Polymer Science

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 Monomer
• Monomer: refers to the
small molecule from which
a polymer is synthesized.

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 Repeat Units
• Repeat Units: These are
structural entities which
are successively repeated
along the chain.

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 Types of Plastics

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 Thermosets
• Thermoset polymers are network
polymers. They become
permanently hard during their
formation, and do not soften
upon heating. Network polymers
have covalent cross links between
adjacent molecular chains.
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 Thermoplastics
Thermoplastics soften when
heated (and eventually liquefy)
and harden when cooled-
processes that are totally
reversible and may be
repeated.
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 Polymerization Process

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 Addition Polymerization
• Addition polymerization is a
process by which monomer
units are attached one at a
time in chainlike fashion to
form a linear macromolecule.

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• The composition of the
resultant product molecule
is an exact multiple for that
of the original reactant
monomer.
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 Addition Polymerization
Stages
1) Initiation
2) Propagation
3) Termination
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 1.
• Initiation: An active center
capable of propagation is
formed by a reaction
between an initiator (or
catalyst) and the monomer
unit.
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• Again, R. represents the
active initiator, and is an
unpaired electron.

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 2.
• Propagation: Involves the
linear growth of the polymer
chain by the sequential
addition of monomer units to
this active growing chain
molecule.
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• This may be represented,
again for polyethylene, as
follows: Chain growth is
relatively rapid;

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• Termination: The active
ends of two propagating
chains may link together to
form one molecule.

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• Addition polymerization is
used in the synthesis of
polyethylene, polypropylene,
poly (vinyl chloride), and
polystyrene, as well as many of
the copolymers.
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 Composites

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 Introduction
• Composite materials are materials
made from two or more constituent
materials with significantly different
physical or chemical properties, that
when combined, produce a material
with characteristics different from
the individual components.
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Composite Terminologies

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Matrix and Dispersed Phase
• The matrix phase is a
continuous phase that
surrounds the non-
continuous dispersed
phase.
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Mechanical Characteristics
1)Matrix
2)Dispersed phases
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 In general, the matrix
phase is relatively weak,
has a low elastic modulus,
but is quite ductile.

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• On the other hand, the
fiber phase is normally
quite strong, stiff, and
brittle.

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 Polymer-matrix fiber-
reinforced composite

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 Functions of the Matrix
Phase

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1) To bind the fibers together so
that the applied stress is
distributed among the fibers.
2) To protect the surface of the
fibers from being damaged.
3) To separate the fibers and
inhibit crack propagation.
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Mechanical Characteristics
1) Matrix
2) Fiber Phases
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• The matrix phase must be
ductile and is usually
relatively soft, whereas the
fiber phase must be stiff
and strong.
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 Fiber and Matrix Bond
Reasons for strong
bond
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• Maximize the stress
transmittance between matrix
and fiber phases.
• Minimize fiber pull-out, and
the probability of failure.

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 Worked out Example
Numerical

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Qn. A continuous and aligned
glass fiber-reinforced
composite consists of 40 vol%
of glass fibers having a
modulus of elasticity of 69
Gpa and 60 vol% of a polyester
resin that, when hardened,
displays a modulus of 3.4 GPa
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 1.
Compute the modulus of
elasticity of this composite
in the longitudinal
direction

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 2.
• If the cross-sectional area is 250
2
mm and a stress of 50 Mpa is
applied in this longitudinal
direction, compute the
magnitude of the load carried by
each of the fiber and matrix
phases.
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 3.
• Determine the strain that is
sustained by each phase
when the stress in part (2)
is applied.

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Ceramics

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 Ceramics

A wide-ranging group of
materials whose ingredients
are clays, sand and felspar.

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 Clays
Contain some of the following:
• Silicon & Aluminium as silicates
• Potassium compounds
• Magnesium compounds
• Calcium compounds

Sand contains Silica and Feldspar or Aluminium

Potassium Silicate.
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 Types of Ceramics

• Whitewares
• Refractories
• Glasses
• Abrasives
• Cements
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Comparison metals v ceramics

Metals Ceramics

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 Bonded Clay Ceramics
Made from natural clays and
mixtures of clays and added
crystalline ceramics.
These include:
• Whitewares
• Structural Clay Products
• Refractory Ceramics
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 Whitewares
• Crockery
• Floor and wall tiles
• Sanitary-ware
• Electrical porcelain
• Decorative ceramics

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Whiteware: Bathrooms

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Slip Casting

Sinter
and
Serve

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Whitewares

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 Refractories
Firebricks for furnaces and ovens. Have
high Silicon or Aluminium oxide content.
Brick products are used in the
manufacturing plant for iron and steel,
non-ferrous metals, glass, cements,
ceramics, energy conversion, petroleum,
and chemical industries.

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 Refractories
• Used to provide thermal protection of other
materials in very high temperature applications,
such as steel making (Tm=1500°C), metal foundry
operations, etc.

• They are usually composed of alumina

(Tm=2050°C) and silica along with other oxides:
MgO (Tm=2850°C), Fe2O3, TiO2, etc., and have
intrinsic porosity typically greater than 10% by
volume.

