ASIA-PACIFIC JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309

Published online in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/apj.1648

Supplement article
Bioplastics from renewable resources: the benefits of
biodegradability
Francesco Razza1 and Francesco Degli Innocenti2*
1
Novamont, Piazzale Donegani 4, 05100 Terni, Italy
2
Novamont, Via Fauser 8, 28100 Novara, Italy

ABSTRACT: Bioplastics made with renewable resources are now ready for full commercial exploitation. Starch-based
plastics are an important class of bioplastics used to make biodegradable products. Biodegradability can contribute to alleviating
the waste problem of our current society. In this paper, three case studies based on the use of starch-based plastics are shown.
Biodegradable products can both reduce the amount of waste produced and increase material recycling and landfill diversion.
The products analysed and the main effects of shifting towards biodegradable plastics are examined next. By using biodegradable
mulch film, waste passes from 400 up to  0 kg per mulched hectare. By using biodegradable catering items, the average recycling
(including organic recycling) rate increases from  0 up to 50% whereas landfill diversion increases by 36% on average
across EU-27. By shifting towards biodegradable carrier bags, a substantial reduction of contaminants present in bio-waste
and screened off by composting plants results in an almost fivefold increase of bio-waste quality. The possibility of shifting from
heterogeneous waste (non-biodegradable plastics + bio-waste) into homogeneous waste (biodegradable plastics + bio-waste)
makes the use of bioplastics particularly beneficial for the waste management ecoprofile as shown by previous life cycle
assessment studies available in literature. © 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

INTRODUCTION distributed by mass retailers. In all of these cases, biode-

gradability and compostability help recovery and ensure
New biodegradable plastics made of renewable that less bio-waste ends up in landfill.
resources are becoming more and more available in the
market, thanks to the efforts of companies in chemical
engineering and biotechnology. When innovative
products are commercialised in place of traditional DEFINITIONS
fossil-based ones, several questions surface about their
effective environmental sustainability. This is not Bioplastics
surprising, considering that renewability is not necessarily
proof of a lower environmental impact. Several factors The term bioplastic is currently widely used. According
can contribute to increase the environmental impact: to European Bioplastics1 ‘bioplastics are biobased,
agricultural practices, extraction processes, complicated biodegradable, or both’.
conversion processes and so on. In order to answer these However, in spite of the effort spent by the associations,
questions and show that a shift from fossil-based products the term ‘Bioplastics’ is still prone to misunderstandings.
to biobased products is meaningful and sustainable, the Basically, the problem arises because ‘traditional’ petro-
‘cradle-to-factory-gate’ life cycle assessment (LCA) chemical plastics, such as PE, PET and PVC can now also
should be applied, taking into account all phases, includ- be produced starting from renewable raw materials. The
ing the agricultural phases. In parallel the LCA should plastics obtained from the Plant Kingdom are indistin-
also take into consideration the consequences that guishable from the fossil-based plastics. The reader can
the shift has on the system where the product is applied easily understand that to define an item made with tradi-
(i.e. consequential LCA), especially when bioplastics tional plastics like PE as ‘bioplastics’ is quite strange,
are used in applications where biodegradability and and could cause a lot of confusion in the market.
organic recyclability are possible and advantageous. Typi- Innovation in this case lies in the production process
cal examples are: waste bags for the collection of house- rather than in the product. Therefore, the term, ‘biobased’
hold bio-waste, disposable catering items used in fast food (or ‘renewable’ or ‘plant-based’) plastics, seems more
restaurants, agricultural mulch films, carrier bags suitable to describe traditional plastics that are made
from vegetable resources. On the other hand, the term,
*Correspondence to: Francesco Degli Innocenti, Novamont, via
1
Fauser 8, 28100 Novara, Italy. E-mail: fdi@novamont.com (http://en.european-bioplastics.org/about-us/).

© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Curtin University is a trademark of Curtin University of Technology
S302 F. RAZZA AND F. DEGLI INNOCENTI Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering

‘bioplastics’, seems more suitable to describe those Biodegradability

innovative materials that are biobased and biodegradable.
In this chapter, we will adopt these definitions. The meaning of two terms frequently used erroneously as
synonyms must be clarified: biodegradability and
biodegradation. Biodegradability refers to a potentiality
Biodegradation (i.e. the ability to be degraded by biological agents).
Biodegradation refers to a process, which occurs under
Biodegradation is a term used in ecology to indicate the certain conditions, in a given time, with measurable
biochemical processes in which organic substances pro- results. The inherent biodegradability of a plastic is
duced directly or indirectly from photosynthesis are bro- inferred by studying an actual biodegradation process
ken down, and transformed back into the inorganic state. under specific laboratory conditions, and the conclusion
The phenomenon of biodegradation is very important that the plastic is biodegradable (i.e. it can be
for the environment, which must get rid of waste and biodegraded) can be drawn from the test results. It must
residues in order to make space for new life. The be noted that a fully biodegradable plastic can show a
biodegradation is carried out by the decomposers, i.e. very limited biodegradation if environmental conditions
micro-organisms (fungi, bacteria, protozoa), which grow are not suitable (e.g. bioavailability, temperature, water
on the dead organic matter, i.e. on the refuses produced availability, etc.).
by the ecosystem.
Polymers are very long and bulky molecules, and
they cannot pass the cell membrane and enter into BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
the cell, where respiration does occur. Therefore,
the first phase of biodegradation is mediated by extra- Biodegradable plastics are made with polymers (i.e.
cellular enzymes, excreted by the cells. In this extra- macromolecules), which are recognised by enzymes
cellular phase, the main reactions are hydrolysis and present in nature. Polyesters, i.e. polymers that contain
oxidation. The polymer is reduced into fragments the ester functional group in their chain, can be biode-
(oligomers) and eventually to the single monomers gradable because esters are molecules present in nature,
or other degradation products. When molecular and ester-specific enzymes are common (esterase). For
weight is low enough, molecules can enter into the instance, triglycerides (glycerol linked with fatty acids
cells. In this second phase, the cellular metabolism through ester bonds) are very common molecules.
will, in part, convert the exogenous molecules into Three examples of biodegradable polyesters are
CO2 through catabolic pathways (respiration) and, in reported in the following paragraphs, each representing
part, will use them to produce new biomolecules a different class of polymers (Fig. 2).
needed for growing (anabolism), Fig. 1. POLYLACTIC ACID Polylactic acid (PLA) is a
biodegradable, aliphatic polyester derived from lactic
acid.[1] PLA is an example of an artificial renewable
polymer. The lactate from which it is produced is derived
from the fermentation of agricultural products such as
corn starch.

Figure 1. Biodegradation of polymers is first caused by

extracellular enzymes and then finalised within the cells. Figure 2. Three important biodegradable polyesters,
Molecules that pass the cell membrane can be converted each representing a specific class: polylactic acid (PLA)
into biomass (route 1; anabolism) or can be oxidised to man-made but from renewable monomers; polyhydroxy-
water and carbon dioxide (route 2; catabolism). Eventually butirate (PHB) natural and renewable; polycaprolactone
also, biomass is oxidised. (PCL) man-made and non-renewable.
© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309
DOI: 10.1002/apj
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering BIODEGRADABLE BIOPLASTICS S303

POLYHYDROXYALCANOATES The most impor- committed in the development of a biorefinery project.[6]

