~'/I / ~ f.! / r-l ~ )

.i ·.
[ g..... 3
~tm:ifi/v ,./ ,../
,...,- . ,/ ,/ /,/ / / /,.; ,/ r' l~l
Is~o I~
H: 1: 500, 0 00
2

V: r.o s c ol e
k'/J,!I 1

Figure 73 - Geological cross-section along the Gurupi River. See location in Fig. 7.1. Legend:
I = Gneisses, amphiboHtes a nd migmatites of the Maraca~ ume Complex; 2 = metasedimentary
rocks; 3 =granitoids; 4=unconfirmed Cretaceous sediments.

de Areia Formations. A two metres thick thinning upward sequence can be seen.
It is constituted by two basal layers of well organized metaco nglomerates grading
upwards to me ta-arkoses, schists and phyllites. Other primary sedimentary
structures preserved are cross-bedding and climbing ripples. This sequence is
thought to represent a channel deposit of a fluvial system. The sedimentary
structures are deformed by intense foliation (strike N20°-30°W, dip 50°SW),
elongation of cobbles, fractures and vertical fault planes.

Cachoeira M ~2 uari - Apparently undeformed coarse granite with inclusions of

elliptical bodies of amphibolites (oriented roughly N8°W). Intense fracturing is
the most striking mesoscopic feature. The fracture pattern shows conjugate pairs
of joints and fractures varying in the range N40°- l 60°E.

Cachoeira Cicanta - Granite similar to the previous locality but with indications
of reorientation of crystals with the amphibolitic inclusions.

Cachoeira Algibeira - Set of sparse blocks of granites, gneisses and amphibolites.

Arapiranga - Sequence of green shales, red siltstones and sandstones with

internal cross-bedding. The bedding trends N22°E and dips 40° to the northwest.

Ozapter 7 Page 312

 ~
,.

~
·-·-·· ·-

p Tentugal Shear Zone

"\
) N
p Bragan~a-VJ s eu Basin

2 0 km

-
.

D
+ .J
1 ~A
'//
2
,......_,.,
II
3
~ 4
Q
>§
~ Figure 7.4 - Gurupi ruver regional sketched cross-section. Legend: 1 = basement rocks of the Sao
...... Luis/West African Craton not involved in the Braslliano tectonic event; 2 = Maraca~ume Complex
~ and Tromaf Formation; 3 = metascdimentary rocks; 4 =Cretaceous sediments.
%
c.....
\;.;
 Tee1onic £volution of Bra.ziJian £qua1orial Conti11e111al MaTgin Basins

The sediments are believed to be Cretaceous in age (Itapecuru Formation), but

the precise dating could not be defined by palaeontological analysis.

The region~! cross-section shown in Figure 7.4 integrates the information

provided by: (1) published studies (Abreu et al., 1980; Abreu & Lesquer, 1985;
Costa et al., 1988), (2) previous geolqgical maps (DNPM, 1981; DNPM, 1986),
(3) the Gurupi River traverse, (4) the field section performed along the BR-316
road but not shown here, (5) seismic interpretation of southwest-dipping
intrabasement reflectors and (6) gravity modelling exercises. The results of
seismic interpretation and gravity modelling are reported in Chapter 6. It is
important to emphasize the presence of south-dipping thrust planes and the
ve.rgence of the entire belt toward the Sao Lufs Craton. The deformation front is
thought to intercept the top basement in the offshore region. The Bragan~a­

Viseu Basin was probably formed in response to extensional reactivation of a

possible back-thrust of the Proterozoic fault system. The near vertical attitude of
the Tentugal Shear Zone and the steepness of foliations and thrust planes
probably results from the original structure of the fold belt enhanced by the
Mesozoic uplift and associated erosion.

7 .2.2 Rosario High

The Rosario High is a small Precambrian inlier set between the Cenozoic
cover in the northern part of Parnafba Province. lt is located a few kilometres
south of the town of Sao Luis, the capital city of the Brazilian state of
Maranhao. The high corresponds to the footwall block of the Ilha Nova Graben
which connects the Barreirinhas Basin with the Gurupi Graben System. The
geological map of Figure 7.5 summarizes the field data from the area. The
structural information was collected during this investigation and plotted on a
regional geological map (DNPM, 1986). The exposures consist of gneisses,
amphibolites and migmatites of the Maraca~ume Complex (Archean age).
Pegmatites and quartz veins either follow or crosscut the metamorphic foliation.
Both ductile a nd brittle structures are found in the area (Plate 7.1). Shear zones

Chapter 7 Page 314

 Tectonic £1·0/wion of Brazilian Equato•ial Continental Margin Bruins

with mylonitic foliation are the most prevalent features. The steep south-dipping
mylonitic foliation has a mean orientation of N60°E. Minor folds indicate
vergence of these rocks toward northwest. Kinematic indicators imply a
dominant left-lateral sense of movement for small scale shear zones. Brittle
features such as joints, fractures and faults are also important structural
elements. Fault planes show an average orientation of N37°W. It seems that the
intense and apparently irregular fracture pattern of these rocks might be related
to the Mesozoic uplift that the area has undergone.

7.2.3 Pedra do Sat Granite

The Pedra do Sal is a ~ery small exposure of granitic rock in the northwest
flank of the Medio-Coreau Fold Belt (see Fig. 3.5 and Appendix B). Abreu et al.
(1988) have included it in the Northwest Ceara Shear Belt, which seives as
basement to the Barreirinhas Basin, developed a few kilometres west of the
exposure. The granite outcrop lies on the shoreline about 10 km north of the
town of Parnafba. The outcrop is isolated from other granitic exposures of the
Medio-Coreau Fold Belt by Quaternary and Tertiary flat-lying coastal sands. By
lithological correlation with the nearby dated Chaval Granitoide, a tentative age
of 630 Ma has been assigned to this granite. The Pedra do Sal Granite is
thought, therefore, to he a syn-kinematic igneous body rel ated to the Brasi liano
orogenic event.

Detailed p etrostructural investigations (Gama Jr. et al., 1988) have recently

reported the presence of several localized high angle shear zones crosscutting the
entire body (Fig. 7.6). Associated with these zones are decimetric scale mylonitic
bands and thin branching veins of pseudotachylyte. The steep mylonitic foliation
associated with these zo nes trends chiefly NE-SW (mean N36°E) and dips
toward the northwest. The zones show a dominant dextral sense of displacement.
Other features associated with these mylonite zones are: riedel shears, fracmres
and fault planes (Plate 7.2). Pegmatite veins are crosscut by shear zones and also
appear to fill dilatancy areas along the

Chapter 7 Page 315

 Tecronic Evolution of Brazilian Equa1oriol Contillental Mal]jn Basins

.. ...
,.....
0
.. c:

"
%.
..... z + ~
~·
~ -~ &
c

"'"'
\

...•• 0

--
u

Figure 7.5 ·Geological summary of the Rosario High. Left lower inset: crosses=Precambrian
gneisses; dots = Cretaceous; blank=Cenozoic. Main map: irregular rounded areas outline main
active quarries; dashed pattern indicates trends of metamorphic foliation. Lower hemisphere
stereonets show measurements taken and arrow indicates vergence of s tructun.·s given b~
kinematic indicators.

Chapt<•r 7 Page 316

 Plate 7.1 Mesoscopic s:ructures of gneissic rod<s of the Rosario High.

A- Ductile deformation of a pegmatitic vein coeval with brittle failure of a n

amphibolitic layer.

8 - Minor fold drawn by a pegmatite vein giving NW sense of vergence.

C - S hear band with left-lateral sense of displacemt>nt deforming early

md.amorphic foliation.

D- "Star s tructure" suggesting brittle deformation by hydraulic fracturing.

Chapter 7 Page 317

PL AT E

,,., ,.; ·..

A
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian f:quarorial Comirrenta! Margin Bo.sins

j
:z:

...
....
-
.. -
.....
a:
a>
.....

Figure 7.6 - \.eological s ketch map of the Pedra do Sal Granite (modified from Gama Jr. et a l.,
1988). Left lower inset: dots= Neogene; white= Quaternary. Sense of d isplacement in shear zones
is given hy mesoscopic structures illustrated in Plate 7.2.

Chapter 7 Page 319

 Tecronic £w1lwion of Brazilian £quarorial Continttntol Margin Ba~ins

dextral-slip zones of high strains. The assemblage of mesoscopic features

observed together with the petrographic information led (Gama Jr. et al., 1988)
to the conclusion that the granitic body has undergone progressive deformation
in a bri ttle-ductile environment. This phase is likely to have occurred in later
stages ofemplacement of the igneous body, or during a subsequent tectonic
activation which cannot yet be conclusively docume nted in this area.

Chapter 7 Page 320

 Plat.c 7:2 Ductile, brittlt: and brittle-ductile mcsoscopic s tructures
of the Pedra d o Sal Granite

A- Intercepting brittle shear zones indicating dcxtral sense of displacement.

Complex army of a left-lateral fault cross-culling pegmatite vein late ,.,,

B-
deformed by folding.

C- Infilling of dilatancy zone in a dextral strike-slip fault. lo the top ceutre

riedel shears appear as a not fully developed conjugate s hear zone.

D- Line drawn of C. Ornament highlights dilatancy area.

E- S and C ba nds of a ductile right-handed :;hear zone. Undeformed granite

lies a few centimetres on both sides of the mylooitc zone.

F - Co mplex array of s mall scale shear zones. From top to bottom in the
picture the zone is composed of en Cchelon s hear fractures which branch
out into an Y-shape zone internally deformed. The internal structure is an
a naSlvtOOSing pattern Of sigmoid-shaped Slices of gr.mite bounded by Yer)·
thin shear zones. Black material along the sli p planes are pseudotachylytes.

Chapter 7 Page 321

"

PL. ATE 7.2

Ill ~ D
\
 Tectonio £vol111ion of lJrazilian Equatorial Co111im:n1al Margin Basins

7.3 LINEAMENT DATA EXTRACTED FROM REMOTE SENSING IMAGES

"111 ignoriflg lineaments until faulting hcs been pro,•ed,onc is

de11yi11g 011esclfa \•ast p()[enrial sourc~ of infom1arion co11ceming
f11ndnme111nl cruslal pauerns "-'hich wollld remain grosstv
i11complc1c k'frho1u 1hc help of lincamcms. '." Brock ·

4! Li neament 1 data extracted from remote sensing images can be useful

I

sources of structural information. In this study, Landsat, aerial photographs and

radar images were used as sources. For the purpose of this study, lineaments
were interpreted from two Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) images
(1:1,000,000 scale) (Fig. 7.9),. Fortes (1988, 1989) provided further unpublished
linea me nt maps derived from radar images (scale 1:100,000) (Fig. 7.7) and aerial
photographs (Fig. 7.10). Two areas were examined: (1) Guru.pi River region and
(2) Parnafba area.

7.3.1 Fracture Pattern of the Gurupi River Region

The lineament map of Figure 7.7 (Fortes., 1989) shows the fracture pattern of
the Gurupi River region. Figure 7.8 is a display of lineaments from Figure 7.7
separated into the major azimuthal sets. It is clear that two major families (NE-
SW a nd NW-SE ) are predominant. As shown by rose diagrams in Figure 7.8, the
average directions are N53°E and K-t2°W. Standard devia tions of 9.0 and 9.8 as
well as standard errors of only 0.4 and 0.5 give high sta tistical confidence to the
data set. Both fracture systems are present in the basement exposures and over
the basins. The northeast tre nding family is uniformly distributed throughout the
region. The se t of northv.;esterly orie nted li neaments is slightly less well
distributed than the NE set and tends to be better represented over the
basement exposures. In this area, both families of lineaments correlate ve ry
close ly with the steep structures seen in the field (compare Figs. 7.2 and 7.8).
After reali sing that these lineame nts: (I) arc not processing artifacts of the

7The term lineament as used in this thesis conforms to the de fin itions by O 'Leary et al. (1976) and
Hobh~ et al. (1976).

O iapter 7 Page 323

 !

Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Il

Figure 7.7 - Lineament map or the Gurupi River Region (redrawn from Fortes, 1989). Shades
indicate Precambrian basement inliers.

images; (2) follow pre-existing fabrics; (3) can be traced across basement-cover
boundaries and that ( 4) they affect rocks of Tertiary and Quaternary ages, a
necessary conclusion is that they represent a form of brittle reaction to late
tectonic reactivation of the region. The assignment of two intersecting lineament
systems to a discrete conjugate pair of shear fractures resulting from a particular
stress field, is a common procedure (e.g. Ball, 1980; Rowan & Wetlaufer, 1981;
Miranda et al., 1986). The lack of apparent displacemc~.: of lineaments and the
acute angles that they generally form -typically 30°to 60°-, as a lso predicted by
the Coulomb-Andersonian criteria, have been invoked to suggest that the
lineament systems interacted in a conjugate fashion. In the G urupi River data set
however, the high angle intersection of the lineament sets preclude such
conclusion. The fracture pattern is thus, more likely to reveal late reactivation of
the basement fabric than newly formed fractures. Surely, so me nev..• minor
fractures may be formed, but they will be co ntrolled by basement directions.

Chapter 7 Page 324

 Tec;1onic £vo/ll(io11 of 8ra!ilion Equa101iol Continenwl Margin Basins

n 436
x 53.eo
s 9.00
e 5:>. 1 o
R 0. 9'9
c.v. :::: 0.01

n 290
I x 317.8°

I s
G
R
9.8°
317.8°
0.99
c. 'V. ::: 0 . 01

I
I Figure 7.8 • Azimuthal sets of lineaments of the Gurupi River Region sho\\n in fig. 7.7. Rost·
diagrams indicate mean values.

\
7 .3.2 Fracture Pattern of the Parnalba Area

The fracture system of the Parnafb a area, as reveal ed by Landsat images

interpreted during this investigation. can be seen in the lineament map of Figure
7.9. The lineame nt systems were annotated from two Landsat MSS band 4 and
band 7 images. The fe atures shown include topographic and tonal lineaments.
Two types of features are p resent on this ma p. Curvilineaments in the eastern
part of the area are representative of structural features of the Medio-Coreau
Fold Belt. Straight lines represent major linear geomorphic discontinuities. The

Chapter 7 Page 325

 Tectonic Evolurton of Brazilian £qua1orial Continemal Margin Basins

dominant set of straight linea ments is oriented NE-SW with minor occurrence of
... ~ ...
E-W and NW-SE sets. Similarly as in the Gurupi region, the NE directed set of
fractures appears to affect pervasively the e ntire area, involving the Precambrian
basement and younger sedimentary rocks.

.,. ..

Figure 7.9 - Lineament map of the Parna lba area. Linea ment da ta were extracted from two
Landsat MSS band 4 and band 7 images.

Using lineament data extracted from radar images, Miranda et al. (1986)
made a structu ral analysis of this region. Many conjugate pairs of lineaments
were separated and assigned to specific tectonic events, dated mostly within th e
Phanerozoic. The field work carried out by the same authors uncovered however,
a major limitation of the technique, which is the inadequacy of the radar images
to reveal structu res orier#ted in a E-W direction. Indeed, the most pervasive
structures identified in the field were sets of joints trending N87°W and dipping
82°SW (F.P.Miranda, 1986 pers. comm.). Fortes (1988) working with
photogeological interpreta tion of the same area, has produced the map shmvn in

Chapter 7 Page 326

 Tcc1onic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Rosins

Figure 7.10. In this map, many sets ·of lineaments are present, including an E-W
striking fracture system. Shear zones in the base ment also show E-\V striking
]

l
i
segments (see Fig. 7.6). This E-W system is interpreted as having been formed
by strike-slip faulting during the initiai development of the Barreirinhas Basin as
strongly suggested by the aeromagnetic data set analyzed below as well as
i
I structural and stratigraphic considerations discussed in Chapte r 4.

l
1
I
H

~ PEORA DO SAL

'
' I 0 klll

'~ l ; - ~
. ~" (,

' ' '\,

Figure 7.10 - Photogeological lineament map of the Parnaiba area (after Fortes, 1988).

7.4 INTERPRETATION OF AEROMAGNETIC DATA

Total intensity magnetic field maps covering parts of the offshore and
onshore northern continental margin of Brazil are shown in Figures 3.28 and
7.1 L The surveyed areas lie mostly offshore with a narrow land coverage (Fig.
3.28), a nd inland (Fig. 7.11). T he overall pattern of the magnetic anomalies
shown in Figures 3.28 and 3.29 were discussed in Chapter 3 (section 3.4.5). H ere
the interrelationship of these two magnetic data sets will be interpreted in
associatio n with field (section 7.2) and remote sensing data (section 7.3).

Chapter 7 Page _;:-

Figure 7.11 • Total intensity magnetic fieJd map of the northern part of the Pamalba Province
(source: Petrobras). See text for reference to numbers and Fig. 7.12 for an interpretative line
drawing.

Chapter 7 Page 328

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

The simplified aeromagnetic anomaly map in Figure 3.29 shows, between

parallels 2°and I 0 S, the seaward continuation of the NE-SW trend of lineaments
identified in the Gurupi River region (Fig. 7.2). The dense display of magnetic
anomaly axes in the nearshore area between latitudes 45° and 47° are associated
with moderate subsidence of the top of the magnetic basement. This pattern
denotes very shallow basement and its orientation matches the structural fabric
of the Gurupi River region. It is interesting to emphasize that, as mentioned
earlier (section 3.3.4},. this same relationship between magnetic field and
basement grain has been documented in offshore south Liberia, West Africa
(Behrendt et al.,1974). Toward the shelf edge region, the anomaly axes tend to
assume an E-W orientation which is related to the extension of the equatorial
fracture zones toward the continental margin. They show, therefore, the
magnetic image of the deformation that took place at the border of the South
America continental crust during the Mesozcic fragmentation.

The aeromagnetic map presented in Figure 7.11 shows the magnetic field in
the onshore region of the central portion of the Equatorial Brazilian Continental
Margin (northern part of the Parnafba structural province of Almeida et al.,
1981). Figure 7.12 is a simplified tectonic sketch map of the same
area integrating magnetic and other sources of data. The area includes the
northern part of the Parnafba intracratonic basin, the emerged region of the
Barreirinhas Basin and the southeastern part of the Gurupi Graben System (Sao
Lufs Graben). The magnetic map can be divided into two broad provinces. The
western province is characterized by long wavelength and generally low
amplitude anomalies. It covers parts of the Sao Lufs Graben, to the north and
Parnaiba Basin, to the south. The eastern province is dominated by high
frequency, high amplitude anomalies. In this latter region, very high. frequency
signatures are likely to be caused by basic dikes and sills, whereas elongated very
high amplitude anomalies correlate very well with known basement fabrics. The
very long wavelength field of negative magnetic anomalies in the northeastern
part of the map indicates the location of the emerged area of the Barreirinhas
Basin. Basically, these two provinces reflect the westwards increase in depth to

Chapter 7 Pag..· 329

 Tccionic £1·0/urion of Brazilian Equatorial Continmtal Margin Basins

z ~ 0
0

~ c
0 ·-
..c ..
c 0
·-.. ""
.· ....
..
"
Ill

·~
<et

-..
c

\
0

=.
II ...-

~~I
0

0
..
c:

\ \ ~

I \
I
\\
Figure 7.12 - Simplified tectonic sketch map of the northern part of the Parnaiba Province. Main
source of data are the magnetic map of Fig. 7.11 and general s tructural data on the marginal
basins.

Chapter 7 Page 330

l
i'
1
Teeton;c £.,o/u:ion of Bra1ilia11 £q11aton'a/ Concinenta/ Margin Basins

magnetic basement and a dominant NE-SW oriented tectonic fabr1c.

