International Journal on Bioinformatics & Biosciences (IJBB) Vol 13, No.

1, March 2023

THE GENETIC CODE: A CASE OF RESIDUE

NUMBER SYSTEM (RNS)
Joshua Apigagua Akanbasiam1,2, Kwame Osei Boateng2 and Matthew Glover
Addo3
1,2
Department of Electrical/Electronics Engineering, Dr. Hilla Limann Technical
University, Wa, Ghana
2
Department of Computer Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Ghana
3
Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of
Science and Technology, Ghana

ABSTRACT
Cracking the code of life marked an interesting and significant beginning of life science. The genetic code
maps the 20 amino acids to all 64 possible arrangements of the four (4)nitrogenous bases. Since its
deciphering, various designs in varied fields have been proposed. This work presents a Residue Number
System (RNS)-based genetic code using the concept of number tree. In conformity with Gamow’s
postulation, (4^3= 4 × 4 × 4 = 64) we present a three moduli set RNS model of the genetic code. The
design sorts the codes into their “family box” or “four-codon box”. The application of RNS in
bioinformatics is not new - notably its application to Smith-Waterman Algorithm. RNS has been used to
successfully generate the genetic code and this advances the cause of representing the genetic code in a
quaternary number system.

KEYWORDS
Residue Number System, RNS-genetic Code, Genetic Code, Number Tree, Amino-acids.

1. INTRODUCTION
The genetic code drives its relevance from the saying that “A code without translation makes
sense but translation without a code does not make sense”. Francis Crick proposed the existence
of a "genetic code," which is the set of all codons that specify the 20 amino acids.[1]. The
concept of “pseudo-wild” led him to provide the first experimental evidence in support that the
codons of the genetic code are organized in triplets [2]. George Gamow [1954] offered the first
mathematical architecture of the genetic code (4 × 4 × 4 = 4^3 = 64)[3]. The first of the 64 triplet
codons to be deciphered was UUU – Phenylalanine and by 1966 [4] all the 64-codons of the
genetic code were cracked [4][5]. Cracking the code of life paved the way for modern molecular
biological research [3]. The most prevalent representation of the canonical genetic code, found
in[6][7], is a three-dimensional matrix, where each dimension corresponds to one of the three
positions in the triplet code [4]. Some researchers have related various concepts of some fields of
study to understanding the features of the genetic code [8][9][10][11][12]. The attempts to offer
mathematical or computational approach to the genetic code have been the assignment of either
binary [13]or quaternary number system[9]. Binary number system is used because is the
conventional number system used in modern digital computations and quaternary system because
the number of known nitrogenous bases are four (4).The genetic code representations have been
extensively researched into to take advantage of digital signal processing techniques. An

DOI: 10.5121/ijbb.2023.13105 53
 International Journal on Bioinformatics & Biosciences (IJBB) Vol 13, No.1, March 2023
innovative approach that is mathematically structured to suite implementation of computational
algorithms will therefore aid modern molecular biology. It is also evident that the use of
computers and mathematics is revolutionizing the field of molecular biology. And therefore an
enhanced digital representation of the genetic code has the potential of transforming molecular
biological processes and analysis. This approach uses Residue Number System (RNS) to generate
the code of life using the concept of number trees. The triplets of bases in an amino acid in the
genetic code are represented with each digit of a three (3) moduli set residue number system. In
agreement with Gamow for the use of 4 × 4 × 4 = 4^3 = 64, we thus used three moduli sets, m1,
m2 and m3, requiring the truncation of higher moduli sets values (>= 4) in the three moduli set
selected. Just as codon families have unique characteristics like being hydrophobic, polar or non-
polar, so do the decimal values generated in each block of code. They have unique sequential
numbering based on the moduli sets chosen and the order of these moduli sets. The nature of the
tree of residue digits can enhance further analysis on the genetic codes. The capability of RNS to
generate the genetic code signals a buoyant relationship between molecular biology and RNS.
The application of RNS in the field of bioinformatics is not new [14]–[16]. This design can
improve speed, offer smaller digital foot print, and lower cost of some bioinformatics or
molecular biological designs, modeling and analysis. Simply, it has the potential of taking
advantage of the benefits RNS offers contemporary digital applications [17].

