Slides by: Drs Richards and Tetana

Coordinator: Zikhona.Tetana@wits.ac.za
1
COURSE OUTLINE & LEARNING GOALS
Interpret the information conveyed in a balanced
REVISE! chemical equation; balance a chemical equation.

Recognize the general reaction types

Calculate formula & molecular weights from atomic weights &

determine percentage compositions from formulas

Explain the mole concept & use it in calculations

involving masses, moles & number of particles.

Use stoichiometric principles to find empirical

and molecular formulas.

Obtain quantitative information from balanced

equations

Determine limiting reactant, & determine theoretical yields.

 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Let us pretend that you wanted to make pancakes.
How would you achieve this?

Obtain
INGREDIENTS
Enjoy!
“Pancake
Recipe”
Weigh out & combine
INGREDIENTS in
appropriate
PROPORTIONS
according to the RECIPE
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
What important information can you obtain from a
recipe?
1…
2…
3…
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Recipes are:
1. a method that tells you
2. what ingredients are combined, and in
3. what proportion in order to obtain a
particular product.
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Think of a “recipe” as a chemical equation having
reactants and products that combine in specific
proportions. This relationship can be quantified.

For example: 1 cup flour  5 pancakes

½ teaspoon baking powder  5 pancakes
? eggs  5 pancakes
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
STOICHIOMETRY is the quantitative relationship between
reactants and products in a balanced chemical equation
(i.e. in a chemical reaction).
Stoichiometry is built on the
understanding of:
 Atomic masses
 Chemical formulas
 Law of Conservation of Mass

Homework: Who was Antoine Lavoisier?

Explain his famous experiment and how did
it contribute to our understanding of Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
“Mass before = Mass after”
stoichiometry?
 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
In a chemical reaction:
• atoms are neither created nor
destroyed;
• atoms are simply re-arranged.
• the same collection of atoms are
present before & after a reaction.

Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)

“Mass before = Mass after”

Law of Constant Composition in action!

 CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Through stoichiometric relationships, we will learn
how much reactant is needed to:
1. form a certain amount of product,
2. completely react with another reactant

For example: 8 eggs  ? Pancakes

Central to the understanding of stoichiometry is the chemical

equation – so let us unpack the information contained therein.
ANATOMY OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
A chemical equation describes the reaction between
reactants to obtain products:
CH4 + O2  CO2 + H2O
A reaction is said to be ‘balanced’ when the number of
atoms of a specific element on the left of the arrow are
the same as on the right:
1CH4 + 2O2  1CO2 + 2H2O
A fully balanced chemical equation also indicates the
physical state of the reactants and products:
1CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)  1CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
ANATOMY OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Fully balanced chemical equations thus provide
information about the:

• physical states of reactants & products: (g), (l), (s) & (aq)
• relationship between reactants and products
STOICHIOMETRIC
SUBSCRIPT COEFFICIENT
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS:
• gives ratio of products to reactants
• changes to coefficients changes the amount of
substance only,
• the identity of the chemical species is unchanged

SUBSCRIPTS:
• gives ratio in which atoms are found in the molecule
• changes to subscripts changes the identity of the
chemical species

When balancing chemical equations, you never change

the subscript, only the stoichiometric coefficients!
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
!!COEFFICIENTS  SUBSCRIPTS!!
SUBSCRIPTS STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
(do not change when (changes when balancing; “1” usually not
balancing equations!) written)

Equations MUST be balanced, else no useful stoichiometric

relationships can be made.
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
UNBALANCED EQUATION

BALANCED EQUATION
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Unbalanced:
UNBALANCED EQUATION H2 + O2  H2O
The equation: H2 + O2  H2O2
is a balanced equation but this is a different reaction.

We could have written:

H2 + 1/2 O2  H2O, or
These are all OK, but:
2H2 + O2  2H2O, or
• preferably, no fractions are used;
4H2 + 2O2  4H2O, etc. • use smallest possible coefficients
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Example 1

Balancing of chemical equations is self-study. Here

are some common reaction types to help you test you
ability to balance equations. Attempt these properly
(step by step) in order to test your ability.
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Example 2

Copper reacts with nitric acid to form copper(II)

nitrate, water and nitrogen dioxide. What is the sum of
the coefficients in the balanced equation using
smallest integer coefficients?