In the following description some individual very high amplitude anomalies

are numbered in order to make easy their identification in the map of Figure
7.11.
Anomaly (1): The Precambrian inlier of the Rosario High is shown as a
pronounced E -W oriented positive anomaly. This obseivation fits very well with
field data (Fig 7.5).
Anomaly (2): An important anomaly striking N60°E marks the easte rn limit of
the Barre irinhas Basin. It outlines the Parnaiba shallow basement platform.
Locate d in this platform is the Ped ra do Sal Granite exposure (see section 7.2.2).
The magnetic field again matches the field o bse rva tio n (Fig. 7.6).
Anomaly (3): This is another important anomaly present in this map. It is also
oriented NE-SW a nd lies in the western part of the Sobradinho Platform. Th is
particular anomaly is informally termed the "Bacaba High". A bor~hole drilled in
this area reached gneissic basement at only 471 m depth (Cordani et al., 1984).
Anomaly (4): NE-SW directed anomaly. It ca n be linked to anomaly 2 by a dear
deflection of orientation in a zone (labelled 5 in Fig. 7.11) limited by sharp
magne tic field discontinuities striking N42°-35°W (6 and 7 in Fig. 7.11). As seen
in Chapter 4, the north ern disco nti nuity is the magnetic expressio n of the
Sobradinho Fault zone which delimits the Albian sedimentatio n of the
Barreirinhas Basin to the south. The minimum finite displacement of the
magnetic anomalies across this magnetically image d shear zone is roughly 50 km.
Alternatively, however, anomaly 2 can also be correlated with anomaly 3. In this
case, the finite displacement along the Sobradinho Fault zone may be about 120
km. Whatever is the most appropriate correlation, the dextral sense of
displacement is indicated by bending of isogam curves withi n the shear zone.

I
j

I
Owpcer 7 Page .BJ
:.. .
T~aonic E1·olu1ion of Brazilian £q11at0rial Continental Margin Basins

7.5 ROLE OF PRECAMBRIAN STRUCTURES ON THE MESOZOIC

TECTONICS OF NORTHERN BRAZIL

Based on the regional observations represented in the cross-section of Figure

7.4 and on the evidence for Mesozoic reactivation of the ·Precambrian thrust
planes in the Gurupi Fold Belt, seen in the seismic sections presented earlier
(section 62.3), it seems likely that the origin and evolution of the basins were
closely related to the inherited basement structures. Th e next few sections
examine some of these relationships.

7.5.1 The Influence of Basement Structures in the Origin of the

Gurupi Graben System

As seen earlier (sections 7.2.1 and 7.3.1), the two dominant sets of structures
interpreted from the lineament data set are well represented in the Precambrian
basement of the Gurupi River region and in the Bragan~a-Viseu and Sao Lufs
Basins. The NW-SE trenoing basement structures which are interpreted as thrus ~

or backthrust planes with net transport direction to the northeast (section 6.2.6).
were reactivated during the Cretaceous tectonic episode. These structures were
conveniently oriented to react to the NE-SW extension direction prevailing
during the transtensional shearing between the African and the South America
plates (see Chapter 9). Thus, these onshore grabens of north Brazil were
generated as intracontinental rifts as a result of tensional forces being applied to
these pre-existing structures. Hence, the NW-SE Precambrian features were
responsible for the overall structural geometry of the basins. The reversal of
sedimentary depocentre polarity shown to occur in the Bragan~a-Viseu Graben i~

clearly related to the NE-SW basement fabric. These basement structures

produced transfer or accommodatio n zones in a fashion similar to the structural
style described for the East African Rift System (e.g. Rosendahl, ·1987).

l
Chapter 7 Page 33:
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Comin~ntal Margin Basins

Braganya-Viseu basin

~
j
Sao Luis basin

I
I

N
A Prt:cambrion
fabr ic

Figure 7.13 - Model for basement control on the origin and deformation of the Bragan~a-Viseu
and Sao Luis Basins. The inherited Precambrian fabric influenced the location of the grabens.
Late dextral shear deformation or the southeast Sao Luis Basin produced structures which are
partially compatible with reactivation or the older fabric.

the dominant feature, as demonstrated in Chapter 4. The belt of strike-slip

features of the Pinheiro Sub-basin is in fact aligned with the southern part of the
Barreirinhas Basin through the Ilha Nova Graben which also shows evidence of

I
Ccnomanian strike-slip deformation. These areas thus form a belt of late strike-
slip deformation. The Urbano Santos-Ferrer Arch might have bee n pa rtially

Chapter 7 Page 33.J

 Tectonic £,·ofurior. of Brazilian Equaiorial Continerual Margin Basins

produced by transpressional effects of this deforming episode, later amplified by

flexural bulging of the lithosphere during further devetopment of the continental
margin basins.

7.5.4 Accommodation of Large Basement Displacement in the

t
Barreirinhas Basin

t
J
f One of the puzzling problems related to the origin of transform basins is how
la rge strike-slip basement displacements are accommodated by the lithosphere.
In the case of the Barreirinhas Basin, for instance, a finite displacement of 50 or
120 km along the Sobradinho Fault dies oµt laterally in a relatively short
dista nce frnm the basin border. Nevertheless, no broad zone of compressional
deformation to the east is observed, as might be expected. This question can be
reasonably explained by observing the tectonic sketch map of Figure 7.14. It is

·,
·-.
PltraoM•r.nhio besln ·····....
...

( (A I A 1. F.

-
I OMAH(.H ( F. Z .

tOO ~-

Figure 7.14 - Suggestion for accommodation of large basement displacement of the Barreirinhas
Basin. Thick arrows indicate net mass transport. Lateral offset of the Sobradinho Fault zone is
accommodated by distributed deformation in the Pamaiba area through dextral slip along
multiple NE-SW trending fault planes.

suggested that the large displacement of the Sobradinho F a ult zone was
absorbed by a zone o f distributed dextral lateral-slip faulting along the set of
NE-SW directed faults and shear zones mapped in the Med io-Coreau Fold Belr.

Chapter 7 Page 335.

 Tectonic £\'olurio" of Bra:dlian Equat?rial Conrinenral Margin Basins

The fault displacement was thus graduaily transferred to the offshore region and
accommodated in the fracture system of the Romanche Fracture Zone. Through
time, the displacement has moved eastward and might be partially responsible
for the 900 km present-day shift of spreading centres observed in either sides of:
the oceanic transform fault zone.
i

t
\ 7 .6 CONCLUSIONS

(1) The dominant NE-SW oriented structural fabric of the central region of the
Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin is supported by fi.eld
observations, lineament data extracted from remote sensing images of diverse
nature and anomaly patterns of the magnetic field.

(2) Steep shear zones observed in the field are correlated with very. high
amplitude and short wavelength anomalies of the magnetic field .

. (3) Th e lineament patterns observed in the coastal area of North Brazil are

I related to intraplate and plate marginal reactivation of pre-existing Precambrian

I I
structures during later tectonic events.

l (4) The basement fabric of the pre-Mesozoic continental crust of Northeast

Brazil controls the origin, localization and architecture of the Bragan~a-Viseu

and Sao Luis Basins.

(5) The large dextral displacement observed in the. ~; obradinho Fault zone at
the southern part of the Barreirinhas Basin was probably transferred to the
offshore area through a set of NE-SW pre-existing discontinuities. It was
accommodated by the Romanche Fracture Zone with no need of massive
shortening strains of the continental lithosphere.

1I
Chapler 7 Page 336

J
 PART Ill

INTERPRETATIONS

·A ND

CONCLUSIONS
1,~·
~.
;t?.
..... CHAPTER 8

EVALUATION OF BASIN MODELS

"Science arises from t~ di.srow:ry of identity

amid div~ty" W. S. }MJ'4.'S 1835-188?

8.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter briefly reviews the main processes responsible for subsidence
and sedimentary basin formation in continental extension and transform tectonic
regimes. This discussion, when applied to the Equ~torial Atlantic and its margins
will help to define models for mechanical deformation which associated with
their thermal consequences must be able to explain the structural development
of the basins studied in chapters 4 to 6.

8.2 BASIN-FORMING MECHANISMS IN EXTENSIONAL AREAS

During the last two decades a number of basin-forming mechanisms and

models have been proposed to account for many geological and geophysical
observations made in sedimentary basins. Reviews may be found in Middleton
( 1984 ), Sclater & Celerier ( 1987) and Burrus ( 1989). Collections of significant
contributions to the· topic were presented in Kent et al. (1982), Coward et al.
(1987), Beaumont & Tankard (1987), Price (1989) and Tankard & Balkwill
(1989).

Basically, there are three fundam ental physical processes which on their own,
or in various degrees of inte raction, are thought to account for most of the initial
subsidence in extensional provinces (syn-rift subsidence): (1) isostatic
compensation of mass cha nges in the lower crust or lithospheric mantle; (2)
stress relaxation induced by an active heat source (active rifting) and (3)

Chapter 8 Page 338

 Tectonic Evotunon of /)rorilian Equmorial Continental Margin Ba.sins

lithospheric streLcbing (passive riftjng). Long term viscoelastic relaxation (e.g.

Beaumont, 1978; Fjeldskaar & Pallesen, 1989) and elastic response to flexu ral
loading o[ a cooling lithosphere (e.g. Watts, 1982) are processes which may
become more important at post-rift stages of basin development. After
stretching, in general, the effective elastic thickness of an extended lithosphere is
so thin (Te:::::5 km, after Kusznir & Egan, 1989) that it reacts locally to imposed
loads in an Airy isostasy mode (Watts, 1982; Watts et al., 1982). During ri.fting, it
has yet to be demonstrated that the more complex flexural models improve
significantly the match of the observations (Sclater & Celerier, 1987). After
rifting, the strength of the lithosphere increases during the thermal subsidence
phase of basin development because the effective elastic thickness changes due
to the mechanical behaviour of geological structures (Coward, M.P., pers.
comm.).

The ultimate goal of this research is to provide a geodynamic and tectonic

scenario for the early development of the Equatorial Atlantic, therefore, the
flexural models of subsidence will not be discussed here. The following sections
summarise main ideas of the three basic basin-initiation processes inwcated
above.

8.2.1 Mass Change (Gravity Driven) Models

Mineralogic pbase transi tion (greenschist/arnphibolite or basalt/eclogite) in

the lower crust has long been proposed as primary cause of subsidence in
sedimentary basins (e.g. Falvey, 1974; H axby et a l., 1976). T his idea, however, in
the absence of conclusive evidence, has beeo partially abandoned and only
recently reconsidered (Falvey & Mutter, 1981; Falvey & Middleton, 1981;
Middleton, 1984; Burrus, 1989; Artyshkov & Baer, 1989; Bois & ECORS
scientific party, 1990).

The advent of deep seismic profiJes has lent growing support to the notion
that undcrplating of astbenospberic material, below and within the lower

01opter 8 Page 339

 Tectonic £,.o/u1ion of Brazilian Equ.Jrorial Continental Margin Basill.s

continental crust, is an acti"'.e process in extensional areas (see section 5.6.4 ).

The enrichment of the lower crust with large amounts of material of basic
composition may justify, after metamorphic reactions, a significant density
change required for substantial subsidence. The subsidence would result from
extensive metamorphic transformation of sill: and dyke complexes. This
subsidence mechanism may act in combination with the thermal reequilibration
effect of stretching models during thermal subsidence.

Some studies have considered the possibility of massive continental

underplating of melts. Underplating may be manifested on continental margins
that are thought to be underlain by thick basalt layers with a surface expression
involving seawards dipping reflector sequences seen on seismic reflection profiles
(Mutter, 1988; Mutter et al., 1988; White, 1989), as well as in areas of interior
continental extension (e.g. Gans, 1987). 111e magmatic inflation of the
lithosphere, produced by adiabatic decompression of the asthenosp~eric mantle
under extension (Foucher et al., 1982; McKenzie & Bickle, 1988; Latin et al.,
1990) would be a convenient source of material susceptible to later phase
changes. This would occur because basalts and gabbros are unstable at the lo.wer
crustal pressures and temperatures. Thus, gravity driven subsidence caused by
phase changes at the lower crust may well represent a component of the total
tectonic subsidence observed in some sedimentary basins.

8.2.2 Active Thinning (Thermal Driven) Models

This class of basin-forming process involves, in general, the following

sequence of events: thermal doming, crustal thinning by superficial erosion and
active rifting 1 on the top of a thermally expanded lithosphere, and finally
subsidence below sea level due to thermal contraction (Sleep, 1971; Fleitout et
al., 1986).

In recent years, a number of papers have proposed that active upwelling of

1Thc terms active and passive nfti11g are. used here in the sense of Seng6r & Burke (1978).

Chapter 8 Page 34()

 Tectonic Evolutio" of Brazilian Equatorial O>nzi~nJaJ Margin Basins

the asthenosphere may play an important role in rifting (e.g. Houseman &
England, 1986; Steckler, 1985; Moretti & Froidevaux, 1986). Partial melting due
to convection of the upper mantle triggered by lateral temperature contrasts
(Mutter et al., 1988) and additional thermal anomaly (Spohn & Schubert, 1982)
are thought to contribute to the build up of volcanic passive margins _(e.g. North
Atlantic margin of Greenland and Northwest Europe) and of continental rifts
with associated high heat flow and extensive magmatism such as the East African
and the Baikal Rift Systems.

Volcanic continental margins have also been suggested to be produced by

mantle plume above abnormally hot mantle (e.g. White & McKenzie, 1990). In
this case however, thermal doming follows stretching and magmatism is a passive
response to rifting.

In contrast to subsidence that is a consequence of active asthenosr:heric

upwelling, Middleton (1989) has proposed a model which contemplates
downwelling of mantle material as the driving mechanism for subsidence of sag
basins. In this model, an initial phase of active and instantaneous subsidence
(surface deflection of the descending plume), with no extension, is followed by
thermal subsidence due to contraction of a cooling lithosphere. The process
finishes with a phase of uplift during return of the lithosphere to thermal
stabilization.

8.2.3 lithospheric Stretching (Stress Driven} Models

Lithospheric stretching mechanisms have become very popular following the

elaboration of a simple one-dimensional numerical model for uniform extension
of the lithosphere (McKenzie, 1978).

Uniform Extension

I
I
The basic idea behind the mechanism proposed by McKenzie (1978) was

Chapter 8 Page 341

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial O>Minl!ntal Margin Basins

that stretching caused vertical thermal perturbations originating at the base of

the lithosphere that were accommodated by lithospheri~ thinning and progressive
subsidence of oceans (Parsons & Sclater, 1977), continents (Artemjev &
Artyushkov, 1971) and continental margins (Steckler & Watts, 1978). The
concept of uniform extension to explain subsidence assumes a uniform
temperature gradient between the surface and the bottom of the lithosphere.
During the extensional process both th.e crust and lithosphere thin by the same
factor 8, and hot mantle rises to the base of the thinned lithosphere, perturbing
the original thermal structure (Fig. 8.1). The stretching results in an initial
isostatic subsidence because lower density crust is replaced by mantle material.
The .'d ecay of the thermal anomaly creates an additional long-term subsidence,
which is also amplified by the response of the lithosphere to sedimentary
loading. The mathematical expression2 of initial subsidence for an isostatically
compensated lithosphere after an instantaneous rifting (McKenzie, 1978) is:

where a is the thickness of the lithosphere, tc the initial thickness of the

contine ntal crust, Pm mantle density, Pc density of the crust, Pw density of
seawater, a: the thermal expansion coefficient and Tm the temperature of the
asthenosphere. Note that initial subsidence or uplift depe nds on the original
crustal thickness. The subsidence due to the thermal anomaly however, is
entirely dependent on the extension parameter (8), and is measured by the
expression:

where e(t) is the elevation above the final depth, given by:

2The equations that follow were used in the algo rithms o perated by the BASS0 sofcware.

Chapter 8 Page 342_

 Tectonic Evoluti.on of Brazilian Equatorial Continenral Margin &Jsins

e()
t -
4 ~
apma.T"'{-~ 1 x[ ~ . (2m+l)n] exp(- (2 m+ l)2 -t)}
sm
p 171 -pw 1t:2m-O (2m+1)2 (2m+l)1t P 't

t is time after extension and r =a2jr?k, where k=thermal diffusivity.

The total tectonic subsidence can then be obtained from:

S.j_t)-S; +e(O)-e(t)

The ideal syn-rift/post-rift sediment thickness ratio resulting from an average

thickness crust (32 km thick) undergoing uniform extension at the sea level
characteristically equals unity. ObseIVations that depart significantly from this
may indicate that other processes of basin formation (or deformation) may have
been active. An important limitation of the model is that it cannot be applied to
continental margins in which variations in B from unmodified continent (13 =1) to
ocean (B=oo) have a steep gradient (i.e. transform margins). In this case, there is
significant lateral heat transport during cooling (Beaumont et al., 1°982).

Another major drawback of the model is the implicit assumption that the
lithosphere would react homogeneously to an uniformly applied stress field. In
nature, stress fields are unlikely to be uniform across large areas because the
strength of the lithosphere varies with geology. The lithospheric response to
applied stress is therefore likely to reflect the interaction between variable
tectonic forces with an anisotropic framework of preexisting weak zones.

The uni,f orm extension model has a number of implications, among them

.
are: (1) it may predict first order subsidence; (2) the thermal history of a
sedimentary basin is directly controlled by the stretching and sediment loading:
(3) initial uplift occurs only when the crust/lithosphere thickness ratio is
abnormally low ( <0.14); (4) syn and post-rift depocentres are coaxial; and (5)
later uplift above sea level can never occur (Vierbuchen et al., 1982). This last
implication is critical when analysing the subsidence history of the Barreirinhas
Basin (Tut6ia Sub-basin). The model does not seem to be useful to explain the
uplift of the Tut6ia High in the Late Albian after a period of initial subsidence

Chapter 8 Page 343

 Tectonic Evctu.rion of Brazilian Equatorial Continenra/ Margin Basins

T-C
0 T.

~
i(;;:t~i~ :c~:;:_::.~

! /F\_
r-c
o r.

p;;g;;;M:;:; (bl UNIFORM EXTENSION

(o} INITIAL
1°
C!)N[)ITICNS
~~
·. ·. .·.-.:":,-: o~-~-~} ....·.·-·.-
f .:}o-: . "' ))_c'{~fa .-• . ::.-.

_/
(c l NON-UNIFORM
EX TENSION

Fi;:. 2. Siourlif'icd db;:r3SU o ( c \ trnsion: {~} lniti:i! co nditions

show tit" litlto s1,h.:r.: ill t hcrmil ~'1') uilib riu111 . Dccourbng
horii o n :it :i d epth)'. (b} Du ring uniform c~tcnsion t he entire
l ithosphere ex tends br p and tllills by l/P. Titis results in ;in
elc¥:it cd, linc;ir thcrm 31 i;rad icnt. (c) Du rin;: non-u niform
C.\ tcnsian, the upper lithosphere (:ibovc dept h = y) extends
by 6 J nd t hins by 1/6 . The lower li thosphe re e x te nd s by {J
and thins b y I f(J. This results Ui a "t wo-legged" t hcrrn:U
i:r:odic nt.

Figure 8.1 - Bas ics of uniform and oon-uniform two-layer models of continenta l ext ension (from
Royden & Keen, 1980).

i..•;-1\;, ot
S i; nl hcOlll
( )('fEN SIONAl l l\lnnu l Uti>e t ·V ntot
• LLOO<THONS Cr u1t

PROXIMAL~ DISTAi.

....
80 _.,................... ........
._
..........
Uthot~.-~...-···--------
._,_ ..... ~
. . ...-............. -..--·•••·"-••

Figure 8.2 - Simple shear model of continental extension (from Weroicke, 1985).

Chapter 8 Page 3#
 Tectonic Evolutkn of Brazilian Equa1orial Continaual Margin Ba.sins

during the Aptian-Early Albian.(see section 8.4.1).

Applications of the model to a diverse range of basin fill types has led to a
series of conceptual refinements (Sclater & Christie, 1980; Royden et al., 1980;
LePichon & Sibuet, 1981; Keen et al., 1981 and 1982; Sawyer et al., 1982). Later
developments, consideration of finite extension rates (Jarvis & McKenzie, 1980;
Cochran, 1983) and lateral heat loss during rifting (Cochran, 1983), have shown
that the post-rifting subsidence may be reduced by 10-25% in respect to syn-rift
subsidence if lateral heat flow is allowed. In-plane stresses were also -
incorporated to the original concept by including laterally varying thermal and
mechanical properties of the lithosphere (Karner, 1986). Another recent
modification, to account for the thermal blanket effect of the sedimentary cover,
may result in better controlled thermal histories (Nielsen & Balling, 1990).

A major modification of the original concept was the depth-dependent

extension model (Royden & Keen, 1980; Beaumont et al., 1982; Hellinger &
Sclater, 1983).