1.1. Nucleic Acids (DNA And RNA)

The information required to produce life is all contained in the molecule DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid), which is likely the most significant molecule for life. [18, p. 255]. Nucleotide polymers
make up DNA and RNA (ribonucleic acid), with the former controlling the creation of RNA
through a process known as transcription [19, pp. 3–4][20]. DNA differs from RNA in that,
deoxyribose sugars are used instead of ribose sugar therefore[21, p. 75 and 83];the hydroxyl
(OH) group in ribose sugar is replaced with hydrogen (H) in deoxyribose sugar at position 2’ of
the ribose sugar [22].DNA stores information as codes made up of four chemical bases, which are
grouped as purines and pyrimidines. Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are the two pyrimidine bases
of DNA, while Cytosine (C) and Thymine are the two purine bases (T). The RNA has similar
purines but differ in their pyrimidines – Thymine (T) is replaced with Uracil (U). The basic tenet
of genetics or gene expression is that bases are the essential building blocks of amino acids and
subsequently proteins. The well-known Chargaff's rule is used to pair the bases; A pairs with T
and C pairs with G. The amino acids in a tabular form constitute the genetic code [23]. The
genetic code can be represented in DNA and RNA form since they have nearly similar bases
except for the replacement of thymine in DNA with uracil in RNA.

1.2. The Genetic Code

The genetic code is a set of rules that determine how a nucleotide sequence is converted into the
amino acid sequence of proteins [24][25].The genetic code is made of some characteristics that
define its nature. It is made of triplets of codons that is non-overlapping, commaless and non-
ambiguous. It is also degenerate, has polarity and is universal [26]. There are 4^3= 4×4×4 = 64
codon combinations from four bases and each codon codes for one type of amino acid. The
blocks on the table are separated by the same bases in the first two positions. The genetic code
was first thought of as universal, but the mitochondria genome has different genetic codes.
George Gamow [1954] unsuccessfully represented the genetic code in his “diamond code”[5][27]
– Figure 3. The most prevalent representation of the canonical genetic code has a three-
dimensional matrix with each dimension corresponding to one of the three locations in the triplet
code.[28] – Figure 4.

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Figure 3: Quaternary Genetic Code [9]Figure 4: George Gamow’s diamond code [3]

This work considers the standard or otherwise canonical genetic code [7]. Mathematically, the4^3
explains the number of bases as four (4) and the number three (3), as that which constitute a
codon and its evaluation, as the number of codons in the entire genetic code. The expanded form
of4×4×4 further expresses how these codes are arranged in tabular form, where each of the 4’s
represents the first, second and third bases in the codon table. Table 1 presents how an RNS-
genetic code is developed from a three (3) moduli set RNS system.