A. 6
B. 8
C. 10
D. 13
E. None of these
PATTERNS OF CHEMICAL REACTIVITY
We will examine THREE simple patterns of
chemical reactivity:

1. Combination: A + B ⟶ AB

2. Decomposition: AB ⟶ A + B

3. Combustion: Fuel + O2 ⟶ CO2 + H2O

 COMBINATION REACTIONS
Combination reactions: 2 or more substances combine
to form 1 product. E.g.: when elements combine to
form compounds

Here the metal (i.e. Mg)

has combined with O2 to
form MgO:

2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)

Ionic solid

Ionic solid
metal + oxygen  metal oxide
 COMBINATION REACTIONS
Combination reactions: there are more reactants than
products in these types of reactions.

H
Here solid carbon has
CH4
combined with H2 to form
H
a molecular gas methane:
H
C(s) + 2H2(g)  CH4(g)
H Molecular gas
reactants product

non-metal + hydrogen 
metal hydride
 COMBINATION REACTIONS
Combination reactions: elements in the same group of
the Periodic Table tend to react in a similar manner.

Here solid calcium has

combined with chlorine
gas to form an ionic solid
calcium chloride:
Example 3
Ca(s) + Cl2(g)  CaCl2(s)
Write down the balanced Ionic solid
chemical equation for the
reaction of solid lithium with metal + halide  metal halide
fluorine gas.
 COMBINATION REACTIONS
Example 4

Examine and balance the following combination

reaction:

Li(s) + H2O(l)  LiOH(aq) + H2(g)

Now predict the balanced equation for the

reaction of sodium with water. Justify your
answer briefly and explain the trend.
 DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
Decomposition reactions: a single substance breaks
down or decomposes into 2 or more elements or new
compounds.

Here the metal azide

(sodium azide) has
decomposed into sodium
metal and N2 gas.

2NaN3(s)  2Na(s) + 3N2(g)

metal azide  metal + nitrogen

 DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
Decomposition reactions: some (not all) decomposition
reactions require an external energy source e.g.: heat,
light, electricity, mechanical force etc.

On heating, lead
carbonate decomposes
into a metal oxide &
carbon dioxide:

PbCO3(s)  PbO(s) + CO2(g)

metal carbonate  metal

oxide + carbon dioxide
 DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS
Decomposition reactions: there are more products
than there are reagents.

Metal chlorates
decompose into metal
chlorides (potassium
chloride) and O2 gas.

2KClO3(s)  2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

metal chlorate  metal

chloride + oxygen
 COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Combustion reactions: aka “burning“ is the reaction of
hydrocarbons with oxygen. The reaction produces
carbon dioxide and water.

In combustion reactions:
• C, H, O  CO2, H2O
• N  N2
• S  SO2
e.g.:
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Example 5

Write a balanced equation for the combustion of

hexane, C6H14

Example 6

Write a balanced equation for the combustion of purine,

C5H4N4(l)
 CALCULATIONS
We need a convenient way to quantify atoms and
molecules in real terms (for calculations).
We are going to consider the following concepts:
• Atomic weight
• Molecular weight
• Formula weight
• The Chemical Mole

Recall: Atomic Weight

• Mass of atom expressed relative to 1/12 mass of one 12C atom.
• unitless , but has same value as atomic mass expressed in amu.
• Also called relative atomic mass. Symbol : Ar
MOLECULAR & FORMULA WEIGHTS
•Formula weights (Fr): sum of Ar for atoms in formula
unit

Atomic weight; relative atomic mass

Crystal of KMnO4 dissolving in water

Fr (KMnO4) = 1Ar(K) + 1Ar(Mn) + 4Ar(O)

= 1(39.10) + 1(54.94) + 4(16.00)
= 158.04 amu
MOLECULAR & FORMULA WEIGHTS
Example

What is Fr (CuSO4•5H2O)?

A. 159.62
5 water molecules per CuSO4 unit
B. 1.438 x 104
water of crystallisation
C. 249.55
D. 816.12
E. 249.70
MOLECULAR & FORMULA WEIGHTS

Molecular weight (Mr) is the sum of the

atomic weights (Ar) for atoms in the
molecular formula.

Mr(C6H12O6) = 6(12.01) + 12(1.008) + 6(16.00)

= 180.16 amu
 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
This is the % by mass contributed by each element in a
substance.

