INDEX

1.INTRODUCTION

2.TRANSFORMERS

3.TRANMISSION LINES AND TOWERS

4.RELAYS

5.CIRCUIT BREAKERS

6.BUS BAR

7.INSULATORS

8.LIGHTENING ARRESTORS

9.BATTERIES

10. CAPACITOR BANK

11.EARTHING

12.LINE CLEAR ON LINES/EQUIPMENT

13.CONTROL ROOM
 1.INTRODUCTION
The present-day electrical power system is A.C, i.e. electrical power is
generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. The electrical
power is produced at the power stations which are located at favorable places, generally
quite away from the consumers. At many places in the line of power system, it may be
desirable and necessary to change from characteristic [eg: voltage, AC to DC, power
factor, frequency etc] of electrical supply. This is accomplished by suitable apparatus
called sub-station

SUB-STATION:
The assembly of apparatus used to change some characteristics [Eg:
Voltage, AC to DC, PF, Frequency etc.,] of electric supply is called sub-station.
Following are the important points which must be kept in view while laying out a sub-
station:

i. It should be easily operated and maintenance.

ii. It should be involve minimum capital cost

iii. It should be provide safe and reliable arrangement.

iv. It should be located at proper site, nearer to load centers.

CLASSFICATION OF SUB-STATIONS:
There are several types of classifying sub-Stations. The two most important
ways to classifying them are according to

1) Service requirement

2) Constructional features
 1. According to service requirement:

a) Transformer sub-stations

b) Switching sub-stations

c) Power sub-stations

d) Frequency sub-stations

e) Converting sub-stations

f) Industrial sub-stations

2. According to constructional features:

a) Indoor sub-stations

b) Outdoor sub-stations

c) Pole mounted sub-stations

d) Plinth mounted sub-stations

e) Underground sub-stations

The 220/132/33 KV sub-station is located in Kadapa. It receives 220KV

power supply from 220KV SS, C.K.PALLI and MYDUKUR and step down to 132KV
with the help of 1No. 160MVA and 2Nos. 100MVA Power Transformers and again step
down to 33KV with the help of 2Nos. 50MVA Power Transformers. The switch yard is
equipped with the sophisticated relays, circuit breakers for protection in control and
interlocks. The single line diagram of 220/ 132/33 KV Sub-Station is shown in fig.,
Various 220KV feeders are :

1.220KV MYDUKUR

2.220KV CK.PALLI

Various 132KV feeders are :

1. 132KV BCL-1

2.132KV BCL-2

3.132KV VONTIMITTA

4.132KV RTSS

Various 33KV FEEDERS:

1.RIMS

2.SPINNING MILL

3.CHENNUR

4.PATHA KADAPA

5.LIC

6.POWER HOUSE

7.CHINNA CHOWK
 2. TRANSFORMERS
A Transformer has no internal moving parts, and it transfers energy from one

circuit to another by electromagnetic induction external cooling may include heat

exchangers, radiators, fans and oil pumps. The large horizontal tank at the top is a

conservator. Transformers are typically used because a change in voltage is needed.

Larger transformers are oil-filled for insulation and cooling, a typical GSU

transformer may contain several thousand gallons of oil. One must always be aware of

the possibility of spills, leaks, fires, and environmental risks this oil poses.

Transformers transfer electrical energy between circuits completely insulated from

each other. This makes it possible to use very high (Stepped-up) voltages for transmission

lines, resulting in a lower (steeped-down) current. Higher voltage and lower current

reduce the required size and cost of transmission lines and reduce transmission losses as

well. Transformers have made possible economic delivery of electric power over long

distance.

Transformers do not require as much attention as most other equipment, however,

the care and maintenance they do require is absolutely critical. Because of their

reliability, life and at times outright failure.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION :

Transformer function is based on the principle that electrical energy is

transferred efficiently by magnetic induction from one circuit to another. When one

winding of a transformer is energized from an alternating current (AC) source, an

alternating magnetic field is established in the transformer core. Alternating

magnetic lines of force, called “flux”, circulate through the core with a second

winding around the same core; a voltage is induced by the alternating flux lines. A

circuit, connected to the terminals of the second winding, results in current flow.

Each phase of a transformer is composed of two separate coil winding wound

on a common core. The low-voltage winding is placed nearest the core; the high-voltage
winding is then placed around both the low-voltage winding and core. The core is typical

made from very thin steel laminations, each coated with insulation. By insulating

between individual laminations, losses are reduced. The steel core provides a low

resistance path for magnetic flux.

A three-phase transformer typically has a core with three legs and has both

high voltage and low-voltage windings around each (Ex: special paper and wood are used

for insulation) and internal structural support.

TRANSFORMER ACTION:

Transformer action depends upon magnetic lines of force (flux) mentioned

above. At the instant a transformer primary is energized with AC, a flow of electrons

(current) begins. During the instant of switch closing, build up a current and magnetic

field occurs. As current begins the positive portion of the sine wave, lines of magnetic

force (flux) develops outward from the coil and continue to expand until the current is at

its positive peak. The magnetic field is also at its positive peak. The current sine wave

than begins to decrease, crosses zero, and goes negative until it reaches it negative peak.

The magnetic flux switches direction and also reaches its peak in the opposite direction.

Many transformers have separate coils, and contain many turns of wire and a

magnetic core, which forms a path for and concentrates the magnetic flux. The winding

receiving electrical energy from the source is called the primary winding. The winding

which receives energy from the primary winding, via the magnetic field, is called the

“secondary” winding.
 The amount of voltage induced in each turn of the secondary winding will

be the same as the voltage across each turn of the primary winding. The total amount

of voltage induced will be equal to the sum of the voltage induced in each turn.

Therefore, if the secondary winding has more turns the primary, a greater voltage will be

induced in the secondary, and the transformer is known as a step-up transformer. If the

secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary, a lower voltage will be induced in

the secondary, and the transformer is a step-down transformer. Note that the primary is

also always connected to the source of power, and the secondary is always connected to

the load.

Efficiencies of well-designed power transformers are very high, averaging

over 98 percent (%) the only losses are due to core losses, maintaining the alternating

magnetic field. resistance losses in the coils, and power used for cooling. The main

reason for high efficiencies of power transformers, compared to other equipment, is the

absence of moving parts. Transformers are called static AC machines.

THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:

A magnetic circuit or core of transformers is designed to provide a path for

the magnetic field, which is necessary for induction of voltages between windings. A

path of low reluctance (i.e., resistance of magnetic lines of force), consisting of thin

silicon, steel lamination is used for this purpose.

In addition to providing of low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is designed

to prevent circulating electrical currents within the steel itself. Circulating currents, called

eddy currents, cause heating and energy loss. They are due to voltage induced in the steel
of the core, which is constantly subject to alternating magnetic fields. Steel itself is a

conductor, and changing lines of magnetic flux also induce a voltage and current in this

conductor. By using very thin sheets of steel with insulating material between sheets,

eddy current (losses) are greatly reduced.

CORE LOSSES:

Since magnetic lines of force in a transformer are constantly changing in valve and

direction, heat is developed because of the hysteresis of the magnetic material (friction of

the molecules). This heat must be removed; therefore, it represents an energy loss of the

transformer. High temperatures in a transformer will drastically shorten the life of

insulating materials used in the windings and structures. For every 8 degrees Celsius

temperature rise, life of the transformer is cut by one-half; therefore, maintenance of

cooling systems is critical.

Losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy currents in

the magnetic path, is known as core losses. Since these losses are due to alternating

magnetic fields, they occur in a transformer whenever the primary is energized, even

though no load is on the secondary winding.

COPPER LOSSES:

There is some loss of energy in a transformer due to resistance of the primary

winding to the magnetizing current, even which no load is connected to the transformer.

This loss appears as heat generated in the winding and must also be removed by the
cooling system. When a load is connected to a transformer and electrical currents exists

in both primary and secondary windings, further losses of electrical energy occur. These

losses, due to resistance of the windings, are called copper losses.

TANK:

Tank shall be of welded construction and fabricated from tested quality low

carbon steel of adequate thickness and tank stiffness shall be provided for general rigidity

and these shall be designed to prevent retention of water.

The tank shall be designed to withstand in

1. Mechanical shocks during transportation

2. Vacuum filling of oil up to 10 tars.

3.Continuous internal pressure of 35 KN/m over normal hydro static pressure of oil.

CONSERVATOR:

It is an auxiliary oil tank mounted above the transformer connected to the main

tank its functions are to reduce the rate of operation of oil and to absorb the expansion

and contraction of the oil. It contains 50% of oil such oil level in the main tank

conservator shall be provided in such a position as not the obstruct the electrical

connection to transformer.

BREATHER:

It is a small device placed to the atmosphere end of the pipe coming out

from the conservator. it mainly consists of silica gel (cobalt chloride) which prevents the

entry of moisture contents in the air. This is simplest and crudest method preventing the

entry of moisture into the conservator (or) transformer tank.

BUCHLOZZ RELAY:

This is gas actuated relay used for the protection of oil immersed transformers

against all incipient and make sure that fact that fault decomposes oil thus generating

(>70%) hydrogen gases. This relay filled in between transformer tanks and conservator

under the normal conditions the relay is full of oil.

The following faults can be detected by this relay;

1. Core belt insulation failure.

2. Entrance of air into oil.

3. Short-circuit lamination.

4. Loss of oil due to leakage.

5. Bad (or) loose electric connections.

TRANSFORMER RATING:

Capacity (or rating) of a transformer is limited by the temperature that the

insulation can tolerate. Rating can be increased by reducing core and copper losses, by

increasing the rate of heat dissipation (better cooling) or by improving transformer

insulation so it will withstand higher temperatures. A physically larger transformer can

dissipate more heat, due to the increased area and increased volume of coil.

A transformer is only as strong as its weakest link, and the weakest link is the paper

insulation, which begins to degrade around 100 c. This means that a transformer must be

operated with the “hottest spot” cooler than this degradation temperature, or service life is

greatly reduced. Reclamation typically orders transformers larger than required, which

aids in heat removal and increases transformer life.

Rating of transformers is obtained by simply multiplying the current times to voltage.

