1

SAGE UNIVERSITY INDORE

Lab work
Subject name: basic electronics
Subject code:
Semester 1st sem
Session: 2020 – 2021

Department of computer science and information technology

Submitted to submitted by
Prof. Nidhi Tiwari Abhishek patel

Table
s.no experiment Date of Page no. remark
experiment
1 Familiarization with 03 to 16
resister ,capacitor and inductor
2 Ohm’s law 17 to 26

3 VI characteristic of diode 27 to 37

4 Half wave rectifier 38 to 43

5 Full wave rectifier 44 to 53
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e EXPERIMENT NO. 1

Name of experiment –familiarization with

Resister , capacitor , and inductor

*RESISTER*
Objectives of Experiment

At the end of the experiment the student would be able to

 Explain the function and unit of Resistors
 Measure the value of a Resistor
 Measure the Tolerance of a Resistor
 Explain the types of Resistors

Theory :-
Resister is an electronic device which used to limits or control the flow of current or
power

Types of Resistors
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Carbon Film Resistors

o Most general purpose ,cheap resistor

o Tolerance of Resistance value is usually +/- 5%
o Power ratings of 1/8 W ,1/4 W and ½ W are usually used
o Con:Tend to be electrically noisy

Metal Film Resistor

o Used when higher tolerance is needed , ie more value.
o They have about +/- 0.05% tolerance

Wire Wound Resistors

o A wire wound resistor is made of metal resistance wire, and because of this they
can be manufactured to precise values
o Also, high wattage resistors can be made by thick wire material
o Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic resistors
o Wire wound resistors in a ceramic case are called as ceramic resistors

Reading Value of Fixed Resistors

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 Resistors are color coded as they are too small for the value to be written on them.
 There are 4 or 5 bands of color . Value of a Resistor is decoded from these band of
colors.

Method to find out the value of resister:

we can find out the value of resister by using this table:

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Reading Value:Step 1:
If your resistor has four color bands ,turn the resistor so that the gold or silver band is on right
hand side or the end with more bands should point left.
Reading Value:Step 2:
The first band is now on the left hand side. This represents the first digit .Based on the color
make a note of the digit.In this case- 4 band its ‘5’ and for 5 band its ‘2’.
Reading Value :Step 3:
The second band represents the second digit. The colors represent the same numbers as did the
first digit .In this case -4 band its’6’ and for 5 band its’3’.
Reading Value : Step 4:
The third band divulges how many zeros to add/divide to the first two numbers –for a 4 band
Resistor . In this case – 4 band its ‘4’ zeroes to be added . So value is 560K.
Reading Value : Step 5:
The third band denotes the 3rd digit – for a 5 band Resistor. In this case -5 band its ‘7’ . So the
value of the 5 band resistor is 237 Ohms as its multipier digit is ‘0.

Tolerance
The last band denotes the tolerance . So the value of the 4 band resistor it is +/- 10% while for
the 5 band resistor it is +/- 1%.

o Tolerance of a Resistor is also an important property to consider .

o A 100 ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed
value between 90 to 110 Ohms.
o A 120 Ohm resistor with a 10 % tolerance can mean its value can be any fixed
value between 108 and 132 Ohms.
o So there is some overlap between 100 Ohm and 120 Ohm resistance in terms of
its limits.
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* CAPACITOR*

Aim:-
After the end of this module the students would be able to
 Provide a definition of capacitor and name its units
 Explain how a capacitor can be constructed to give a particular value of
capacitance
 Explain why a capacitor has maximum working voltage
 Determine experimentally the energy stored in a capacitor
 Identify the value and type of capacitor
Identify the polarity of terminals

Theory:-
It is one of the passive components like resistor. Capacitor is also known as
condenser. Capacitor is generally used to store the charge. The charge is stored
in the form of “electrical field”. Capacitors play a major role in many electrical
and electronic circuits.
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Construction of a Capacitor
The basic construction of all capacitors is of two parallel metal plates separated by an
insulating material (the dielectric). An insulator is a material which is non-conducting i.e. it
shows a high resistance to letting to electric used is air, other types are oil or paper. Real
capacitors are made by taking thin strips of metal foil and the appropriate dielectric
material and sandwiching them together.
Capacitor achieve large area (thus large capacitance) by doing something tricky,
such as putting a dielectric between 2 layers of metal foil and rolling it up like

Capacitance:-

A capacitor is so called because it has the capacity to store charge- just like a
beaker storing a liquid. Capacitors are marked with a value which indicates
their capacitance – their ability to store charge . Capacitance can be thought of
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as the “electrical capacity” of that body. It is measured in Farads.

