Biology 140 Human Biology Labs

Lab 2
Cell division Preparing for the lab:

Textbook chapters 6.1, 6.2, 7.2

Introduction Links associated with each topic
Growth happens when cells increase in number. are given throughout the lab
Cell numbers increase when a parent cell moves handout. Please visit each before
through a series of steps/changes to divide in attending the lab.
half, creating two daughter cells. The set of
steps/changes is the cell cycle.

Types of cell division Learning Goals

In humans, two types of cell division occur.
Mitosis is the cell division used by body cells for growth of www.sites.google.com 1. To introduce the chromosome.
the body and repair of tissues. For example, when a person
breaks their arm, the bone tissue responds by using existing bone cells to produce 2. To introduce the process of DNA
more bone cells to heal the break. replication.
3. To introduce the process of mito-
Meiosis is used, very specifically, to produce cells for sexual reproduction. In this sis as the mechanism use for growth
type of division, the parent cell divides in half, as happens in mitosis, but the and repair.
daughter cells also divide in half, producing four cells for each parent cell. The
biggest difference between mitosis and meiosis, however, is inside the cell. In 4. To introduce the process of meio-
meiosis, the daughter cells have half the amount of DNA that was found in the sis as the mechanism that produces
parent cell. cells used for reproduction.

Cell division is controlled in that it can only happen when a cell receives a signal
to divide. For example, when you cut your hand, the cells around the wound send
out a signal to the immune system, and your immune system responds to take care
of any infection and signals for extra skin cells to repair the wound. Objectives:
After completing the lab, you (the
As often as cell division occurs, there are times when cell division fails. In the student) should be able to:
case of a skin tag, the skin cells fail to recognize when there are enough skin cells
and they produce more cells than necessary. A more serious example is when 1. understand how DNA within hu-
cells are altered at a genetic level and no longer respond to the control mecha- man body cells is organized into
nisms that regulate division, resulting in cancer. chromosomes.
2. understand how chromosomes are
copied for cell division.
3. describe the process and provide
appropriate examples of when mito-
sis occurs in humans.
The picture on the
left shows mitosis 4. describe the process of meiosis.
in the cells of an 5. describe the life cycle of a human
onion root, where- from conception to reproduction, in
as the picture on terms of when mitosis and meiosis
the right shows occur and how genetic material
meiosis in an un- combines to produce offspring.
named cell.

www.superteachertools.us www.mitomeio.pbworks.com

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Today’s Lab

We will examine models and posters and work through activities to gain a better understanding of DNA replication,
chromosomes, mitosis and meiosis. If you have trouble with any of the video links, try using a different browser.

DNA Structure and Replication double helix

DNA is a macromolecule made up of smaller parts called nucleotides. A nu-

cleotide is a molecule that is made up of a phosphate, a sugar called deoxyri-
bose, and a base. The base is the part that identifies the nucleotide. The nucle-
otides are bonded to each other to form a chain so that the phosphates and sug- phosphate
ars are connected along one side and the bases are all facing outwards in such
a way that the bases can connect to other molecules.

There are four different bases and they interact with each other in specific
ways, based on their chemical structure. The four bases are Adenine, Gua-
nine, Cytosine, and Thymine. They interact with each other following com-
plementary base pairing rules:
Adenine bonds with Thymine (A-T)
Guanine bonds with Cytosine (G-C)
DNA is a double helix molecule. This means that there are two strands of nu-
cleotides that are bonded together (base to base) to form a ladder-like struc-
ture, which is then twisted into a helix, similar to a spiral staircase, where the adenine
P-S are like the banisters that form the outside of the molecule and the steps
are the bases bonded together.

If you want to try to make a double helix at home, you can cook spaghetti,
separate two strands and wrap them loosely around a paper towel tube, pinch-
ing them together at the top and bottom. Once the spaghetti dries, pull or cut
out the tube and you have a double helix!
View the ball and stick model of the double helix and the posters in the lab to
visualize how all the parts that make up DNA are connected.
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/double-helix
http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/chemical-structure-dna thymine

http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/dna-replication-basic-detail guanine

When a cell receives the signal to divide the contents of the cell need to be
duplicated, including the chromosomes. The process of copying the chromo-
somes is called DNA Replication. Inside the nucleus, the enzymes that know
how to read and copy DNA open up the double helix, read each base, and then
pair it with a corresponding base, making a whole new chromosome. The pro-
cess occurs very quickly in the nucleus to make copies of the chromosomes
very quickly.