Small transformers are called in “VA” volts time amperes. As size increases, 1 Kilovolt

ampere (KVA) means 1,000 volt amperes, 1 mega volt ampere (MVA) means 1 million

volt amperes. Large GSUs may be rated in hundreds of MVAs. A GSU transformer can

cost well over a million dollars and take 18 months to 2 years or longer to obtain. Each

one is designed for a specific application. If one fails, this may means a unit or whole

plant could be down for as long 2 years, costing multiple millions of dollars in lost

generation, in addition to the replacement cost of the transformer itself. This is one reason

that proper maintenance is critical.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS:

Instrument transformers are used for measuring and control purposes.

They provide currents and voltages proportional to the primary, but there is less danger to

instruments and personnel.

Those transformers used to step voltage down are known as potential

transformers (PTs) and those used to step current down are known as current

transformers (CTs).

The function of PT is to accurately measure voltage on the primary,

while a CT is used to measure current on the primary.

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS:

Potential transformers are used with voltmeters, watt meters, watt-hour meters

power factor meters, frequency meters, synchroscopes and synchronizing apparatus,

protective and regulating relays, and under voltage and over voltage trip coils of circuit

breakers.
 Potential transformers are usually rated 50 to 200 volt-amperes at 120

secondary volts. The secondary terminals should never be short circuited because a heavy

current will result, which can damage the windings.

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS:

Current transformers are used with ammeters, watt-meters, power-

factor meters, watt-hour meters, compensators, protective and regulating relays, and trip

coils of circuit breakers. One CT can be used to operate several instruments, provided the

combined loads of the instruments do not exceed that for which the CT is rated.

Secondary windings are usually rated at 5 amperes.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS:

Voltage transformers are used for voltage measurement and

protection. These are at electromagnetic type and capacitor type the electromagnetic type

VT’s are costlier than CVT’s. These are more stable during transient conditions. These

VT’s are used on buses up to 220 KV separate secondary winding shall be provided for

metering and protection.

CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER:

1. Used for voltage measurement and protection.

2. Less stable during transit conditions, because of Ferro resonance.

3. These are used for carrier communications.

4. Used for 132 KV to above 400 KV.

TRANSFORMER TAPS:

Most power transformers have taps on either primary or secondary

windings to vary the number of turns and thus the output voltage. The percentage of
voltage change, above or below normal, between different tap positions varies in different

transformers. In oil-cooled transformers, tap leads are brought to a tap changer, located

beneath the oil inside the tank, or brought to andoil-filled tap changer, externally located.

Taps on dry-type transformers are brought to insulated terminal boards located inside the

metal housing, accessible by removing a panel.

Some transformers taps can be changed under load, while other

transformers must be de-energized. When it is necessary to change taps frequency o meet

changing conditions, taps can be changed under load are used. This is accomplished by

means of a motor that may be controlled either manually or automatically. Automatic

operation is achieved by changing taps to maintain constant voltage as system conditions

change. A common range of adjustment is plus or minus 10%.

TRANSFORMER BUSHING:

The two most common types of bushing used on transformers as main lead entrances are

solid porcelain bushing on smaller transformers and oil-filled condenser bushings on

large transformers

Solid porcelain bushing consists of high-grade porcelain cylinders that

conductors pass through. Outside surfaces have a series of skirts to increase the leakage

path distance to the grounded metal case. High-voltage bushings aregenerally oil-filled

condenser type. The layers are designed to provide approximately equal voltage drops

between each condenser layer. Acceptances are routine maintenance tests most often used

for checking the condition of bushings.

METHODS OF COOLING:

Increasing the cooling rate of a transformer increases its capacity

cooling methods must not only maintain a sufficiently low average temperature but must

prevent an excessive temperature rise in any portion of the transformer (ie. it must

prevent hot sports). For this reason, working parts of large transformers are usually

submerged in high-grade insulating oil. This oil must be kept as free as possible from

moisture and oxygen, dissolved combustible gasses, and particulates.

Ducts are arranged to provide free circulation of oil through the core and

coils warmer the lighter oil rises to the top of the tank, cooler and heaver oil settles to the

bottom. Several methods have been developed for removing heat that is transmitted to the

transformer oil from the core and windings.

OIL-FILLED - SELF - COOLED TRANSFORMERS:

In small and medium sized transformers, cooling takes place by direct

radiation from the tank to surrounding air. In oil-filled, self-cooled types, tank surface

may be corrugated to provide a greater radiation surface. Oil in contract with the core and

windings rises as it absorbs heat and flows outward and downward along tank walls,

where it is cooled by the radiation heat to the surrounding air. These transformers may

also have external radiation attached to the tank to provide greater surface area for

cooling.

FORCED - AIR AND FORCED - OIL - COOLED TRANSFORMERS:

Forced - air - cooled transformers have fan - cooled radiators through which the

transformer oil circulated by gravity. Fans force air through radiators, cooling the oil.
 Forced - air / oil / water - cooled transformers have a self - cooled

(KVA and MVA) rating and one or more forced cooling ratings (higher KVA or MVA).

Higher ratings are due to forced cooling in increasing amounts. As temperature increases,

more fans or oil pumps are turned on automatically.

PRINCIPLE PARAMETERS:

SL No AUTO TRANSFORMER WITH TWO WINDING

ITEM TERITARY TRANSFORMER
1. Type of power transformer ...……...3-phase suitable for outdoor………….
2. a) Voltage rating [ 400/220/33 KV 220/132/11 132/33 132/11 KV
HV/IV/LV ] KV 220/33, 220/11 KV
b) Capacity rating [ MVA ] 315 [400 KV class] 80, 50, 31.5, 25
160, 100, (220 KV class)
3. Type of mounting …………..On wheels mounted on rails………….
4. Suitable for system 50 Hz + 5 %
frequency
5. No of phases 3 3
6. No of windings Two [Auto+Trty] Two [ HV & LV ]
7. Type of cooling ONAN / ONAF & OFAF ONAN /ONAF
8. MVA Rating cores ponding
to cooling system
a) ONAN Cooling 60% 60%
b) ONAN / OFAF Cooling 100% 100%
9. Method of connection HV – Star HV - Star (for 33kv)
IV - Star LV - Star
LV – Star
10. Connection symbol YNa0D11 YnYn0
11. System earthing Solidly grounded neutral system
12. Percentage of impedance 10 + 10%
 Voltage at normal tap and 12.5 + 10% (315) MVA (Up to 25% rating)
MVA base corresponding 10 + 10% 12.5 + 10%
to HV& LV (160 & 100 MVA) (Above 25 MVA rating
Rating and permissible
tolerance
13. Anticipated continuo’s Not to exceed 110% of rated capacity
loading of winding HV &
LV
14. Tap changing gear ON load ON load
i. Provided ON IV Side HV Side towards neutral
end
ii. Top range +10% to -10% +5% to -25%
iii. Top range +25% to -5%
15. Over voltage operating 125% to rated voltage of 60 sec
capability and duration 140% to rated voltage for 5 sec
16. Maximum reactance of HV 20% 20%
windings
17. Minimum knee point 110% rated voltage
voltage
19. Type winding insulation Grader for star winding
HV/LV winding uniform for delta winding
20. System short circuit level For 400 KV system 40 KA/1 second
and duration for which 220 KV system 40 KA/1 second
transformer shall be 132 KV system 31.5 KA/1 second
capable thermal and 33 KV & 25 KA/1 second
dynamic stresses 11 KV system 25 KA/1 second

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION:
 These types of faults that the power transformer are subjected to are
classified as :
i. Through faults.
ii. Internal faults.
i. THROUGH FAULTS:
These are due to over load conditions and external short circuits. The transformer must
be disconnected when such faults only after allowing a pre-determined time during which
other protective gear would have operated a sustained over load conditions can be detected
by thermal relay which relay gives an alarm so that a situation can to be attend (or) supply
disconnected for external short circuit conditions time graded over current relays are
generally employed.
ii.INTERNAL FAULTS:
The primary protection of a transformer s intended for conditions which arise as a results
of faults inside the protect zone internal faults are very there is always the risk of fire these
internal faults can be classified into two groups:
• Electrical faults which cause immediate serious damage but are generally
detectable by unbalance of voltage (or) current such as phase to faults, short circuit
between turn of high voltage and low voltage winding etc.
• Incipient faults which are minor faults, causing slowly developing damage they include
A poor electrical connection of conductors (or) a core fault due to break down of the
insulation of lamination.
• Coolant failure which will cause a rise of temperature even below full
load operation.
• Bad load sharing between transformers in parallel, which can cause over
heating due to circulating currents.
Most of power transformers are star – star type

NORMS OF POWER TRANSFORMERS GENERALLY FOLLOWED IN AP SYSTEM:

 VOLTAGE RATIO
& CAPCACITY HV SIDE LV SIDE COMMON RELAYS
i. 132/33/11 KV upto 3 O/L relays +1 2 O/L relays + 1 E/L Buchlozz, OLTC
8 MVA E/L relay relay BUCHLOZZ, OT, WT
ii. 132/33/11 KV 3 O/L relays +1 3 O/L relays + 1 E/L Differential
above 8 MVA and div. E/L relay relay Buchlozz, OLTC,
below 31.5 MVA BUCHLOZZ, OT, WT
iii. 132/33/11 KV 31.5 3 O/L relays +1 3 O/L relays + 2 E/L Differential over flux,
MVA and above div. E/L relay relay Buchlozz, OLTC,
BUCHLOZZ,
PRV,OT, WT.
iv. 220/33 KV, 31.54 3 O/L relays +1 3 O/L relays +1 div. Differential over flux,
MVA & 220/132 KV div. E/L relay relay Buchlozz, OLTC,
100 MVA BUCHLOZZ,
PRV,OT, WT.
v. 400/220/ KV 31.5 3 directional O/L 3 directional O/L Dfferential over flux,
KVA relays [with relays [with buchlozz, OLTC,
dir.highest] + 1 dir.highest] + 1 buchlozz PRV, OT, T
directonal E/L directonal E/L and over load [alarm]
relays restricted relays restricted relay.
E/L relays E/L relays
TRANSFORMER OIL :

In addition to dissipating heat due to losses in a transformer, insulating oil provides

a medium with high dielectric strength in which the coils and core and submerged. This

allows the transformers to be more compact, which reduced costs.

Insulating oil in good condition will withstand for more voltage across connections

inside the transformer tank than will air. An area would jump across the same spacing of

internal energized co components at a much lower voltage if the tank had only air. In
addition, oil conducts heat away from energized components

much better than air.Over time, oil degrades from normal operations, due to heat and

contaminants. Oil cannot retain high dielectric strength when exposed to air or moisture.