Table 1: An RNS – Amino acid Representation

4 5 7 Amino Acid 4 5 7 Amino Acid 4 5 7 Amino Acid
0 0 0 0 TTT 47 3 2 5 94 2 4 3
1 1 1 1 CCC 48 0 3 6 95 3 0 4
2 2 2 2 AAA 49 1 4 0 96 0 1 5
3 3 3 3 GGG 50 2 0 1 ATC 97 1 2 6
4 0 4 4 51 3 1 2 GCA 98 2 3 0 AGT
5 1 0 5 52 0 2 3 TAG 99 3 4 1
6 2 1 6 53 1 3 4 100 0 0 2 TTA
7 3 2 0 GAT 54 2 4 5 101 1 1 3 CCG
8 0 3 1 TGC 55 3 0 6 102 2 2 4
9 1 4 2 56 0 1 0 TCT 103 3 3 5
10 2 0 3 ATG 57 1 2 1 CAC 104 0 4 6
11 3 1 4 58 2 3 2 AGA 105 1 0 0 CTT
12 0 2 5 59 3 4 3 106 2 1 1 ACC
13 1 3 6 60 0 0 4 107 3 2 2 GCC
14 2 4 0 61 1 1 5 108 0 3 3 TGG
15 3 0 1 GTC 62 2 2 6 109 1 4 4
16 0 1 2 TCA 63 3 3 0 GGT 110 2 0 5
17 1 2 3 CAG 64 0 4 1 111 3 1 6
18 2 3 4 65 1 0 2 CTA 112 0 2 0 TAT
19 3 4 5 66 2 1 3 ACG 113 1 3 1 CGC
20 0 0 6 67 3 2 4 114 2 4 2
21 1 1 0 CCT 68 0 3 5 115 3 0 3 GTG
22 2 2 1 AAC 69 1 4 6 116 0 1 4
23 3 3 2 GGA 70 2 0 0 ATT 117 1 2 5
24 0 4 3 71 3 1 1 GCC 118 2 3 6
25 1 0 4 72 0 2 2 TAA 119 3 4 0
26 2 1 5 73 1 3 3 CGG 120 0 0 1 TTC
27 3 2 6 74 2 4 4 121 1 1 2 CCA
28 0 3 0 TGT 75 3 0 5 122 2 2 3 AAG
29 1 4 1 76 0 1 6 123 3 3 4
30 2 0 2 ATA 77 1 2 0 CAT 124 0 4 5
31 3 1 3 GCG 78 2 3 1 AGC 125 1 0 6
32 0 2 4 79 3 4 2 126 2 1 0 ACT
33 1 3 5 80 0 0 3 TTG 127 3 2 1 GAC
34 2 4 6 81 1 1 4 128 0 3 2 TGA
35 3 0 0 GTT 82 2 2 5 129 1 4 3
36 0 1 1 TCC 83 3 3 6 130 2 0 4
37 1 2 2 CAA 84 0 4 0 131 3 1 5
38 2 3 3 AGG 85 1 0 1 CTC 132 0 2 6
39 3 4 4 86 2 1 2 ACA 133 1 3 0 CGT
40 0 0 5 87 3 2 3 GAG 134 2 4 1
41 1 1 6 88 0 3 4 135 3 0 2 GTA
42 2 2 0 AAT 89 1 4 5 136 0 1 3 TCG
43 3 3 1 GGC 90 2 0 6 137 1 2 4
44 0 4 2 91 3 1 0 GCT 138 2 3 5
45 1 0 3 CTG 92 0 2 1 TAC 139 3 4 6
46 2 1 4 93 1 3 2 CGA 140

2. NUMBER SYSTEM
A method for representing numbers in the architecture of a computer system is known as a
number system[29]. The performance of computer arithmetic is frequently constrained by the
carry chain of the traditional binary number system[14]. Digital electronics is achieved as voltage
transitions and these are understood as either HIGH or LOW – the main idea behind binary
numbers as the ideal notation for representing digital electronic circuits. Some of the major

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constraints in the application of binary number system in digital electronics had been sign
representation and the carrying and borrowing in digital arithmetic. As the demand for high speed
data processing and transmission and also smaller digital footprints of digital designs in various
fields of digital computing has become necessary, Residue Number System (RNS) has been re-
invented[30]. This is as a result of the benefit it provides in overcoming some difficulties that
prevent binary data representation from being a viable option for some fast computing
applications.