Non-uniform Extension (Two-layer Model)

I It is unlikely that extension will be uniform with depth during rifting because
the rheological properties of the lithosphere change rapidly with depth,
temperature and composition (Beaumont et al., 1982}. The non-uniform or
modified extension model (Royden & Keen, 1980; Royde~ 1986) aimed to
account for the observation that rift borders often do not subside, despite the
existence of crustal thinning underneath. The model allows crustal thinning to
occur independently of heating within the lithosphere. It adds some heat
expansion effect to minimise the subsidence during rifting. In this model, the
vertical heterogeneity of the lithosphere is approximated by assuming that the
upper and lower lithosphere are decoupled at a depth a corresponding to a
detachment zone, at which brittle faulting in the overlying mechanical layer is
decoupled from ductile deformation underneath. The zone above the

l
Oiapter 8 Page 345

1
·.

Tec1onic Evolution of Brazilian £quatorial Continental Margin Basins

detachment extends by an amount 6 while the zone beneath undergoes ductile

extension by 13 (Fig. 8.1). Hellinger & Sclater (1983) show that for the case
where the detachment surface coincides with the base of the crust, the initial
subsidence S; predicted by the model is:
'

S;-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-
t
{[(p,,. -p ()tc(l-cxT"'~)-cxp ...T,,. ;]y
t
c -[
exp T (a-t)
"' ; c Jy L}
[p 111(1-cxT"')-p J

where YL and Ye are parameters that represent the reduction in thickness of the
lithosphere and crust measured as a percentage of the original thickness. The
water-loaded thermal subsidence S(t) is obtained by:

S(t)-e(O)-e(t)

where e(t), elevation above the final depth, is calculated from the following
expression:

Hence, the total water-loaded tectonic subsidence Sy is obtained from:

Multi-layer Non-uniform Extension Model

By including the effect of the mechanical heterogeneity of the lithosphere

Vierbuchen et al. (1982) presented a modification of the depth-dependent
model. The lithosphere was divided into multiple horizontal layers that obey
power-law creep. When subjected to constant tensile forces these layers deform
at distinctive strain rates. It was concluded that 'distinct patterns of subsidence
may result from differences in mechanical properties, heat flow, stretching and
loading, as well as initial strain rate contrasts of the lithosphere, rather than by

Chapter 8 Page 346

,.
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basins

differences in rifting mechanisms. The authors suggested that features such us

external highs, which are difficult to explain assuming uniform extension and
homogeneous lithosphere may be explained more simply by variations of these
I
factors, especially the. variable strain rate of a multi-layered lithosphere. It will
be suggested later in this chapter (section 8.8. l) that varying strain rates may
have been decisive iii the formation of the Gurupi Graben System and its
abandonment during final stages of the Equatorial Atlantic breakup.

Royden (1986) has proposed that non-uniform extension of the lithosphere

may occur as an outcome of two fundamentally distinct processes: (I) abnormally
high heat source and (2) mechanical detachment. The first is based on the
observation that in some areas the crustal thinning and extension were
accompanied by creation of a much larger thermal anomaly than ~n be
\C.
explained by uniform extension of the crust and ma~thosphere (e.g. Red
Sea). The second process involves mechanical decoupling where extension above
the detachment may be larger or smaller than below it. In this model the crust
or the entire lithosphere is deformed by simple shear along the detachment
surface. This conceptually contrasts with pure shear deformation implicit in the
uniform extension model.

Simple Shear (or Detachment) Models

The realization that very low-angle detachment normal faults are mapped at
the surface and that thermal subsidence is not always coaxial with that promoted
by crustal extension, has led to the development of alternative stretching models
in continental extension (e.g. Wernicke, 1981 and 1985; Karner & Dewey, 1986:
see Fig. 8.2 and section 2.2.3). A number of detachment models were proposed
to account for these observations, which are not predicted by other stretching
models (e.g. Luchitta & Morgan, 1990). They are all based on t.he concept that
the Earth's lithosphere may deform by simple shear under stretching. As a
.
consequence, crustal and lithospheric thinning as well as thermal subsidence do
not necessarily coincide in space. Asymmetry is thus a major characteristic of

Chapter 8 Page 341

 Ttcionic £110luricn of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

lithosphere deformation in this class of stretching models which is considered in

many mathematical treatments (e.g. Mudford, 1988; Bell et al., 1988; Voorhoeve
& Houseman, 1988; Issler et al., 1989). Tue· ·simple shear models differ by the
level of detachment within the lithosphere (Lister et al., 1986), the number of
detachment systems (Gibbs, 1984b) and the lateral distribution of brittle and
ductile deformation of the lithosphere (Coward, 1986). Supporting evidence for
application of detachment models to several continental margins has been
provided by Boillot et al. (1987), western Galicia Margin; Ussami et al. (1986)
and Castro Jr. (1987), eastern Brazil-West Africa; Mutter & Larson (1989),
norttiwestern Australia; Keen {1989), Grand Banks, eastern Canada.

Insufficient melt generation by adiabatic decompression during lithosphere

extension (McKenzie & Bickle, 1988) seems to be one of the main problems
with the application of simple shear models (Buck et al., 1988; Latin & White,
1990; Latin et al., 1990) to highly extended areas. This deficiency h<?wever, may
be partially solved, but not totally, if additional heat is transferred by mantle
convection (Latin & White, 1990). The result of this is that magmatism tends to
be intrusive, usually absent (e.g. Gurupi Graben System), in areas of limited
extension, whereas extrusive events may dominate highly extended terrains (e.g.
South Atlantic Rift, Campos Basin, Mohriak et al., 1989).

When applied to the development of passive continental margins, simple

shear models of lithospheric extension predict:

(1) asymmetry of uplift/subsidence history, thermal evolution and

stratigraphic development of the upper and lower plates;
(2) uplift and breakup unconformities on both plates, thermally induced in
the upper plate and flexure driven in the lower one. Isostatic
compensation and underplating may produce permanent uplift and
formation of metamorphic core complexes;
(3) asymmetric distribution of heat flow due to thinning of the mantle
~ lithosphere beneath the upper plate margin;

Chaprer 8 Page 348

..

Ttctanic £volu1wn of Brazilian Equ.a10rial Continental Margin Basin..s

(4) the thermal component of post-rift subsidence is larger on the upper plate
J
.• .· ~.
margin;
(5) sediment may be eroded during syn-rift thermal uplift of the upper plate;
(6) intrusive and limited magmatic activity in areas undergoing little extension
and extrusive magmatism in highly extended terrains.

Pure Shear Versus Simple Shear in Lithosphere Extension

In recent years, controversy over the nature of lithospheric thinning in

continental extension has led to an intense debate around two major theories:
pure and simple shear. The pure shear school, derived from the concept of
uniform extension of the lithosphere (McKenzie, 1978), explains continental
extension as the result of penetrative stretching. The simple shear model
proposes that thinning of the crust occurs by normal slip along low-angle listric
faults or detachment surfaces (Wernicke, 1981 and 1985). These tw<;> extensional
models represent end-members of a full range of combinations proposed to
account for subsidence and basin formation. Several later contributions have
suggested models that combine simple shear brittle deformation in the upper
crust with ductile pure shear strain in the lower crust and lithospheric mantle
(e.g. Coward, 1986; Gans, 1987; Mudford. 1988; Kusznir et al., 1987; Kusznir &
Egan, 1989; Kusznir et al., 1991). In essence, these are modifications of the two-
layer model.

Reston (1990a, 1990b, 1990c) has used observational evidence, mainly from
deep seism.ic profiles that imaged mantle reflections, to suggest alternative model
of lithospheric thinning by bulk simple shear. His mo.tiel contemplates simple
shear deformation of the upper crust and lithospheric mantle accommodated by
ductile shearing of the lower crust. This later proposition incorporates the
concept of stratified rheological properties of the lithosphere into .simple shear
models. Upper crust and mantle are considered aS stronger layers with respect to

the lower crust. The former deforming by brittle faulting and the latter by ductile
flow.

Chapter 8 Page 34Si

 Tecwnic Evolution of Brazilian £quaumal Continental Margin Basins

Another interesting combination of pure and simple shear lithospheric

deformation has recently been proposed for the development of continental
margins {Mutter & l...a.rson, 1989). It derives from the delamination model of
Lister et al. ( 1986) and incorporates a middle crust detachment linking and
transferring continental deformation oceanward. This model explains the
formation of a vast shallow basement platform located offshore northwest
Australia (Exrnouth Plateau) as an isostatically compensated structural high of
continental nature. Notable similarity with the Ilha de Santana Platfonn, offshore
northern Brazil, is strikingly evident.

Distinguishing between pure and simple shear in continental extension

requires analyses of structural and geophysical data as well as understanding of
the thermal and isostatic effects of thinning the lithosphere. Figure 8.3
schematically compares these effects.

/\ Cl(USTAL lllfNNIN(; ALONI'

" tJNfl=<ll<"-I l:~TENS!i)N

··re:
<;
60
~
;,
.... n ..... r:
~

~
~
.j
;'--
,. i-"---"~­

A diagram iltustra(mg the major facto" io contincnlbl subsidc occ. (~) Cru>1 • I thinning :.lone cre~tcs in;t;in1;incotts iniiiat
subsidcnc.c to !he uhimatc depth. (b) Lower lithospheric lhin.n ing alone cru.lcs (I) an ini1iat insc;intan<:Qu$ uplift beQusc the
allthcnosphcrc is hotter and k~ den~ 1ha n lower lithosphere and (2) a loni;-tcrm the rmal su~odcnce back 10 the orii;in;,f heigh!
of 1hc lithosphere. (e} Uniform utcnsion of the ...·hole li1hosphcre creates (I) an initial subsidence bcausc the effect of thinning
the crusl is greater !han thinning the lower lithosphere a<1d (2) a long-•cnn thermal subsidence to the ohimatc depth.

Figure 8.3 - Thermal and isostatic effects of val")ing lithospheric extension (from Sclater &
CeJfrier, 1987).

Chapter 8 Page 350

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Discussion

In reviewing the above basin-forming processes it has been shown that ·

extension and thinning vary vertically and laterally within the lithosphere. These
variations result from the interaction of many effects: thermal, isostatic,
geometric, strain rate and lithospheric anisotropy.

Application of stretching models that involve relatively homogeneous pure

shear deformation of the lithosphere have been claimed successful in some
intracratonic basins (e.g. northern North Se~ White, 1989; Figs. 5.lla-d) but
have failed to model continen~al rifts with limited extension but high heat flow
(e.g. Red Se~ Baikal Rifts). Ill contrast, detachment models have, in general,
been used to explain the development of highly extended continental areas
(Basin and Range) and continental margins but are of limited worth in other
basin settings. In areas such as the Michigan Basin and the Australian Canning
and Eromanga Basins as well as other intracratoo.ic sag basins, where extension
is not a dominant basin-forming process, active thinning by localized flow of
mantle material (hot spot or mantle plume, ascending or descending) may better
explain subsidence (e.g. Middleton. 1989). This complex scenario of multiple
basin geometries, driving mechanisms, as well as thermal, isostatic, strain rate
and variable lithosphere strength effects leads to the foJiowing conclusions: (1) a
basin model has to be tailored to fit the multiple and sometimes contradictory
geological and geophysical observations that can be made in any particular basin;
(2) it is unlikely that there is a single and universal basin-fonning process that
can fit observations in all sedimentary basins; (3) unless the structural-
stratigraphic framework of a basin is reasonably known, any attempt to apply
theoretical models has to be viewed with extreme caution.

It is concluded that the above basin models, or some combination of them,

may eventually explain most of the first order geological and geophysical
observations made in extensional basins. However, in certain exotic tectonic
settings such as divergent transform margins, where lithospheric thinning does

Chapter 8 Page 351

 Tectonic Evolurion of Brazilian Equatorial Corui~nial Margin Basins

not involve mass conservation, these models fail to predict the effects of out-of-
p1ane lithospheric deformation that characterise these terrains." Sedimentary

l
'
basins in transform scenarios therefore, have to be examined with a three-
dimensional approach.

8.3 SEDIMENTARY BASIN MODELS IN TRANSFORM SETTINGS

l Basin development in transform tectonic settings is comparatively less

l studied and understood than in extensional areas. One of the most important
mechanisms modulating basin subsidence in transform margins is the local
variation of stress field due to strike-slip motion (Karner & Dewey, 1986). The
role of stress fields is perhaps the most neglected aspect of geodynamic basin
models a~ applied to continental margins (Cloetingh, 1986a, 1986b; Cloetingh &
Kooi, 1989; Cloetingh et al., 1989).

Kinematic considerations mandate that strike-slip tectonism must be

associated with transform boundaries (Wilson, 1965; see section 2.5). Therefore,
it is clear that the structural fabric of transform continental margins must be a
product of the complex interplay between strike-slip tectonics and the effects of
j juxtaposing a cold continent~} lithosphere against an accreting plate boundary.
1

The thermal effects have been recently quantitatively investigated (Todd &
Keen, 1989; Reid, 1989). The simple thermal model proposed by Todd & Keen
( 1989) suggests that initial uplift and erosion of the continental lithosphere are
fundamental causes of thinning and subsidence. Their results however,
overestimated the amount of uplift in the southern Newfoundland transform
margin (Reid, 1989). It will be seen later in this chapter (section 8.4.2) that it
cannot be applied either to the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic transfonn margin.

The more sophisticated model proposed by Reid (1989) emphasises the

importance of dl;lctile flow in the lithosphere near the transform. His model
examines the process as an exclusive and direct consequence of heating by a

j
Chapter 8 Page 3.~::

l
 Tec10nic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Con1inemal Margin Basins

migrating spreading centre. It considers that the main effect of shearing cold
continent against hot oceanic lithosphere is to lower the viscosity of mantle and
lower crust rocks in the continental lithosphere. These rocks would then be
dragged laterally and vertically along the transform boundary by the shearing
process. This flow would thin the continental lithosphere very rapidly and predict
net subsidence near the transform zone and uplift away of the plate boundary.
This dominantly thermal process would be driven by heat flow arising from
passive/active mantle upwelling, radiogenic and shear heating. However, the
model fails to explain an excessive width ( > 50 km) of the zone of_ crustal
thinning in the southern Newfoundland margin.

Both models have many limitations and dearly do not give a complete ·
treatment of several processes acting in such' complex tectonic setting. Perhaps
the major restriction to applying these models is their intrinsic inability to
account for the early stages of lithospheric deformation. Their starting point for
the formulations assumed that the spreading centre was already active which
precludes modelling of continental deformation during the previous continent-
\
continent shearing stage (Scrutton, 1979; see section 2.6. l ).
'
I

l
The models above adopted, from oceanic lithosphere deformation studies,
the concept of removal of lithospheric material by dragging during transform
motion (e.g. Chen, 1988). This concept was applied to continental transform
plate margins to help solve the problem of steep thinning gradients. The mode
of crustal thinning observed in the Tut6ia (Fig. 4.39) and Tromai Sub-basins
(Fig. 5.10) is highly suggestive of such a mechanism and will be further discussed
in section 8A.2.

Narrow basins developed in strike-slip tectonic settings are perhaps better

approached by models that involve deformation of the upper crus~ by rotation or
simple translation of crustal flakes with no need for lithosphere thinning (Kamer
& Dewey, 1986). Sawyer et al. (1987) also claimed partial success in modelling
such basins hy using a simple modification of the uniform extension model which

Chapter 8 Page 353

 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

included lateral heat flow as high as six times the vertical heat conduction. Their
model accounted for the subsidence of the Los Angeles Basin, which had an
initial subsidence greatly enhanced by the lateral heat loss, but was unable to
explain all the structural complexities of the area. This might be due to the fact
that these later models, as well as all stretching models discussed previously,
assume plane strain and mass conservation along profiles parallel to the
extension direction. In transform settings, however, net extension varies in
magnitude and orientation along strike and, above all, "matter is not consen·ed3".
Non-conservative models, therefore, ha·ve to be invoked to account for the 3-D
character of transform margin dynamics. Such models are very complex and have
yet tO be addressed.

In conclusion, it seems that the small number of quantitative mc;dels

presently available to account for subsidence along transform margins fail
systematically to predict the first order shallow structures of these i:nargins and
only approximate the overall crustal geometry modelled using seismic (Todd et
al., 1988; Keen et al., 1990) and gravity data (Scrutton, 1982). A firmer base of
empirical observations is needed from detailed studies of such margins in order
to allow formulation of better constrained numerical models. The empirical
tectonic model developed during this research for the Equatorial Brazilian
Margin is detailed in the next chapter. In the next few sections however, the
range of bas in geometries and their subsidence histories found in the Equatorial
Atlantic is compared with the geometries and subsidence patterns predicted by
the models discussed above, in order to define processes and models appropriate
to explain the observations and help to predict the thermo-structural evolution of
the basins.

8.4 A BASIN MODEL FOR THE BARREIRINHAS BASIN

Th e results of the subsidence and structural analyses obtained for the

3 No conservation of area (2-D analysis) i11 plane-scrJin.

Chapter 8 Page 354

.- .. ~ Tecconic Evolucion of Brazilian Equacorifll Continenwl Margin Basins
-~
~ Barreirinhas Basin (Chapter 4) were used to constrain applications of basin
models. Classical stretching models were firstly investigated by comparing
predictions and observed subsidence profiles. The comparison was performed
utilising a spe.c ial routine of the BASSc software.

8.4.1 Comparison of Modeled and Observed Subsidence

Comparison of the observed tectonic subsidence 'Nith theoretically derived

curves was performed in order to work out extension parameters and evaluate
prediction capabilities of simple extension models in transform settings as
established for the Barreirinhas Basin (Chapter 4).

From the subsidence analysis it was suggested that the rifting4 stage in the
Barreirinhas Basin lasted for 10-20 Ma. These figures are similar to those
considered to be the rifting time for which instantaneous stretching_ rn?dels could
be applied (Jarvis & McKenzie, 1980). Thus, the data were initially analysed
within the framework of the uniform extension model (McKenzie, 1978).
Numerical parameters assumed for the modeled curves were those used by
Parsons & Sclater (1977). The value for initial crustal thickness has been chosen
so that old 125 km thick continen lal lithosphere at sea level is in isostatic
balance with normal oceanic lithosphere (Cochran, 1983). The assumed initial
crustal thickness (32 km) does not depart significantly from that usually assumed
for equatorial Atlantic basins (Para-Maranhiio, 31.2-35 km, Bender, 1987,
Cainelli et al., 1986; Potiguar, 30 km, Mello, 1987; Benue, 34 km, Okereke, 1988).

The predicted and observed curves generally do •tot correspond closely.

Figure 8.4 presents one example of the type of correlation that was achieved
during this comparison. The poor fit between backstripped and theoretical curves
is clear evidence that exponential thermal contraction did not succeed the initial
basin subsidence. It is possible that the flat portion of the observed. subsidence

4
This term is used, in che absence of a better and single word, to designate the initial
brittle faulting srage of a pull-apart basin.

Chaprer 8 Page 355

i
·.
Tecronic fa·ofution cf Brazilian Eq11a1orial Cominental Margin Basins

. ......
z
<
z
~
""'
zq:
< z
z
z q:
z
~
z
+
UJ
z
:>-
a:
z<
~ en ~ 0 0 PALAEOGENE tu a:
a... _J
a: zw C) w
< < 0 0 I-
z :J w <
UJ I- (f)
z =>
/ () I/ 0

\
\
\
\
\
\
'\ \
\
1 h.. ..
~
'
-----------6------~-----·-=--::-=-==--==-';;--~--A.-- __ J3=1.28

0 -i-~~~L--_....~~~~--~~~~~~~---'L--~~~--J

km \
\
\
\
\
\
\
/> = 1.08
\
\
\
1

--A~ 0=1.25

tbl
2

\
\
\
\
\
\ 0 = 1.28
''
'
~
1

~-~--------_--_-l:r==-------_-_:-6:_-~--=-:-:..:::-:-;;-=-,...:...-:-~=-=-=-=--=-~11--::-::--'"~-6. {> ::: 1. 2 0

/3=1.00
ICI
2

Figure 8.4 - Comparison between backstripped (dashed) and theoretical (continuous) tectonic
subsidence curves for well MAS·l of the Barreirinbas Basin. The figure exemplifies method of
determination of extension parameters assuming uniform extension (a) and two-layer 000•
uniform extension models (b) and (c). Note the wide range of values resulting from the fitting of
observed and theoretical curves. This suggests inadequacy of the models to account for the
subsidence and thermal histories of the basin. ('-.eological time scale from Harland et al. (1990).
Chapter 8 Page 356
 Tectonic £WJ/t11ion of Brozilion £q11atorial Con1l11c11111/ Margin Basi111

curves (e.g. Figs. 4.12 and 13) reflects an early lateral heat loss in the onshore
part of the basin rather than late removal of the missing Cenozoic beds (post-
rift) by erosion (see section 4.3.2). This would perhaps be comparable with what
has been suggested for pull-apart basins in California (Sawyer et al., 1987).