Dielectric strength declines with absorption of moisture and oxygen.

The transformer oil shall conform to the parameters specified below. No inhibitors

shall be in the oil. The oil used shall be non - PCB (poly chlorinated biphenyl)

S.NO CHARACTERISTICS REQUIRMENT METHOD OF

TESTING
1. Appearence Oil shall be clear and A representative
transparent and free from sample of shall be
suspendend matter (or) examined in a 100
sediment MM thick layer at
ambient temp.
2. Density @ 27°C Maximum 0.89 gm/cm2 IS-1448
3. Kinematic viscocity @ 27°C 27 CST IS-1448
Max
4. Interfacal tension @ 27°C Max 0.04 N/m IS-6104
5. Flash point 140°C IS-1448
6. Pour point max -10°C IS-1448
7. Neutralization value [total 0.3 mg KOH/gm IS-335
acidity] Max Appndix – A
8. Corrosive sulphur [in terms of Non-corrosive IS-335
classification of copper strip] Appendix – B
9. Electric strength [break down 30 KV [rms] {if the above IS-6792
voltage] min value is not obtained, oil
• New untreated oil shall be treated} 60 KV
• After treatment [rms]
 10. Dielectric dissipation factor 0.002 IS-6262
[tand] at 90°C Max
11. Specfic resistance [resistivity] 3.0* 1012 Ohm - cm IS-6103
• At 90°C Min 500* 1012 Ohm - cm
• At 27°C Min
12. Oxidation stability 0.2 mg KOH/gm
• Neutralization value 0.02 % by weight
after oxidation Max
• Total sludge after
oxidation Max
13. Preaence of oxidation Oil shall not contains anti- IS-335
oxidant inhnbitors Appendix – D
14. Water content Maximum 10 PPM IS-2362

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RELAYS USED IN TRANSFORMER PROTECTON ARE

AS FOLLOWS:
• BUCHLOZZ RELAY
• DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
• O/C & E/F RELAYS
• REF [RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION]
• OVER FLUX RELAY
i. BUCHHOLZ RELAY:
Whenever a fault in transformer develops slowly, power transformer
produced locally, which begins decompose solid, liquid insulated materials and they to
produce inflammable gases and oil flow. This phenomenon has been used in the gas
protection relay (or) popularly known as “BUCHHOLZ RELAY”. This relay is applicable
only to the conservator which acts an expansion chamber.

The buchholz relay may cause operative not only during faults within the transformer, air
may get in together with oil, accumulate under the relay cover and thus cause a false
operation of the gas relay. For this reason when the ‘GAS’ alarm signal is energized the
operation must take a sample of gas from the relay, for which purpose a special cock is
provided. Gases due to faults always have colour and an odour and are inflammable. If
mall operation of buchholz relay due to O/L (or) external short circuits is experienced.

ii. DIFFERENTIAL RELAY:

A simple differential relay compares the currents at both ends of a protected
element as indicated below

Fig: Differential relay

As long as there is no fault within the protected equipment the current circuit
between the two CTs and no current flows through the differential element. But for
internal faults the sum of the CTs secondary currents will flow through the differential
relay making it to operate.

MAINTENANCE SCHEDULE OF E.H.V. POWER TRANSFORMER:

S.NO ITEM OF MAINTENANCE PERIODICIT REMARKS
 Y
1. Chenking the colour of silica gel in the Daily
breather and replacement or
reconditioning, if colour changes from
blue to pink say about 50 % of the total
quantity. Checking up the oil level of
the oil seal (to be upto the level marked
in the cup)
2. Checking of oil level in Daily
a) Main conservator
b) OLTC Conservator
c) Bushing and examining for leaks of
oil>
3. Visual check for overheating if any at Daily Each shift
terminal Connections and checking for
unusual internal noises
4. Cecking for noise and vibration (or) any Daily
abnormality
5. Checking upto oil and winding Daily
temperautre
6. Checking for pressure relief explosion Daily
vent diapharm for cracks.
a) force cooling system:
Checking for leakage of water into
cooler
[forced cooling system by oil pumps]
7. Cleaning of bushing. Inspect for any Monthly
cracks (or) chipping of the procelain
8. Ensuring that oil comes out when air Quarterly
release valve is opened [of the main
 tank]
9. Measuring insulation resistance of
windings with an appropriate megger
[note down oil temperature]
10.  Checking up of winding and oil
temperature. Buchlozz and
surge relay oil level trips of
surge operation
 Checking up of auto starting of
pumps and cooolng fans
11. OLTC oil test for BDV and mkoisture
content. Nsure oil level in OLTC
12. Main tank oil testing of BDV and
moisture content
13.  Checking of buchlozz felay for Quarterly (or)
any leakage of gas collection during fault
and testng the gas collected
 Checking of operation of Half yearly (or)
buchlozz relay by air inicetion doing shut down
Monthly (or) as
 Noting the oil level in the & when shunt
inspecton glass (or) buchlozz down availed
relay, arresting leaks if any
14. TAP CHANGER: Quarterly
 Lubricating/greasing all moving
parts
15. Checking of all the connectons on the Quarterly
transformer tightness such as bushing,
tank, earth connections etc.
16. Forced cooling system:
a) Megger testing of motors [pump] Yearly
lubricating the mechanical parts
and cooling fans
b) Cleaning of water jacket Quarterly
c) Cleaning of water jacket of oil Quarterly
pumps and cooling fans for earth
leakage over load trip alarm etc.,
d) Checking of interlocks for Quarterly
pumps, coding air ballast fans for
auto start and step operation at
correct temperature aetting and
manual operation
17. Oil level in oil seal and replacement Quarterly
18. Testing of oil for dissolved gas analysis Half-yearly Other
for 100 MVA and above. If the results transformers
show abnormality, frequency of DGA such as 50
may be increased as per the MVA & 10/16
recommendation of R&D MVA
transformers,
which are in
service for
more than 5
years
19. Pressure testing of oil coolers Half-yearly
20. Testing of motors, pumps & callibrating Half-yearly
pressure guages etc.,
21. Overhauling of pumps and motors and Yearly (or) as
cooling fans when
 necessasry
22. Testing of oil in main tank for acidity, Yearly
tan delta, IFT and resistivity
23. Bushing testing for tan delta Yearly
24. Calibration of oil and winding Yearly
temperature
25. Measurment of excitation current at lo Yearly
voltage at normal tap and extreme taps
26. Measurment of D.C winding resistance Yearly
27. Ratio test at all taps Yearly
28. Checking the bushing CT for WTI for Yearly
correct ratio
29. OLTC:
a) Inspections of contacts in Depending upon
diverter the No. of
operations as
recommended
by the
manufacturer
Yearly
b) Driving mechanism visual
checkup, over hauling if necessary
30. a) tap position indicator Yearly
b) Checking for proper working of Yearly
remote tap position indicator, rmote
winding but indicator
31. Operating of buchlozz relay for alarm Yearly
and trip by draining of oil and injection
of air with cycle pump
32. Checking of leakage in air cell [for Yearly
 transformers fitted with air cells]
33. Oil level in thermometer pocket top up if yearly
required
34. Bushing partial discharge test and Once in 5 years
capacitance
35. General overhaul: Once in 5 years
a) Core tightening
b) De-sledging/washing of windings
c) Inspection of core and windings
d) Replacement of all jackets
e) Check core bolt insulation
36. Filtration of oil Whenever oil
test reaults are
below
permissible
limits

TESTING OF POWER TRANSFORMERS :

The following routine tests are required to be conducted at site :

VOLTAGE RATIO TEST :

Apply 3 phase 440V on HV side, measure volt on LV side on each taps, this

will show the volt of the transformer which should be checked with the prescribed ratio

under each tap.

SHORT-CIRCUIT TEST :

Apply 3 phases 440 V on HV side, keep LV shorted and measure the current on

each phase of HV and LV on each tap. If possible while measuring the short circuit
current, operate to OLTC and observe the current on each phase.

MAGNETIC BALANCE TEST :

Energize any two phases one by one respectively and check the voltage both on HV and

LV. This will show the healthiness of core, and volt ratio also (i.e., flux linkage).

VECTOR GROUP :

This is only the pre-commissioning test, however if it is carried out in routine

maintenance work,

IR VALUE or MEGGAR TEST :

This is the most important test. If the perfect record is maintained (at the

time of measuring the IR value, room temperature and winding temperature, oil

temperature and winding temperature is to be mentioned) then the test is very much useful

to get the clear picture of the transformer.

OIL TEST :

This is another important test of the transformer. Take the sample of the oil and

check the BDV (break down voltage) of the oil. Compare it with previous values recorded.

This will show the health of oil of the transformer. However this is only applicable to 132

kv, 220 kv class power transformers.

The transformer oil possesses basically three properties

1. Physical property

2. Chemical property
 3. Electrical property

Physical property includes - colour, specific gravity, interfacial tension etc.,

Chemical property includes - presence of sulphur, organic gases, presence of oxygen,

acidity of oil etc., Electrical property includes - specific resistivity, ten deltas, BDV, water

contents (ppm) etc.,

OPERATION OF BUCHOLZ RELAY :

To check the operation of Buchhloz-relay closed, drain the oil from the drain plug,

mounted at the bottom of Buchhloz relay and keep all the DC circuits energized. When the

oil inside the Buchhloz - relay falls through drain cock, first Buchhloz - Alarm switch will

operate and at the last Buchhloz trip switch will operate.Similarly check the operation of

OLTC Buchholz - relay and oil surge relay.

OPERATION OF OTI/WTI :

Check the working of OTI/WTI whether its switches operate at a pre-set

temperature value or not. To check this, operate the temperature indicator manually and

see that mercury switch contact closes at pre-set temperature and see that either cooling fan

gets ON, OTI/WTI temperature trip. If the mercury switch does not make contact at pre-set

temperature value, replace the mercury switch, if the temperature either oil or winding

shows incorrect reading, calibrate the WTI/OTI meters. This will be very much helpful

during the transformer loading condition. As now-a day’s transformer MVA rating

depends on transformer cooling system.

MEASURING OF EARTH RESISTANCE :

All the transformers have a body earthing. It is a must to check the earth resistance

of earthing pit. During the fault condition of lines or equipments fault current will back
feed to transformer and this current must be neutralized through earthing of transformer

winding. If the earth resist is poor, then this fault current will continue through the

transformer winding which may result in to failure oftransformer.