2.1. RNS and RRNS

The greatest common divisor of the set of k pairwise relative co-prime positive integers that make
up the residue number system (RNS) is 1, (mi, mj) = 1 with i ≠ j and m1, m2…, mk-1, mk, called
moduli[17]. The interval [0, M], also known as the valid range or dynamic range, which
determines the practical computational range of the number system, is represented by the product
(m1 x m2 x ……. mk-1 x mk) that is,

M = ∏K
i=1 mi (1)

There is a distinct K-tuple representation for each integer in the residue class Zm which is given
by

X → (r1, r2, …………………,rk) Where ri ≡ |X|mi or (X mod mi)

RNS can represent signed numbers; for all scenarios of even and odd number dynamic range, the
range of representable integers is divided into two equal intervals.

−( M−1) M−1
[ , ] If M is odd, and
2 2

−M M
[ , ( 2 ) − 1] If M is even.
2

2.2. Moduli Set

The choice of moduli sets plays a significant role in designing an RNS system. The form and
quantity of the chosen moduli play a significant role on the speed and complexity of internal RNS
arithmetic circuits as well as the forward and reverse conversion[17, p. 8]. The moduli set
selection also affect the dynamic range, the speed, as well as the VLSI implementation of RNS
systems [31]. The powers of two related moduli can simplify the required arithmetic operations
and this result in efficient hardware implementation of the RNS systems by using usual binary
hardware [32]. For RNS implementations, a variety of moduli sets, including the two, three, four,
etc., have been proposed. The three moduli sets have received some considerable research
attention and the moduli set; 2n − 1, 2n , 2n + 1 is the most projected because of its simplicity
and balance moduli [33].The RNS-Genetic code proposed requires a three moduli set, for each of
the bases in a triplet of codon, and each modulus must be greater than or equal to four (4), to
adequately represent the four (4) bases in each position of the codon. The dynamic range must be
greater than or equal to 64 to make up for all codons in the codon table. Customarily if the first
two conditions are met then the third condition will suffice. For many important operations,
including forward and reverse hardware converters, some unique sets of moduli result in
hardware simplifications and a decrease in latency. The approach considered for this work would
work with any set of relatively prime moduli sets considered hence a more open approach to the
selection of moduli sets for hardware implementation.

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2.3. Converters: Forward and Reverse Converters

The forward conversion is considered as the algorithms that transform any conventional weighted
number system to RNS and reverse conversion is any algorithm which transforms RNS to the
weighted number system [30, pp. 49&213]. The residue-to-binary conversion is a crucial step for
any successful RNS application. The traditional technique of this conversion is based on the
Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT). The reverse conversion from residue to the weighted
number has some performance bottlenecks whereas the forward conversion process is relatively
easier[34]. In recent years, the Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) or Mixed-Radix Conversion
has served as the foundation for reverse conversion algorithms. In contrast to MRC, which is a
sequential operation that frequently necessitates the use of numerous lookup tables, CRT
frequently entails the use of a huge modulo adder, which is the product of all moduli. The new
CRT I and II proposed, have simpler algorithms, improved speed and reduced hardware
complexity. The research work on converters is actively on-going and the proposed RNS-Genetic
code would comply with any improved converter design.

3. THE NUMBER TREE (FOREST)

A tree is a discrete structure that represents hierarchical relationship between individual elements
or nodes [35]. Typically, the root is the "starting" node; it has no parents, and every edge either
directly or indirectly emanates from it. The predecessor node is the parent and the successor
nodes are the children. Nodes without children are leaves[36] and Figure 5, shows an illustration
of the nature of number trees.
0
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
0 36 12 48 24 45 21 57 33 9 30 6 42 18 54 15 51 27 3 39
BLK 0 BLK1 BLK2 BLK3

1
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
40 16 52 28 4 25 1 37 13 49 10 46 22 58 34 55 31 7 43 19
BLK4 BLK5 BLK6 BLK7

2
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
20 56 32 8 44 5 41 17 53 29 50 26 2 38 14 35 11 47 23 59
BLK8 BLK9 BLK10 BLK11