The results of the comparison demonstrate a wide range of beta values. This
is due to the flattened shape of the curves. The difficulty of applying a best fit
analytical technique to the data is probably related to the inapplicability of the
simple uniform extension model for predicting the actual subsidence pattern,
rather than to uncertainties in the compaction corrections (Gallagher, 1989;
Gallagher & Lambeck, 1989).

Despite the fact that beta values obtained from tbis analysis probably have
large errors, it was decided to contrast isobeta maps (derived from well data)
with the structural elements map (Fig. 4.42), to see if the extension given by the
beta parameter was coincident with major structural features. This technique was
envisaged as a further test of the applicability of stretching models. It consists of
comparison of isobeta maps produced from the subsidence analysis with the
observed 3-D basin geometry. The isobeta contour map in Figure 8.5 presents
the results for the uniform extension model. Although B varies between 1.07 and
2.50, the majority of localities show values between 1.3 and 1.7. These
subsidence results suggest that the central and southern parts of the basin, where
the data base is concentrated, have undergone 30%-70% thinning of the original
continental crust. The areas with most subsidence (highest beta values) are
coincident with the main depocentre areas for the Caju Group (Cenomanian).
This suggests that the results from the comparison can be regarded as a fair first
approximation of the amount of extension that occurred in the Caete Sub-basin.
However, one of the consequences of applying such a simple model to estimate
extension in this basin is that it does not predict the uplift of the Tut6ia High.

Given that the uniform extension model cannot fully account for the
observed subsidence in the Barreirinhas Basin, an attempt was made to compare

Chapter 8 Page 357

 Ttttonic Evolution of Bra.1:1/ian &ptatoriol Contint1110/ Margin Basins

Sobradinho Pl alform

... ...
Figure 8.S - l sobeta (B) contou r map of the Ban eirlnhas Basin for the uniform extension model
(McKenzie, 1978). Contour interval 0.2. Full circles are wells with subsidence data.

the subsidence data with theoretical curves predicted by a non-uniform extension

model. The results, in the form of maps of extension parameters, were then
compared again with the structural framework of the basin.

Subsidence curves were generated according to the two-layer model

proposed by Royden & Keen (1980). The best fit method was performed once
more for the same set of borehole data The results (iso-B and & contour maps)
show that J3 ,(extension below detachment) is fairly low ( 1.01 - 1.15) whereas o
(crustal extension factor) is much larger and varies between 1.07 and 1.65. The
isobeta and jsodelta maps (Figs. 8.6 and 8.7) show low amplitude and long
wavelength anomalies. This signature suggests that crustal and subcrustal
extension were related to a large scale mechanism. The position and amplitude
of the crustal anomaly over the area of the Barreirinhas Low (Fig. 8.7) contrasts
with that of the sub-detachment extension anomaly in the isobeta map (Fig. 8.6).
Different maximum amplitudes and a small shift towards nortbeast from one to
the other indicate that thinning was non-coaxial.

Chapter 8 Page 358

 Tectonic £ volmio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Al argin Basins

''·, N
-,
\ ' ,, \ BARREIRINHAS BASIN.
i
\ '-,
''•' -- .......
\ --,__
_,. ......................-..
\ ........_...
, ..........
,,,
• .......... _4',.,....,,
... _....... , __

. Barreirinhas Low

• 3' ,,.

Figure 8.6 - fsobeta (13) cont our map of the Bar reirinhas Basin for tlu: two-layer non-uniform
extension model (Royden & Keen, 1980). Contour interval 0.05. B=sub-detachment extension
factor.

BARREIRINHAS BASIN
>.

3•

.,. 4 .1'

Figure 8.7 - fsodelta (c5 ) contour map of the Barreirinhas Basin for the two-layer non-uniform
extension model. Contour interval 0.1. c5 = crustal ex tension factor.

Chapter 8 Page 359

 Tec1011ic £1'ol111lon of Brozilinn £qua1orial Continental Margin Basins

An interesting feature of these maps is that the Barreirinhas Low anomaly

has an arcuate shape trending WNW-ESE, which appears to overlap at a high
angle with the NE-SW elongation of the binge line of the Tut6ia H igh (Fig. 8.8).
Thus, the Tut6ia uplift is unlikely to have been produced by simple tilt of a
basement block in a domino style geometry and the formation of this structure is
probably related to processes other than extension and thermal contraction.

>.
BARREIRINHAS BASIN

,.

Sobr.1dlnho Plalform
,.
.,.
'"
Figure 8.8 - Upper crust deformation of the Tut61a Sub-basin. Crustal extension (cS) from Fig.
8.6 compar ed with major structural elements. Note that the orientation of the Tut6ia High
cannot be explained by distribution or upper crus t extension assuming a two-layer model.

The pauern of extension across the basin, as portrayed by the two-layer

modelling results, with the exception of the Barreirinhas Low, does not reflect
major variations in basin floor geometry deduced from t he seismic data.
Basement features identified by the seismic mapping, such as tilted crustal blocks
in the Caete Sub-basin or the Tut6ia High in the Tut6ia Sub-basin, are not
evident in the isobeta maps. This fact can be partially attributed to the relatively
limited coverage of tbe borehole data set, but is more particularly the result of
the failure of the two-layer model to account for small scale heterogeneity. Thus,
non-uniform pure shear models equally fai l to predict the actual basin structure.

Chapter 8 Page 360

 Tec1011ic Ei·o/111io11 of Brazi/1011 £quatoriol Co11line11tnl Margin 8aJ/11s

In conclusion, the discrepancy between observed structures and isobeta maps

implies that Lbe most simple stretching models are not capable of reproducing
the structu ral and thermal histories of the Barreirinhas Basin.

8.4.2 Reconciling the Shallow Structure with Thermo-mechanical Models

One very important feature to look for in any basin setting is the occurrence
of erosion preceding basin development. Such erosion is significant because it
indicates that there was uplift during the period preceding extensional tectonics.
When pre-rift sediments are preserved in the graben areas but eroded o n the
flanks, one can usually rule out pre-rift thermal doming as an active process and
infer that the basin-form ing mechanism caused uplift only on the basin flanks or
crest of tilted blocks. As seen in section 4.2, Triassic and older rocks are
preserved within the Barreirinhas Basin and partially eroded on the basin flanks.
This pattern of subsidence and uplift cannot be caused by thermal doming
before basin development. Therefore, thermal models which predict initial uplift
and erosion (e.g, Sleep, 1971; Todd & Keen, 1989) cannot explain the
subsidence pattern in this basin.

From the subsidence analysis it was suggested that the flat aspect of the
obtained tectonic subsidence curves reflects early lateral heat flow (section
8.4.1). This aspect of the results may suggest that a model for narrow basins
which include lateral beat loss would be appropriate (Sawyer et aJ., 1982;
Cochran, 1983). The effect of the lateral heat loss in small basins during the
extensional event is to increase the syn-rift subsidence at the expense of the post-
rift subsidence, thus producing the observed flattened pattern. An alternative
explanation for the flattened aspect of the post-rift tectonic subsidence curve was
given by Nielsen & Balling (1990), who considered it to be an effect of
neglecting the thermal coupling between the sedimentary cover and the
lithosphere. The thermal assumptions of the stretching models would, in this
case, be too simplistic to give an accurate result.

Chapler 8 Page 361

 1 «wmc El'Olmion of Drazilia11 Eq11a1orlal Con1ine111al Margin Ba.sms

Pitman & Andrews (1985) have showed that in small pu ll-apart basins lateral
heat loss is significant; cooling, and hence subsidence, in this case is more rapid
than that predicted by uniform extension models. Alternatively, rigid crustal
block rotations in transform settings may play a major role in crustal
deformation (Karner & Dewey, 1986). As seen in Chapter 4, the Barreirinhas
Basin combines an initial narrow strike-slip basin on which is superposed a later
marginal sag. Therefore, its early subsidence history may result from a complex
interplay between a rapid initial subsidence by mass movement within the
lithosphere due to horizontal stresses and almost simultaneous cooling due to
lateral heat now. This evolutionary path differs considerably from rifted
continental margins.

In conclusion, the following scenario is envisaged for the geotectonic

processes acting during the initial development of the Ba1Tein"nhas Basin, which
reconciles results of the subsidence analysis, the shallow architecture of the basin
and the comparison with theoretical models. When relevant, directions regarding
the location of data or discussions in the text are given between parenthesis.

(I ) No thermal lithospheric doming preceded basin formation (see above).

(2) Extension developed in response to a regional stress field related to
divergence between the South America and African plates (kinematics are
discussed in Chapter 9).
(3) Extension thin ned the lithosphere and produced upwelling of hotter
asthenospbere (conceptual requirement of stretching models).
(4) Superposed on the regional extension, two phases of shearing produced
localized transtension or transpression in the lithosphere. The two phases
of s.hearing are deduced from the subsidence analysis results (section
4.5.3) and evidence for a strike-slip regime listed in section 4.8.2.
(5) Continental crust was sheared during the subsidence or uplift (sections 4.4
and 4.8).
(6) Grabens (pull-apart basins) were formed and then deformed due to local
changes of che stress field in a dominantly strike-slip regime (section

Chapter 8 Page 362

 Tectonic £>-o/111io11 of Bratillo11 Equatorial Co111i11c111al Margi11 Bnsii1s

2.3.3).
(7) When coincident, the sum of the regional and local extensional tensors
caused extremely abrupt lithospheric thinning (sections 4.6.1 and 5.5).
(8) The steep gradient of thinning is related to the early continental
transform fault and the later fracture zone (section 2.6.1; Scrutton, 1979).
(9) Upper crust wa<; deformed by strike and oblique-slip faults (Chapters 3
and 4), whereas lower crust and mantle were deformed by ductile flow

(Reid, 1989).
( 10) Shearing dragged lower crust and mantle material a long the margin,
helping to explain the steep thinning (section 8.3).
(11) Vertical tectonism was favoured by lowe r viscosity of mantle material
associated with thermal effects of transform motion (section 2.5.1 and

Bonatti, 1978).
(12) Melted mantle material was injected into the thinned continental crust
arid induced rapid transition to an oceanic lithosphere (section 8.3.3).
(13) Mantle rocks vertically injected into the crust were subjected to shearing
as the process of continental breakup progressed. This is suggested by the
shape of magnetic anomalies striking E-W, consistent with the shearing
direction (Fig. 4.40; section 4.7.2).
(14) Crustal deformation due to plate margin shearing may partially and
locally overcome thermal contraction due to lithosphere cooling, resulting
in a net uplift (e.g. Tut6ia High, Atlantico High; Chapter 4).
(15) Thermal exponential decay a nd flexural subsidence with increasing
flexural rigidity finally prevailed after cessation of shearing and vertical
tectooism. This is indicated by the formation of a marginal sag basin
during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic.

A single basin model to account for all these processes and their effects is
necessarily complex and has yet to be mathematically described (Reid, 1989). At
the present level of understanding, no single basin model available is useful to
depict accurately the subsidence pattern and internal structure of basins
developed in such a complex environment.

Chapter 8 Page 363

 Tecro!lic Evolmion of Brazilian £q1101orial Concine111al Margin Basins

8.5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE GURUPI GRABEN SYSTEM BY

EXTENSIONAL DETACHMENT

In areas with limited upper crustal extension, no volcanism and normal beat
flow, the subsidence/uplift history is easily predicted hy simple shear models
which involve a detachment surface within the crust. The thinning of the
lithosphere is non-coaxial with the corresponding lowering of the surface of the
crust. When tbe simple shear model involves a through-going detachment and
fle:>mra l isostasy is considered, upper crust deformation is compensated laterally
by necking of the lithospheric mantle which may produce a gravity anomaly
some 100-200 km away from the superficial graben (BelJ et al., 1988). This
happens because the thermal perturbation of the lithosphere is asymmetric with
respect to the basin due to strain localization were the detachment intersects the
mantle-crust boundary. Because only limited extension is involved, the thermal
anomaly does not progress to a full lithospheric thinning, if no other basin-
forming process is developed.

T he Gurupi Graben System seems to meet many requirements of the basin-

forming model described by Bell et al. (1988) for the onshore rifts of eastern
North America. Firstly, the Gurupi System is characterised by variable
asymmetry along strike and limited subsidence. Very little extension has been
calculated throughout the entire graben system (9-16% ) and magmatic acrivicy
has not been recorded along the basins or their margins. Secondly, the thermally
immature state of organic matter indicates that there was no significant heat
input. Tn addition, there is a lack of sedimentary sequences of the type normally
associated with thermal subsidence along most of the graben sysLem. Such a
post-tectonic sequence is found onJy in t he llha Nova Graben in the southeastern
extreme of the graben system. Even there, this sequence is very thin and may be
associated with the thermal anomaly accompanying the formation of the
Barreirinhas Basin. Thirdly, a negative gravity anomaly over tbe graben system is
laterally associated with a corresponding positive anomaly along tbe llha de
Santana Platform (Province D io Fig. 5.8), which suggests that the upper crust

Chapter 8 Page 364

 Tectonic Evo/111ion of Brnzilinn Equnwriol Contitttnral Margin 8asi1&s

deformation in the graben system was transferred (or compensated) by lowe r

crustal extension underneath the platform (section 5.5.4).

Another feature that is consistent with this interpretation of a detachment

scheme is the basement structure inherited from the last phase of shortening.
The shortening left a framework of weak zones, possjbly composed of thrust
systems, which may explain why extensional reactivation favoured shallow-
dipping as well as high angle deformed zones as suggested by seismic
interpretation of intrabasement reflections (see section 6.2.6).

In summary, the main geological/geophysical evidence favouring a simple

shear mechanism to account for the formation of the Gurupi Graben System are:
(1) graben asymmetry along strike;
(2) Little upper crustal deformation;
(3) absence of magmatism;
(4) normal porosity gradient, which precludes massive uplift;
(5) no associated thermal anomaly, indicated independently by absence of a
post-rift sequence and the thermal state of organic matter;
(6) uncompensated negative gravity anomaly over the system;
(7) association with positive gravity anomaly in a structurally stable platform
with the suggestion of an erosional event possibly coincident with basin
development;
(8) presence of an inherited framework of mechanical heterogeneity that was
susceptible for extensional reactivation along sub-horizontal planes.

8.6 SUBSIDENCE MECHANISM FOR THE coo6 BASIN

As shown in section 6.6, the Cod6 Basin is a Aptian basin comprising a

broad intracratonic sag bordered to the nonh by the Gurupi Graben System.
Within the graben system, the Aptian sedimentation was buried by a 1.5-1.7 km
thick sequence of Albian deposits. The Aptian sequence (Cod6-Grajau

Chapter 8 Page 365

 Tn:1onic Evolution of Brazilian ElJuarorlal Conrinemal Ma1git1 Basins

Sequence) to the south of the graben system is characteristically tbin and

unfaulted. These characteristics together with its large areal extent indicate that
the area subsided with no evidence of previous or contemporaneous extension.
This suggests that the tensile stress field and consequently the tectonic regime
which formed the graben system was not effective beyond its southern limit.
Lower lithosphere stretching alone could explain part of these observations but
is very difficult to correlate with the corresponding crustal extension.

Deep seated thermal processes, such us the one proposed by Middleton

(1989), equally cannot be easily applied to the Cod6 Basin because several
requirements, such as pre-thickened crust and multiple episodes of exponential
subsidence followed by uplift, are missing. Changing in-plane stress (Karner,
1986) is also ruled out as basic mechanism based on the very low environmental
energy of the sedimentary record and the juxtaposition with an area under
extension. Having eliminated most of the possible mechanisms, the main
remaining geodynamic process suggested is gravity driven subsidence due to deep
seated mass changes.

The Jurassic and Early Cretaceous was marked by an episode of intense

basic igneous activity which affected the entire Brazilian Platform (see section
3.5.3). It is suggested that large amount of melts were emplaced into tbe
continental crust at that time. The complex of sills and dykes in the lower crust
could undergo transformations toward more stable phases as suggested by Haxby
et aJ. (1976). This would ultimately lead to low amplitude and long wavelength
subsidence, such as that observed in the Cod6 Basin. Locally, the subsidence
pattern produced by this process may have been aided or modified by footwall
uplift associated with tbe border faults of the graben system.

Chapter 8 Page 366

J
 7'ectonic E110/11cion of Brazifian Equatorial Continemal Afargin Basins

8.7 SUBSIDENCE OF THE PARA,·MARANHAO BASIN

As described in Chapter 5, the Para-Maranbiio Basin comprises two sub-

basi ns with distinct structural styles. The Tromaf Sub-basin lies on the extension
of the Saint Paul Fracture Zone and shows evidence of a basin where dextral
strike-slip motion and rifting were equally important mechanisms. It seems
reasonable t0 suggest that both mechanisms played similar roles in basin
formation. In fact, conventional treatments using conse1Vative stretching modets5
have been relatively successful in simulating basin stratigraphy (Bender, 1987).
Internal structures such as the MAS-9 High (see Figs. 8.9 and 5.4), however,
cannot be easily anticipated by these models. In contrast, the Caete Sub-basin
has a profile similar to typical rifted margin basin with little signs of active
strike-slip tectonics which makes it amenable to a successful application of
conservative extension models.

8.8 REGIONAL CROSS-SECTIONS

The discussion of the basin-forming mechanics and previous sections as well

as the data and results of the investigations described in Chapters 3 to 7 are
synthesised and summarised in the crustal cross-sections presented in Figures 8.9
and 8.10 which are described below.

8.8.1 Maraca~ume and Tromaf Sub-basins

The cross-sections in Figure 8.9 schematically summarise observations and

results obtained for the subsidence/uplift history of the Maraca~ume and Trornaf
Sub-basins. The unextended pre-existing crustal profile (Fig. 8.9a) is marked by
the deformation front of the Brasiliano (Late Proterozoic-Early Palaeozoic)
compressional event. The Gurupi Fold-thrust Belt is bounded to the northeast by
a region that remained practically undeformed from Early Proterozoic till the

5McKenzic type pure shear model.

Chapter 8 Page 367

 Tcc1011ic Evol111io11 of Brazilian Equatorial Contint111al Margin Basins

s GURUPI FOLD-THRUST BELT N

10

BRASILIANO CRATON
20
30 ra I PRE-CRETACEOUS
km

t IUiA OE SANTANA GRABEN

~eglonaJ
extension

IVORY COAST BASIN

0

I C I CENOMANIAN
30
shoreline PARA·MARANHAO BASIN

010:=::::::=:~:;:=~~1~0~0:=:::::::::.o..-2-o.o___'V~--------3•0•0....::::;:i;i~4~0~0::;:mi;~!TITI'~:;;;::::s::foola

30 ld t CENOZOIC
-..... ____ __
--
Figure 8.9 - Semi-schematic reconstruction of a regional cross-section through the Maraca!;ume
a nd Tromaf Sub-basins. (a) Pre-Cretaceous unthinned crustal structure. (b) Aptian-AJbian. (c)
Cenomanian. (d) Cenozoic. See location in Appendix C. Triangle marks the pos ition of the
present-day s horeline.

Chapter 8 Page 368

 Ttetonic E• ol11Jio11 of 8ranlia11 EquaLorinl Con1ine111al Margin Basins

Gondwana break-up in Cretaceous time. As indicated in the figure, tbe

deformation front immediately before the Cretaceous divergence was probably
located offshore with respect to the present-day shoreline. Another important
observation to note is that the long time gap between the two major tectonic
events, 320 Ma, was sufficient to allow complete isostatic re-equilibration of the
previously thickened crust. This supports the assumption of normal average
crustal thickness as an initial condition for the Cretaceous deformation. Our
knowledge of the internal structure of the deformed belt is poorly constrained.
However, based on the available field data and interpretation of intrabasement
reflections from seismic data, it was suggested (Fig. 7.4) that the Tentugal Shear
Zone is likely to be an out-of-sequence thrust zone roofing a back-thrust which
was later reactivated as a normal fault.