Classification of capacitor:-

Ceramic Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors are the most used capacitors in the electronics industry.
Ceramic capacitors are fixed capacitance type capacitors and they are usually
very small (in terms of both physical dimensions and capacitance). The
capacitance of ceramic capacitors is usually in the range of picofarads to few
micro farads (less than 10µF). They are non-polarised type capacitors and
hence can be used in both DC as well as AC circuits.

Electrolytic Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct
way round , atleast one of their leads will be marked + or – . It is very easy to
find the values of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with
their capacitance and voltage rating.

Tantalum Capacitor
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like
electrolytic capacitors . Usually , the “+” symbol is used to show the positive
component lead . Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their
capacitance voltage and polarity in full.

Capacitors in series:-
Capacitors in series means two or more capacitors connected in a single line
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Positive plate of the one capacitor is connected to the negative plate of the next
capacitor.

When the capacitors are connected in series Charge and current is same on all the
capacitors.

For series capacitors same quantity of electrons will flow through each capacitor because
the charge on each plate is coming from the adjacent plate. So, coulomb charge is same.
As current is nothing but flow of electrons, current is also same.

Equivalent Capacitance for two capacitors in series, 

1/Ceq=1/C1+1/C2

Capacitors in parallel:-
When the capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance value is
increased. There are some applications where higher capacitance values are
required.

All the capacitors which are connected in parallel have the same voltage and is
equal to the VT applied between the input and output terminals of the circuit.

VT=V1=V2
Equivalent capacitance for two capacitor in parallel

C eq=c1+c2
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QUIZ:-
 1. Two 33 μF capacitors are connected in series with each other. What will
their combined capacitance be in Farads?
o 16.5 μF
o 120 μF
o 66 μF
o  200 μF
Ans=16.5uf
 2. Calculate the total capacitance in this collection of capacitors, as
measured between the two wires:

Calculate total capacitance given the values of inductors C1, C2, and C3
o 130.990 pF
o 200.8 pF
o 130 pF
o 132.998 pF

 3. A 10μF capacitor is charged to a voltage of 20 volts.How many

coulombs of electric charge are stored in this capacitor?
o 20μC of charge
o 120μC of charge
o 20mC of charge
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o 200μC of charge

 4. Two 470μF capacitors connected in series are subjected to a total

applied voltage that changes at a rate of 200 volts per sec. How much
current will there be through these capacitors?
(Hint :The total voltage is divided evenly between the two capacitors.)
o 47 mA
o 470 mA
o 94 mA
o 940 mA

 5. Two capacitors 470μF capacitors connected in parallel are subjected to

a total applied voltage that changes at a rate of 200 volts per sec.How
much total current will there be through these capacitors?
o  47 mA
o 18 mA
o 188 mA
o 18.8 mA

*INDUCTOR*

Objectives Of Experiment

At the end of the module, the student would be able to

 Explain Function of Inductor
 Explain the factors influencing inductance

Theory:-
Inductor is an electronic device which store energy in the form of
magnetic field when electricity is passed through it
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Structure of an Inductor
It consists of a wire wound as a coil around a core. The core may consist of a air
filled hollow tube or solid material

Similarity with Capacitor

 Rate of change of voltage in a capacitor depends upon the current
through it
 Rate of change of current in an inductor depends upon the voltage
applied across it.
 Like capacitive current , inductive current is not simply proportional to
voltage
 Unlike the situation in a resistor, the power associated with inductive
current (V times I) is not turned into heat but is stored as energy in the
inductor’s magnetic field.

Equation of an Inductor
V= L* dl / dt
 L is the inductance and is measured in henry.
 Putting a voltage across an inductor causes the current to rise as a ramp
 1 volt across 1 henry produces a current that increases at 1 amp per
second

Inductance
The amount of inductance in henries a coil has, is determined by the following
factors -
1. No of turns of wire wound around the coil
2. Cross sectional area of the coil
3. The material type of the coil
4. The Length of the coil
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Inductive Kick
An Inductive is capable of producing a momentary voltage that is much
higher than the voltage of th power source that supplied the current to
create its magnetic field . This temporary voltage is called an inductive
kick.