% of element X = (No. of atoms of X  AW of X)  100

FW of the substance

If we take an amount of
a sample we look at:

mass due to X in the sample .

mass due to the entire sample
 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
Calculate the % by mass of C, H and O in
ethanol, C2H5OH.

% of element X = (No. of atoms of X  Ar of X)  100

Fr of the substance

MW = 2(12.01 amu) + 6(1.008 amu) + 1(16.00 amu)

= 46.07 amu for ethanol
%C = 2  12.01 amu  100 = 52.14%
46.07amu

Now calculate the mass % of H and of O. Add up all the

percentages. What’s the final answer of this addition?
Atomic weight of 12C = 12.0000 amu

Now express this in grams:

12.0000 g of 12C contains
12.00 g
-24 -1
12 × 1.6605 × 10 gatom
Because 1 C = 12
amu = 12 x 1.6605 x
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms 10-24 g
6.022 x 1023 atoms
Avogadro’s number, NA
 THE MOLE

Definition
A mole (symbol mol) is the quantity of matter that
contains as many objects (atoms, molecules etc.) as the
number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12 (12C).
In other words, the mole is just a number

1 mole of something = 6.022  1023 of that thing

1 mol of H2O molecules contains 6.022  1023 H2O molecules

1 mol of NO3- ions contains 6.022  1023 ions --- and how
many O atoms?
• Atoms and molecules are so very small.
• Even the smallest sample of a substance contains
so many particles, that we need a special counting
unit when dealing with atoms and molecules.
 Molar Mass
Molar mass: mass in grams of 1 mole of substance
(generally use g.mol-1)
For all substances, the molar mass is numerically
equal to the formula weight.
In each of these 1 mol of N2
samples we have 28.02 g
6.022 x 1023 formula
units, so we can
count molecules,
etc. by weighing.

1 mol of H2O
Note: 1 mol of 18.02 g
different subs have
different volumes and 1 mol of NaCl
58.44 g
different masses
Definition
AMOUNT = number of mols
(QUANTITY applies to mass, volume, etc.)
Check whether you understand!

What is the mass of 1 S8 molecule?

A. 256.56 g B. 4.260 x 10-22 g

C. 32.07 g D. 5.325 x 10-23 g

E. None of these
What is the mass of 1 H2O molecule?
p. 139
Interconverting mass, moles and
number of particles.
Remember that

No. of Moles = Mass .

Molar mass
m
n
Mr
No. of particles = moles  NA

How many moles are there in 2.85 g of sucrose (C12H22O11)?

Example

How many moles of C atoms does 1 mol of

CH3COOH molecules contain?

A. 1 B. 2

C. 6.022 x 1023 D. 1.2044 x 1024

E. 1.66054 x 10-24
Example

Calculate the number of H atoms in 20.00 g of

C6H12O6.

A. 0.1110 B. 6.685 x 1022

C. 1.332 D. 8.021 x 1023
E. None of these
 You first need to convert the 20g of Glucose to
Moles of Glucose:
20 /180 = 0.111 Moles of Glucose
Next you'll want to find the formula units of glucose by using
Avogadro's number:
0.111 moles x 6.022x1023 = ???

The final step is to multiply the Formula units of glucose by the

amount of each element in the molecule.
For example:
12 Hydrogen x =

and repeat for oxygen and hydrogen

Example

Calculate the number of H atoms in 20.00 g of

C6H12O6.

A. 0.1110 B. 6.685 x 1022

C. 1.332 D. 8.021 x 1023
E. None of these
Empirical Formulae from Analyses

The percentage composition of a compound leads

directly to its empirical formula.

Ethylene glycol is composed of 38.7% C, 9.7% H and 51.6% O

by mass. Molar mass for ethylene glycol is 62.1 g mol-1.
• What is the empirical formula of ethylene glycol?
• What is its molecular formula?
Strategy

Mass %
of elements

Empirical formula
Assume
have 100 g
sample Mols of each
element Mole ratio
Grams of
each element m
in sample n=
M
If we assume a 100.0 g sample of this liquid, 38.7 g of it is C ,
9.7 g of it is H and 51.6 g of it is O

1 mol C
Moles of C in the liquid sample = 12.01 g C × 38.7 g C= 3.22 mol C

1 mol C
Moles of H in the liquid sample = 1.008 g C × 9.7 g C= 9.62 mol H

1 mol C
Moles of O in the liquid sample = 15.99g C × 51.6 g C= 3.23 mol O

Calculate the C : H : O simplest whole number mole

ratio
 C: H : O
3.22 : 9.62 : 3.23
(divide by the smallest number)
1 : 2.98 : 1

1 : 3 : 1

Empirical formula = C1H3O 1

 Molecular Formulae from Empirical
Formulae
Example
The empirical formula of ethylbutanoate is C3H6O.
If the molecular weight of ethylbutanoate is
116.16, what is its molecular formula?