The initiation of the Maraca~ume Graben during Aptian time was

simultaneous with the initial subsidence of the Ilha de Santana half-graben in tbe
Tromaf Sub-basin, 200 km to the north (Fig. 8.9b). The mode of crustal
deformation in each, however, was quite distinct. The onshore graben resulted
from upper crustal extension with no associated thermal anomaly whereas
extension in the offshore area produced an isostatic arch at the base of the crust.
The crustal stretching eventually concentrated extensional deformation on
preexisting shear z.ones and the Maraca~ume Graben resuJtcd from reactivation
with normal sense of displacement of a conjugate pair of thrust and back-thrust
planes. Extensional strain was also localized in the contact region between the
old fold-thrust belt and undeformed basement because this was also site of low
crustal strength. The asymmetrical character of the deformation requires that the
crustal thinning in the southwest was transferred laterally in order to be
balanced with the lithospheric thinning underneath the northeastero area.

The geometrical solution envisaged to solve this problem is that of a

northerly-dipping fault/shear zone linking the two areas. Ductile flow of lower
crust rocks may have produced the highly reflective lower crust pattern observed
on the deep seismic data (see section 5.5.4). This fault comprises several

Chapter 8 Page 369

 Ttc1onic £vo/111io11 of 81azilio11 £q11a1oriol Con1inm1al Margi11 8asi1is

segments: (1) a backthrust reactivated in the reverse sense; (2) a short low-angle
detachment coincident with a segment of an early basal shear plane, and (3) a
newly formed ductile shear zone at middle and lower crust levels connecting the
former segments lo the area of lithosphere thinning. By analogy with the
BarreirinJ1as Basin, it is suggested that dextral shear was established during this
period at the centre of the offshore graben. This vertical shear zone was marked
by an upper crustal transform fault as well as melting and vertical injection of
mantle material into the lower crust. Mass movement across the plane of the
section precludes 2-D balancing.

A question which must be answered is why the continental breakup was not
successful in taking advantage of the crustal deformation already involved in
format ion of the Gurupi Graben System and was instead localized 200 km to the
North, in other words, why was the lithosphere thinned to the point of rupture in
the present location and not along the site of crustal thinning in the Gurupi
System? A probable answer to this problem is that the graben system was
developed within the upper crnst with no major lithospheric involvement
(thinning).

The geometric simple shear model in Fig. 8.9 may explain bow it happened,
but not why. This later question may be clarified if it is assumed that the
extension was driven by a low amplitude regional tensile stress field (discussed in
more detail in Chapter 9). Regional extension would be expressed as lithospheric
deformation at a very low strain rate. The crustal reaction to the low strain rate
was probably a dynamic strain-hardening effect (Kusznlr & Park, 1987). This
effect implies that lithosphere strength increased during extension due to slow
reduction of thickness.

In the Tromaf Basin, however, the low strain rate resulting from regional
extension interacted with local transtt:nsion produced by horizontal shearing
between the South America and African plates (see kinematic implications in
the next chapter). Thus, the strain-hardening effect in the offshore region was

Chapter 8 Page 370

 Tecto11ic E1•0 /111io11 of Brazilian Eqimcorial Comine1110/ Margi11 Basins

overcome by high strain rates associated with shearing. The locus of shearing,
which seems to be the key aspect, is thought to have been determined by the
location of the deformation front of the Brasiliano shortening episode because
this was site of a major weak zone and lower strength.

Both basins were possibly formed as full grabens. Later modifications were
responsible for their present internal geometry. During its Aptian-A1bian
development, the borders of the Maraca~ume Graben in particular, and the
enti re Gurupi Graben System in general, suffered transient uplift which
produced two gentle marginal arches. The southern arch was probably formed by
footwall uplift (a few hundred metres) and might have played a local role in the
formation of the Cod6 Basin to the south (see section 6.6). The northern arch
can be interpreted as a geometrical requirement comparable with banging-wall
anticlines over low-angle faults with ramp-flat geometry observed in scale models
and in nature (e.g. McC!ay, l 989; see Fig. 2.5). Both arches are predicted by
detachment models and correspond to presently outcropping basement inliers.
Isostatic compensation may have sustained them as long-term positive areas.
This may in part explain the vertical nature of the Tentugal Shear Zone (see
chapter 7 for field data oo basement). The southern basement inlier comprises
the northwestern part of the Ferrer-Urbano Santos Arch which is outlined by
positive Bouguer anomalies corresponding probably to dense crustal masses
emplaced by thrusting during the earlier convergent episode.

Figure 8.9c represents the crustal struclure by the Cenomanian. Three points
are emphasised here. Firstly, all fault systems in the southern region remained
locked. Extension, therefore, was no longer active. Furthermore, because no
thermal anomaly was developed, the G urupi Graben System ceased to subside.
The second point is that the arch formed at the northern border of the
Maraca~ume Graben was probably amplified by in-plane stresses derived from
the shortening component of the shearing occurring tO the north. Evidence for
this may be considered from the occurrence of inversion structures within the
graben, documented in Chapter 6 (Fig. 6.13). The third aspect worthy of note is

Chapter 8 Page 371

 Trctomc E•'Olution of Hrmilion Equatorial Conti11tnral Margin Basins

that a new phase of intense shearing was localized at the position of incipient
continental breakup. Injection of mantle material along the continental transform
would have been facilitated by regional extension due to divergence of plates.
The crust thinned very rapidly. The upper crust deformed by brittle failure and
assumed the form of a sJjgbtJy asymmetrical transtensional flower structure of
basin scale. This geometry is very sintilar to that observed in the southeastern
end of the Caete Sub-basin. The lower crust and lithospheric mantle would have
been deformed by ductile flow parallel to the basin axis. This flow may have
distorted pre-existing shear zones which may explain the broken aspect of the
lower crustal reflections observed on the deep seismic profile (Fig. 5.13a).

Figure 8.9d approximates the crustal profile as it is seen today. The half-
graben geometry of the onshore system may be partially due to erosion following
uplift of the northern border, as suggested by Figure 6.7. An alternative case may
be that in wh ich the original geometry was half-graben by fai lure of only one
basin border (see F ig. 6.14). Thermal and flexural subsidence of the continental
margin led to the development of a prograding continental shelf. The transition
from continental to oceanic crust is~.~t occurs over a dfataoce of 50 km.
This is perhaps the main aspect of the transform stage of development which has
not been over-printed by the passive margi n (marginal sag), so that it is currently
preserved.

8.8.2 Pinheiro and Caete Sub-basins

The crustal profile in Figure 8.lOb contrasts markedly with the previous one
(Fig. 8.9d). The main aspect to be considered is a gentler crustal thinning
through a longer clistance from the COB6. The continental crust underlying the
Uba de Santana Platform was also thinned. The broad positive Bouguer gravity
anomaly present in this area is interpreted as a density contrast caused by crustal
thinning. Upper crustal extension however, was slightly dislocated with respect to
the lower crustal attenuation, resulting in an asymmetric character to the overall

6Concinen t-Ocean Boundary.

Chapter 8 Page 372

 N
s shoreline
TUTOIA SUB-BASIN.