Example of applications of inductive devices to provide an inductive kick

is a Combustion Engine ignition system that creates the spark across the
gap of the spark plug.

QUIZ:-
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EXPERIMENT – 2
NAME OF EXPERIMENT: OHM’S LAW
Theory:-
Ohm's Law

1. The law states that the current through a conductor between two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across the two points. Such a conductor is characterized
by its ‘Resistance’ – R measured in Ohms.
2. V=I*R
o V is the Voltage in Volts across the conductor.
o I is the current in Amperes through the conductor.
o Voltage(V) is directly proportional to current i.e V=I*R
o Resistance(R) in inversely proportional to current(I) i.e I=VR

Ohm's Law triangle

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From the above figure, the equation may be represented by a triangle known as
Ohm's Law triangle, where V (voltage) is placed on the top section, the I
(current) is placed to the left section, and the R (resistance) is placed to the
right. The line that divides the left and right sections indicates multiplication,
and the divider between the top and bottom sections indicates division.
Therefore equations derived from Ohm's law triangle are-
V=I*R
I=V
Explaination of Ohm's Law

Current through resistor

From the circuit:

The voltage across resistor is equal to source voltage:

VR=VS
The current through the resistance is given by:
I=VRR

Explaination of Ohm's Law for Resistance in series

Series circuits are sometimes called current-coupled or daisy chain-coupled.
The current in a series circuit goes through every component in the circuit.
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Therefore, all of the components in a series connection carry the same current.
There is only one path in a series circuit in which the current can flow.
Current: I=|1=|2=|3
Resistance: Req=R1+R2+R3
Voltage VS=VR1+VR2+VR3

Series resistors

From the circuit:

The equivalent resistance,

Req=R1+R2
The total current of the circuit,
IT=VSReq
Voltage across each resistance are,
For resistance R1,
VR1=R1xIT
For resistance R2
VR2=R2Xit

In a series circuit, the current through each of the resistors is the same, and the
voltage across the circuit is the sum of the voltages across each resistor.

Explaination of Ohm's Law for Resistance in parallel

If two or more components are connected in parallel they have the same
potential difference (voltage) across their ends. The potential differences across
the components are the same in magnitude, and they also have identical
polarities. The same voltage is applicable to all circuit components connected in
parallel. The total current is the sum of the currents through the individual
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components, in accordance with Kirchhoff’s current law.

Voltage: V=V1=V2=V3
Resistance: 1Req=1R1+1R2+1R3
Current: IT=IR1+IR2+IR3

From the circuit:

The equivalent resistance,
Req=R1xR2xR3
The total current of the circuit,
IT=VSReq
Current across each resistance are,
For resistance R1
IR1=VSR2

For resistance R2
IR2=VSR2

In a parallel circuit, the voltage across each of the resistors is the same, and the
total current is the sum of the currents through each resistor.

Explaination of Non Ohmic Device

A Non ohmic device is a device that does not obey Ohm's Law i.e. the resistance
is not constant, but changes in a way that depends on the voltage across it.The
device is said to be non-Ohmic. In this case V versus I graph is not a straight
line, but has some curvy shape. Such devices do not have a constant value of
resistance and the resistance is called dynamic resistance because it is
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constantly changing.Examples of such devices are tungsten filament (bulb),

diode,thermistor etc.

Non Ohmic Device

NOTE:-

1. Ohms Law is a very useful law but it only applies to devices that behave
like resistors – ie – I is simply proportional to V.
2. Ohms Law describes one possible relationship between V and I in a
component, but there are others, like
1. Capacitors ( I proportional to rate of change of V )
2. Diodes ( I flows in only 1 direction )
3. Thermistors ( Temperature dependent resistors )
Procedure:-

Experiment :

1. Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law.

1. Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
2. Set the Resistance Value(1 Kohm - 100 Kohm) .
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to resistor and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
5. Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and
Ammeter Readings. Keep resistance value constant
6. Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law.
7. Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
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8. V versus I graph is a straight line.

9. Therefore from the graph we see that the resistance do adhere to
Ohm’s law. Thus resistance is said to be an Ohmic device.

2. Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law with

Resistance in series.
1. Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
2. Here resistance are kept in series. Set the resistance R1(1 Kohm -
100 Kohm) value and set resistance R2(5 - 15 Kohm).
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel with resistor and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
5. Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and
Ammeter Readings. Keeping resistance value constant
6. Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law
7. Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
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3. Let us go through the experiment of confirming Ohms Law with

Resistance in parallel.
1. Set DC voltage(0-30 V).
2. Here Resistances are kept parallelly. Set the resistance R1 (100
ohm- 2 kohm) value and set resistance R2(1 -30 kohm).
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to resistor and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. Now note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading for DC voltage.
5. Increase the DC voltage by 2 factor and note Voltmeter and
Ammeter Readings. Keeping Resistance value constant
6. Plot the V-I graph to verify Ohm's Law.
7. Repeat step 2 to 6 for another set of resistance value.
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Simulation:-

Resister in series:-
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Resister in parallel:-
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Quiz:-
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Experiment no. 3
Name of experiment :
vi characteristic of diode
Theory:
A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for current. It
allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts current from flowing in
the opposite direction.

Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current (ac) into
pulsating direct current (dc). Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage, and current
capacity.

Structure of P-N junction diode

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected to
the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid
line on the diode.

Function of a P-N junction diode in Forward Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the negative terminal
of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of a diode, the holes in the p-type region
and the electrons in the n-type region are pushed toward the junction and start to
neutralize the depletion zone, reducing its width. The positive potential applied to the p-
type material repels the holes, while the negative potential applied to the n-type material
repels the electrons. The change in potential between the p side and the n side decreases
or switches sign. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually
becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field cannot counteract charge carrier motion
across the p–n junction, which as a consequence reduces electrical resistance. The
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electrons that cross the p–n junction into the p-type material (or holes that cross into the
n-type material) will diffuse into the nearby neutral region. The amount of minority
diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow
through the diode.

Function of a P-N junction diode in Reverse Bias

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode. Therefore, very little
current will flow until the diode breaks down.

The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the negative
terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode, the 'holes' in the p-type
material are pulled away from the junction, leaving behind charged ions and causing the
width of the depletion region to increase. Likewise, because the n-type region is connected
to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the junction, with
similar effect. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of
charge carriers, thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p–n junction. The
increase in resistance of the p–n junction results in the junction behaving as an insulator.
The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage
increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p–n junction
depletion zone breaks down and current begins to flow, usually by either the Zener or the
avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are non-destructive
and are reversible, as long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that
cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damage.
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Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Silicon diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in
forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and
overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be
greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed
switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.6 V across it for a silicon diode. The forward and
reverse bias characteristics of a silicon diode. From the graph, you may notice that the
diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si
diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the
diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the
depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the
barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Forward and reverse biased characteristics of a Germanium diode

In forward biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side of the diode. Diode will conduct in
forward biasing because the forward biasing will decrease the depletion region width and
overcome the barrier potential. In order to conduct, the forward biasing voltage should be
27

greater than the barrier potential. During forward biasing the diode acts like a closed
switch with a potential drop of nearly 0.3 V across it for a germanium diode. The forward
and reverse bias characteristics of a germanium diode. From the graph, you may notice
that the diode starts conducting when the forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts
(for Ge diode). This voltage is called cut-in voltage.

In reverse biasing, the positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side of a diode. In reverse biasing, the
diode does not conduct electricity, since reverse biasing leads to an increase in the
depletion region width; hence current carrier charges find it more difficult to overcome the
barrier potential. The diode will act like an open switch and there is no current flow.

Procedure:-

1. Forward Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive side of battery to the P side(anode) and the negative of battery
to the N side(cathode) of the diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 5V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for particular DC voltage .
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7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
9. Calculate the dynamic resistance of the diode. rd=ΔV/ΔI
10. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.6 volts (for Si diode). This voltage is
called cut-in voltage.

Figure:1

2. Reverse Bias-Si Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Select the diode.
3. Set the resistor.
4. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Silicon diode and ammeter series with resistor.
5. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
6. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for DC voltage .
7. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
8. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
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Figure:2

3. Forward Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) of the
diode.
5. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for particular DC voltage .
6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Germanium diode and
Ammeter reading.
7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
8. Therefore from the graph we see that the diode starts conducting when the
forward bias voltage exceeds around 0.3 volts (for Ge diode). This voltage is
called cut-in voltage.
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Figure:1

4. Reverse Bias-Ge Diode

1. Set DC voltage to 0.2 V .
2. Use the resistor of 1K ohms and a Germanium diode.
3. Voltmeter is placed parallel to Germanium diode and ammeter series with
resistor.
4. The positive terminal of battery is connected to the N side(cathode) and the
negative terminal of battery is connected to the P side(anode) of a diode.
5. Now vary the voltage upto 30V and note the Voltmeter and Ammeter reading
for DC voltage .
6. Take the readings and note Voltmeter reading across Silicon diode and
Ammeter reading.
7. Plot the V-I graph and observe the change.
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Figure:2

Simulation

Forward bias SI diode:-

-
32

Reverse bias SI diode:-

Forward bias GI diode:-

33

Reverse bias GI diode :-

Quiz:-
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Can a diode act as a Switch?