tant polymer of this class is polyhydroxybutyrate It consists of an innovative development model capable
(PHB), a polyester produced by micro-organisms in of synthesising various chemical intermediates using
response to conditions of physiological stress. The renewable raw materials cultivated with low input and
polymer represents a form of energy storage molecule in marginal areas instead of fossil raw materials.[7]
to be metabolised when other energy sources are not Starch-based resin (plastic pellets) can be processed
available. PHB is probably the most common type of using the most common transformation techniques (e.g.
polyhydroxyalkanoate, but many other polymers of this blown film, injection moulding etc.) to make products
class are produced by a variety of organisms; the most whose characteristics are similar, or even better than those
important from a commercial standpoint is polyhydrox- of traditional plastics.[4] Starch-based products are used in
yvalerate and copolymers.[2] PHB is an example of a several sectors (e.g. biodegradable and compostable
natural renewable polymer. carrier bags, catering items, waste management, mulch
POLYCAPROLACTONE Polycaprolactone (PCL) is film, bio-filler for the automotive sector etc.) and they
a biodegradable polyester, which can be prepared are biodegradable and compostable as shown by external
starting from e-caprolactone, a non-renewable monomer. laboratories (e.g. Organic Waste Systems, Belgium).
PCL is an example of a biodegradable, non-biobased
polymer.[3]
BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS AND WASTE
MANAGEMENT
BIODEGRADABLE STARCH-BASED PLASTICS
The biodegradability of bioplastics is an interesting
An important class of plastics is represented by starch- characteristic because it offers new recycling routes in
based plastics. Beginning in the early 1990s, research waste management. Traditional plastics are generally
and technology developments have permitted to com- recovered by means of mechanical recycling or by
plex natural polymers like starch (from maize, potato incineration with energy recovery. Bioplastics have an
etc.) with biodegradable macromolecules so as to additional recycling option: organic recycling (through
obtain thermoplastic and biodegradable innovative composting or anaerobic digestion). This is a positive
materials on an industrial scale.[4] In particular, Nova- feature itself because more recovery options mean
mont’s starch-based technology implies processing more effective plastic recovery.
conditions able to almost completely destroy the crys- In 1989, the European Community’s Strategy for
tallinity of amylose and amylopectin (i.e. the two major Waste Management established a hierarchy of waste
components of starch), in the presence of macromole- management:
cules, which are able to form a complex with amylase
such as specific polyesters. They can be of natural or 1. Prevention
synthetic origin, and are biodegradable. The complex 2. Recovery, with a preference for recycling and reuse
formed by amylose with the complexing agent is 3. Final disposal.
generally crystalline and it is characterised by a single
Apart from prevention, recycling by means of biolo-
helix of amylose formed around the complexing agent.
gical treatments is the most preferable recovery
Unlike amylose, amylopectin does not interact with the
system3 for bio-waste, also referred to as organic waste
complexing agent and remains in its amorphous state.
or ‘wet’ fraction4 (‘wet’ because of the high water
The specification of the starch, i.e. the ratio between
content, typically 70–80%). The bio-waste can be
amylose and amylopectin, the additive nature, the
recycled through composting, an accelerated and con-
processing conditions and the nature of the complexing
trolled solid state fermentation at high temperature,
agents allow engineering of various supramolecular
which transforms waste into ‘compost’, a humus-like
structures with very different properties.[4] Over the last
stabilised substance. Another biological treatment of
few years many successful efforts have been made to
waste is the anaerobic digestion, where the final pro-
increase the amount of renewable raw materials for
duct is biogas (used to produce electricity and heat)
producing biodegradable polyesters.[5] Further improve-
and compost. The suitability of composting as a means
ments in this field are expected when biorefinery and
to recycle the bio-waste has been verified through life
green chemistry principles2 are fully put into operation.
cycle studies carried out in Australia.[8] Compost
For example, Novamont, one of the most important
players in starch-based bioplastics, is currently 3
Incineration with energy recovery is not appropriate because of the high
water content, which negatively affects the calorific gain. Landfilling of
2
Biorefinery concept implies the sustainable use of renewable raw materials organic fraction is opposed in Europe because anaerobic conditions can
for producing various chemical intermediates, which are similar to those cause uncontrolled release of methane, a greenhouse gas. The Landfill
obtained from fossil raw materials. Green chemistry encourages the design Directive 1999/31/EC obliges Member States to reduce the amount of biode-
of product and processes that minimise the use and the generation of hazar- gradable waste that they landfill to 35% of 1995 levels by 2016.
4
dous substances. Usually consists of food waste and yard waste.

© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309
DOI: 10.1002/apj
S304 F. RAZZA AND F. DEGLI INNOCENTI Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering

improves soil, which has been shown to have several • early crop production (important for crops such as
environmental benefits. In particular, the spreading of muskmelons, melons, watermelons) caused by the
compost in agricultural soil positively affects: higher soil temperature;
• reduced consumption of irrigation water (up to 30%
• Water use. Compost-amended soils have a higher less water than for bare soil).
water holding capacity, which requires less
irrigation. In Italy, the consumption of mulch film was about
• Fertiliser use. Compost brings several nutrients and 42 000 t in 2005.[15] In accordance with legislation
less fertilisation is required. (Decree 152/08 and further amendments), plastic mulch
• Biocide use. Compost is known to exert a biocontrol films must be removed from the field and properly
of soil phyto-pathogens. disposed of. This implies collecting and recycling or,
• Soil structure. Compost decreases density. A light where this is not possible, landfilling or incinerating
soil can be turned during tillage with less energy, with energy recovery. The recovered film is heavily
which means less fuel consumption. contaminated with soil, stones and biological waste;
• Yield. Compost increases crop yield. For example, this makes mechanical recycling difficult. In general,
up to + 21.5% for cotton and + 27% for grape.[8] the contamination of mulch films represents from 50
• Carbon sequestration. Compost can ‘trap’ organic to 75% of their initial weight.[16] Occasionally, plastic
carbon, having a beneficial effect towards the green- films are not properly collected and recycled after their
house effect. use but disposed of by burning in the field or by uncon-
trolled landfilling. Both practices cause environmental
Another study demonstrates that, in some circum- concern.[17] No complete data about the end of life
stances, the benefits caused by compost utilisation out- treatments of plastic mulch films in Italy are available;
weigh by far the impacts related to compost production however, the amount of recycled plastic mulch film is
especially when compost is used in substitution of peat.[9] quite low. Only 10% of the original plastic film is es-
Bio-waste constitutes 30–40% of the total waste across timated to be recycled.[18] The remaining stream
EU-27[10] and becomes a problem when it is not properly is disposed of by landfilling (84%) and/or incineration
managed owing to its putrescibility and quality related (16%) based on the average Italian waste scenario.[19]
issues (i.e. presence of contaminants). In 2005, only It has been estimated that, on average, about 400 kg
about one-third of the overall amount of bio-waste (i.e. of waste is produced per each mulched hectare (Italian
80 million of t) was collected and biologically recycled scenario), whose composition is 290 kg of mulch film
across the EU-27,[11] whereas the remaining amount and the rest soil, stones, vegetal residuals.[20]
was treated in landfills or by incineration. According to
2008 Eurostat statistics on waste management across
The alternative
EU-27[12] and an Eunomia report[13] regarding the
Thanks to their biodegradation and absence of accumu-
amount of bio-waste in municipal solid waste, about
lation and toxicity effects,[21] biodegradable mulch
50% of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste
films do not need to be removed from the soil and dis-
was biologically recovered.
posed of, simplifying the farmers’ operations. Starch-
The use of bioplastics in substitution of traditional non-
based mulch films have been specifically designed for
biodegradable plastics can, in some cases, improve the
1 to 9-month crops, and their processability is close
overall recyclability of mixed waste fraction whenever
to that of traditional plastics.[22] From a functionality
plastics and bio-waste are mixed.
point of view (i.e. during the cultivation phase), they
Three exemplary case studies regarding how biode-
show the similar positive effects of traditional plastic
gradable products positively influence waste management
mulch films.
are provided in the following sections.
Effect on waste management (direct interactions)
Mulch film
By using biodegradable mulch films, the amount of
The context waste at the end of crop cycle passes from 400 kg/ha
The worldwide plastic consumption in the agricultural up to  0 kg. This is a striking example of waste
sector was 1 150 000 t in 1985, 2 850 000 (+147%) in prevention.
1999 and about 3 900 000 in 2007 (+240% compared
with 1985) of which 41% was related to mulch Catering items
films.[14] In all agricultural crops where such a practice
is doable (from a techno-economic point of view), The context
mulching provides significant agronomic advantages: Disposable tableware is used in restaurants in place
of traditional durable tableware in order to simplify
• increased yield and higher quality of crops; management and avoid washing-up. This practice, very
• weed control and reduced use of pesticides; common in fast food restaurants, sport events, town
© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309
DOI: 10.1002/apj
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering BIODEGRADABLE BIOPLASTICS S305