,
'\J 300 Km

~~~~:::=-"".:~
1nn TUTOIA HIGH ., 00

o [r ··························· ···········
10

20

301 - -~
1a1
shear zone
km

GAETE SUB-BASIN NE
SW PINHEIRO SUB-BASIN
soo km
shoreline
coo6 BASIN 300
100 \l
0 FERRER- ILHA DE SANTANA

--- -- --- ----

URBANO SANTOS PLATFORM
ARCH / _,,.
10 '

-- -- - -- -
20

30
- --- - -- -
- - 1b1
9 km
{5
~
Oo Figure 8.10 - Semi-schematic regional profiles across the (a) Tut6ia Sub-basin, and (b) Pinheiro and Caete Sub-basins.
~ Location in Appendix C.
°"....."'
;:;:!
 Tec1011lc Evo//11ion of Brlll'illa11 Eq1101oriol Co111/11e111ol Morgm Basins

thinning. The zone of limited lower crust thinning (175-300 km in Fig. 8.IOb) is
correlated with the area in the Tut6ia Sub-basin where crustal thinning was
successful and abrupl (75-125 km in Fig. 8.lOa). These areas are Uned up in a E-
W orientation and represent the deep crustal expression of the continental
extension of the Romanche Fracture Zone (se~ Appendix C). The hjghly
variable and dominantly vertical geometry of these zones are consequences of
vertical tectonism taking place duriog the first stages of continental shearing
between the two plate boundaries. Jn this area however, the shearing did nol
successfully disrupt the continental crust. Instead, complete lithospheric thinning
was achieved in the region of the Caete Basin, where the Brasiliano deformation
front was probably located. In this later sub-basin, because no shearing was
involved, the lithosphere thinning was achieved purely by extension. Therefore, a
simple geodynamic model such as uniform extension io a pure shear regime may
explain and predict some of the first order features (Bender, 1987).

By ana logy with the previous cross-section (Fig. 8.9), it is suspected that
Aptian-AJbian upper crustal extension was localized in the Pinheiro and Caete
Basins due to pre-existing weak zones related to the older compressional event.
This might have contributed to the asymmetric aspect of the continental
breakup. In this case, however, there is no indication that the initial subsidence
of the Pinheiro Basin was related to the area of successful thinning by a simple
shear detachment mechanism represented by a crustal scale shear zone. The
crustal profile in Figure 8.lOb suggests that heterogeneous pure shear was the
fundamental crustal thinning process.

8.8.3 Tut61a Sub-basin

Figure 8.lOa presents the cross-section constructed for the Tut6ia Sub-basin.
As mentioned earlier, the crustal profile in this area is characterised by an
abrupt lithospheric thinning and vertical tectonism at tbe COB. Melt injection
through active strike-slip faults of vertical trace during Aptiaa-Albian times
disrupted completely the continental crust structures. The Tut6ia High is

Chapter 8 Page 374

 Tec10111c £vol111ion of Brazilian Equa1orial Co11tine111al Margin Basins

interpreted as an uplifted structure caused by underlying mantle diapirism. The

injection of mantle rocks would have occurred when the area was under a
transtensional stress regime. Progressive development of the shear system
imposed transpression, block rotation and furth er uplift. In this profile, material
was carried across the plane of the section wbicb precludes application of 2-D
balancing techniques.

8.9 COMBINED SUBSIDENCE MODEL FOR THE BRAZILIAN

EQUATORIAL CONTINENTAL MARGIN

The a im of this section is to outline the basis of an unified thermo-

mechanical model for the subsidence of the central segment of the Brazilian
Equatorial Continental Margin. Figure 8.11 illustrates an evolutionary scheme
which incorporates both simple and pure shear deformation. The model
presented here is inspired by Mutter & Larson (1989) but differs from it by
adding shearing along vertical zones to the lithospheric deformation process.

( l ) Aptian-Albian. Two extensional stresses were imposed: regional tensile and

loca l transtensional. The lithosphere reacted by means of a three-dimensional
simple shear mechanism. A detachment system linked extension in the Gurupi
Graben System with vertical shearing along the future plate boundary. The
detachment surface and normal faults were eventually developed on the site of
preexisting basement discontinuities. Upper crustal deformation in the Gurupi
area was transferred to the north and northeast by distributed shear and thinning
of the lithosphere. Small rates of extension, related to slow strain rate triggered
a strain-hardening mechanism (Kusznir & Park, 1987), which slowed down upper
crust deformation at the Gurupi System and ultimately led to locking of the
detachment system in the next stage.

(2) Cenomanian. As divergence continued, the simple shear system evolved to a

more complex scheme which involved strike-slip duplexes and destruction of

Chapter 8 Page 375

 Tectonic £1'0/11tio11 of Br·aziliait £q11atodal Conrinental Margin Basins

) 32
km 125

Le\F>-N
~?1\~N-~
GURUPIGRABEN
SYSTEM

Figure 8.11 - Schematic block diagram of basin evolution of the central segment of the Brazilian
Equotorial Atlantic continental margin. It shows that initial response to divergence in Aptian-
Cenomanian was by a combination of pure s hear and 3-D simple shear mechanisms. This evolved
in the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic into an ancient transform margin.

Chapter 8 Page 376

J
 Tectonic Evo/111io11 of Brazilian Er111atorial Co111l11e111at Margin Basins

early formed grabens in the offshore area. A second wave of vertical shearing
induced abrupt lithospheric thinning to the north and normal lithosphere
attenuation to the northeast. Shear along vertical zones deformed the T romai
and Tut6ia Basins whereas the Caete Basin subsided by non-uniform pure shear
along planar normal faults. The detachment system locked and no further
subsidence affected the Gurupi Graben System. The bulk of lithosphere
deformation shifted to the future plate margin. Lithospheric thinning probably
led to underplating and block tilting. The additional heat flow caused by mantle
upwelling may have led Lo additional weakening of the Uthosphere and even
higher strain rates (Kusznir & Park, 1987).

(3) Lale Cretaceous-Cenozoic. Continental breakup, sea-floor spreading and

associated thermal decay produced a thick blanket of sediments over the
offshore basins whereas the llha de Santana Platform was left as an almost
undisturbed segment of the original continental crust.

8.1 0 CONCLUSIONS

(1) Continental deformation along the Equatorial Atlantic margins during its
early stages of evolution was non-uniform and non-conservative. Plane-strain
assumptions do not hold.

(2) The absence of significative igneous activity in all the basins discussed above
indicates that the initial subsidence occurred above a region of no thermal
anomaly.

(3) It is suggested that simple shear deformation of the upper crust is capable of
explaining the structural framework and the subsidence history of the Gurupi
G raben System. It is also possible to reconcile preexisting basement
discontinuities with the subsidence pattern of the equatorial margin of Brazil.

Chapter 8 Page 377

 T~ctonic Evo/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Cominental Margin Basins

(4) The subsidence of the Caete Sub-basin may be explained by simple

stretching models.

(5) The development of the Tromaf and Tut6ia Sub-basins is better approached
by non-conservative models which involve vertical shearing along the strike of
the basins.

(6) Conventional stretching models presently available cannot fully predict

major first order structures along a transform continental margin.

Chapter 8 Page 378

 ·.

CHAPTER 9
1~
...
~
i

TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE BRAZILIAN EQUATORIAL

ATLANTIC CONTINENTAL MARGIN

"Ongoing progress in the science-technol<>fY area is

. a consequence of ideational innova.tion that always
places certain developmenls beyond the intellectual
horizons of earlier workers, just because the
conceptual tools for such understanding were not
available to them".

9.1 INTRODUCTION

In the previous chapter a 3-D therrno-mechanical model was presented to

account for the subsidence and structure of the sedimentary basins studied in
Part II of this thesis. The characterization of the tectonic setting of the Northern
Brazilian Continental Margin is completed with an examination of the relative
motion of the lithospheric plates involved. The next step in this study is to
investigate the kinematics of the opening of the South and Equatorial Atlantic
Oceans1. This helps to provide a plate-kinematic framework in which detailed
scenarios for the Equatorial Atlantic evolution can be derived. This is followed
by a presentation of a simple multi-stage tectonic evolutionary model. The
chapter concludes with a brief account of the tectoni f', history of the Northern
Brazil continental margin. Appended to this thesis (Appendix C) the reader can
find a tectonic map of the Equatorial Brazilian Continental Margin which
synthesises much of the structural information and interpretations resulting from
this research as well as a compilation from several ·unpublished S01.1;rces.

1See section 3.4 for definition, location and major description of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocea n.

Chapter 9 Page 379

 Tectonic Evolurion of Brazilian Equatorial Continmuil Margin Basins

9.2 KINEMATICS OF THE SOUTH AND EQUATORIAL ATLANTIC OCEANS

·,

9.2.1 Basis and Problems of Kinematic Analysis

Since the movement of lithospheric plates takes place not on a plane but on
a spherical surface of the Earth, their relative displacement may be
mathematically described by the rotation of these plates rela,tive to one another
around a pole of rotation (Morgan, 1968). The location and orientation of.
transform faults and oceanic fracture zones are usually used to estimate the
position of opening poles and the direction of lithospheric plate motions in the
course of sea-floor spreading (e.g. Sibuet & Mascle, 1978; Cande et al., 1988).
The technique consists of lines traced perpendicular to transform faults. The
lines obtained should thus lie on great circles and intersect each othe:- at the
rotation pole. Kinematic models constructed in this manner can then be tested
by reconstruction exercises using the predicted pole and geologica!/geophysical
markers that must to be restored and coincide in a common pre-drift position.
Ocean floor magnetic anomalies and geomorphologic features are commonly
used to this purpose. Alternatively, the pole of rotations may be calculated by
the symmetry of magnetic anomalies and then tested against the location of
fracture zones, which can be defined and highly improved by integration of
Seasat and Geosat data sets with marine geophysical surveys (Cande et al.,
1988). The application of these techr;.iques are limited by occurrence of
magnetically quite zones throughout the Mesozoic-Cenozoic record.

Techniques to accurately estimate ·the kinematics of plates during earlier

stages, prior to the rupture of the continental lithosphere, remain to be
developed. Presently, such estimates are attempted by palaeomagnetic studies or:
continents or restoration of lithospheric strain to an undeformed state assuming
mass conservation during re_~toration procedures. In early reconstruction
exercises of the Atlantic (e.g. Bullard et al., 1965) no allowances for either
interior and plate margin deformation were made. This is an obvious and major
limitation of many kinematic models involving rifted continental margins. A

Chapter 9 Page 3(:.-_i

 Tec1onk Evolution •'/ Brazilian Equatorial Concim:nial Margi.n Basins

further limitation is imposed on the study of divergent transform margins by the

<
J mass conservation assumptions.

Table 9.1 lists fi nite rotation poles for the comp lete closure of the South
Atla ntic Ocean between Africa and South American plates. Note that although
the location of the pole varies significantly, probably related to uncertainties in
early determinations, the angle of rotation has maintained a remarkable
coincidence around 56°, which indicates that present-day structures along the
margins have to be back-rotated around 28° to match their previous orientation.
This procedure for instance, would bring the o rientation of the Sobradinho Fault
(Barreirinhas Basin border fault), as shown in Figs. 4.40/42 to an approximately
E-W tre nd in Aptian time.

SOU RCE POLE OF ROTATION ANGLE

1. Bullard et al., 1965 (500m) 44.0"N, 30.6°w . 57.0"

Bulla rd et al., 1965 (l OOOm) 44.1°N, 30.3°w 56.1°
2. Lada, 1976 33.9°N, 40.5°w :
3. Rabinowilz & LaBrecque, 1979 45.S°N, 32.']!JW 57.5°
4. Rickard & Belbin, 1980 45.9°N, 30.1°w 56.1'
5. Martin et al., 1981 46.1'N, 32.6°W 56 .40
6. Pindell & Dewey, 1982 55.1°N, 35.1'W 50.9°
7. Vink, 1982 47.cfN, 33.8°W 58.cf
8. Curie, 1983 45.5°N, 32.:t'W 55.5°
9. Pindell, 1985; e t al., 1988 52.1° N, 34 .0°W 51.4°
10. Lawver & Scorese, 1987 44..s°N, 32.'l!'W 58.1"
11. Unternehr et al., 1988 52.6°N, 33.']!JW 50.6°

TABLE 9.1 - Finite rotation poles of total reconstruction of the South Atlantic Ocean.

9.2.2 Plate Tectonic Reconstructions of the South Atlantic

The pre-drift reconstruction of the Western G o ndwanala nd has been a

popular issue of the plate tectonic theory (e.g. Bullard et al., 1965). Although the
general correlation between main geologic units of Western Africa and Brazil
has been suggested much earlier than the widespread accep tance o f the plate

Chapter 9 Page 381

 ,.

Tectonic Evo/111ion of Brazilian Equarorial Continencal Margin Basins

tectonic theory, the detailed correspondence of singular features over both sides
of the South Atlantic has never been indubitably achieved (see discussion in
section 3.5). The: reason relies on the difficulty to get precise matching of the
continents in a closure fit. Many different techniques have been applied aiming
achieve the closest possible pre-drift fit between the African and South
American continents: least squares fit of the 1000 m isobaths (Bullard et al.,
1965; Vink, 1982); use of magnetic anomalies (Rabinowitz and LaBrecque, 1979;
Pindell et al., 1988) and salt deposition limit to infer the continent edges; and
match of tectonic features (e.g. Martin et al., 1981; Caby, 1989) have been used
as approximation criteria. All these studies tried to recreate the pre-Mesozoic
fra111.e by back-rotating both plates using different markers and minimizing gaps
and overlaps. However, the misfit problem was not satisfactorily resolved with
any of these techniques.

The problem of misfit between the African and South American .Plates in a
pre-opening configurntion has been addressed by several authors (Table 9.1 for
references). Some attempts have been made to justify the gaps and overlaps that
remain after reconstruction of Western Gondwanaland. The misfit observed .in
these reconstructions can be accounted for by three potential sources of
discrepancies. Two of them are related to the plate margin and the other to
plate interior: ( 1) differential stretching of conjugate margins due to asymmetry
of rift propagation (Vink, 1982); (2) microplates semi-detached from the
continental margin (e.g. Sibuet & Mascle, 1978; Szatmari et al., 1985a); and (3)
internal deformation of the continental lithosphere (e.g. Pindell et al., 1988;
Unternehr et al., 1988; Fairhead, 1988a, 1988b; Castro Jr., 1987).

9.2.3 Plate Tectonic Reconstructions of the Equatorial Atlantic

There are very few studies presenting detailed plate tectonic reconstructions
of the Equatorial Atlantic (e.g. Pindell, 1985). The main reason seems to be the
low amplitude of magnetic anomalies recorded in the ocean floor due to the fact
that the region has remained at low latitudes with a consequently low intensity

Chapter 9 Page 382

I
' Tectonic £volu1ion of Brazilian Equaioriaf Continen.10/ Margin Basins

magnetic field. Nevertheless, a few global reconstructions (e.g. Scotese et al.,

1988) managed to interpolate sea-floor spreading isochrons to the region.
Figures 9.1 and 9.2 taken from Scotese et al. (1988) illustrate a reconstruction
exercise to a Late Cretaceous isochron and to the closure of the Equatorial
Atlantic in the Middle Cretaceous. These show overlap of markers along the
Equatorial Atlantic which result from the assumption of rigid plate rotation.
Scotese et al. (1988) also suggested that the Cenomanian (about 95. Ma) was a
period of a major plate reorganization. This event is recorded in the
Barreirinhas Basin as a period of shearing that produced localized subsidence
and inversion.

Figure 9.1 - Plate reconstruction for isochroo M3~ (Late Cretaceous, 84 Ma) (Scotese et al.,
1988). Stipple patterns are ocean floor of varying age. Black (overlaps) and white (gaps) highlight
the mismatch of isochrons. The blank areas represent ~nic crust removed by s ubduction.
C rosses on continents indicate the present-day geographical frame (.5°).

When it is considered that the South Atlantic had started to open by 130 Ma
(Neocomian) and that the Equatorial Atlantic recorded its first widespread
sedimentation only by 110 Ma (Aptian), the tectonic processes occurring during
this time lag of 20 M.y. have to be explained and have fundamental importance
for the evolution of the equatorial region. Table 9.2 lists stage poles for the
opening of the South Atlantic during the period when the Equatorial Atlantic
had ·not yet been initiated. Early conceptions (Rabinowitz & LaBrecque, 1979)

. Chapter 9 Page 383

 Tectonic £,•olution of Brazilian £qua10rial Continental Margin Basins

suggested that shortening was occurring along the equatorial region due to rigid
rotation of both plates. Lack of evident compressive structures however, may be
argued to rule out Neocomian shortening. Today, there is widespread acceptance
that during this period, both the African (see Fig. 2.11 and section 3.3) and
South American (section 3.2) continents were undergoing internal disruption
with strike-slip reactivation of old shear zones and continental rifting (e.g. Sykes,
1978; Unternehr et al., 1988; Pindell et al., 1988; Fairhead, 1988b; Fairhead &
Green, 1989).
(J ;•, J • I I .
CHRON M.0 118. 7 MA

-,--- ·-
I

Figure 9.2 - Plate reconstruction for isochron MO (Middle Cretaceous, 118.7 Ma) (Scotese et al.,
1988). Note that the overlap between Africa and South America is largely due to the rigid plate
assumption.

Rotation poles for the opening of the Equatorial Atlantic have received
comparatively less attention than those for the South Atlantic. Table 9.3 lists
proposals available. Note that the broad variations are largely caused by distinct
tectonic and deformation scenarios assumed for the internal distortion of the
continents.

The pre-rift configuration supported and adopted in this study was presented
by Pindell (1985) (Fig. 9.3). His methodology reconstructed the pre-Mesozoic
continental crust by utilising Airy mass balancing of deformed crustal profiles,

Chapter 9 Page 384

i1
 Tectonic E>•olution of Bra.."ilian Equatorial Cor11inemal Margin Basins

whic? in the case of the Equatorial Atlantic however. had to be largely inferred
due to lack of published data.

SOURCE POLE OF ROTATION ANGLE

f L Rabinowitz & LaBrecque, 1979 03.~N. 02.6°W 11.1°

1' 2. Fairhead, 1988b 27.<fN, 18.cfW ?

·f
I
TABLE 9.2 - Stage poles for rotation of S.America with respect to Africa during period 130-110
Ma.

SOURCE POLE OF kOTATION ANGJ...E

l. Rabinowitz & LaBrecque, 1979 41.4°N, 27.ff'W -18°

2. KJitgord & Schouten, 1986 66.<fN, 25.cfW
3. Pindell et al., 1988 61.9°N, 33.S°W -17.8°

TABLE 9.3 - Stage pole rotations for the early opening of the Equatorial Atlantic. Africa with respect
to S. America between approx. 119.-84 Ma. ·

The Equatorial Atlantic is marked by major lithosphere scale discontinuities.

The continental margins of North Brazil and West Africa, as seen in Chapter 3,
are underlain by Precambrian basement rocks which were invoived in the
Brasiliano/Pan-African shortening event. The adjoining oceanic lithosphere is
densely dissected by dose-spaced fracture zones. These features confer a great
deal of ver~ical and horizontal anisotropy that exerted considerable influence on
the geodynamic processes active in the region durinr. the Gondwanan
fragmentation. The equatorial fracture zones and their related transform faults
were mapped in detail by Gorini (1977) (Fig. 3.25) and indicate flow lines
compatible with E-W dextral shearing during the first stages of fragmentation.
The displacement rate of a single zone for the earliest strike-slip faults in the
Barreirinhas Basin (Sobradinho Fault zone) is estimated at between 3-10 mm/yr,
which lies well below estimates of South Atlantic spreading rates for the Late

Chapter 9 Page 385

...

i Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian £ qua1oriaf C onritrentaf Margin Basins

)
"

.. +
WEST AFRICAN
CRATON

;I

x
NORTHEAST SOUTH AMER tCA
0

O·····-·-·-·····
.. .........
.......
••t•••.c o

1 a f( -~•O•
............. ., ... ...
.• ........ .
)(
..

P:-erifc E.Quatodal Atlantic rcCOr'l.St<uct1o n. mOJtdnng rtstOr<'.!d llr.iiu of pre-Mesozoic c.onrtne"tal crust o r \I'\~
conunent~I rr.Jtg1n>, methodology for wnich Stlo"'n In r•gute 4. followlnt ·11ypo1huls II" o( Dcllell Cl ol. 11976). St.
P•ul (rac t~re zone )uxtaposu Cape P1Jmas with the mou1li of the Amuon. the Romanche Juxtaposes Cope of Three Points
with 1he Be.r reitlnh as Basin a n d the. C.h;,in i UJC t.&po1e£ the lfeihf. S pur of s.oulhweu Nlgerl• wh.h the Polt,uar 811in.
Cu1n<l Craccure i ooe m.rglnJ welt de/1ned by 6thccnd1 t l •I. ll9HI. Dcl tcil et ol. !1976). McMauu ond A1hro( 119731.
and S1buc1 and Mucle [197&). lsopachous data from Aimus an(! Ponte '1975). Mllllman l!U9J, enO Whltcmon 119&2).
Re$lOr a 11on of prerift comlnen<a1 hmh bcnet<h Niger Ocha l<om Ocltcl1 et 11. 11976). Cron sections A8 1nd CO
coostruCled lrom Figure S Of Milliman 119791, and u:ctlon Ef from 0Je4• fl9821 anO A1mus and Po.,1c [197$]. Rcrnov~I of
sedirncn 1 " < Am1 1on mouih. and rt-sc oralfon o f ouetiUatlon In dlto A~ion end M•rojo Buslns. allows this tJCr)<e..r Ot.
Ctoclt.Vt i se roca t1on o( cfl-e P1r11 .. M•r•f"lh•O Plufotrn dur tng Piile sie91rulof'l sHodu<:cd ,he weuwerd dec:penlnC Mar•Jo D•.s in~
The suggcste<I pivot point for closure or Marojo Buln hrrow1 denote closutc dtccctloril 11 1 mJdu oreo o( 1>esemen1
fracture.s. as .shown. Northern .edge o( P~rt ...M•r•nh10 Platform ts • fr•ctvre i:on~. No<e sood •Ugntnent of Sao Luis and
w,s t Afr:e:an C nuons (heavy lfne whh •dJ•Cen< doest Also. &eP bc<we en Demerar• and Guin.ea Ph"eeu:1 iet:n tn the 8ul11rd
et .al. (1 96$ 1 llr Is avouScd. whlch e•pl.1ihs the ~bse.nce or J~r:iiuJc • 11.... 11tc s .. diH~ nt '"!Ul of tht tilli••eOt.1:5. The 1dver1e
errec< o f c.Jiis ~ua t.ofi:i1 fct on t.h~ 10.., \hc r f' Soucn .Atlan< lc fu ('&n be T<C'onciled by re.storing ex,en'l i<Jnal defo rrnulon
in <;.~ntr~I Africa (Wri3Ji<. 19661. and In Argentlnt.

figure 93 - Pre-rift reconstruction or South America-Africa after Pindell (1985).

Cretaceous 75 mm/yr (Cande et al., 1988). This discrepancy suggests that the
Sobradinho fault zone was only one segment of a fault splay which formed the
proto-Romanche transform fault zone.

From the variation of rotation rates given by Rabinowitz & LaBrecque

( 1979) for the South Atlantic, it is inferred that the equatorial fractures were
fast-slipping transform faults during the Middle Cretaceous. Cande et al. ( 1988),
studying spreading rates from present until Anomaly 34 (84 Ma;~te Cretaceous)
also in the South Atlantic, have come out with decreasing rates in the range of
80-35 mm/ yr for the period 84-60 Ma (Senonian-Palaeocene). Tbis tendency of
faster rates for the Cretaceous may be suggestive of the inferred fast-slipping

Chapter 9 Fage 386

 Tectonic EW>lution of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Bo.sins

nature for the equatorial transforms in the Middle Cretaceous. This is consistent
with the massive oceanic crust production during the Cretaceous magnetic quiet
zones. Fast spreading is also suggested, independently, by palaeomagnetic studies
(Guerreiro & Schult, 1985). High strain rates would be induced by such fast-
slipping faults in:the equatorial region necessary for localization of shearing and
abrupt thinning of the continental lithosphere (see sections 8.3 and 8.8). The E-
W motion direction was a natural consequence of the plate kinematic
framework, where the Equatorial Atlantic had to keep pace with the opening of
the Central and South Atlantic Oceans. In Plate 9.1.111, open cutved arrows
indicate the relative motion of the African plate with respect to North and South
America and give an approximation to the kinematics of the opening of the
Equatorial Atlantic. The plate motion vectors were taken from Scotese et al.
( 1988) and Olivet et al. (1987). Although a similar indication cannot be directly
obtained for the equatorial region, it is considered reasonable to suggest .t hat the
plate motion was approximately E-W, subparaUeI to the general trend of the
northern Gulf of Guinea and North Brazilian continental margins. This is an
admitted assumption carried in this thesis, given the difficulties inherent in
reconstructing the plate motion vectors at this time and latitude.

9.2.4 Kinematics of the Equatorial Atlantic Fragmentation

In order to independently constrain the kinematic framework of the

Equatorial Atlantic, and because no direct information could be obtained from
ocean floor magnetic anomalies, it was decided to estimate the kinematics of the
initial continental fragmentation by analysing the kinematic information
(basically fault displacements and fold axes orientations) given by the structures
mapped in detail along the basins featured in Chapters 4 to 6. The analysis was
made in conjunction with data on the dominant basement fabric discussed in
Chapter 7 and the regional setting presented in Chapter 3.

Figure 9.4 presents the results of the kinematic analysis. During the
Neocomian (Fig. 9.4a), only the eastern region of the proto-Equatorial Atlantic

Chapter 9 Page 387

 Tectonic E1•0/111ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basi11s

I
~ AFRICA I !§
I CO
:. ·/

~
' : ..
·S! i f /
<fi .. t
-/!' I'. r

NEOCOMIAN

LATE ALBIAN-CENOMANIAN
(c)
figure 9.4 - Kinematic framework of the proto-Equatorial Atlantic during the Early-Middle ·
Cretaceous. Plate motion (PM) vector diagrams indicate relative contribution of strike-slip (S)
and extension (E) to the finite plate movement between the South American and African plates.
This is thought to be near E-W during the Aptian-Early Albian and ENE-WSW by Late Albian-