Yes

The V-I characteristics curve is almost a straight line above the knee point.
Yes

Reverse current in diode is a linear function of the Reverse voltage.

No

An ideal Si and an ideal Ge diode are connected in parallel with their anodes
joined together and connected to a +5V supply and the cathodes joined
together and connected to the other side of the supply voltage through a 1
K? resistor. If the current through the Si diode = IS and the current through
the Ge diode = IG then select the correct answers from the options below
 IS = 0 mA & IG = 4.7 mA

A diode conducts when it is forward-biased, and the anode is connected to

the ________ through a limiting resistor.
positive supply

A silicon diode measures a low value of resistance with the meter leads in
both positions. The trouble, if any, is
 the diode is internally shorted.

In a silicon diode reverse current is usually:

very small

Which is the most widely used semiconductor?

 Silicon
 What is the barrier potential of a Silicon diode and Germanium Diode at
room temperature?
o Si=0.7,Ge=0.3
35

Experiment no. 4:
Name of experiment : half wave rectifier
Aim:-
To understand the theory of half wave rectifier
Theory :-
A rectifier is a device that convert alternating current to direct
current and this process is known as rectification .rectification
is of two type – a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier
Rectification:

Half Wave Rectification

On the positive cycle the diode is forward biased and on the negative cycle the diode is
reverse biased. By using a diode we have converted an AC source into a pulsating DC
source. In summary we have ‘rectified’ the AC signal.
36

The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier.The half-wave rectifier is a
circuit that allows only part of an input signal to pass. The circuit is simply the combination
of a single diode in series with a resistor, where the resistor is acting as a load.

Half Wave Rectifiers – Waveforms

The output DC voltage of a half wave rectifier can be calculated with the following two ideal
equations.

$$V_{peak}=V_{rms} \times √2$$

$$V_{dc}=\frac{V_{peak}}{Π}$$

Half Wave Rectification:For Positive Half Cycle

Diode is forward biased, acts as a short circuit, passes the waveform through.
37

For positive half cycle: $$V_I - V_b - I \times r_d - I \times R=0$$ where,
\(V_I\) is the input voltage,
\(V_b\) is barrier potential,
\(r_d\) is diode resistance,
\(I\) is total current,
\(R\) is resistance
$$I=\frac{V_I - V_b}{r_d + R}$$
$$V_O = I \times R$$
$$V_O =\frac{V_I - V_b}{r_d + R} \times R$$
For \(r_d\)<< \(R\),
$$V_O = V_I- V_b$$
\(V_b\) is 0.3 for Germanium ,
\(V_b\) is 0.7 for Silicon

For \(V_I\)<\(V_b\),

The diode will remain OFF.The Output voltage will be,

$$V_O =0$$
For \(V_I\)>\(V_b\),

The diode will be ON.The Output voltage will be,

$$V_O = V_I- V_b$$

Half Wave Rectification:For Negative Half Cycle

Diode is reverse biased, acts as a open circuit, does not pass the waveform through.
For negative half cycle:
$$V_O=0 \quad Since, \quad I =0$$
Half wave Rectification:For an Ideal Diode

For Ideal Diode,

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$$V_b = 0$$
For positive half cycle,
$$V_O = V_I$$
For negative half cycle,
$$V_O = 0$$
Average output voltage

$$V_O=V_m \times \sin wt \quad for \quad 0 \leq wt \leq \pi$$

$$V_O=0 \quad for \quad \pi \leq wt \leq 2 \pi$$
$$V_{av}=\frac{V_m}{\pi} =0.318V_m$$
RMS load voltage

$$V_{rms}=I_{rms} \times R = \frac {V_m}{2}$$

Average load current

$$I_{av}=\frac{V_{av}}{R} =\frac{\frac{V_m}{\pi}}{R}$$
$$I_{av}=\frac{V_{m}}{\pi \times R}=\frac{I_m}{\pi}$$
RMS load current

$$I_{rms}=\frac {I_m}{2}$$
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.
$$F.F= \frac{V_{rms}}{V_{av}}$$
$$F.F= \frac{\frac{V_{m}}{2}}{\frac{V_{av}}{2}}=\frac{\pi}{2}=1.57$$
\(F.F \geq 1\)
\(rms \geq av\)