Equipment required for the maintenance of transformer :

1. Megger : Range 2.5 kv / 5 kv (if possible motorized)

2. Oil testing kit: AC - 230 V, 50 HZ input and 0-80 kv or 0-100 kv output.

3. Earth resistance - Megger.

4. AVO meter.

5. DC resistance meter: - for checking the contact resistance of breaker and isolators

which is a part of routine maintenance. It is also necessary to check the resistance of

windings of transformer, which will be helpful to detect the fault in case of failure of

the transformers.

3.TRANSMISSIONLINES AND

TOWERS
The electrical power is generated in bulk quantity in remote places like Ramagundam,

Vijayawada, Sileru, Vijjeshwaram, Tarapur etc., Depending upon several factors such as

resources, land etc. The electrical power requirement is in villages, towns, and industries.

The distance between the generation and load centers varies from 100 to 1000’s of

kilometers. Therefore it is necessary to transmit the electrical power from generating

stations, by some means, this is achieved by transmission. There is on other means to

transmit the power from generating station expect transmission lines at present. Of course

this task can be achieved by underground cables but it is vary affair and requires more

maintains. The transmission linesmainly consists of poles, conductors, insulators, cross-

arms etc. The power is transmitted through conductors.

TRANSMISSION SUPPLY SYSTEM:

The transfer of electric power from a power station to consumer’s premises is

known as “Electric supply system”.
An electric supply system mainly comprises of transmission and distribution
lines. The transmission line are necessary for
Bulk power transfer large group of generalizing station to the main load
centers.
1. For system interconnection.
2. For transfer of power from main transmission network to distribution
substation.
3. The distribution lines will transfer the power from substations to different
consumer’s premises.

Transmission of power can be done by two ways, namely

1. A.C. System
2. D.C. System
 Every system has its own advantages and disadvantages but in usual
practice A.C. Transmission systems are used.

Advantages Of DC TransmissionSystem:

It requires only two conductors for transmission of power. It is also possible

to transfer the power using single conductor by using earth as a return conductor. Hence,
the cost of the conductor material is reduced.

1) Potential stresses developed on the D.C. System is 70% as compared to

A.C. System. Hence, it requires less insulation.
2) No inductance, phase displacement, capacitance, and surge problems.
3) There is no skin effect; hence full cross-section of the conductor is utilized.
4) No stabilizer is required for transmission of power over long distances
Because the voltage drop in the line is less.
5) The effect of corona is reduced by using earth as negative conductor and
the lines of positive conductor.
6) Construction of D.C. line is easy as compared to A.C. line
7) Ungrounded cables can be used because of less potential stress and
Negligible dielectric loss.
8) For a given load and sending end voltage, the voltage regulation is better in
D.C. Transmission lines.
9) Less interference with communication lines.

Disadvantages of D.C. Transmission system:

• Electrical power cannot be generated at high voltage because of communication

problem.
• Voltage can’t be stepped up.
• It requires costly switch gear, as the low resistance interruption method can’t be
used for the circuit breakers.
 • The cost converting, inverting stations are very high.
• It requires converting equipment at sending end and inverting equipment at
receiving end substations.
Advantages of A.C. Transmission System:

• Electric power can be generated at high voltages (3.3kv, 6.6kv and 11kv) easily.
• The voltage generated can easily be stepped-up by using step-up transformer and
also it can be stepped down by using step-down transformer.
• The cost of A.C. Switch gear is less.
• Maintenance of A.C. Substation is simpler.
• The transformer substation are much efficient than the Motor-Generator sets usedin
D.C. Systems.
Disadvantages of A.C. Transmission System:

• Construction of A.C. Transmission line is not easy as compared to D.C.

Transmission lines.
• Amount of conductor material required is more as compared D.C. Transmission
lines.
• Due to presence of skin effect the line resistance will increase.
• To avoid corona effect, the spacing between line conductors should be kept more.
• Alternators must be synchronized, before they are made into parallel.
• In cables the alternating current causes sheath loss.

IN TRANSMISSION LINES THERE ARE THREE MAIN SUBSTANCES:

• Conductors
• Insulators
• Towers or poles

CONDUCTORS:

Conductor is a substance or material which allows the passage or a flow of electric

current through its body. Transmission lines operating at high voltages, normally standard
conductors are used.
1) For 132 KV lines---PANTHER conductors can use.

2) For 220 Kvlines---ZEBRA/MOOSEare used.

Zebra --- 54 A1 + 7 st/3.18 mm-750 amps.

Moose 54 a1 + 7st/3.53 mm-850 amps.

3) For 400KV line ---TWIN MOOSE is used.

4) For 800 KV line --- BERSIMISconductor is used.

CONDUCTORS ACCESSORIES:-

• Suspension hardware.
• Tension hardware.
• Mid span joints.
• Repair sleeves.
• Armor rods.
• Spaces and damper

The Minimum Clearance Of Outdoor Equipment & Rigid Conductor In Air

. MINIMUM CLEARANCE BETWEEN

 S.N RATED KV PHASE TO PHASE PHASE TO EARTH
O (mm) (mm)

1 11 KV 400 (mm) 310 (mm)

2 33 KV 400 (mm) 320 (mm)

3 132 KV 1350, 1600 1150 , 1380

4 220 KV 2300 , 2700 1960 ,2300

5 400 KV 4000 , 5200 3500 , 3640

TOP CONDUCTOR TO GROUND WIRE CLEARANCE :

• 132 KV --- 6.1 m

• 220 KV --- 8.5 m
• 400 KV --- 9.0 m

INSULATORS :
Insulator is a device used in electricity system to support, separate or contain conductor

carrying current at given voltage

FUNCTION :
1) Separate the current carrying conductor of a transmission line from their support
structure to prevent flow of current through the support structure to ground.
2) Provide necessary mechanical support to conductor at a height above ground
level.
TYPES OF INSULATORS :

• PIN type

• POST type

• DISK type

• LONG ROD type(solid core insulator)

 • HOLLOW type

Hollow insulators are cylindrical in shape, such as CT’S; CVT’s LA’s and

CIRCUIT BREAKER.

Material used for insulators are :

Porcelain, Glass, Steatite and Special Composition Materials. In Kadapa

substation materials used for insulators is porcelain.

TOWERS:

Transmission lines are generally carried on support called steel tower. A transmission line

tower is a space frame structure fabricated from different sizes of steel angle section.

TYPES OF TOWERS:

• Single Circuit

• Double Circuit

• Multi Circuit

• Narrow Base

• Special towers for river crossings

4.RELAYS
In a power system consisting of generators, transformers, transmission and distribution
circuits, it is inevitable that sooner or later come failure will occur somewhere in the
system. When a failure occurs on any part of a system, it must be quickly detected and
disconnected from the system.

The detection of a fault and disconnection of a faulty section or apparatus

can be achieved by using fuses (or) relays in conjunction with CKT breakers. A fuse
performs both detection and interruption functions automatically but its use in limited for
the protection of low-voltages CKT only. For high voltage CKT [say above 33 KV],
relays and CKT breakers are employed to sense the desired function of automatic
protective gear.

A protective relay is a device that detects the fault and initials. The
operation of the breaker to isolate the defective element from the rest of the system.

CLASSSIFICATION OF RELAYS:
 There are two methods of classification of relays. One by its operation
characteristics and the other by its operational time. The following is the classification
from the operational point of view.

a) Instantaneous Relay:

In this type no time log will exists between the operation of the relay and
tripping of contacts.

b) Definite Time Lag Relay:

Pre-set time would exist between operation of the relay and tripping of
contact, which is independent of the fault current.

c) Inverse Definite Mean Time Lag Relay:

This type of the operation of the relay is inversely proportional to the value
of the current (or) voltage and the operation time tends to a definite minimum time.

d) Inverse Time Lag Relay:

The lag between the operation of relay and the operation of the tripping
contact is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the fault current.

CLASSIFICATIONS ACCORDING TO THE OPERATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS:

a) SOLENOID TYPE RELAY:

In this type an iron core plunger moves inside a solenoid and the operation
of the relay depends upon the movement of the plunger.

b) ATTRACTED ARMATURE TYPE:

 In this type an armature which is provided by an electromagnetic core. The
operation of the relay depends upon the movement of armatures when the current in the
electromagnetic core exceeds a stipulated limit, the armature is attracted and relay
operates.

c) ELECTRO-DYNAMIC TYPE RELAY:

In this type a coil moves within an electro-magnetic field resulting an

operation of the relay.

d) MOVING COIL TYPE RELAY:

In this type a coil moves within the magnetic field of a permanent magnet
resulting operation of the relay.

e) INDUCTION TYPE RELAY:

In this type a non-magnetic metallic disc (or) cylinder is placed within

alternating magnetic field and the disc (or) cylinder rotates due to a torque produced by
the interaction of eddy currents and alternating field.

f) DIRECTIONAL RELAY:

In this type of relay, either it can be designed to operate for current (or)
power. When direction of current (or) power is reversed or the phase angle exceeds a
certain desired valve the relay operates.

g) UNDER VOLTAGE, UNDER CURRENT, UNDER POWER RELAY:

In this type, the relay is actuated when the voltage, current (or) power falls
below a specified value.

h) OVER VOLTAGE, OVER CURRENT, OVER POWER RELAY:

 In this the relay operates when the voltage, current (or) power exceeds a
specified value.

i)THERMAL RELAY:

The operation of the relay is dependent on the difference in magnitude (or)

phase of voltage (or) current.

j)GAS OPERATED RELAY:

In this type when the pressure of the gas exceeds a certain limit, the relay is
actuated.

k) STATIC RELAY:

These relays employ semi-conductor components. The dct can be

designed to measure electrical quantities and can be made to operate an
electromagnetic relay. Instantaneous operation is achieved. It is dependable and so
widely used

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

• First part is the primary winding of a current transformer [c.t] which s

connected in series.

• Second part consists of secondary winding of C.T and the relay operating
coil.

• Third part s the tripping circuit which may be either a.c (or) d.c it consists
of a source of supply, the trip coil of the circuit breaker and the relay
stationary contacts.