Figure 5: Nature of tree of numbers[35] Figure 6:Tree (forest) of Residue digits

The binary tree, in which each node has two (mod 2) offspring or less, is a specific case of a
number tree. The concept of number trees has been used in developing algorithms like the binary
search tree, itis also employed in[37]to knit a Fibonacci tree. This work has constructed an RNS-
Tree (forest)–Figure 6, and used it to generate the genetic code. The RNS based tree (forest)
model has the number of nodes at each level determined by the moduli set at that level – m1, m2
or m3. The number of “levels” is determined by the number of moduli sets chosen, thus 2 moduli
sets give two levels, three moduli sets, three levels and so on. In an RNS based genetic code, a
three moduli set is chosen since we require three levels where each level represents a particular
base in a triplet of codons.

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4. METHODOLOGY
When considering the design of the RNS-genetic code, we proceeded with the rudimentary
conventions that there are only 4 nucleotides and 20 encoded amino acids and that each codon is
a triplet of nucleotides [7]. RNS can be designed as a tree and combination of trees constitute a
forest of residue numbers. The classical RNS can be generated in tabular form, given the moduli
set chosen, as shown in Table 1. The concept here is to design a forest of residue numbers from
the generated residue numbers with appropriate roots, nodes (internal nodes) and leaves. This
design uniquely categorizes the residue numbers into blocks of data. These blocks display certain
unique characteristics that have been exploited to generate the genetic code.If the moduli set of
RNS are chosen such that there are at least three (3) moduli sets - m1, m2 and m3 and their
dynamic range greater than or equal to 64 thus m1 x m2 x m3≥ 64 and each of m1, m2 and m3
greater than or equal to four (4). A tree (forest) of residue numbers can be constructed such that
with appropriate truncation and digit-baseassignment, the genetic code or amino acid table can be
constructed from the block (tree) of residue numbers. The genetic code representationally has
four (4) bases for each row, four (4) bases for each column and four (4) other bases within each
block - thus a 4 x 4 x 4 or 4^3 = 64 codons. The moduli sets are chosen such that each codon in
the genetic code is uniquely represented by each of the three moduli sets; m1, m2 and m3. The
moduli set m1 is the root nodes of each tree (forest) and represent the first letter of each codon,
the second moduli set, m2, is the child node and represents the second letter of each codon, the
third moduli set, m3, is the leaves nodes of each tree and represents the third base of each codon.
Thus, a collection of root, child and leaf; or a concatenation of each digit of the three chosen
moduli sets constitutes a codon of the genetic code.

The number of roots of the tree (forest) is determined by the first moduli set m1, the number of
nodes is represented by the second moduli set, m2, and the third moduli set m3, which is the leaf
node concludes the three (3) moduli set representation of the genetic code. Since there are four
(4) bases, each moduli set is truncated to four (4)residue digits, thus 0, 1, 2 and 3. The RNS-
Genetic code table is completed with residue digits assigned appropriate nitrogenous bases. Thus,
Thymine (T) is assigned residue digit zero (0), Cytosine (C) is assigned residue digit one (1),
Adenine (A) is assigned residue digit two (2) and Guanine (G) is consigned residue digit three
(3).In the case of an RNA-Genetic code Thymine (T) is replaced with Uracil (U) and assigned
residue digit zero (0). The algorithm for generation of the RNS-Genetic code can be seen in
section 4. 1.The genetic code has some properties and therefore any model that seeks to generate
it must reflect these properties. Every codon block (quartet) has the same initial two nucleotides,
and they are more crucial for the specific codon-anticodon identification. This is illustrated in
figure-6, where the RNS sorted into a tree, orders the first two digits of each codon block
(quartet) as the same digits. The third digit changes incrementally within each block – and this
explains the wobble hypothesis[38].