festivals and so on has the negative consequence of performance of their business, mass retailers are seeking
both increasing the quantity and changing the quality better solutions. Several LCAs have shown that the most
of waste produced by each restaurant. Together with preferable option is ‘waste prevention’, i.e. the use of
food waste (kitchen and guests leftovers, out-of-date long-life reusable bags, a kind of shopping basket to be
food, etc.), other types of waste are produced: plastic used many times over (‘bag for life’).[30] The environ-
catering items (e.g. cutlery), plastic or laminated paper mental cost of long-life reusable bags is low because their
dishes, plastic or laminated paper cups, foam containers, production costs are mitigated by several ‘supermarket-
paper (tablecloths and napkins) and plastic bottles. As a home’ trips. Nevertheless, disposable bags are still
matter of fact, the two fractions together cannot be requested at the cash desk by consumers who have
recycled owing to techno-economic constraints. Accord- forgotten to bring their reusable bags.
ing to Teija Aarnio, a researcher who studied the waste
disposal system in Finnish McDonald’s restaurants, The alternative
two-thirds of this waste ended up in landfills in 2002.[23] By supplying B&C carrier bags, retailers not only offer a
service to customers but also a product that can improve
The alternative overall waste management systems and processes.
Over the last few years, several producers of biodegrad- After its primary use, the B&C bags can be reused as
able and compostable (B&C) products have developed waste bags suitable both for residual waste (any waste
B&C tableware sets for fast food restaurants, such as that cannot be collected separately) as well as for bio-
drinking cups made out of PLA[24] or biodegradable waste (e.g. kitchen waste). In the first case, biodegrad-
film + paper, paper dishes laminated with biodegradable ability and compostability are ‘neutral’ properties
plastic foils, starch-based cutlery[25] and foam clam- neither necessary nor deleterious. Residual wastes are
shells.[26] This is a very interesting prospect, because recovered by incineration with energy recovery or dis-
the use of B&C catering items does not complicate the posed of in controlled landfills, and both systems are
management of restaurants and enables a homogeneous unaffected by the presence of B&C bags. In the second
waste stream suitable for recycling through biological case, the use of B&C bags is a very important factor
treatments, such as composting or anaerobic digestion. because it enables the creation of a homogeneous
We can assume that B&C items are collected and waste, where both the content (bio-waste) and the con-
recycled together with bio-waste whose recycling rate tainer (B&C bag) share the same ‘biodegradability’
equal to 50%.[12,13] This is a significant increase in mate- property. In addition, some studies point out that the
rial recovery in respect to a traditional scenario in which way in which waste is collected influences the amount
both the ‘wet’ fraction (i.e. food scraps) and ‘dry’ frac- and the quality of bio-waste and the process yield. For
tion (i.e. non B&C catering items) cannot be recycled example, according to a case study,[31] the door-to-door
at all and end up in landfill (70%) and incineration source separate collection of bio-waste, using biode-
(30%).[12] gradable bags, decreases the presence of pollutants to
a minimum.
Effect on waste management (indirect Another study showed that the quality of bio-waste (i.e.
interactions) reduced content of non-compostable materials) in input to
The alternative option (i.e. the use of B&C catering composting or AD facilities is a key aspect for the success
items) generates valuable benefits: the average recycling of the overall recycling waste chain.[9] If bio-waste is
rate for the whole stream passes from  0 up to 50% significantly contaminated (> 5%) direct consequences
whereas diversion from landfill increases by 34% and are: (1) High amount of refuse produced by composting
diversion from incineration by 16% on average across plants: up to 0.25 t per t bio-waste.[32] This can be a signif-
EU-27. All this without modifying the waste collection icant burden from an environmental viewpoint. (2) Lower
schemes currently running across Europe. composting yields: 10 instead of 40% (average yield).
(3) Lower compost quality, which in turn can affect its
Biodegradable carrier bags commercial use on land or as peat substitution.