THE FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE RELAY:

i.RELIABILITY:

The most important requisite of protective relay is reliability. Since they

supervise the circuit for a long time before a fault occurs, if a fault thus occurs, the relays
must respond instantly and correctly.

ii.SELECTIVITY:

The relay must be able to discriminate [select] between those conditions for
which prompt operation s required and those for which no operation or time delayed
operation is required.

iii. SENSITIVITY:

The relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive, so that is operates

reliably which required under the actual condition that produce less operating tendency.

iv. SPEED:

The relay must operate at the required speed. It should neither be too slow
which may result in damage to the equipment nor should it be too fast which may result
in understand operation.

RELAYS USED FOR TRANSMISSION & DISTRIBUTION LINES:

S.NO VOLTAGE PROTECTION SCHEME

Main I: Non switched distance scheme [fed
from bus power transformers]
1. 220 KV Line Main II: Switched distance scheme [fed from
line CVT’s] with charge over facility from bus
power transformer to line CVT and vice-versa
Main protection: Switched distance scheme
2. 132 KV Line [fed from bus power transformers]
Backup protection: 3 non direction 10 MT
 O/L relays and 1 No. directional 10 MT E/L
relay
3. 33 KV Line Non-directional 10 MT 3 O/L and 1 E/L relay
4. 11 KV Line Non-directional 10 MT 2 O/L and 1 E/L relay

NOTES:

• One some of the old 220 KV lines are distance scheme with backup directional 10
MT 3 O/L & E/L relays were provided.

• On some of the 132 KV grid lines, only distance scheme is available

• Very few 66 KV lines are in service [which is also being phased out] with
distance/ OL / EL relays.

BUSBARS:

All 220 KV bus bars will have bus bar protection scheme with main and
check zone.

BREAKER FAILURE PROTECTION:

The LBB protection scheme will be provided for all 220 KV station [along
with bus bar protection scheme].

For protection of transmission line distance relays are used.

PRINCIPLE OF DISTANCE RELAY:

 Generating stations, transmission and receiving sub-station are
interconnected to form a power system network. In such a system, it becomes impossible
to coordinate over current or directional over current relays to provided protection for the
transmission lines, since for a given fault location, the current seen by the relay varies
over a wide range depending upon the system operating conditions.

A distance relay compares the current and voltage at the relaying out
current provides the operating torque and the voltage provides the restraining torque in
the relay. In other words an impedance relay is a voltage restrained over current relay.

The equation at the balance point in a simple impedance relay is

K1V2 = K2 I2(or) V/I = K3where K1, K2& K3are constants. In other words the relay is on
the verge of the operation at a constant value of V/I ratio, which may be expressed as
impedance.

For a fault at the far end of the line, the local voltage is the IZ drop in the
line and therefore the voltage to current ratio for such a fault will be ‘Z’, where ‘Z’ is the
impedance of the line. For a fault internal to the protected section. V/I < Z and for a fault
beyond the protection section, V/I is >Z. The V/I ratio of the relay can be termed as the
“impedance” seen by the relay. The will operate if the impedance seen by the relay is >Z.
Since the impedance seen is directly proportioned to the length of the line between the
relay and the fault, it is also a measure of distance to the fault the relay and hence such
relays which compare the voltage and currents are called “Distance relays”.

TYPES OF DISTANCE RELAYS:

• Impedance relay

• Reactance relay

• Mho relay

• Modified impedance relay

Typical 3 zone time distance characteristics of distance relay is shown in sketch
below:

The zone-1 reach is limited to 80% of ZL to provide a reasonable

margin against a possible over reach due to errors in LT’s, PT’s relay measurement,
line parameters etc.,

The zone-2 reach is set to cover up to 40% - 50% of adjoining line so that this definitely
cover the balance 20% of main line [after zone-1 reach] and a provides backup to
adjoining line relay. Zone-2 setting shall be not less that 120% of ZL in order to ensure
definite coverage of 100% of main line.

The zone-3 & zone-4 reaches will be suitably set to provide backup for
relays on adjacent lines with proper time gradation.

ADDITIONAL FEATURES OF DISTANCE SCHEMES:

• Power swing blocking relay

• VT fuse failure

• Switch onto fault relay

• Fault locator

• Auto-reclosing scheme

• Carrier communication scheme

i. POWER SWING BLOCKING SCHEME:

Distance relay which respond to balanced 3-phase changes in the

impedance will be affected by the power savings. These swings or oscillation occurs
following a system disturbance such as major load change (or) a fault clearance.
 As generators in the system strive to find a stable operating angle relative to
each other, the enroot distance relays on the line may see these conditions as three phase
fault and falsely operate to trip their breakers. To avoid such operation, power swing
blocking relays is used.

While the old schemes have blocking in all three zones where as new
static/numerical schemes have the feature of blocking any particular zone of our choice.

ii. VT FUSES FAILURE:

The distance relays being voltage restrict O/L relays, loss voltage due to
main PT fuse failure (or) inadvertent removal of fuse in one or more phases will cause the
relay operation. The fuse failure relay will sense such condition by the presence of
residual voltage without residual current and blocks the relay.

iii. SWITCH ONTO FAULT RELAY:

Under normal service conditions, a close-up 3-phase fault can be seen by

the relays in zone-1 and clear the fault instantaneously. But when the line is switched on
to a close by fault [say after line clear with earth switch on], the voltage at the relaying
point will be zero. Faults of type will normally clear by back up zones.

The voltage applied to the relay is low and this condition occurs
simultaneously with the operation of starter will cause instantaneous trip by SOTF relay.
This SOTF feature will be effective only for about 1-2 seconds after the line is charged.
Faults occurring after this time will be measured in the normal way.

iv. FAULT LOCATOR:

It measures the distance from the relay location to the fault point in terms of
Z, in ohms, or length in KM (or) percentage of line length.

This relay gets input as the distance relay [connected in the series with on
the main relays]. Its measurement initiated by trip signal from distance relay.
 5. CIRCUIT BREAKERS
During the operation of power system, it is often desirable and necessary to
switch on (or) off the various circuits under both normal and abnormal condition. In
earlier days, this function used to be performed by a switch and a placed in series with the
circuit

With the advancement of power system, the lines and other equipment
operate at very high voltage and carry large currents. The arrangement of switches along
with fuses cannot serve the desired function of switchgear in such high capacity circuits.
This necessitates to employ a more dependable means control such as it obtained by the
use of “circuit breakers”.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can

• Make (or) break a circuit either manually (or) by remote control under normal
conditions

• Break a circuit automatically under fault condition

• Make a circuit either manually (or) by remote control under fault condition

OPERATION PRINCIPLE:

A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called

electrodes under normal operating conditions; these contacts remain closed and will not
open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. Of course, the contact can
be opened manually (or) by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any
part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get energized and the moving
contacts are apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
 When the contacts of the circuit’s breakers are separated under fault
conditions, an arc is struck between them. The current is thus to continue until the
discharge ceases. The production of arc not only delay to the current interruption process
and is also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the system (or) to the
circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the
arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a
dangerous value.

ARC PHENOMENON:

When a short circuit occurs, a heavy current flows through the contacts of
the circuit breaker before they are opened by the protective system. At the instant when
the contacts been separate the contact are decreases rapidly and large fault current causes
increased current density and hence rise in temperature. The heat produced in the medium
between contacts is sufficient to ionize oil. The ionized air (or) vapor acts as conductor
and an arc is struck between the contacts. The potential difference between the contacts is
quite small and is sufficient to maintain the arc. The arc provides a low resistance path
and consequently the current in the circuit remains uninterrupted so long as the arc
persists.

During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends
upon the arc resistance. The greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows
between the contacts. The arc resistance depending upon the following factors:

i. DEGREE OF IONIZATION:

The arc resistance with the decreases in the number of ionized particles
between the contacts.

ii. LENGTH OF ARC:

The arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e., separation of
contacts.
iii. CROSS-SECTION AREA:

The arc resistance increases with the decrease in arc of X-section of the arc.

METHODS OF ARC IDENTIFICATON:

There are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breakers viz.,

• High resistance method

• Low resistance (or) current zero method

i. HIGH RESISTANCE METHOD:

In this process the resistance of the arc is increased by lengthening and

cooling it to such an extent that the system voltage is no longer able to maintain the arc
and arc gets extinguished increase the resistance of the arc. This method is employed in
Air-break circuit breaker and D.C circuit breaker.

ii. LOW RESISTANCE (OR) CURRENT ZERO METHOD:

In this process the arc gets extinguished at natural current zero of the A.C
wave and is prevented from restricting again by rapid build-up of dielectric strength of
the current space. This process is employed in almost all A.C circuit breakers except air-
break circuit breaker.

IMPORTANT TERMS:

i. ARC VOLTAGE:

It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker the
arcing period.

ii. RESTRIKING VOLTAGE:

It is the transient voltage that appears the contacts at (or) near current zero
during arcing period.
iii. RECOVERY VOLTAGE:

It is the normal frequency [50HZ] Y.M.D voltage that appears across the
contacts of the circuit breaker after final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the
system voltage.

CLASSIFICATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

There are several ways of classifying the circuit breakers. However, the
most general way of classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction. The
medium used for arc extinction is usually oil, air, sulphur hexafluoride [SF6] (or)
vacuum. Accordingly, circuit breakers may be classified into:

i. OIL CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

Which employ some insulating oil for arc extinction.

ii. ARC-BLAST CIRCUIT BREAKER:

In which high pressure air blast is used for extinguishing the arc.
iii. SULPHUR HEXAFLUROIDE CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

In which sulphur hexafluoride [SF6] gas is used for arc extinction.

iv. VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

In which vacuum is used for arc extinction. For 132 KV and above SF6
circuit breakers are preferred and for 33 KV & 11 KV vacuum circuit breakers are used.