4.1. Design Flow – Algorithm

An algorithm is a procedure or formula for solving a problem or systematic method for producing
a specified result. The five (5) key properties of algorithms are answered in the quest to generate
the RNS-genetic code. The inputs are the RNS moduli sets selected (defined) and the output is
the genetic code produced as results. The definite nature of the algorithm is specified by the
sequence of operations defined for turning the inputs into output. It is deemed effective since it’s
doable and finally stops offering the output set out to be achieved, RNS-Genetic Code. This is
very relevant since it offers a codified, platform independent for arriving at our solution. Below is
the algorithm required to generate the RNS-Genetic Code.

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RNS Genetic Code Table(m1,m2,m3)

Input: Three relativey prime numbers m1, m2, m3

Output: RNS Genetic code Reference Table
1. M ← m1 * m2 * m3
2. N ← 64 // number of codons
3. Array GeneticCode[N, 6]
4. count ← 0
5. for i ← 0 to M-1
6. if ((x < 4) && (y < 4) && (z < 4))
7. GeneticCode[count, 0] ← x
8. GeneticCode[count, 1] ← y
9. GeneticCode[count, 2] ← z
10. GeneticCode[count, 3] ← AminoAcid(x,y,z)
11. GeneticCode[count, 4] ← CodonName(x,y,z)
12. GeneticCode[count, 5] ← i
13. count ← count + 1
14. x←x+1
15. y← y+1
16. z←z+1
17. if (x = m1)
18. x ←0
19. if (y = m2)
20. y ←0
21. if (z = m3)
22. z ←0
23 return GeneticCode

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF MODEL

This is a novel approach of representing the Genetic code. The results of this findings, RNS-
Genetic code with moduli sets 4, 5, and 7 are shown below. This work further draws the
relationship of the findings to the canonical genetic code. There are two nucleic acids (DNA and
RNA) and generally, the genetic code can be generated in either form. As discussed earlier the
two have nearly similar nitrogenous bases except for the replacement of Thymine (T) with Uracil
for the case of RNA. The RNS-Genetic code can therefore be generated as a table of DNA or a
table of RNA as shown in the simulation results of Figure – 7and 8 (RNS-DNA Genetic code)
and (RNS-RNA Genetic code) respectively. The choice of moduli selection plays a major role in
the selection of RNS for any digital implementation. In the design, three moduli set RNS is
considered since we required three residue digit concatenations for each of the 64 degenerate
amino acids on the genetic code table. The design accepts any three (3) relatively prime moduli
set implementation of the RNS-genetic code. The use of the number tree (forest) , suggests that
the genetic code would not be affected by any change in the three (3) relatively prime moduli sets
selected for implementation. As such the design can take advantage of any effectively
implemented three (3) moduli sets – since the research on moduli selection and converters is on-
going. With the use of residue number trees, each of the digits that make up a particular block of
code will always be in the same block irrespective of the moduli sets selected. The major
difference noticed in any change of moduli sets is a change in decimal values of each of the
concatenated residue digits that make up each amino acid. In Figure 7, the moduli set chosen are
4, 5 and 7 and as such the decimal digits for the first block of codons are seen as 0, 120, 100 and
80. When these moduli sets were reversed, thus 7, 5 and 4, the decimal digits for the first block of
codons are 0, 105, 70 and 15 – Figure 8.

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Fig. 7: The RNS-Genetic code (DNA) - Moduli 4 5 7

Fig. 8: The RNS-Genetic code (RNA) - Moduli 7 5 4

6. CONCLUSION
Our model provides the method for producing the genetic code, which has been the subject of
numerous attempts to create an easier method. We successfully constructed a genetic code using
the concepts of residue number system (RNS). This is the first and advances the cause of
representing the genetic code in a quaternary number system. RNS promises to offer some
benefits over the conventional number system (binary) in some application specific digital
applications. With the fast-evolving field of bioinformatics, it is our firm belief that the RNS-
Genetic code model proposed would help revolutionize the field of molecular biological research
and applications.