Cenomanian. CASZ= Central African shear zones. Diagram construction based on analysis of
fault displacements and relationship to basement fabric. North is shown at the present day
orientation with respect to the South American plate. Pre-rift reconstruction from Pindell (1985}.
ri.nnfPr 0 PnPe 388
 Tectonic Evolution of Bra1ilian Equatorial Continental Margin 8asjns

was undergoing limited crustal deformation. The Potiguar and Benue continental
rifts were developed while the Patos and Pernambuco Lineaments as well as the
Ngaoundere and Sanaga Shear Zones were reactivated with a dextral sense of
movement. The region to the west of the Transbrasiliano lineament and the
Kandi Fault remained as a relatively undeformed portion of Gondw.a na. The
basement fabric is dominantly oriented NE-SW across the entire region.

By the Aptian-Early Albian (Fig. 9.4b), crustal deformation was achieved by

.\
!' translation between the South American and African plates. Strike-slip and
normal fault systems crosscut the preexisting basement structures at high angles,
(
1 which suggests that the orientation of the Cretaceous fault systems is

l independent of the basement fabric. The major exception to this is the Gurupi
Graben System (section 7.5.1) which follows closely the preexisting fabric. The
plate motion 2 vector diagrams shown in Figure 9.4b indicate a roughly E-W
plate movement composed of a large strike-slip component and limited dip-slip
extension. Although the precise quantification of relative contribution of
displacements to the net plate motion vector is difficult to ascertain, an estimate
based on only one fault zone (Sobradinho Fault) of the proto-Romancbe fracture
system suggests that the strike-slip component is about 10 times greater than the
normal-slip component.

During the Late Albian-Cenomanian (Fig. 9.4c), strike-slip fault

displacements and shortening across uplifted areas, such as the Tut6ia Basin and
offshore Ghana, suggests that E-W strike-slip remained as a large component of
the plate motion. This time however, a greater extensional component was ·
locally present due to thinning of the original continental crust by progressive
divergence between the two plates. The shortening, which may have contributed
to the rising of the Tut6ia High, is thought to have occurred as a reaction to the
buttressing effect exerted by the western border of the Parnafba ~latforrn (see
Fig. 4.42).

1Plate motion in this context means finite displaceme nt of faulted blocks that will form isolated
plates after fragm entatio n and brc<:tkup.

Chapter 9 Page 389

 ·.
Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian Equatorial Ccntinemal Margin Basins

Discussion

The results summarised in Figure 9.4 emphasise that during the Neocomian,
the study area (outlined by a dashed box in Fig. 9.4c) remained unaffected by
any type of basin-forming process. The crustal deformation that affected the
eastern portion of the future Brazilian Equatorial..Margin was .1.irnited to small
intracontinental grabens and the reactivation of old shear zones. It is suggested
that a transfer zone linking the Benue and Potiguar Grabens was the first
manifestation of the lithospheric deformation that led to the formation of the
Fernando de Noronha-Chain transform fracture zone. This crustal deformation
occurred at the northern tip of the South Atlantic Rift System, which propagated
'
to the north during that time. It is also suggested here that the proto-Romanche
Fracture Zone was developed during the Aptian-Early Albian by intersection of
the E-W shear with the fundamental lithospheric discontinuity represented by
the Transbrasiliano-Kandi Fault System (Fig. 9.4a/b ).

l
.. From the results above and the pre-rift configuration of Pindell (1985), it is
. suggested that during Aptian-Cenomanian time, the northern Brazilian and West
I1 African Equatorial Margins underwent more translation (i.e. E-W shearing) than
1
rotation (i.e. plate motion on a sphere). This kinematic framework favours a

j dominance of shearing rather than extension along both margins (Rabinowitz &
LaBrecque, 1979). The resulting tectonic setting combined NE-SW oriented
regional extension with E-W shearing. The tectonic picture envisaged can be
considered as a transtensional shear corridor, which produced an initial surface
expression similar to right stepping strike-slip fault systems. Further development
of the fault system would form strike-slip duplexes and splays (Figs. 9.5, 4.43 and
2.10). During its development, the shear corridor would tend to widen. due to

! divergence and consequent lithospheric thinning. The regional extension tended

l to increase its contribution to the lithospheric deformation with ti~e. ultimately

modifying or overprinting diagnostic features of the early strike-slip deformation
1
i
phase, as suggested for the Tromaf Sub-basin (section 5.4.1).

I
i
Chapter 9 Page 390

j
 Tect0nic Evoludon of Bra.zilian Equatorial Ccntinerual Margin Basins

~·

(b)

regIonaI
~ension

Figure 9.5 - Concept of transtensional shear corridor. (t } Pre-Aptian reconstruction

based on Pindell (1985). A dextral transtensional shear corridor is established by Aptlan
time due to equivalent spreading rates at both South and Central Atlantic Oceans. (b)
Rotation around stage pole of Pindell et al. (1988) during Aptian-Cenomanian produce rift
and pull-apart basins as well as broad fracture zones. The shear corridor may enlarge to
accommodate deformation caused by plate divergence. Small arrows suggest local
transtension (open) and transpressional (full) vectors.

l
01apter 9 Page 391
 Tectonic Evolutiof' of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

9.3 TECTONIC EVOLUTIONARY MODEL

9.3.1 Previous Models

Previous studies proposed several evolutionary tectonic models for the

equatorial margins of northern Brazil and West Africa. The Brazilian margin was
studied by Gorini (1977), Ponte & Asmus (1978), Asmus & Porto (1980), Ojeda
(1982b), Figueiredo et al. (1982, 1983), Zalan et al. (1985), Szatmari et al.
(1985b, 1987), Franc;olin & Szatmari (1985,. 1987), Zanotto & Szatmari (1985,
1987), Castro Jr. (1987) and Gouyet (1988). The African counterpart was
investigated by Delteil et al. (1974), Mascle (1976, 1977), Blarez (1986), Mascle
et al. (1986, 1987, 1988), Mascle & Blarez (1987), and Blarez & Mascle (1988).

Gcrini ( 1977) mapped the major oceanic fracture zones across the entire
Equatorial Atlantic. He showed that the structural boundaries of th~ marginal
basins are controlled by these fracture zones. In fact, some of these basins were
developed confined to landward extensions of these oceanic fracture zones and
have elongation axes following their directions, whilst others were developed
over segments of continental shelf and slope oblique to the oceanic zones and
parallel to the present coast line (see discussion in sections 3.5.4 and 3.5.5).

The studies listed above and the regional plate-tectonic models that they
proposed differ only to a limited degree. In general, they have all recognised that
shearing during early phases of continental margin evolution was a dominant
process. The. main discrepancy among them concerns the timing of events. With
only one exception (Gorini, 1977), they all failed to appreciate that the
transform margin evolution was associated with the formation of a broad,
lithospheric scale, fracture zone. Within this broad zone of continental
lithosphere deformation, basins subsided and highs were uplifted by the action of
geodynamic processes that were not confined to a single straight line (flow line
of kinematic models). Gorini (1977) appreciated that the deformation was across
a broad zone but did not explore it further. Thus, the main problem with the

Chapter 9 Page 392

,..
'

Teaoflic Evolution of Br02ilian Equatorial ContinenUil Margin Basins

previous models was their inability to recognise that some basins, occupying
large areas (e.g. Barreirinhas Basin), were developed within zones of anomalous
lithospheric thinning. The anomalous thinning3 that characterises some segments
of the equatorial margins is marked by a rapid thinning, steeper Moho slopes
and more abrupt transition from continental to oceanic lithosphere than
expected on true extensional margins.

Another of the problems with some of the earlier models (e.g. Zalan et al.,
1985) was the suggestion of a phase of N-S pure extension preceding the
shearing phase. On the basis of what has been shown in this thesis, such a
tectonic event is unlikely to have occurred during the Aptian-Cenomanian
period.

In the most recent studies, the right lateral nature of transcurrent movements
along the equatorial margin has been understood in some detail (Gouyet, 1988;
Blarez, 1986). However, the research was concentrated only on 2-D
morphological and geometrical aspects of ·shallow structures and significant
contributions were made in these fields.

9.3.2 Simplified Multi-stage Plate-tectonic Model

Plate 9.1 presents a simplified multi-stage model for the evolution of the
Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental M?-rgin. This model derives mainly
from the results obtained during this investigation, presented in the previous
chapters. Four stages are proposed: (I) Triassic-Jurassic NE-SW extension
affecting the western extreme of the margin; (H) Neocomian relative stability
with E-W extension at the eastern extreme; (Ill) Aptian-Cenomanian period
dominated by vertical E-W shearing; and (IV) Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic ENE-
WSW spreading stage.

3 Lithosphcric chinning caused dominantly by horizontal shear along vertical zones rather than by
pure extension.

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 Tectonic £••ol111ion of Braiilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

Extension started as early as Triassic-Jurassic in the northwestem part of the

margin with the initial subsidence of the Maraj6 Rift System (see Fig. 3.12) and
widespread intrusive basic magmatism in large areas of the western
Gondwanaland (Plate 9.1.I). The tensile stress field was probably related to the
spreading of the Ce ntral Atlantic and resulted in minor NE-SW continental
extension.

The Neocomian stage is a_relatively stable period with continental extension,

E-W oriented, only in the Potiguar Basin (Plate 9.1.II and Figs. 3.15/16). The
rotation of African and South American plates did not affect most of the
equatorial region. The rotational motions of both plates were accommodated by
deformation of the plate interior. Old shear zones were reactivated and graben
systems d~veloped such as the Patos-Pernambuco Shear Zones an<i the Potiguar-
Benue Basin System.

The Aptian-Cenomanian was marked by major lithospheric deformation

through E-W o riented dextral shearing (Plate 9.1.III). Two types of structural
- . ...:_ domains were developed: (1) continental deformation oblique with respect to the
original transform fault zone, and (2) continental margin elongation parallel to
the transfor m zones. In the fi rst case extension gradually thinned the lithosphere
by oblique rifting. The second is characterised by pull-apart basins developed on
the continental extension of oceanic fracture zones, which represent broad zones
where the original lithosphere was deformed by processes other than pure shear
extension. These tectonic domains were developed in a plate-kinematic scheme
as suggested by Scrutton (1979) (see Fig. 2.34). Three shearing sub-stages are
then proposed:

(1) Continent-continent (Aptian-Early Albian): transform motion forms

pull-apart basins elongated parallel to the principal displacement direction
E-W. Local transpressional and tran.stensional fields are created
superimpos.e d on a regional NE-SW extensional stress field. Theregional
extension direction is given by the extensional component of the plate

Chapter 9 Page 394 ·

 Tcc10riic Evolwion of Braziliari Equaton'a/ Comi11emnl Margin Basin.s

Plate 9.1 - Plate tectonic model of the Equatorial Atlantic and its margins. Kinematic
framework taken from Olivet et al. (1987). African plate rotating with respect to
a fixed South Amer:ica. Dashed lines mark position of the present-day African
coastline· in the previous time-slice. Orange colour indicates dominant
continental deposition whereas blue are marine sediments. Arrows indicate: plate
motion (curved); regional extension (open, slr<<tight); shear (half-arrows).

Triassic-Jurassic - The Cassipore dyke swarm (C) and initial development of the
Marajo Rift System (M) characterise NE-SW extension a s sociated with the Central
Atlantic spreading.

II Neocomian - Intraplate deformation accommodates South Atlantic extension to the north

of the Walvis-Rio Grande Ridge (WRG), and spreading to the south of it. The West and
Central African Rift System (WC), Potiguar Basin (P) and Reconcavo-Tucano-Jatoba
Rift (RTJ) are developed. Older shear zones are reacfo:ated with mostly sinistral sense in
Africa. Cn Brazil, the Patos and Pemambuco Lineaments (PL) as well as the
Transbrasiliano lineament (TL) are reworked as dextral fault systems. £-W extension
dominates the northern South Atlantic and affeet the Potiguar Basin.

III Aptian-Cenomanian - Period or shearing along the equatorial margins. Transtensional

shear corridor is imposed by kinematic requirements. It is possible that the shear
corridor may have broadened and rotated anticlockwise during progressive divergence.
Net regional extension remained NE-SW. {a) Aotian-Earlv Albian - Set up of continent-
continent shearing. The Gurupi Graben System (G) is developed by upper crust
extension on a favourable inh~rited Pre<:ambrian framework. The Codo Sag Basin
subsided with no clear relationship with the shear corridor. {b) Late AJbian •
Lithospheric thinning continues with shearing, although shear motion was relatively
smaller in relation to the previous and the next stages. Nucleation of the future Saint
Paul (SP), Romanche (R) and Chain (CH) transform fault zones.
{c) Cenomauian - A second phase of strike-slip deformation affects the r egion during a
c<>ntiucnt-ocean shearing stage. The Ivory Coast-Chana Ridge (IGR) and the Tut6ia·
Atlantic High (TAH) suffer further heating and straining. They represent transpressive
belts overlying an abruptly thinned lithosphere.

IV Late Crctaceous-Cenozoic - Advanced sen-Ooor spreading. Migration of plates moved

s hearing to an ocean-ocean stage, relatively stabilized the ancient transform margins and
placed them iu middle plate positions. Lithospheric cooling forms marginal sags in many
continental margin segments.

Chapter 9 Page 395

AFRICA

I II

III

PLATE 9.1

IV
 Tccronic Evofurion of Bra:::ilian Eljuararial ConcineJlfal Margin Basms

motion vector diagrams (Fig. 9.4). This external extension, driven by plate
divergence, gives the transtensional nature to the shear .corridor.

(2) Continent-ocean (Late Albian-Cenomanian): transform motion and

shearing continued after complete continental lithosphere separation.
Additional heat was convected to the .upper crust by juxtaposition of the
initial spreading centre. The heat input may have contributed to local
thermal uplift of continental blocks, in particular the onshore portion of
the Barreirinhas Basin, the Tut6ia-Atlantic High and the Ivory Coast-
Ghana Ridge.

(3) Ocean-ocean (post-Cenomanian?-prescn1): transform motion ceased at

the continental margin and was transferred to the new ocean being
formed. The continental margin began to subside by lithospheric cooling.

The Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic stage was marked by continuous E-W sea-

floor spreading which sbifted progressively the transform margin to a middle
plate position (Plate 9.1.IV). Lithosphe ric cooling and sedimentary loading were
the prevalent subsidence mechanisms during this final phase.

One important consequence of the model outlined above, which derives from
Scrutton (1979), ;.:; that the initial crustal fragme ntation that created th e
Equatorial Atlantic was simultaneous throughout the region. This denotes thm
the chain of basins that occurred along its continental margins did not derive
from a rift system propagation. Thus, the initial opening of the Equatorial
Atlantic cannot be approached by the crack propagation theory traditionally
applied to the tectonic evolution of the Central and South Atlantic Rift Systems.

Another important aspect of the model is that it predicts an early phase in

which an extra amount of heat is directed laterally from new oceanic lithosphere
to the transform margin. This extra transient heat input may contribute to syn-

sedimcntary thermal expansion leading to uplift and rapid thermal evolution of

Orapcer 9 Page 397

 Tectonic Evolution nf Hrazilia11 Equacorial Coll(incnral Margin Basins

organic compounds. T his may explain the apparent incompatibility between the
structural level and the thermal state of the sedimentary succession indicated by
analyses of organic matter and day minerals in the Tut6ia Basin, highlighted in
section 4.3.4.

9-4 TECTONIC HISTORY OF THE BRAZILIAN EQUATORIAL MARGIN

In the context of the preceding kinematic model, the tectonjc history of the
Brazili an Equatorial Continental Margi n is summarised as follow :

9.4.1 Precambrian-Early Palaeozoic

The Precambrian history is obscure and its clarification lies beyond the scope
of this thesis. However, a reasonable knowledge of the inherited framework was
achieved for the Brasiliano compressio nal event (700-450 Ma) (see sections 3.2.1,
3.5.1 and 7.2.1). The last consolidation episode of the western portion o f the
Pangea supercontinent was in the Cambrian-Ordovician. This period ~itnessed

the last converge nt event affecting the equatorial Atlantic region. The resulting
regional setting of this event has the fol lowing scenari o.

( 1) The West African Craton welded to n~·~ Brazilian Platform (Figs.2.35-38).

(2) The Sao Luis Craton, once the leading edge o f the African indentor, is
presently exposed at the Brazilian margin but shows evidence of a lso
being involved in the Brasiliano orogeny.
(3) In the study a rea, the dominant Precambrian fabric is NE-SW oriented
with another important d irection give n by the T entugal Shear Z o ne (NW-
SE) associated with the Gurupi Fold Belt (Figs. 7.2/7).
(4) The fold belt shows vcrgence towards the NE and intrabasement
reflections suggest that thin-skin thrusti ng has occurred. This provided the
fabric that was later to be utilised as extensional detachment surfaces in
the Gurupi area.

Chapter 9 Page 398

 ·.
Tectonic Ei·ofurion of Brazilian &Juatorial C_ontincntal Margin Basins

9.4.2 Palaeozoic

Following the convergent episode, several intracratonic basins we re forme d

with sediments dep?sited throughout the entire Palaeozoic Era. The Amazonas
and Ma ranhao Basins are large depoce ntres in which early continental rifts are
thought to exist. The long "bull horn" profile of these basins indicates high values
of e ffective elastic thickness of the lithosphere and furthe rmore implies that by
the end of the Palaeozoic the lithosphere had acquired a thickness compatible
with a long term stabilized continental lithosphere.

9.4.3 Triassic-Jurassic

T he Triassic pe riod saw the beginning of the fragmentation of the Western

Gondwana and the rifting of the Central Atlantic Ocean. This extensional
episode affected the Lower Arnazonas region and produced an early rifting e vent
in the Maraj6 Basin. This hasin lies in the extreme south of the area unde r
Tri assic extension. The NE-SW extension direction is indicated by the
orientation of fault systems and dyke swarms (Plate 9.1.I).

The Ju rassic was a period of extensive magmatic activity on the Sou th

American Platform. The major intracratonic basins were intruded by basal t flows
and do le ri te si lls and dykes. T his massive magmatisrn has para.1Jels in chc African
continent and represents the first rnanifestations of poorly understood deep
seated p rocesses that le d to the South Atlantic rifting and spreading. The
Parnafba Basin, located south of the study area, was also intruded by large
amounts of basic igneous rocks, probably associated with reactivation of olde r
shear zones such as the Tra nsbrasili ano Lineament.

9.4.4 Neocomian

Ana lysis o f the fractured Neocomian interior basins in both continents

reveals that the extension which led to formati o n of the South Atlantic was

Chcprc·r 9 Page 399

 Tec1onic evotwion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

accommodated by internal distortion of the South America and African plates.

Major in.traplate discontinuities were reactivaied as high angle shear zones with
a dominantly dextral sense of movement on the Brazilian side and sinistral in
Africa. From Late Jurassic until Barremian time the South Atlantic Rift
propagated northwards from the Rio Grande-Walvis Ridge region as far as the
northeastern corner of Brazil and the Benue Trough in the southern Gulf of
Guinea. Therefore, by the Neocomian the East Brazilian Continental Margin
commenced its rift development while the equatorial region was still fully
connected to an unthinned segment of the African plate. Neocomian rocks are
absent in most of the equatorial margin basins, the only place were a thick
sequence is present is in the Potiguar onshore graben located at the extreme SE
portion of the margin. This basin is thought to have developed by reactivation of
Brasiliano shear zones under an E-W extensional regime (Plate 9.1.II). The \Vest
and Central African Rift Systems were also initiated during this period.

9.4.5 Aptian-Earty Albian

Divergence in the equatorial region began not earlier than Aptian-Barremian

time. Barremian rocks on the African margin have no equivalent in equa_torial
Brazil. By Aptian, both the Central and the South Atlantic were undergoing
rapid spreading with generation of new oceanic crust. The kinematics of the
opening of these two oceanic basins constrained the way in which the equatorial
region was deformed. Spreading directions in both oceans (Rabinowitz &
LaBrecque, 1979; Olivet et al., 1987; Pindell et al., 1988; Scotese et al., 1988),
determined for this time, indicate that oblique divergence occurred in the
equatorial region. Thus, a transtensional E-W shear corridor with an external
extensional component was developed to accommodate the rates of spreading on
the adjoining oceanic basi ns (Plate 9.1.flla).

The Cod6/Grajau sedimentary sequence was deposited during this stage but
its occurre nce exceed the limits of the shear corridor. This succession. containing
potential source rocks. is preserved mainlv in NW-SE oriented basin segments as

Chapter 9 PG[!.€' .:.(}()

 Tecconic E>'olmio11 of Eraz:ili011 £quararial Continencal Margin Basins

this is the orientation most favourable to the development of transtensional

basins in a dextral shear regime. To the south of the area affected by shearing
and extension, the Cod6 Sag Ba.sin developed. The basin is very large, shallow
and does not exhibit extensional features. This suggests that the basin was
formed by thermal processes, which might have been linked to the region where
lithosphere was deformed by shearing and extension. Any link, however, is not
yet dear.

The Gurupi Graben System was developed at this time and lies partially in
the area affected by shearing. The graben system and the transfer zones, which
allow for the shift of dcpocentres and asymmetry along strike, follow the
Brasiliano fahric and may be partially regarded as extensional reactivation of
ancient shear zones. Heterogeneous lithospheric extension was the dominant
process. A simple shear detachment (Figs. 8.8 and 8.10) linked the upper crust
extension of the graben system with the shear corridor. Little upper crustal and
no sub-crustal extension suggests a low strain rate driven by a tensile stress field
identified as the external extensional component of the transtensional shear
corridor.

During the Aptian-Early Albian, the tectonic setting combined: (1)

generalized E-W transform motion wjth slight oblique divergence; (2) rapid
transition from continental to marine sedimentary environments; (3) slow Aptian
subsidence followed hy higher subsidence rates, hence higher strain rates, in the
Early Albian. Major dextral displacements occurred along the Sobradinho and
other fault zones in the Barreirinhas pull-apart basin. These were branches of
the proto-Rornanche transform fault zone.

The evolution of lithosphere thinning is envisaged as follows:

Caete Sub-basin : thinning by extension due to displacement transfer

between right stepping strike-slip faults within the shear corridor. The
extremes of the sub-basin, near the intersection with the strike-slip fault

Ozapter 9 Page 401

 Tectonic £vofmi·?ll of Brazilian Equatorial Co111inemal Margin Basins

zones, can be regarded as basin scale negative flower structures, which

have, in pl an view, strike-slip duplex geometry. Between the Romanche
and Saint Paul Fracture Zones, the basin was initiated as a NW-SE
trending continental rift undergoing domina nt NE-SW extension by
normal faulting. It was a relay zone be tween the two major transform
faults in a right ste pping arrangement (Figs. 9.4 and 9.5).

Tut6ia Sub-basin : abrupt lithospheric thinning by horizontal shearing

along vertical zo nes. In the upper crust, the structures developed are
compatible with dextral strike-slip deformation, whereas the ·lower crust
and li thospheric mantle were thinned by lateral drag and mantle diapirism
along the shear corridor.

Tromai Sub-basin : very similar to the Tut6ia Basin. A major difference

is that a greater angle between shear direction and external extension
diminishes the chances of preserved strike-slip patterns (Fig. 9.6). This
may justify the apparent la ck of firm seismic evidence for strike-slip
deformation (see section 5.4.1).

9.4.6 Late Albian

T he Late AJbian \Vas dominantly a period of e arly deformation of t he newly

formed basins (Plate 9. Llflb ). Uplift a nd inversion occu rre d in the Tut6 ia Sub-
hasin due to active injection of mantle material combined with strike-slip
displacement. Lateral motion a long the Sobra dinho Fault wa<; blocked. The
Parnafha Platform acted as a buttress, which contributed to the development of
the T ut6ia H igh. Strike-slip displacement was probably transferre d occanwards
by distributed offsets on a se t of NE-S\\/ oriented strike-slip faults (belonging 10

the Medio -Coreau Fold Belt) into the young R o rnanche Fracture Zone (sec Fig.