KADAPA 220/132/33 KV sub-station consists of different types of circuit-

breakers mainly SF6, vacuum & minimum oil circuit breakers are preferred.
Fig: Vacuum circuit breaker

SULPHUR HEXAFLUROIDE [SF6] CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

In such circuit breakers, sulphur hexafluoride [SF6] gas is used as the arc
quenching medium. The [SF6] is an electro-negative gas and has a strong tendency to
absorb free electrons. The contacts of the breaker are open in high pressure flow of SF6
gas and arc is struck between them. The conducting free electrons in the arc are rapidly
captured by the gas to form relatively immobile negative ions. This loss of conducting
ions in the arc quickly builds up enough insulation strength in extinguish the arc. The sf6
circuit breakers have been found to be very effective for high power and high voltage.
CONSTRUCTION:

The SF6 circuit breaker consists of fixed and moving contacts enclosed in a
chamber containing SF6 gas. This chamber is connected to SF6 gas reservoir. Then the
contacts of breaker are opened, the valve mechanism permits a high pressure SF6 gas
from the reservoir to flow towards the arc interruption chamber. The fixed contact is
hollow cylindrical current carrying contact fitted with an arc horn. The moving contact is
also a cylindrical with the rectangular holes with sides to permit the SF6 gas to let out
through these holes after flowing along and across the arc. The tips of fixed contact,
moving contact and arcing horn are coated with copper, tungsten are resistant material.
Since SF6 is costly, it is reconditioned and reclaimed by suitable auxiliary system after
each operation of the breaker.
WORKING:

In the cooled position of the breaker, the contacts remain surrounded by SF 6

gas at a pressure of about 2.8 Kg/Cm 2. When the breaker operates, the moving contact is
pulled apart and an arc s struck between the contacts. The movement of the moving
contact is synchronized with the opening of a valve which permits SF 6 gas at 14 Kg/Cm2
pressure from the reservoir to the arc interruption chamber. The high pressure flow of SF 6
rapidly absorbs the free electrons is the arc to form immobile negative ions which are
ineffective charge carrier. The result is that the medium between the contacts quickly
builds up high dielectric and causes the extinction lf the arc. After the breaker operation,
the valve is closed by the action of a set of springs.

ADVANTAGES:

• Due to superior arc quenching properly of SF 6, such circuit breakers have very
short arcing time

• Since the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is 2 to 3 times that of air, such breakers can
interrupt much larger currents

• The SF6 circuit gives noiseless operation due to its closed gas circuit and no
exhaust to atmosphere unlike the air blast circuit breaker

• The closed gas enclosure keeps the interior dry so that there is no moisture
problem

• There s no risk of fire in such breakers because SF6 s non-inflammable

DIS-ADVANTAGES:

• SF6 breakers are costly due to high cost of SF6

• Since SF6 gas has to be reconditioned after every operation of the breaker,
additional equipment is required for this purpose.
APPLICATIONS:

A typical SF6 circuit breaker consists of interrupter units each capable of

dealing with currents up to 60 KA and voltages n the range of 50 – 80 KV. A number of
units are connected in series according to system voltage. SF 6 circuit breaker have been
developed for voltages 115 KV to 230 KV, power ratings 10 MVA to 20 MVA and
interrupting time less than 3 cycles

VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER [VCB]:

In such breakers, vacuum [degree of vacuum being n the range from 10 - to

10- to RR] is used as the arc quenching medium.

PRINCIPLE:

The production are n vacuum CKT breaker and its extinction can be
explained are when contacts of the breaker are opened in vacuum, a arc is produced in
between the contacts by the ionization of metal vapors of contacts. However, the arc s
quickly extinguished because the metallic vapors, electrons and ions produced during arc
rapidly condense on the surface of the circuit breaker contacts, resulting quick recovery
of dielectric strength. As soon as the arc is produced in vacuum, it s quickly extinguished
due to the fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength in vacuum.

WORKING:

When the breaker operates, the moving contact separate from the contact an
arc is struck between the contacts. The production of arc is due to the ionization of metal
ions and depends very much upon the material of contacts. The arc is quickly
extinguished because the metallic vapors, electrons and ions produced during arc are
diffused in a short time and seized by the surfaces of moving and fixed members and
shields. Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength, the arc
extinction in a vacuum breaker with a short contact separation
APPLICATIONS:

For a like India, here distances are quite large and accessibility to remote
areas difficult, the installation of such outdoor, maintenance free circuit breakers should
prove a definite advantage vacuum circuit breakers are being employed for outdoor
application ranging from 22 KV to 66 KV. Even with limited rating of say 60 to 100
MVA, they are suitable for a majority of applications in rural areas.

MINIMUM OIL CIRCUIT BREAKER:

Which use minimum amount of oil, in such circuit breakers, oil is used only
for arc extinction, the current conducting parts are insulated by air (or) porcelain (or)
organic insulating material.

CIRCUIT BREAKERSRATINGS:

A circuit breaker may be called upon to operate under all conditions.

However major are imposed on the circuit breaker major duties are imposed on the circuit
breaker when there is a fault on the system in which it is connected. Under fault
conditions, a circuit breaker is required to perform the following three duties:

• It must be capable of opening of faulty circuit and breaking the fault current

• It must be capable of being closed on to a fault

• It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time while another circuit
breaker is clearing the fault

Corresponding to above mentioned duties, the circuit breakers have three ratings viz.,

• Breaking capacity

• Making capacity

• Short-time capacity
i. BREAKING CAPACITY:

It is current that circuit current is capable of breaking at given recovery

voltage and under specified conditions

It is a common practice to express the breaking capacity in MVA by taking

into account rated breaking current and rated service voltage.

Thus if ‘I’ is the rated breaking current in atmosphere and ‘V’ is the rated service line
voltage in volts, then for a 3-phase circuit.

Breaking capacity = √3 * V * I * 10 MVA

ii. MAKING CAPACITY:

There is always a possibility of closing (or) making the circuit breaker

under short circuit conditions. The capacity of a breaker to ‘make’ current depends upon
its ability to withstand and close successfully against the effect of electromagnetic forces.
The peak value of current [including DC component] during the first cycle of the current
wave after the closure of circuit breaker is known as making capacity.

Making capacity = 2.55 X symmetrical breaking capacity.

iii. SHORT-TIME RATING:

In this period of which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while
remaining closed. The short-time rating of a circuit breaker depends upon its ability to
with stand.
 6 6.BUS-BARS
Bus-bars and lines are important elements of electric power system and
require the immediate attention of protection engineers for safeguards against the
possible faults occurring on them. The methods used for the protection of generators and
transformers can also be employed, with slight modifications for the bus-bars and lines.

BUS-BARS:

Bus-bars are defined as the conductors to which several incoming and

outgoing lines are connected. Bus-bars are made of copper (or) aluminum. These are to
carry the main power and should be reliable.

FUNCTIONS OF BUS-BARS:

• To carry normal currents and over load currents continuously without temperature
rise with in the specified limits

• To withstand mechanical stresses due to wind pressure, lying etc.,

• To with stand normal system voltage and also abnormal voltage without flash over

• To provide low resistance path for current flow

All bus-bars in the 220 KV Kadapa sub-station are A.C.S.R conductor for
the following dimensions. For

220 KV 29.89 mm

132 KV 23.45 mm

33 KV 12.27 mm

11 KV 7.77 mm
 A.C.S.R conductors are preferred because they are more flexible, easier to handle and
transport in A.C.S.R conductors the number of stands.

The Kadapa sub-station 132 KV switch yard consists of two bus-bars. Because it
provides additional flexibility, continuity of supply and periodic checks without total
shunt down.

TYPES OF BUS-BAR SCHEMES:

Various types of bus-bar schemes generally in use are:

• Single bus-bar, with (or) without sectionalize

• Man and transfer bus-bar

• Double bus-bar

• Double main and transfer bus-bar

• Ring bus-bar and mesh bus-bar

• One and a half circuit breaker

• Double bus double breaker scheme

SELECTION OF BUS-BAR SCHEME:

Factors influencing the selection of a bus-bar scheme in the sub-station

design are operational flexibility, system safety, reliability, availability ability to facilitate
system control and cost. Signal line diagrams of different types of bus-bars schemes. It
is important to consider the degree of reliability of supply expected during maintenance
or faults in selection of bus-bar schemes. Amount of redundancy to be provided so as to
determine the equipment which can be permitted out of use on account of maintenance or
faults, should also be taken into consideration. Certain amount of sectionalization has
also to be considered.

i. SINGLE BUS-BAR SCHEME:

 This is the simplest scheme, in which each circuit is provided with one circuit
breaker. Disadvantage is that in case of maintenance of circuit breaker associated feeder
has also to be shutdown. On occurrence of a fault on the feeder connected to bus-bar
through by-pass isolator, the other feeder on that bus section will also be lost.

ii. MAIN AND TRANSFER BUS ARRANGEMENT:

This is technically a single bus-bar arrangement with an additional bus-bar called

“Transfer Bus” energized from main bus-bar through a bus coupler circuit, i.e., for ‘n’
number of circuit it employs n+I circuit breakers. The additional provision of transfer
bays and bus coupler circuit facilitates taking out one circuit breaker at a time for routine
over haul and maintenance without de-energizing the circuit controlled by that breaker as
that circuit then gets energized through bus coupler breaker and transfer bus-bar. This
scheme has been used particularly for step-down sub-stations, as bus-bar faults are rare.

iii. DOUBLE BUS-BAR SCHEME:

In this scheme a double bus-bar is provided and each circuit can be connected to
either one of these bus-bar isolators as shown in Fig. Bus coupler breaker is also
provided so as to the other no-load. The scheme suffers from the disadvantage that when
the circuit breaker is taken out for maintenance the associated feeder has to be shut-down.
This can be avoided by providing , a by-pass isolator across circuit breaker .The double
bus-bar scheme with by-pass isolator across circuit breakers is very suitable for large
generating stations as well as large grid sub-stations forming part of a well inter
connected system where in a variety of grouping of circuit is required.

7. INSULATORS
 The over head line conductors should be supported on the poles (or)
towers in that currents from conductors this is achieved by securing line conductors to
supports with the help of insulators. The insulators provide necessary insulation between
line conductors and supports and thus prevent any leakage current from the conductors to
earth. In general the insulation should have following desirable properties:

 High mechanical strength in order to with stand conductor load, wind load
 High electrical resistance of insulation material in order to avoid leakage to earth
 High relative permittivity of insulator in order di-electric strength is high
 The insulation material should be non-porous; free from impurities and cracks
otherwise the permittivity will be lowered
 High ratio punctures strength of flash over

The most commonly used material for insulators of over head Line is
porcelain by glass, steatite & other composition materials are also used to limited extent.
Porcelain is produced by firing at a high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and
quartz. It stronger mechanically than glass, gives less trouble from leakage and is less
affected by changes of its temperature

TYPES OF INSULATORS:

The successful operation of an overhead line depends to a considerable extent upon the
proper selection of insulators. There are several types of insulators but the most
commonly used are:

• Pin type insulators

• Suspension type insulators

• Strain insulators

• Shackle insulators

i. PIN TYPE INSULATORS:

The part section of a pin type insulator is shown in fig. As the name suggests, the pin type
insulator secured to the cross-arm on there is a groove on the upper hand of the insulator
for having the conductor. The conductor passes through this groove & is bound by the
annealed wire of the same material of the conductor.

Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution electric power
at voltages up to 33 KV beyond operating voltage of 33 KV. The pin type insulator
becomes too bulky & hence uneconomical.

Fig: Pin type insulators

ii. SUSPENSION TYPE INSULATORS:

The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as working voltage is increases. Therefore
this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33 KV. For high voltages [>33 KV], it is
usual practice to use suspension type insulators shown in above fig. They consists of a
number of porcelain discs connected in series by metal strings in the form of a string the
conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the other end of the string
is secured to the cross-arm of the tower each unit or disc is designed for low voltage, say
11 KV. The number of discs in series obviously depends upon the working voltage. For
instance if the working voltage is 66 KV, the six discs in series will provided on the
string.

ADVANTAGES:

• Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators are cheaper than pin
type insulators for voltage beyond 33 KV

• Each unit (or) disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low voltage, usually 11
KV. Depending upon the work voltage, the desired number of discs can be connected
in series

• If anyone disc is damaged, the whole string does not becomes useless because
damaged disc can be replaced by the same one

• The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The connection at
the cross-arm is such that insulation string is free to swing in any direction and take
up the positions where mechanical stresses are minimum

• In case of increased demand on the transmission line it is found more satisfactory to

supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage than

to provide another set of conductors the additional insulation required for the raised
Voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension arrangement by adding the designed
number of discs.

• The suspension insulators are generally used with steel towers as the conductors run
below the cross-arm of the tower; therefore this arrangement provides partial
protection from lighting.
STRAIN INSULATORS:

When there is dead end of the line (or) there is corner (or) sharp curve, the line is
subjected to grater tension. In order to relieve the line of excessive tension, strain
insulators are used for low voltages lines [< 11 KV] shackle insulators are used as strain
insulator. However for high voltage transmission lines strain insulators consists of
assembly of suspension insulators as shown in fig. the disc of strain insulators are used in
vertical plane. When the tension in the lines is exceedingly high, as at long river spans
two (or) more strings are used in parallel.

Fig: Strain type insulator

SHACKLE INSULATORS:

These are used on L.T lines. These are used in section lines, end lines, on
sharp turns & for service connections also shackle insulators are used extensively for L.T
lines with vertical configuration shackle type insulator.
In ‘KADAPA’ sub-station all types of insulators are used, made up of porcelain but for

supporting bus-bar string insulators are used.

Fig: Shackle type insulators

 8. LIGHTNING ARRESTORS
The earthing screen and ground wires can well protect the electric system against direct
lighting strokes but they fail to provide protection against travelling waves which may
reach the terminal apparatus. The lighting arrestor (or) sugar diverters provide protection
against such surges.

A “Lighting Arrestor “(or) a “Surge diverter “is a protective device is a

protective device which conducts the High voltage surges on the power system to grand.

NECESSITY OF LIGHTING ARRESTORS:

The travelling waves which when reaches the terminals of the equipment
and such waves can causes following damages.

i. Due to high voltage wave the insulators may flash over.

ii. Due to high voltage of surge the insulation of winding may be spoil.

iii. The steep wave front of the surge may cause flash over b/w internal turns of
transformer So to prevent high voltage surges caused by lighting arrestors re necessary.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LIGHTING ARRESTORS:

The basic form of surge diverter it consists of spark gap in series with the non-linear
resistor. One End of diverted connected to the terminal of equipped to be protected &
other end is grounded. The length of the gap is so set that normal line voltage enough to
cross an arc across the gap. But a dangerously high voltage coil Break down Air
Insulation & forms an Arc. The properties of Non-liner resistance is that its resistance
decreases as voltage increases and vice-versa. Under normal operation lighting
arrestor is in off positions i.e., it conducts no current

On the occurrence of over voltage, the air insulation across the gap the
breakdown and on arc is form providing no resistance path for the surge to the
ground. In this way the excess current in the line due to surge is harmlessly
conducted through arrestor to the ground.

TYPES OF LIGHTING ARRESTORS:

• Rod gap lighting arrestor

• Horn gap lighting arrestor

• Multi gap lighting arrestor

• Expulsion type lighting arrestor

• Electrolytic type lighting arrestor

• Valve (or) Thyrite type lighting arrestor

• Lead oxide type lighting arrestor

• Pellet type lead-peroxide lighting arrestor

• Impulse protective lighting arrestor

In 220/132/33 KV KADAPA sub-station mainly valve type lighting arrestors

are used.
VALVE TYPE LIGHTING ARRESTORS:

Valve type lighting arrestor’s in-corporate non-linear resistors & are extensively used on
systems operating at high voltages. The various parts of a valve type arrestor. It consists
of two assemblies.

Series spark gap

Non-linear resistor discs

• In series the non-linear elements are connected in series with spark gaps.
Both the assemblies are accommodated in tight porcelain container.

• The spark gap is a multiple assembly consisting of a number of identical spark

gaps in series. Each gap is consists of two electrodes with fixed gap spacing. The
voltage distribution across the gap is linearised by means of additional resistance
elements across the gaps. The spacing of series gap is such that it will with stand
normal circuit voltage.

• The non-linear resistor discs are made of an in-organic compound such as thyrite
(or) metrosil. These are connected in series.
 9.BATTERIES

The DC auxiliary supply is required for relays, instrumentation, closing and tripping of
circuit breakers, emergency lighting, and control board indications etc. during normal
operation, battery charger [Rectifier Bridge with silicon diodes & silicon control
rectifiers] provides the required DC supply. A storage battery of adequate capacity is
provided to meet the DC requirement. Normally, the storage battery merely keeps
floating of current system and supplies current in case of failure of rectifier in the sub-
station. It is desirable to provide duplicate rectifiers to meet contingency of rectifier
failure.

An arrangement shall be made to supply an uninterrupted DC supply to

load where ever the battery charger is facilated with float/trickle/boost charging.

The voltage commonly used for DC auxiliary supply is 110 (or) 220 volts
batteries for sub-station & 48 volts for PLCC. Conventional lead acid batteries of flooded
type (or) valve regulated (VRLA) are used. VRLA batteries are maintenance free.

VRLA BATTERIES:

These work on oxygen Re-Combination principle and don’t require any

topping up with distilled water during its life time pressure regulating valve is designed to
relieve excess pressure from the cell. These batteries came in fully charged conditions.

The battery consists of flat pasted positive (pbo2)& flat pasted negative plates ( pb ) b/w
which an absorptive glass mat separator is sand witched and all are housed in a
polypropylene or ABS sealed container

which has an out let through a self-Resealing one way relief valve. The electrolyte used
is sulphuricacid ( Aqueous solution in immobilized state ). The voltage per cell is 2 volts.
The water loss is arrested by using special alloys in the plates, by keeping the charging
voltage low & also by recombining the evolved electrolytic gases.

VRLA batteries do not produce acid fumes on charge. Being compact

occupy very little floor Area they posses high discharge performance & hence a smaller
capacity battery can do the same job as that of a large capacity tubular battery.

BATTERY CHARGER:
 In a sub-station, the batteries one “Float” operated. This term applies to
the method of operation in which battery remains connected to the load & the charger
continuously voltage of charger is substantially constant and just higher than open CKT
voltage of the battery. To keep the battery in a fully charged condition, the charger sends
through the battery charging current of a few mill amperes at a voltage which is sufficient
to compensate for load action & leakage losses. The charger also supplies the entire DC
load under normal condition.

The system basically consists of one float charger and one boost charger
with Inter locking circuit and DC distribution board. The chargers are constant potential
type and manufactured utilizing SRC / Diode Rectifier Bridge connected in full wave half
controlled configuration. The float charger is rated to meet the load requirement &
trickle current to battery & boost charger is rated to meet the battery charging
requirement.

Normally in the Auto/Manual float / Manual boost selector switch when

the switch in Auto position float charger is ON supplying both load and battery trickle
charging current. Whenever battery requires boost charging, the same is Achieved
Automatically though the battery changing path current sensing boards relay change
over. Provision is made to select both float and boost charging modes manually through
selector switch.

Capacity of the battery should be Adequate to supply.

a) Momentary current required for the operation of switchgear.

b) The continuous load of indicating lamps, holding coils for relay contactors, Etc.,
c) Emergency lighting load.
IDENTIFICATION OF FULLY CHARGED BATTERIES:
1. It gives Hydrogen at cathode & Oxygen at Anode.
2. The color of +ve & -ve plates are brown & in clear gray respectively.
3. Specific gravity is 1.285 gm/cum.
IDENTIFICATION OF FULLY DISCHARGED:

Specific gravity is 1.12 gm/cum.

Normally in float position 2.2v/cell a total voltage of 242v.

In boost position 2.3v/cell at a total voltage of 253v. The output voltage must
never exceed 245 v.

Suppose if the float fails, boost-charger is used at that only 106 cells are used.

Fig: Batteries

Maintenance of Battery and Battery Charger:

The battery and battery charger is considered to be the heart of
sub-station. The power for breaker operation, indications, semaphore indicators etc.,
is provided by the battery and battery charger. Normally the equipments are
operated on float charger and in case of failure of auxiliary supply the same is
automatically transferred to battery set. The battery and battery charger are
therefore required to be periodically maintained as described hereunder:

There are two types of battery sets used in sub-station and power
station.

• S/S Battery
 • PLCC battery

The sub-station battery set is very important auxiliary in sub-station. It is connected

parallel to charger to maintain continuous 110/220 volt (depending upon the
ruling) DC power for relays and control circuits of equipments protection units.
PLCC battery is also

important with operating volts for 48 DC supply for communication and inter
tripping schemes in EHV line and telemetering purpose. Without it inter sub-
station and power-station communication operation of system becomes very
difficult.

The maintenance of both sub-station as well as PLCC battery should be done as

below:

Daily:
The floating voltage of charger across the battery should be noted at charger as
well as battery end and it should be ensured that the flotation voltage is kept
2.16 volt per cell stabilized within 1%
The float charger is to be examined to check whether the same is
working in “Auto” mode. If the float charger has gone defective in the “Auto”
and can work only in the manual mode, the charger manufacturer has to be
called to set right the float charger b for ensuring its working in “Auto” mode.
Electrolyte specific gravities of a few chosen cells have to be taken every day. 5%
cells of the battery bank can be used pilot cells for daily specific gravity
measurement.