M(C3H6O) = 58 g/mol
 Quantitative Information from
Balanced Equations

Example 11
Find the amount of water produced when 62.7 g
of NH3 is consumed according to the following
equation:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g)+ 6H2O(ℓ)
Example 11

Find the amount of water produced when 62.7 g of

NH3 is consumed according to the following
equation:

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g)+ 6H2O(ℓ)

Step 1: How many moles of NH3 are there in 62.7 g?

A. 17.04 mol B. 0.920 mol

C. 0.272 mol D. 14.7 mol
E. 3.68 mol
Example 11

Find the amount of water produced when 62.7 g of

NH3 is consumed according to the following
equation:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(ℓ)

Step 2: How many moles of H2O are formed?

A. 6 mol B. 5.52 mol

C. 22.1 mol D. 2.45 mol
E. 3.68 mol
 Limiting Reactants (or Limiting Reagents)

If the reactants are not present in stoichiometric amounts,

at end of reaction some reactants are still present.

These reactants are said to be in excess.

Limiting Reactant: one reactant that is consumed

completely in the reaction. What you get out of the
reaction depends on this limiting reactant.
 2 H2(g) + 1 O2(g) → 2 H2O(l)

2 mol H2 reacts with 1 mol O2

4 mol H2 reacts with 2 mol O2

13 mol H2 reacts with 6.5 mol O2, etc.

But suppose we have 10 mol H2 and 7 mol O2

 Unreacted O2 left over;
H2 was the limiting reagent.
O2 was in excess.

How much H2O we got (the yield of H2O)

was limited by how much H2 we started
off with. H2 was the limiting reactant.
Strategy

• find n for each reagent (this is what we have)

• Choose one reactant and calculate amount of
other reactant required for complete reaction
• Compare amount needed with amount present
→ limiting reagent
 Example 12
Iron can be obtained by reacting the Fe2O3 containing
ore, haematite, with coke (C). The latter is converted to
CO2. As the manager of a blast furnace you are told
that you have 20.5 tons of Fe2O3 and 2.84 tons of
coke on hand.

How many tons of iron can you make with the

materials you have?

2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

1 ton = 1 x 106 g = 1 x 103 kg
Example 12

You have 20.5 tons of Fe2O3 and 2.84 tons of

coke. How many tons of iron can you make with
the materials you have?
2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s) → 4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
1 ton = 1 x 106 g = 1 x 103 kg

What amount of C would be needed if all the

Fe2O3 were to react?

A. 8.53 x 104 mol B. 1.28 x 105 mol

C. 1.92 x 105 mol D. 2.37 x 105 mol
Which reactant is limiting?

A. Fe2O3
B. C
Percentage Yield
The amount of product predicted from stoichiometry
based on the limiting reactant is called the theoretical
yield.

In practice this theoretical yield may not be

obtained – we often get less than expected.

The percentage yield relates the actual yield (the

amount recovered in the lab) to the theoretical yield.

% yield = Actual yield  100

Theoretical yield
Potassium chlorate decomposes upon slight heating in the
presence of a catalyst according to the reaction below:

2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)

A student heated 40.0g KClO3 until no further decomposition

was observed. The oxygen gas collected was found to have a
mass of 14.9g .

• What is the theoretical yield of oxygen gas?

• What is the percent yield for the reaction?

 Example 13:

Disulfurdichloride, which has a revolting smell, can

be prepared by directly combining S8 and Cl2, but it can
also be made by the following reaction:

3SCl2(l) + 4NaF(s)  SF4(g) + S2Cl2(l) + 4NaCl(s)

What mass of SCl2 is needed to react with excess NaF to

prepare 1.19 g S2Cl2 if the expected yield is 51.1%.

A. 2.72 g B. 5.33 g C. 1.39 g

D. 3.57 g E. 0.608 g