In the following table, practice matching up the base pairs of the template
(original) strand to form the complementary strand. replicating DNA. Using
the given bases as a template, write in the bases that would be matched to the
given bases. The first two columns are the nucleotides of the original chromo-
some. Through the process of replication, two chromatids will be formed.
Each chromatid has an original strand of nucleotides and a newly constructed
complementary strand of nucleotides.
deoxyribose (sugar) cytosine

2
Original 1 Original 2 Original 1 Complement 1 Complement 2 Original 2
A T A T
T A T A
G C G C
G C G C
C G C G
C G C G
A T A T
C G C G
G C G C
T A T A
T A T A
A T A T
T A T A
C G C G
T A T A
T A T A
A T A T
C G C G
T A T A
A T A T
T A T A
C G C G
G C G C
A T A T
T A T A
A T A T
G C G C

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 http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/human-chromosomes
Chromosomes are the pieces of DNA found in the nucleus of each cell.
Humans have 46 chromosomes: 23 from each parent and occur as 23 pairs based
on 4 characteristics. The pairs are called homologous pairs. Chromosomes in
the pairs are the same length, have the same banding patterns (stripes of light
and dark), and the same centromere locations (a specific spot on the chromo-
some where two copies stick together). The chromosomes in the pair have
genes for the same traits in the same place (for example, the chromosome for
eye colour is in the same place on the chromosome from one parent as on the Centromere
chromosome from the other parent). The genes are for the same trait, but the
instructions might be different. For example, one gene for eye colour could call
for brown eyes and another for blue eyes. Note that the characteristics that de-
fine 2 chromosomes as being in a pair are the same characteristics that separate Light band
2 chromosomes from the rest. Dark band
Chromosome replication
Before a parent cell can divide to produce two daughter cells, many cellular
components, including DNA and cell organelles, have to be copied so there is double the components of the parent
cell. Once this duplication of cell components starts, the cell does not function any longer and is on the path to cell di-
vision. Duplicating the chromosomes is called DNA replication.
When the cell signals that it is about to divide, DNA replication starts. Large protein molecules (enzymes) within the
nucleus read the chromosomes and make a copy of them so the cell ends up with two identical copies (chromatids or
sister chromatids). Chromatids are immature chromosome, and they are held together by the centromere after they are
copied and stay connected until cell division pulls them apart. The cell cannot function properly while the chromatids
are connected.
replicated chromosome

http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle_js.htm

The cell cycle

The cell cycle consists of stages that the cell moves through from its
formation until its division, if it divides.
1. Interphase: the non-dividing phase of the cell cycle.
A. G1: the phase when the cell is growing and maturing to chromatid
carry out its function. The cell starts at half of its mature size, so it
must grow and add organelles and structures. The cell is functioning
at this point, such as when a liver cell produces bile.
centromere
B. S: the phase when the cell replicates the chromosomes in
the nucleus. Once in S phase, the cell is committed to dividing be-
cause the chromosomes cannot function.
C. G2: the phase when the cell does final preparations for
division. The chromosomes condense into tight bundles to help with
separation of the chromatids into the daughter cells. Other cell com-
ponents are also copied so that the daughter cells have enough com-
ponents to function.
2. Division: also called M-phase or Mitosis or Meiosis.
Checkpoints in the cell cycle ensure the cell can proceed to the next
stage. For example, the checkpoint between S and G2 allows the cell
to ensure the chromosomes have been replicated properly.
chromatid

www.idnatity.com
4
 The cell cycle

A closer look at the

four steps of mitosis

Prophase: a preparatory phase where the cell is getting structurally

organized to separate the chromatids. The cytoskeleton is getting
organized and the nuclear membrane is breaking apart.

Metaphase: another preparatory phase where the chromosomes are

getting organized to separate the chromatids from each other. The
chromosomes line up end to end around the circumference of the
cell in such a way that the chromatids can be pulled by the spin-
dle fibers (the cytoskeleton) to opposite ends of the cell.

Anaphase: the chromatids are separated from each other and

moved by the cytoskeleton to opposite ends of the cell. This cre-
ates two identical bundles of chromosomes in the cell.

Telophase: the cell begins to rebuild in preparation for the separa-

tion of the parent cell into two daughter cells. The nuclear mem-
branes are built around the two sets of chromosomes.

As mitosis ends, cytokinesis divides the parent cell into two

daughter cells. Mitosis is the division of copies of the chromo-
somes, whereas cytokinesis is the physical division of the par-
ent cell. The daughter cells immediately enter G1, the phase
where they grow and mature.

www.cyberbridge.mcb.harvard.edu/mitosis_5.html

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L a b a c t i v i t i e s f o r m i to s i s
Viewing mitosis in the cells of an onion root.
Examine the slides and try to identify each of
the phases of mitosis. Use the diagram to the
right as a guide, but as you look, think about
what is happening to the chromosomes in each
cell that you view.

When you have found a cell in which you can

clearly identify the stage of mitosis, position
the slide so that the pointer in the right eye-
piece points to the cell and have the TA check
that you have identified the cell stage correctly.
You can also make a drawing on the last page.