Ripple Factor

$$\gamma=√({F.F}^2-1 \times 100\%$$

$$\gamma=√({1.57}^2-1) \times 100\%=1.21\%$$
Efficiency:It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac power.
$$n\%=\frac{P_{load}}{P_{in}} \times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac {{I_{dc}^2} \times R}{{I_{rms}^2} \times R}\times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac{\frac {I_{m}^2}{\pi^2}}{\frac{I_{m}^2}{4}}\times 100\%=\frac{4}{\pi^2}\times
100\% =40.56 \%$$

Peak Inverse Volatge

39

For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the
maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle when the
diode is reverse-biased.The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which repeats or duplicates
itself is known as the cycle. The part of the cycle above the horizontal axis is called the
positive half-cycle, the part of the cycle below the horizontal axis is called the negative half
cycle. With reference to the amplitude of the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as
the maximum negative value of the sine-wave within a cycle's negative half cycle.

$$ PIV=V$$
$$ -V_m +V=0 \Rightarrow V=V_m$$
$$PIV \geq V_m$$

Procedure:-
 Set the resistor \(R_L\).
 Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
 Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
 Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
 Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
 Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
 Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.
 Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor= 1.21.

Simulation:-
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Quiz:-
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Experiment no. 5:
Name of experiment:-full wave rectifier
Aim:-
To understand the theory of half wave rectifier
Theory :-
A rectifier is a device that convert alternating current to direct current and this
process is known as rectification .rectification is of two type – a half wave rectifier
and a full wave rectifier

Rectification

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a
process known as rectification. Rectifiers are essentially of two types – a half wave
rectifier and a full wave rectifier.

Full Wave Rectifier

A full-wave rectifier is exactly the same as the half-wave, but allows unidirectional
current through the load during the entire sinusoidal cycle (as opposed to only half
the cycle in the half-wave). A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input
waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output. Let us see
our half wave rectifier example and deduce the circuit.

For a half wave Rectifier this is what we have observed

42

If we change the phase of the input waveform by 180 degrees

Now if we add these two circuits, we would get

Full Wave Rectifier – Circuit

So, we have seen that this rectifier circuit consists of two sources which have a
phase difference along with two diodes. When V1 is positive, V2 is negative. Hence
the top diode(D1) will be a short and the bottom diode(D2) will be an open. On the
43

other hand, when V1 is negative, V2 is positive. Hence the bottom diode(D2) will be
on and the top diode(D1) will be an open circuit.

Full Wave Rectifier – Waveforms

The resulting waveform of the schematic is shown above. This configuration is

rarely used because sometimes it may be impractical to obtain two voltage
sources and it is difficult to SYNC the sources. Let us see how a single source can be
used.
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Full Wave Rectifier – Center Tapped Transformer

A Full-Wave Rectifier can be constructed using Center-Tapped transformer – which

give us two shifted sinusoids so that exactly one of the waveforms is positive at one
time and two diodes. As compared to the half wave rectifier we use two diodes
instead of one, one of the two diodes remains in conduction in both of the half
cycles. At any point in time, only one of the diodes is forward biased. This allows for
continuous conduction through load.

$$\frac{N_P}{N_S}=\frac{V_P}{V_S}=\frac{1}{2}$$
$$\Rightarrow V_S=2 \times V_I$$
Center Tapped Transformer – Positive cycle

For Positive Cycle \(D_1\) is Forward Biased and \(D_2\) is Reverse Biased
45

$$V_I - V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
Center Tapped Transformer– Negative cycle

For Negative Cycle \(D_1\) is Reverse Biased and \(D_2\) is Forward Biased
$$V_I - V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$

Bridge Rectifier
Bridge rectifier uses 4 rectifying diodes connected in a "bridged" configuration to
produce the desired output but does not require a special centre tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single secondary winding is
connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side as
shown below.