• Specialized refractories, (those already mentioned)

and BeO, ZrO2, mullite, SiC, and graphite with low
porosity are also used.
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Refractory Brick

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 Amorphous Ceramics
(Glasses)
• Main ingredient is Silica (SiO2)
• If cooled very slowly will form crystalline structure.
• If cooled more quickly will form amorphous structure
consisting of disordered and linked chains of Silicon and
Oxygen atoms.
• This accounts for its transparency as it is the crystal
boundaries that scatter the light, causing reflection.
• Glass can be tempered to increase its toughness and
resistance to cracking.

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 Glass Types
Three common types of glass:
• Soda-lime glass - 95% of all glass, windows
containers etc.
• Lead glass - contains lead oxide to improve
refractive index
• Borosilicate - contains Boron oxide, known as
Pyrex.

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 Glasses
• Flat glass (windows)
• Container glass (bottles)
• Pressed and blown glass (dinnerware)
• Glass fibres (home insulation)
• Advanced/specialty glass (optical fibres)

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Glass Containers

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 Pressed Glass Processing

Softened
Gob

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 Blow Molding

Softened
glass

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Glass in Buildings

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Plate Glass Drawing Processes

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 Tempered Glass
Small Scratches

The strength of glass can

be enhanced by inducing
compressive residual
stresses at the surface.

The surface stays in

compression - closing
small scratches and cracks.

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 Hardening Processes

• Tempering:
– Glass heated above Tg but below the softening point
– Cooled to room temp in air or oil
– Surface cools to below Tg before interior
– when interior cools and contracts it draws the exterior into
compression.

• Chemical Hardening:
– Cations with large ionic radius are diffused into the surface
– This strains the “lattice” inducing compressive strains and
stresses.

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Armoured Glass
• Many have tried to gain
access with golf clubs
and baseball bats but
obviously the glass
remains intact ! From
time to time a local TV
station intends to show
videos of those trying to
get at the cash!!

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Leaded Glass

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 Crystalline Ceramics
Good electrical insulators and refractories.
• Magnesium Oxide is used as insulation material in
heating elements and cables.
• Aluminium Oxide
• Beryllium Oxides
• Boron Carbide
• Tungsten Carbide.
• Used as abrasives and cutting tool tips.

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 Abrasives
• Natural (garnet, diamond, etc.)
• Synthetic abrasives (silicon carbide, diamond,
fused alumina, etc.) are used for grinding,
cutting, polishing, lapping, or pressure
blasting of materials

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 Cements

• Used to produce concrete roads, bridges,

buildings, dams.

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 Advanced Ceramics

• Advanced ceramic materials have been developed over the

past half century

• Applied as thermal barrier coatings to protect metal

structures, wearing surfaces, or as integral components by
themselves.

• Engine applications are very common for this class of

material which includes silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide
(SiC), Zirconia (ZrO2) and Alumina (Al2O3)

• Heat resistance and other desirable properties have lead to

the development of methods to toughen the material by
reinforcement with fibers and whiskers opening up more
applications for ceramics

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 Advanced Ceramics
• Structural: Wear parts, bioceramics, cutting tools,
engine components, armour.
• Electrical: Capacitors, insulators, integrated circuit
packages, piezoelectrics, magnets and
superconductors
• Coatings: Engine components, cutting tools, and
industrial wear parts
• Chemical and environmental: Filters, membranes,
catalysts, and catalyst supports

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 Engine Components

Rotor (Alumina)

Gears (Alumina)
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 Turbocharger

Ceramic Rotor

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Ceramic Brake Discs

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McLaren Mercedes Benz

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 Silicon Carbide

Automotive
Components in
Silicon Carbide

Chosen for its heat

and wear resistance

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 Ceramic Armour

• Ceramic armour systems are used to protect military

personnel and equipment.

• Advantage: low density of the material can lead to weight-

efficient armour systems.

• Typical ceramic materials used in armour systems include

alumina, boron carbide, silicon carbide, and titanium
diboride.

• The ceramic material is discontinuous and is sandwiched

between a more ductile outer and inner skin.

• The outer skin must be hard enough to shatter the projectile.

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• Most of the impact energy is absorbed by the fracturing of
the ceramic and any remaining kinetic energy is
absorbed by the inner skin, that also serves to contain
the fragments of the ceramic and the projectile
preventing severe impact with the personnel/equipment
being protected.

• Alumina ceramic/Kevlar composite system in sheets

about 20mm thick are used to protect key areas of
Hercules aircraft (cockpit crew/instruments and
loadmaster station).

• This lightweight solution provided an efficient and

removable/replaceable armour system. Similar systems
used on Armoured Personnel Carrier’s.
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Ceramic - Composite Armor

Ceramic-
Outer hard Discontinuous
skin

Projectile

Personnel
and
Equipment

Inner
ductile
skin

Ceramic Armor System

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 Silicon Carbide

Body armour and

other components
chosen for their
ballistic properties.

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