Triffles!
You are going to work through the stages of
mitosis as they occur in a unique organism
called a Triffle (Latin name: Triffle triffle). www.mmp.vfu.c
Triffles are mythical creatures with six chromo- z
somes that look like knives, forks, and spoons. Work out each step of the mitosis process using yarn for
the plasma and nuclear membranes, and plastic knives, forks and spoons for chromosomes. Creating a model is a good
way to demonstrate understanding. You will be replicating the steps starting with a cell that is passing from G1 into S.
Materials
Yarn — two pieces 100 cm long (nuclear membrane)
Yarn — two pieces 250 cm long (cellular/plasma membrane)
Rubber bands — six (centromere)
Fork, knife and spoon — two different colours for each pair, two for each colour
(chromosomes)

Methods
1. The yarn will represent the nuclear and plasma membranes. The longer piec-
es are for the plasma membrane; arrange them to represent a cell, with the
yarn overlapping.
2. Use the shorter yarn to make a nuclear membrane.
3. Put six chromosomes in the nucleus. We are working with 3 pairs of chromosomes, each pair is
made up of a knife of one colour and a knife of the other colour, a fork of one colour and a fork of
the other colour, and a spoon of one colour and a spoon of the other colour.
A. What happens to the chromosomes as the cell moves through S phase? Confirm with TA.

4. Create the replicated chromosomes by adding another of each utensil. Attach the “chromatids” to each other (the cut-
lery of the same colour). The rubber bands represent the centromeres.
5. The cell has passed from S to G2 and from G2 to mitosis. Work through the steps of mitosis (prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis) by moving the membranes and chromosomes/chromatids as necessary. Take turns in
your group moving the pieces. You should end up with two daughter cells. Show your TA the cell division from S stage
on. Be sure you fully understand the steps as you will need to understand this for lab and lecture assessments. You can
make drawings of the stages to help you learn the stages.

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Meiosis

http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis_js.htm

At some point in the evolutionary history of life on earth, sex- 2n 2n

ual reproduction evolved as a mechanism to increase genetic
diversity in a species, a good way to ensure survival of the
species in an ever-changing environment. Sexual reproduc-
tion is the fusion of chromosomes from one individual with
the chromosomes of another individual. In humans, as in
most other organism, the chromosomes carried in the sperm
fuse with the chromosomes carried in the ovum/egg.

Human body cells have a total of 46 chromosomes. This

DNA, organized into these 46 chromosomes, is what defines
us as the human species. Think about what would happen if 1n 1n
we combined two cells of 46 chromosomes each:
46+46=92 (not the correct number to be human)
2n
Meiosis is the mechanism that reduces the chromosome num-
ber by half. It only occurs in cells that will become gametes,
so in the testes and the ovaries. In order to reduce chromo- 2n
some number, cells go through two genetic divisions to pro-
duce four daughter cells to each parent cell. Thus, the result
of fertilization of two of these cells is:
23+23=46 (the correct number to be human) 2n

Remember that the pairs of chromosomes are called homolo-

gous pairs. The chromosomes are called homologues. There-
fore, in human cells, we have 23 homologous pairs of chro-
mosomes, 23 from one parent, 23 from the other parent. 2n
To talk about these cells in general terms, irrespective of spe-
cies, we can use the terms haploid and diploid. Haploid cells
have half the number of chromosomes as diploid cells.

HAPLOID DIPLOID

Gamete zygote
1n chromosomes 2n chromosomes

Before meiosis starts, all the chromosomes are replicated, con-

densed, and the cell is readied for division. The phases of mei-
osis are very similar to the phases of mitosis, with some key differ-
ences. Diploid cell (2n = 4) Haploid cell (1n = 2)

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Meiosis I Prophase I: the same preparatory events as in mitosis. The difference is that the homologous chromo- Page 6
somes pair up and sit very close to each other. Their sitting close to each other is called synapsis. When
the chromosomes were copied, each chromosome has two chromatids; therefore, synapsis forms tetrads.
The chromosomes exchange parts with one another in a process called crossing over. This creates new
combinations of genes that have never existed before, increasing the genetic diversity of the species.
This happens between non-sister chromatids.

Metaphase I: the homologous pairs line up end to end around the circumference of the cell, with one
chromosome on each side, in preparation for separation of the homologous pairs from each other. The
chromatids are attached at the centromere.

Anaphase I: the homologous chromosome pairs are separated as the cytoskeleton moves them to oppo-
site ends of the cell. The chromatids are still attached to each other.

Telophase I: the nuclear membranes form around the chromosomes. The parent cell is ready to divide
into two daughter cells.