7. 14 ).

Chapter 9 Page ..:.02

 Tec1onic Evolution of Brazilia11 £q11Cl/oria/ Co11ti11 enta/ Margin Basins

regional extension

o:>{J

Figure 9.6 - Schematic model of geometric relations hip between the equatorial fracture zones and
marginal basins. Rifling in the Cacte Basin is related with the regional extension associated with
the divergent movement between tectonic plates. The Tutoia and Tromaf Basins developed
subparallel to the shear corridor and s how evidence of strike-slip tectonics. Strike-slip features in
the Tromai Bas in were not preserved because the normal-slip component became more
important.

9.4. 7 Cenomanian

A second phase of dominant dextral strike -slip motion affected the

equa to rial margin duri ng the Cenomania n (Plate 9.1.lllc). The rate of uplift in
the Tut6ia Suh-basin was probably amplifie d by the rmal effects of shearing
co nti nent against young oceanic lithosphere. Subsidence rates returned to Early
Albian levels in the Caet6 Sub-hasin whilst subsidence ceased in the Gurupi
G ra ben System.

Chapter 9 Page 403

 TectDnic Evolution of Br<l2ilian Equatorial Co11rinent11/ Marg;11 Basins

9.4.8 Late Cretaceous

The Late Cretaceous was a period of fast spreading between the African and
South American plates. Cooling and sedimentary loading progressively became
the major mechanisms of subsidence. However, rapid changes in spreading rates
with associated variations of stress fields in an anisotropic and still hot oceanic
lithosphere may have induced reactivation of main structures such as the Gurupi
and the Transbrasiliano Lineaments. Lateral heat input from northerly located
new oceanic lithosphere resulted in relative uplift of the Tut6ia Basin. The
relative uplift of the Tut6ia High continued throughout the Lc.te Cretaceous
probably as result of differential thermal subsidence of adjoining areas.

9.4.9 Cenozoic

During the Cenozoic a wedge of marine sediments was deposited as a result

of thermo-flexural subsidence mechanisms affecting the oceanic lithosphere
attached to the border of the continent. In this wedge (Humberto de Campos
Group), studies have shown that the third order sequences (Vail et al., 1977) can
be explained by relative sea level variations (Bender, 1987). This may suggest a
decrease in tectonic activity, which allowed sedimentary processes to play a more
important role, although the effects of in-plane stresses during this late stage
have not yet be~n investigated. Since the Brazilian Continental Margin is
presently in a state of predominant horizontal compression (Assump~ao et al.,
1985), the possibility of seismological reactivation of pre-existent di.o;continuities
along the margin during the Cenozoic cannot be ruled out, although no
conclusive evidence of this has been found to date.

The present-day profile of the Caete Sub-basin does not differ greatly from
that of typical rifted passive margin basins. The hasin is a NW-SE oriented
'
segment of the continental margin rhat is connected to normal oceanic
lithosphere. In contrast, the W-E segments (fromai and Tut6ia Sub-basins) are
attached to segments of lithosphere that underwent dominantly strike-slip

Chapter 9 Page 404

 Tectonic £vol111io11 of JJra;;ilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

deformation and are today recognised as broad (tens of km wide) shear zones 4
in which horizontal shearing along vertical planes was prevalent.

9.4.10 Summary

The present tectonic model for the evolution of the Equatorial Brazilian
Continental Margin differs from previous proposals by integrating geometric,
kinematic and mechanical aspects in a geodynamic scenario. The kinematic
model is basically an adaptation of that by Scrutton (1979) but includes
kinematic constraints derived from the analysis of mapped structural features.
The geometric model is greatly improved by detailed accounts of the structural
framework of several basins and by incorporating the notion of fracture zones as
wide zones of anomalous lithospheric thinning. The mechanical model was
benefitted by assessment of basin subside nce mechanisms, which included the
thermal and stress related effects of shearing parallel to the continental margin
trend.

In summary, the Brazilian Equatorial Atlantic Continental Margin was

generated as the southern branch of a Middle Cretaceous divergent transform
margin with a dextral sense of shearing. Three basic types of basins were
developed in this context: (1) pull-apart basins that e volved to la ter marginal
sags; (2) typical , ;fted margin basins with a classical early rift stage; and (3)
graben system with no p ost-rift subsidence. This variety of basin types indicate
different basin models which consequently require distinct exploration strategies.
A better knowledge of each particular basin model is interactively dependent on
a clearer understanding of the evolution of the margin as a whole.

4
fn this contcxr, the expression shear zones is used as the continental equivalent of oceanic fracture
zones of occ:mic tectonics.

Chapter 9 Page 405

 CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSIONS

111e tectonic evolution of several Brazilian Equatorial coastal basins together

with a comparison with their African counterparts characterize Middle
Cretaceous divergent transform margins for the conjugate continental margins of
North Brazil and \Vest Africa. Integration of geological and geophysical data
from multiple sources has yielded some conclusive results which have provided
important new constraints and implications on the tectonic evolution of these
regions. A new detailed tectonic model which involves geometric (shallow and
deep stru cture), kine matic and the rmo-mechanical considerations has been
formulated.

Summaries of specific conclusions concerne<l to each topic investigated in

this thesis has been given at the last section of each relevant chapter. This final
chapter is therefore meant to draw attention only to ge neral co ncl usio ns but in a
slightly differcIJt way. Th e general conclusions will be condensed by briefly
answer ing a few key questions. These questions arc formulated in a manne r to
prnvoke direct answers to old difficulties and new problems raised during this
investigation. They are grouped below into two headings based on whether they
are mai nly concerned to individu al basins or general tectoni c evolution of the
Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin.

10.1 BASIN DEVELOPMENT

(!!; How may the Barreirinhas/Para-Maranhao Basin System be systematicall)'

subdivided into consistent structural domains?

Chapter JO Page 406

 Tectonic Evo/11tio11 of Brazilian J:'.qumoria/ Comincntal Margin Basins

o On the basis of tectonic setting and structural style defined in this

investigation, a three -fold zona tion of the Barre irinhas/Para-Ma ranhao Basin
System has been proposed:

(1) Caetc Sub-basin: characterized by progressive extension towards the

offshore achieved by norma l faulting paralle l to the basin border.
Lithosphere thinning was accomplished by processes compatible with bulk
pure shear deformation.
(2) Tut6ia Sub-basin: initial rapid subsidence followed by a sustained period
of uplift and modulation of upper crust structures by predominantly
dcxtral strike-slip displacements. Lithospheric thinning was extremely fast
which produced a ve ry steep gradient of thinning. Thinning was probably
facilitated by act ive injection of mantle material into the crust along
vertical, lithosphe ric scale shear zones. No major thermal subsidence is
observe d.
(3) Tromaf Sub-basin: si milar to the previous case but with less preserved
features indicative of transform displacements. This was due to greater
exte nsion caused by obliquity with respect to the regional shearing
direction.

C•J How was the Gurupi Graben System developed·?

o The G urupi Graben System comprises the Bragarn;a-Viseu and Sao Luis
(Maraca~um~ and Pinhe iro Grabens) Basins as well as the Ilha Nova Graben. It
is oriented N\V-SE and cha nges polarity along strike in accordance with changes
in the Precamhri an fabric. Its development involved only very limited upper
crustal extension with no associated thermal anomaly. It was formed by we ak
NE-SW regional extension produced by the diverge nt character of the
contine nta l breakup. The resulting low strain rate may have triggered a dynamic
strain-hardening effe ct which precluded further extension. Continental
fragmentation was then successful at the site of the Ba rreirinhas/ Pa ra-Maranhao

Cnaprer JO Page 407

 Tectonic Evolmion of FJra:rilian Equatorial Conrincnral Morgin Basins

Basin System. This shift of locus of lithospheric thinning left the Ilha de Santana
Platform as a semidetached "microplate" fi rmly welded to the plate margin and
practically unaffected by upper crustal extension. After the initial tectonic
subsidence, the only events recorded in the basin are shear deformation
(Cenomanian-Late Cretaceous ?) in the southern grabens and mechanical as well
as isostatic uplift of the entire system (AJbian-Cenomanian).

@ Which basin model best fits the geological a nd geophysical observations

made on the marginal basins of equatorial Brazil?

o No single or simple b~sin model can successfully be applied tO the several

basins studied. This is largely due to the fact tbat most of the presently available
models arc addressed to or were developed fo r observations made on
continental extension or rifted continental margins where, in general, strike-slip
displacements are considered to play a minor role in lithospheric thinning.

A 3-D geodynamic model has bee n formulated to account fo r most of the

geological and geophysical evidence. It comprises a mechanically and
kinematically linked system of an onshore gra ben system connected, hy a
detachment surface, to a region where lithospheric thinning was controlled by
dextral shearing and locally, pure shear deformation. The Gurupi Graben System
was fo rmed by upper crustal extension, without major lithospheric thinning,
which was transfe rred to the northeast by a middle crustal detachment surface,
facili tated by a favourable Precambrian framework of shear zones. The Tromaf
and 'fut6ia s.ub-basins accommod ated this transfe rred extension by dextral shear,
whereas the Caete Sub-basin deformed by relati vely simple extensio n in a pure
shear dominated regime. The thermal effects of this complex scheme were: ( 1)
the Gurupi Graben System was developed in cold conditions; (2) the Caete Sub-
basin had a thermal evolution compatible with rifted basins in a passive margin;
and (3) the Tromaf and Tut6ia Sub-basins were highly affected by two additional
sources of shear heating: (1) continental vertical shear (Aptian-Albian) and (2) a

Chapter JO Page 408

·•
 Tec1onic Evolurion of Brazilian £quawrial Conri11en1al Margin B asins

northerly Jocated spreading centre sheared against the continental pl ate margin
(Cenomanian).

10.2 TECTONIC EVOLUTION

~ ls the tectonic evolution of the equatorial margin of Brazil similar to that of ·

the eastern Brazilian margin?

o No. The evolution of the equatorial and eastern Brazilian continental

ma rgins differ radically. The main distinction is tbat strike-slip deformation had
a dominant role during thinning of the equatorial 'Continental lithosphere
whereas stretching may explain most of the observations in the eastern
conti".'lental passive margin. In some areas of the equator ial region, initial
subsidence was du e to transtensional stresses rather than pure extension. The
resulting structural styles and pattern of sediment distribution are thus
fundamen tally distinct.

~ How was the original unthinned continental lithosphere of the equatorial

Atlantic region deformed to produce conjugate ancient transform continental
ma rgins?

o The Pre-C retaceous continental lithosphere of the Equatorial Atlantic had

an average thickness (~ 32 km) and was thinned very sharply by lateral drag of
low viscosity mantl e and lower crustal material. Viscosity was lowered by
additional heating induced shearing along vertical zones and j uxtaposi tion o f a
nascent spreading centre to the continental lithosphere.

Kinerna tically, the E -W shearing of the equatorial region was a necessary

requirement, imposed by fast and equivalent simultaneous spreading of the
C entral and South Atlantic Oceans. A transtensional shear co rridor \vith dexua1

Chapter JO Page 4(t9

..
Tectonic F:vofution of Bra:!ili'an Eq11alorial Continental Margin Basins

·· sense of displacement was imposed in association with a weak regional tensile

stress.

Ci: Why did the propagation of the South Atlantic rifting not follow an easier
path to the north, through weak zones of the Pan-African Belt but, instead, at
the northeastern corner of. Brazil, it was deflected to northwest and cut obliquely
the basement fabric and the southern edge of the West African-Sao Lufs ·
Craton?

a This question was partially answered by the kinematic framework which

required E~W shear motion along the eq_u atorial region. However, the fact _.that
the so called Sao Lufs Craton was indicated :o have been involved in the
Brasiliano shortening event provided supporting evidence for linking the
Mesozoic continental fragmentation with the position of the Brasiliano
deformation front.

~ Did the pre-existing structural framework play any other role in localization
of crustal deformation?

o Yes. Not o nly the localization hut also the orientation and asymmetry of the
Gurupi Graben System was partially controlled by the inherited framework of
Precambrian shear zones. Seismic interpretation of intrabasement reflections has
been used tQ infer extensional reactivation of old features and helped to indicate
that the deformation front of the Brasiliano compressional event lies in the
offshore region. The Brasiliano front might have had a fundamental role in
localization of the successful lithospheric b reakup.

~ What is the timing and sequence of tectonic events affecting the structure of
the Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin?

Chapter 10 Page 410

 Tectonic £,·o!ution of Brcailian Equatorial Co111inental Margin Basins

o A four-stage tectonic evolutionary model was proposed:

(I) Triassic-Jurassic NE-SW extension affecting the northwestem region of the
margin (Maraj6 Rift System); (II) Neocornian E-W extension affecting its
southeastern extreme (Potiguar Graben); (III) Aptian-Cenomanian period
·d ominated by vertical dextral E-W shearing (from the Foz do Amazonas to
Potiguar Basins); and (IV) Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic ENE-WSW spreading
stage (entire margin).

10.3 CONCLUDING REMARKS

In summary, among the more important condusions are: (1) the evolution of
the divergent transform margin is extremely complex and involves formation of
sedimentary basins of distinct structural styles and stratigraphic succession, with
obvious consequences to location of hydrocarbon resources, (2) the subsidence
history and structural development of these basins do not match simple
geodynamic models described for pure and simple shear deformation of the
lithosphere, (3) the initiation and further evolution of the basins and major
structural features seem to have been controlled by the inherited inhomogeneity
of the continental crust and interaction between regional and local stress fields,
(4) better understanding of the tectonic evolution of the Equatorial Atlantic

Ocean and its margins, and similar ancient divergent transform margins
elsewhere, is achieved by large scale tectonic analyses because basins are
kinematically and mechanically linked along large segments of the continental
margins.

·n1e application of the tectonic model delineated in this thesis to other

divergent transform margins elsewhere and mathematical description of thermal
and mechanical effects is clearly something towards which future research should
be oriented.Q

Chapter JO Page 41 J
 ·.

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 ,.:
·:

APPENDIXES
 ·.

APPENDIX A

NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES OF SUBSIDENCE ANALYSIS

In order to evaluate quantitatively the subsidence of sedimentary basins,

numerical techniques have been used to treat geological data. This appendix
briefly describes these techniques, giving their theoretical basis and basic
mathematical expressions. In the following sections decompaction and
back.stripping, which were applied to the geological data sets analysed in this
research project, will be discussed.

DECOMPACTION

Compaction of sedimentary rocks is the outcome of the interaction of many

chemical and physical processes acting during subsidence of sedimentary basins.
Porosity and density are commonly taken as measures of compaction. They vary
with the depth of burial. The porosity variation with deprh is usually expressed
by the Hub be rt & Rubcy (1959) equation:

(1)

where </>
0
is the surface porosity, z is depth and c is the porosity decay consta nt.

Expression (1) was assumed in the computer program (BASS<O; Kiang et al.,
J988) utilized for the suhsidencc analyses reported in Chapters 4, 5 and 6. It
should be noted, however, that the relationship between porosity and depth of
burial is no t always exponen tial (e.g. Selley, 1978; Yan Andel et al., 1977). In
fact, in the Barrcirinhas Basin, porosity data extracted from sonic and density
logs can be shown to depart from an cxponemial distriblition. A linear loss of
pore space with depth may have occurred, as suggested by the porosity plot

Appendfr A Page I
 Teaonic £volu1ion of Brazilian Equatorial Continental Margin /lasi11s

shown in Figure A.1.

POROSITY %

10 00
,.....__
V)
'-
....,
<I)

Q)
./ /
[
i 0

j:::
2000 •• e:,/
c,
(l_ lo
c
l.!J eh
Cl 0
o I
• • olo c_, MAS - 4
"• oP % v
• cF cf
·~ DENSITY
300C .;i1.1 <f>OA-.
, o c
O.Q..C Q.9 SONIC
I
I

Figure A.I - Poros ity-depth profile of well MAS~ of the Barrcirinhas Basi n. It suggests that
variation of porosity with depth may be described by a linear r a ther than an exponential function.

lf the de nsity of a sedimentary rock ( p 5 ) is given by the equation:

P s -4>p w +(1-4>)Psg (2)

where Pw is the density of wate r and Psg the density of the sediment grains (or
matrix), then the average density (p5 ) of a rock section with thickness s m ay be
exp ressed:

(3)

Appendix A Page 2
 Tecumic £1•0/ution of Brazilian Equatorial Contine11tal Margin Basins

which can be rewritten as:

(4)

or:

- (Ps8 - P)4>o( -cs l) (5)

p -p + exp -
s sg CS

The usual procedure for decompaction calculations was presented in Sclater

& Christie (1980).

In order to decompact a sedimentary sequence it is needed to compute the

volume of water (Vw=integral of pore space) in an unit section limited by
sequence boundari es (z 1 and z2):

(6)

A sedimentary section comprises a matrix of sediment grains and the volume

of water contained in its pore space. If the depths of the sedimentary layers are
known (pairs of z1 and z2 values) and the volume of water is known from (6),
then the decompaction procedure may be performed. Firstly, the younger layer is
removed. Then, the remaining sedimentary section moves upward follow ing the
compaction curve and adjusting a nev,-' volume of pore water. Mass balance as
functi on of t.be p orosity curve results in increased thicknesses of the layers due to
higher porosity as the layers move to shallower depths. The mass balance before
and after the upward migration of laye rs is expressed by:

Appendix A I'age 3
 Tectonic £volutio11 of Bm?ilian Equatorial Continental Margin Basins

The above equation is solved iteratively by numerical tools such as the

Newton-Raphson method.

BACKSTRIPPING

The subsidence history of sediments at a well location is a fu nction of five

main fa ctors: (1) sedimentary load; (2) compaction; (3) palaeobathyme try; (4)
sea-level variation and (5) tectonic subside nce.

The backstripping technique applied to subsidence curves consists of the

isolation of the tectonic subsidence from the effects of the other factors. This is
done by removal of water (sea-level variation) a nd sedimentary loads as well as
adding the palaeowaier-depths.

Steckler & \Vatts (J 978) have proposed the following e quation for the
hacks·tripping, assuming an Airy type isostatic compensation:

(8)

where: Y =water loaded tec~on.ic subsidence; s* = decompacted sediment

thickness (zrzr); Pw = de nsi ty of sea wate r: Pm ::: mantle de nsity;

Wd = palaeowatcr-depth; and ASL = sea-level varia[ion.

Equation (8) is solved by taking Ps from (5) and s* from (7).

,.1ppe11dix A Page -I
 Tectonic Evolution of Brazilian E.q11a1orial Con1ine111al Margin Basins

UMITATIONS OF SUBSIDENCE TECHNIQUES

Sawyer (1986) has warned about the danger of using industry well dara to
supply tecto njc subsidence analyses. H owever, the wells used in this research arc
representative of a wide range of structural si tuations. Tilted blocks were
sampled at highs, lows and intermediate positions as well as hinge zones and
limbs representing fo lded features. Because much of the subsurface data used in
this study was gathered by wildcat wells and stratigraphic drilling, and also
because they have a broad distribution, many of the problems commonly
involved with industry data have been minimized.

Another problem is that these tech niques \vere used to srn dy the subsidence
history only at we ll locations. This one-dimensional a pproach is a sound scientific
p::-ocedure but does not allow the examination of geological cross-sections or the
effects of flexural-isostatic models. Future research should consider two and
three-dimensional subsidence analyses in the a rea studied in th is thesis.

Appe11dl'c ..-t Page 5

 APPENDIX B

THE MEDIO-COREAU FOLD BELT

The Medio-Coreau Fold Belt (Fig. 3.5) or "Northwest of Ceara Shear Bel('
(Abreu et al., 1988) is perhaps one of the best Studied belts of the Brasiliano
Orogen exposed in the Borborema Province (Costa et al., 1979; Sa, 1984). The
architecture of the belt is seen in the inset of Figure 3.5 which shows a two-
grabens system bounded to the northwesr by the Granja Massif and to the east-
southeast by the Sobral-Pedro II strike-slip fauh. The Ubajara-J ai baras and
Martin6pole Grabens arc separated by the Tucunduba Horst. The Granja Massif
and the Tucunduba Horst expose the basement of the fold belt a nd are made up
of gneisses, migmatites a11d gra nites. The age of these rocks are attributed to the
Archean reworked during the Proterozoic (Santos & Neves, 1984). The highly
sheared gneisses and migmatites of the Granja Massif have a strong NE-SW
orientation with local trends t0wards the E-\V. 1l1e gneissic-mylonitic foliation
dips steeply toward the southeast. Cataclasites associated with dextral strike-slip
faults are found in the Tu cunduba Horst also with a NE-SW orientation and
associated with tbe boundary fault.

Granitic bodies, granulites and charnockites a re largely found within the

Granja Massif domain. T he Pedra do Sal Granite is a small granitic body
outcropping at the shore line, 15 km north of the town of Parnafba (see location
in Fig. 3.5). Gama Jr. et al. (1988) have made detailed petrostructural
investigatioIL'; of this exposure and revealed the existence of narrow and
discontinuous mylonitic bands cross-cutting the entire body. The orientation of
these steep shear zones are dominantly :'.\E-S\V with a dextral sense of
movement. Field o bservations carried out during this research have confirmed
that these zones' have the orientation and sense of movement ascribed to them
and that tbe granitic body shows deformation features only in localized strained
zones (see section 7.2.3). The assemblage of mi crostructures identified by those

Appendi\· B Page J
 Tectonic Evolurion of Brazilian £quawrial <..on1inental Margin Basins

authors, including thin layers of pseudotachylyte associated with ultra mylonites,

led them to suggest a progressive brittle-ductile shearing process to explain the
observed deformation pattern. The similarity with a nearby da ted acid plutonism
(Chaval Granitoid), suggests that the Pedra do Sal granite was form ed and lately
deformed during the Brasiliano orogenic event. Results of field work carried out
in this area together with structural information extracted from radar and
satellite images are presented in Chapter 7.

The Medio-Coreau Fold Belt, as stated earlier, can be divided into two
graben-like belts. Both are composed of metasedimemary and volcano-
sedimentary rocks. The stratigraphy of the Martin6pole graben is still poorly
defined. It co mprises phyllites which display flat-lying schistosity. The Ubajara
and Jaibaras G roups are sedimentary sequences that fill a set of small grabens in
the Ubajara-Jaibaras belt. The Ubajara Group corr.prises a sequence of
quartzitcs, slates, limestones and sandstones which represent the transition from
contine ntal rift sediments to marine carbonates followed by a regressive elastic
cycle. In addition to the dominantly continental sedimentary sequence, the
Jaibaras Group includes basalts, dolerites and gabbros. The co oling ages of this
basic event has been dated at 480-510 Ma by K/ Ar method, which suggests that
the maximum age for the overlain elastic formation to be E arly Ordovician.
Unconforrnably overlying this upper unit of the Jaibaras Group is an Upper
Ordovician formation belonging to the Serra Grande Group which is the
lowermost Pa laeozoic sedimentary sequence onlapping the basement of the
Pamafb a Province. This relationship supports the radiometric evidence for the
age limits of the Medio-Corcau deposition. The Jaibaras G roup has been
interpreted as the molassic sequence fo r the Brasiliano orogeny in the
Borborema Province (S<l., 1984; Caby, 1989).

The structural pattern of the fold belc is relatively simple and dominated by
the NE-SW tre nds. The two grabens are bounded eithe r by no rmal, thrust or
strike-slip faults. Although the fractured, folded and sheared structures share the
same NE-S\V orientation, seve ral segments of these structures assume an E -W

Appendix B Page 2
 Tectonic E volurio11 of Brazilian Equatorial Cominemal Margin Basins

trend locally. Abreu et al. (1988) presented results of a very detailed structural
analysis of mesoscopic and large sc;lle features throughout this region and
concluded that the Jast increment of deformation in a ductile environment was
characte rized by dextral displacement. Palaeozoic motion has been noted fo r
these early structures (Santos & Neves, 1984).

Appendix B Page 3