The context Effects on waste management (indirect

Carrier bags distributed by supermarkets are regarded interactions)
with concern because, at a worldwide level, they are Indirect interactions are:
consumed in huge quantities and are often subjected to
uncontrolled release (littering5).[27,28] In the European • Reduction of non-biodegradable materials arriving to
Union alone, about 100 billion carrier bags are being used composting facilities and reduced need for energy-
every year.[29] In order to improve the environmental consuming separation steps (i.e. PE bags if used to
collect bio-waste must be removed from final
5
In 2008, plastic bags were the second most common type of ocean refuse, compost by means of a bag-opening system and
after cigarette butts. one or more screenings).
© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309
DOI: 10.1002/apj
S306 F. RAZZA AND F. DEGLI INNOCENTI Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering

• Improvement in amount and quality (i.e. high purity) assess whether bioplastics actually represent a sustainable
of bio-waste. According to a waste analysis per- solution, it is necessary to perform an analysis from a life
formed by the Consorzio Italiano Compostatori cycle perspective. LCA is an analysis tool for assessing
(Italian Composting Consortium), non-compostable the environmental impacts associated with a product or
materials in bio-waste decreased about fivefold by service, covering all stages in a product’s life, from the
shifting from PE bags to B&C ones. In absolute extraction of resources to ultimate disposal (i.e. cradle-
terms, non-compostable material content dropped to-grave) as shown in Fig. 3.
from 10 to less than 2%.[33] LCA is carried out following the ISO 14040 and
14044 standards.
Waste management changes wrap-up

Table 1 summarises the key aspects in waste manage- LCA analysis

ment as a result of the introduction of B&C starch-based
products. The purpose of this chapter is to provide quantitative
and qualitative data concerning the LCA analysis
addressing the three case studies. Such data have been
BIODEGRADABLE PLASTICS FROM A LIFE already published elsewhere. Here, the data are pre-
CYCLE PERSPECTIVE sented together to show the common approach that
has been applied and elaborate on that. Table 2 sum-
Up to this point, we have seen and quantified the positive marises the LCA analyses.
effects on the waste management sector when biodegrad- In particular, the most important results of the three
able products are properly used. Nevertheless, so as to assessments are reported below.
Table 1. Changes in waste management when B&C products are used.

Sector Application Changes in waste management compared with the basic scenario
Agricultural Mulch film Mulch film waste passes from 400 up to  0 kg per mulched hectare.
Catering Catering items The average recycling6 rate increases from  0 up to 50% whereas diversion
from landfill increases by 36% on average across EU-27.
Mass retail Carrier bags Reduction of contaminants present in bio-waste and screened off by composting plants.
Fivefold increase of bio-waste quality.
6
As biological recycling.

Figure 3. The life cycle of a product. This figure is available in colour online at www.apjChemEng.com.
© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309
DOI: 10.1002/apj
 Table 2. Resumptive matrix of the three case studies analysis.

Mulch film Catering items Carrier bags

Performed analysis ‘Cradle-to-grave’ LCA + eco-toxicity effects ‘Cradle-to-grave’ LCA ‘Cradle-to-grave’ LCA
Year of the 2010 2007 2011
assessment
Approach Attributional7 Consequential8 Consequential
Data quality9 Specific and selected generic data Specific and selected generic data Specific and selected generic data
Comparison Yes Yes No
Analysed materials Biodegradable mulch film Biodegradable and compostable and traditional Biodegradable starch-based carrier bag
and main disposable cutlery (starch-based weight 15.7 g (volume, 19.5 L; weight, 15 g)
characteristics and polystyrene 11.8 g)
Study objectives 1) To evaluate the environmental performance To compare the impact of two types of disposable To define the environmental
of two different mulch systems (traditional and tableware used in fast food restaurants, town performance of B&C carrier bags.
biodegradable mulch film) festivals, etc., and two different waste treatment
2) To verify that starch-based mulch films are systems, including bio-waste (two scenarios).
Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering

biodegradable and safe for the soil ecosystem

Functional unit 1 ha of mulched agricultural land 1000 catered meals using disposable cutlery, Production and disposal of 100 starch-
which generates waste consisting of 150 kg of based carrier bags
bio-waste (0.150 kg/meal) and the cutlery
System boundaries Intermediate products and granule production, Intermediate products and granule production, Intermediate products and granule
T, film prod., T, use phase + removal, cutlery production, end of life. Meal production production, T, carrier bag prod.,
end of life phase was excluded because it did not affect the secondary
comparison use (i.e. substitution of bin liner), end

© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
of life
End of life scenarios Biodegradable film: (1) biodegradation on soil. B&C cutlery + food waste: (1) 100% composting Two scenarios:
Non-biodegradable film: (2) 10% recycling, Non B&C cutlery + food waste: (2) 84% landfill, (1) 100% composting
76% landfill, 14% incineration 16% incineration
(2) 84% landfill, 16% incineration
Sensitivity analysis Yes. Changes in end of life scenarios Yes. Changes in end of life scenarios No
Normalisation No No Yes
Impact categories AC, EU, POF, GW, NRER, AD NRER, GW, waste produced, EU, AC AC, EU, POF, GW, OD, NRER
Review Yes. External verification by LCA expert (only Yes. Critical review performed by LCA experts Yes. Independent external validation
starch-based ‘Cradle-to-gate’ LCA analysis) only
for plastic granulate
Geographical Italy Italy Italy
representativeness
Analysis outcomes Impact reduction by shifting to biodegradable The use of B&C cutlery and treatment of the The carbon footprint of 100 B&C carrier
mulch film is quite significant: from 55 up to 80% whole fraction through composting allows bags (approximately the bags consumed
depending on the impact categories considered. remarkable savings in all impact categories by a citizen in a year) is less than 0.02%
Starch-based mulch films biodegrade in soil (from twofold up to 10-fold lower) of the overall carbon footprint of one
and do not produce any toxic effect person equivalent.
[9] [34] [35,36]
References

Legend:
AC, acidification; EU, eutrophication; POF, photochemical oxidation; GW, global warming; NRER, non-renewable resources consumption; AD, abiotic depletion
7
The LCA analysis considers this product as a stand-alone.
8
The LCA analysis considers also the consequences (i.e. changes) in the surrounding system owing to the introduction and use of the new product.
9
According to the International EPDW System (http://www.environdec.com).
BIODEGRADABLE BIOPLASTICS

Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309

DOI: 10.1002/apj
S307
S308 F. RAZZA AND F. DEGLI INNOCENTI Asia-Pacific Journal of Chemical Engineering

• Mulch film By a methodological viewpoint, the LCA approach

used is named ‘consequential’ as the different products
The use of biodegradable mulch film reduces the are compared, also taking into account the conse-
potential impacts from 55 up to 80%, compared with quences that they bring into the ‘surrounding systems’.
the traditional PE film. The most important factor is In particular, biodegradable products are assessed by
the higher thickness and amount of plastic used to taking into account ‘biodegradability’, the specific
produce the non-biodegradable mulch film. This film characteristic that, if properly exploited, can help in
must be manually removed at the end of the cycle solving waste recovery. The other possible LCA
and, therefore, needs higher thicknesses to maintain approach is called attributional. Attributional LCA only
physical resistance for the whole life cycle. On the focuses on describing the environmentally relevant
other hand, the biodegradable mulch film can be very physical flows to and from a product or process, with-
thin because it is not removed. out considering how other relevant environmental
flows will change in response to possible decisions.
• Cutlery Considering the biodegradable products only with an
The study shows that the main factor is the recycl- ‘attributional’ LCA approach, we miss the real environ-
ability of the cutlery. The polystyrene cutlery when mental advantages that are caused by the biodegradable
mixed with bio-waste gives rise to in a waste stream plastics. The methodological approach that is sug-
that is ‘mixed’ and inhomogeneous. This waste can gested in this paper is to adopt the consequential LCA
only be disposed of in landfills or recovered by and to study the effects ‘induced’ on surrounding
energy recovery incineration. On the other hand, systems (e.g. waste sector) by biodegradable products.
when mixed with bio-waste, the B&C cutlery gives This aspect requires further investigation and under-
rise to a waste stream that apparently is mixed but standing by the scientific community, especially when
is homogeneous in terms of recyclability. This waste LCAs are used to support decisions.
can be organically recycled. The LCA study shows
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© 2012 Curtin University of Technology and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng. 2012; 7 (Suppl. 3): S301–S309
DOI: 10.1002/apj