Bridge Rectifier – Positive Half Cycle

During the positive half cycle of the supply diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series
while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased (ideally they can be replaced with open
circuits) and the current flows through the load as shown below.
46

For Positive Half Cycle \(D_1\) and \(D_2\) is Forward Biased and \(D_3\) and \
(D_4\) is Reverse Biased. $$V_I-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
$$V_O=V_I -2 \times V_b$$
$$V_O=V_I -2 \times V_b - 2 \times I_{rd}$$
where,
\(V_I\) is the input voltage,
\(V_b\) is barrier potential,
\(r_d\) is diode resistance

Bridge Rectifier – Negative Half Cycle

During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series,
but diodes D1 and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing
through the load is the same direction as before.

For Negative Half Cycle \(D_1\) and \(D_2\) is Reverse Biased and \(D_3\) and \
(D_4\) is Forward Biased. $$V_I-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_I$$
Average DC Load Voltage

$$V_O=V_m \times \sin wt \quad for \quad 0 \leq wt \leq \pi$$

$$V_{av}=V_{dc}= \frac{2 \times V_m}{\pi}$$
47

Average Load Current

$$I_{av}=\frac{V_{av}}{R}=\frac{2\times V_m}{\pi \times R}$$

$$I_{av}=\frac{2 \times I_m}{R}$$
RMS Load Current

$$I=I_m \times \sin wt \quad for \quad 0 \leq wt \leq \pi$$

$$I_{rms}=\frac{I_m }{ √2}$$
RMS Load Voltage
$$V_{rms}=I_{rms} \times R = \frac{I_m}{√2} \times R$$
$$V_{rms}=\frac{V_m}{√2}$$
Form factor: It is defined as the ratio of rms load voltage and average load voltage.
$$F.F= \frac{V_{rms}}{V_{av}}$$
$$F.F= \frac{\frac{V_{m}}{√2}}{\frac{2 \times V_m}{\pi}}=\frac{\pi}{2√2}=1.11$$
\(F.F \geq 1\)

Ripple Factor

$$\gamma=√({F.F}^2-1 )\times 100\%$$

$$\gamma=√({1.11}^2-1) \times 100\%=48.1\%$$

Efficiency:It is defined as ratio of dc power available at the load to the input ac

power.
$$n\%=\frac{P_{load}}{P_{in}} \times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac {{I_{dc}^2} \times R}{{I_{rms}^2} \times R}\times 100\%$$
$$n\%=\frac{\frac {4 \times I_{m}^2}{\pi^2}}{\frac{I_{m}^2}{2}}\times 100\%=\
frac{8}{\pi^2}\times 100\% =81.13 \%$$

Peak Inverse Volatge

For rectifier applications, peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is
the maximum value of reverse voltage which occurs at the peak of the input cycle
when the diode is reverse-biased.The portion of the sinusoidal waveform which
repeats or duplicates itself is known as the cycle. The part of the cycle above the
horizontal axis is called the positive half-cycle, the part of the cycle below the
horizontal axis is called the negative half cycle. With reference to the amplitude of
the cycle, the peak inverse voltage is specified as the maximum negative value of
the sine-wave within a cycle's negative half cycle.

For Bridge Rectifier,

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\(D_1\) and \(D_2\) is Forward Biased

\(D_3\) and \(D_4\) is Reverse Biased
$$ V_m-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_m$$
$$- V_O+PIV=0$$
$$\Rightarrow PIV=V_m$$
$$PIV \geq V_m$$
For Center Tapped Rectifier,
\(D_2\) is Forward Biased,
PIV at \(D_1\), $$ V_m-V_O=0$$
$$\Rightarrow V_O=V_m$$
$$V_O-PIV+V_m$$
$$\Rightarrow PIV=2V_m$$
$$PIV \geq 2V_m$$

Note
An alternative representation of full-wave bridge rectifier circuit is easier both to
remember and to comprehend. It's the exact same circuit, except all diodes are
drawn in a horizontal attitude, all “pointing” the same direction.

Procedure
Bridge Rectifier - Experiment

Set the resistor \(R_L\).

Click on 'ON' button to start the experiment.
Click on 'Sine Wave' button to generate input waveform
Click on 'Oscilloscope' button to get the rectified output.
Vary the Amplitude, Frequency, volt/div using the controllers.
Click on "Dual" button to observe both the waveform.
Channel 1 shows the input sine waveform, Channel 2 shows the output rectified
waveform.
Calculate the Ripple Factor.Theoretical Ripple Factor=0.483.
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Simulation:-

Quiz:-
50

THA
NKY
OU