7. RECOMMENDATIONS AND FUTURE WORKS

There is the need to perform a digital (hardware) implementation of the RNS-Genetic code model
developed and compare its speed and area with existing models. The number of digital
components required to implement the RNS based genetic table could also be assessed. This
work could be further extended to consider DNA/RNA sequence (string) comparison and the
concept of mutation, as viewed as biological errors. There are many similarities in the way
biological and digital errors manifest; thus, the causes of errors - environmental or internal and
the nature of the errors - single digit (a base), and burst (chromosomes).

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AUTHORS

Ing. Joshua Apigagua Akanbasiam is currently a PhD. Candidate in the Department of Computer
Engineering, KNUST, and he holds a Masters in Telecommunications Engineering and BSc. in Computer
Engineering, KNUST. He is a Senior Lecturer and currently the head of the department of
Electrical/Electronics Engineering, Dr. Hilla Limann Technical University formerly Wa Polytechnic -
Ghana. Prior to Lecturing he served as the Maintenance Manager of Mass Telecom Innovation (MTI) a
company that maintained Telecom Power for MTN and Airtel cell sites in the three Northern Regions. He
is a member of GhIE and IEEE. His research interest is in Broadband services, Computer Arithmetic and
Applications, RNS and its application, Digital Signal Processing, and Bioinformatics.

Prof. Ing. Kwame Osei Boateng holds a Doctorate in Systems Engineering from the Graduate School of
Engineering and Science of Ehime University, Japan, Masters in Computer Science from the same
university and BSc. (Hons.) degree in Electrical/Electronic Engineering from the University of Science and
Technology (now Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology), Kumasi Ghana. Since March
2003, Prof. Ing. Boateng has been working for Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
and has risen through the ranks as a Senior Lecturer, an Associate Professor and currently a Professor. He
has held several positions as head of department of Computer Engineering, the dean of Faculty of Electrical
and Computer Engineering of the College of Engineering and director of the Institute of Distance Learning
and ICT consultant. Prof. Ing. Boateng is a member of the GhIE, IEEE and IEEE Computer Society. He
has served on technical programme committee for the 11th IEEE (ATS’02) and IEEE VLSI Test
Symposium (VTS), ICAST 2012, WTS 2013, and ESTE 2015. His present research interests are in the
areas of design, test and diagnosis of logic and VLSI circuits, test of mixed-signal circuits, network
security protocols, applications of residual number systems (RNS), image processing and smart metering.

Prof. Matthew Glover Addo; Mathew Glover Addo is a Professor of Microbiology/Molecular Biology at
the Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Faculty of Biosciences at the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology (KNUST). Currently, he is the Director of the Institute of Distance
Learning, KNUST. Prof Addo holds a BSc in Biological Sciences from KNUST-Ghana, an MSc in
Biotechnology from the University of Bergen, Norway and Doctor of Science/Doctor of Philosophy
degrees at the Université Paris Sud IX, Paris, France and KNUST, Kumasi. He completed the doctorate

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programme in May, 2011. During the doctorate research programme, Prof. Addo designed an efficient
screening method for the identification of genes involved in the mitochondrial genome stability using
Caenorhabditis elegans as a model organism. He worked with the Functions and Dysfunction of
Mitochondrial group of the Institute of Genetics and Microbiology where for the first time, he identified
four (4) new nuclear genes (Y105E8A.23, dnj-10, atad-3, and phi-37) involved in mitochondrial stability.
Prof. Addo has has 20 years of teaching, collaborative research and consultancy experience. His
specialisation is in Gene Expression, Clinical Infectious Microorganisms and Food and Water
Microbiology. He has served the international and local communities in a number of capacities and has
several peered reviewed publications in reputable international journals. He has also assessed a number of
MSc/MPhil and PhD theses. Prof. Addo is a visiting Lecturer/Assessor at the ISA-Lille University, Lille,
France. Before his appointment as Director of IDL, Prof Addo was the Dean of Faculty of Biosciences.

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