Cytokinesis physically separates the parent cell into two daughter cells.
Each daughter cell in humans has 23 chromosomes, and each chromo-
some still consists of two chromatids. Meiosis II separates the chroma-

Meiosis II

Prophase II: the cytoskeleton prepares to separate the chromatids and the nuclear
membrane breaks apart.

Metaphase II: the chromosomes line up end to end around the circumference of
the cell.

Anaphase II: the chromatids are separated from each other and moved by the
cytoskeleton to opposite ends of the cell.

Telophase II: the cell begins to rebuild in preparation for the separation of the
parent cell into two daughter cells. The nuclear membranes build around the two
sets of chromosomes.

Cytokinesis physically separates the parent cell into two daughter cells. In
humans, each cell has 23 chromosomes.

Take home message: Meiosis I separates the homologous chromosomes and

Meiosis II separates the chromatids. At the end, there are four daughter cells
that are not identical to the parent cell, or to each other.
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Lab activities for meiosis
Piffles!
You are going to mimic the stages of meiosis as they occur in a unique organism called the Piffle (Latin name Piffle pif-
fle). The Piffle is a mythical creature (distantly related to the Triffle) with four chromosomes that look like clay. You
will work out each step of the process using yarn for membranes and clay for chromosomes.

Materials
Yarn — four pieces 100 cm long and all the same colour (nuclear membrane)
Yarn — four pieces 250 cm long (cell/plasma membrane)
Clay — two different colours (note that clay is oily and will leave a residue)
Bench paper to protect the bench from the oily clay

Methods

1. The shorter pieces represent the nuclear membrane and the longer the cell membrane. The cell membrane yarn will
be overlapped when you lay out your cell. As you being to move your chromosomes through the stages of meiosis,
you can expand the cell.
2. Make four chromosomes from the clay (on the bench paper) to represent the diploid state of the cell as it exists in
G1. One colour of clay represents maternal chromosomes and the other represents paternal chromosomes. For each
colour, roll out two long chromosomes and two short chromosomes. This is an easy way to differentiate the two ho-
mologous chromosome pairs. The short pair is Pair 1 and the long pair is Pair 2. Have the TA check your cell
layout.

A) In what organs will meiosis take place?

B) Why are the chromosomes in Pair 1 and in Pair 2 called homologous?

Check both answers with the TA

3. The cell is moving from G1 to S phase. To mimic the replication of the chromosomes, roll out identical pieces to
those you already made. Pinch the pieces the same colour and length together to represent chromatids attached at the
centromere (forming an X). In your cell you will have eight pieces of clay. Check this cell layout with the TA.

4. The cell is moving through G2 and into meiosis. Follow the steps of meiosis, moving the nuclear membrane, homolo-
gous pairs and chromatids as they would move in a cell. Each person should do the activity and explain to others what is
happening.

A) How will you represent synapsis?

B) How will you represent crossing over?

C) Between what chromosomes does crossing over occur (sister chromatids, homologous chromosomes, or non homolo-
gous chromosomes)?

5. Once you have moved through all eight phases of meiosis and covered cytokinesis, you should have four daughter
cells.

6. Show your TA the steps of meiosis, then return all the materials to the appropriate place, taking care to separate the
colours of clay. If your bench is oily from the clay, ask for cleaner and wipe down the bench.

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Cell division

Key Words

Mitosis

Meiosis

Chromatid

Chromosome

Centromere

Replication

Cell cycle

Haploid

Diploid

Nucleotide

Deoxyribose

Cytokinesis

Adenine

Guanine

Thymine

Cytosine

Homologous pair

Note that mitosis and meiosis have phases that include the same names, but that in mitosis, the stages
do not have a number behind them. In the first part of meiosis, the stages have the Roman numeral I
behind them, whereas in part two, they have II behind them. For example, if you see anaphase written,
you know that it refers to mitosis, because there is no number behind it. If you see metaphase II writ-
ten, you know it refers to metaphase in the second part of meiosis.

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 Draw one of the stages of mitosis that you see in the onion root slide.

Study guide — to help focus your learning

1. Define mitosis. Explain how mitosis is the cell division that is used for growth and repair of tissue. 
 Define meiosis. Explain what kinds of cells are produced by meiosis. 
3. Describe how mitosis and meiosis are different from each other. 
4. Explain what a chromosome is and how many are in human body cells. 
5. Explain the four characteristic of homologous chromosomes. 
6. Define DNA replication and briefly explain the steps of the process. 
7. Explain how chromosomes and chromatids are different from each other. 
 Explain the phases of interphase. 
9. Explain how the cell knows when to move through the cell cycle (checkpoints). 
10. Explain cytokinesis. 
11. Explain the four phases of mitosis. 
12. Explain why meiosis evolved as sexual reproduction evolved. In other words, why do organisms that re-
produce by sexual reproduction have to create their gametes by meiosis? 
13. How does crossing over increase genetic diversity in a species? 

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