In order to ensure that the full battery is available across the DC load terminals,
it is necessary to switch off the float charger for one minute duration every day
this will also ensure that battery is healthy and there is on open circuit anywhere.

Weekly:
In addition to the daily maintenance procedure, the following additional
maintenance has to be done every week.

Check the electrolyte level in each of the cells to ensure the electrolyte levelto
correspond to the top red mark on the float guide. If the level is lower, top up
with pure battery grade distilled water (IS: 1069).Tighten the various inter-
connectors so that there is on loose contact.
Monthly:
In addition to the daily and weekly maintenance procedure it is necessary to
adopt the following procedures every month:

Check the electrolyte specific gravity of all the cells to ensure that the same to
be within 1.210 +0.005. if the SPG is higher than the upper limit, replace a little
quantity of electrolyte by an equal quantity of distilled water. If the specific
gravity of any one or more cells is lower that the prescribed limit,charge the
battery bank as a whole for a short duration at a current equal to 2 ½% of the
Ampere-hour capacity so that the lower specific gravity of the cells could
improve.

Only when it is found that the specific gravities are not uniform, discharge the
battery bank for a short duration of 15 minutes to 30 minutes at 10 hour rate
current or even less and then re-charge thereafter at equalizing charge current, and
the voltage applied could go up to 2.35 to 2.40 voltper cell. Specific gravity
adjustment may be done at the end of this equalizing charge using only distilled
water.

Quarterly:
Apart from the daily, weekly and monthly maintenance procedures, curative
discharge and re-charge once in three months, after switching off the float charge
should be given. Discharge the battery at its 10 hours rate discharge current for a
period of 2 hours and re-charge the battery at the normal re-charging current till
the specific gravities stabilize within 1.210 +0.005 or adjust if required this
discharge for 2 hours called the curative discharge, helps to correct some
imbalances. Battery life increases.

10. CAPACITOR BANK

Due to large industries, the number of inductive equipments is used in the
power systems, so the power factor is lagging. The P.F log is highly undesirable as it
causes an increase in supply current in line losses is increased and loss of active power in
all elements of power stations generation down to the utilization devices. So, it is
necessary to improve the power factor to unity. For this purpose capacitors (or)
synchronous condensers are connected in parallel with the line.

In KADAPA sub-station the number of capacitors used is grouped and it is

called as “CAPACITOR BANK”. It performs the following functions:

• Increase the P.F to unity

• Reduce the line current

• Increase voltage level at the load

• Increase efficiency of transmission

• Reduce conductor size

• Reduce system investment/KVA of load

• Reduce cost of system

The following measurements shall be made to ensure healthiness of capacitors:

Voltage before and after switching in the capacitor bank.

The capacitor must not be subjected to a continuous voltage exceeding 110% of the
normal voltage for a period exceeding 12 hours in a period of 24 hours.

CAPACITOR CURRENT:

The capacitor must not be subjected to a continuous current exceeding

130% of the rated current.

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE:
 The capacitor bank must not be continuously subjected to an ambient
temperature.

UNBALANCE VOLTAGE:

When residual voltage transformers are used for unbalance protection, the
open delta voltage shall not exceed 10% of tripping value of the protection system.

UNBALANCE CURRENT:

In case neutral current transformers are used, the unbalance current shall
not exceed 10% of the tripping value of the protection system.

If the individual capacitors are at different temperatures, for a example

because of solar radiation, the unbalance current/voltage immediately after switching in
the bank may differ from value after a few hours in series. The unbalance current/voltage
should therefore be measured when the capacitors have reached their normal operating
temperature

MAINTENANCE:

In order to assure long time and trouble free operation, periodical

inspections of the capacitor banks are suggested as listed below:

• Visual examination of the bank for fouling paint damage (or) leaking of capacitor
units. Insulations and bushings shall be cleaned if necessary.

• Settings and operation of the protective relays shall be checked.

• All external connections shall be checked for tightness.

For the maintenance of the capacitor bank, which is an out-door unit,

during the shutdown clean the insulators/bushings of each capacitor cell unit
RVT/NCT, series reactor, etc. Check the tightness of all the clamps and connectors.
During the year at least twice, open all the jumpers/links from each capacitor cells
 and check the capacitance of each cell. Compare these values with its rated
capacitance value. Again connect each cell with jumpers/links with proper care. Here
proper care must be taken for each capacitor cell otherwise capacitor cell terminal
may break. Check any oil leakage from each cell. If any leakage is found, try to
attend it immediately otherwise replace the cell. Check the tightness of secondary
terminals of all the CTs/RVT/nct. Check the primary fuses of RVT. If possible,
remove the jumpers from the RVT and apply three phase 440V on HV of the RVT
and measure the open delta voltage on the secondary terminals of RVT, again
connect all the jumpers on RVT.Visual examinations of the bank for fouling paint
damage or leaking of capacitor units. Insulations and bushings shall be cleaned if
necessary. Settings and operation of the protective relays shall be checked. All
external connections shall be checked for tightness.

11. EARTHING
In power system ‘ground (or) earthing’ means connecting frame of electrical equipment
or some electrical part of the earth i.e., soil. This connection to earth may be through a
conductor or some other circuit element depending upon the situation.
EARTHING:

The process of connecting the metallic frame of electrical equipment or some electrical
part of the system to earth is called “grounding (or) earthing”.

If grounding is done systematically in the line of the power system, we

can effectively prevent accidents and damage to the equipment of the power system and
at the same time continuity of supply can be maintained. Grounding or earthing may be
classified as:

1. Equipment Grounding.

2. System Grounding.

EQUIPMENT GROUNDING:

The process of connecting non-carrying metal parts of the electrical

equipment to earth in such a way that in case of insulation failures the enclosure
effectively remains at earth potential is called “Equipment Grounding”.

SYSTEM GROUNDING:

The process of connecting some electrical part of the power system to earth
is called “System Grounding”.

The earthing practice is adopted at Sub-Stations should be in such a

manner as to provided for the following purpose.

1. Safely to personnel

2. Minimum damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavily fault currents.

3. To provide earth connections for the earthed neutral system.

4. To provide discharge path for lighting arrestors, gap etc.

Generally two types of earthing systems are mostly used those are:
 1. Pipe Earthing

2. Plate Earthing

Every type of earthing should satisfy the following condition as per the rural
electrification corporation limited.

• Voltage drop between nominal earths parts which any one is liable be in
simultaneous contact shall not exceed 55 V.

• Earthling conductors shall not be set in concrete.

• Preferably earthing conductors should not be run in metal conductors.

• The earth resistance of the system should not exceed the limit specified below.

Power station : 0.5 Ohms

Major sub-station : 1.0 Ohms

Other sub-station : 2.0 Ohms

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER:

Sub-station : 5.0 Ohms

Tower, poles etc., : < 25 Ohms

EQUIPMENT EARTHING:

The equipment commands to earth electrode through earthing leads mainly for reasons of
safety. According to I.E rules every equipment having double earthing that means two
earthing leads are connected earth electrodes, because it on lead fails one is available.
The following equipments are earthed in sub-stations:
i. STRUCTURES:

Including frames of every transformer, CKT breaker etc., towers and fuses
within the sub-stations are earthed properly.

At least two legs, preferable diagonally opposition each metal structure shall be provided
with an earthing conductor.

ii. ISOLATORS AND SWITCHES:

The handles of switches shall be connected to earth grid. The size of the
flexible wire shall be 7/8” X 1/8” of timed copper, normal area of 0.048 sq. inch are used.

iii. LIGHTING ARRESTORS:

• The base of lighting arrestors shall be directly connected to earth grid by

conductors as short and straight as possible ensure minimum impedance.

• For lighting arrestors transformers earthing conductors shall be located clear from
the tank.

iv.CIRCUIT BREAKERS:

The support structures of earth circuit breaker unit shall be connected to the earth grid.
Potential transformer tanks, CT chambers and bus-bar chamber sand cable glands also
shall be connected to the grid. This earthing of equipment can be carried out either by
pipe (or) plate earthing.

SYSTEM OF EARTHING:

• Earthing through a resistance

• Earthing through a reactance

• Earthing directly (Or) solid earthing

 • Earthing through a Peterson coil

The following are the details of earthing of which can be employed in sub-
station switchyard.

• 685 X 8 mm thick, MS Flat – For main earthing

• 65 X 10 mm thick, MS Flat – For equipment earthing

• 65 X 4 mm thick, MS Flat – For cable rock earthing

12. LINE CLEAR ON LINES /

EQUIPMENT
A line clear is a permit to work on any electrical equipment or line. It will be issued by
an authorized person. If there is more than one gang working under the same supervisor.
Each gang should take sub-lines clears from the supervisors who has taken the line clear.
In case if the line clear has to be issued for him, he shall take sell line clear. In this case
also, the entire are to be followed in issue and return of line clear shall be followed.

Line clear books are very important books in these records. Pages in this
books should be serially numbered; no paper in this book should used for any other
purpose. If any pages are to be destroyed, the custodian should specifically mention the
reasons for doing so. It should be attested by his dated signature. The line clear books
reviewed periodically by the Assistant. Divisional Engineer.

PROCEDURE BEFORE ISSUE OF LINE CLEAR:

• Approval of competent authority shunt-down of line/equipment should be verified.

• Line/equipment shall be switched off

• No back feed certificates where ever necessary shall be obtained

• The issuer should personally see and ensure that all the blades of the AB switch
are physically in open condition and locked and also particular circuit breaker in
open condition

• The line/equipment shall be earthed by discharged rods

• A “DANGER DO NOT OPERATE” board shall be exhibited on the concerned

control panel a “MEN ON LINE” board shall be exhibited on the outdoor
AB/switch/equipped

• All operations for issue of line clear shall be done personally by issue (or) it shall
be done under his personal supervision

• After following all the precautions the line clear book shall be filled up carefully
without leaving any column unfilled it shall be signed with date and time by the
issuer and issued to the receiver. Signature with date and time of the receiver shall
be obtained on the duplicate and shall be kept in safe custody.
 Additional assistant engineer / Assistant engineer authority line
clears up to 132 KV voltage level and ADE for line clear for equipments / line for
220 KV and above voltage

RESPONSIBIL TIES FOR RECEIVER:

• They should clearly indicate the specific equipment / line which he wants to work
hen requesting for L.C

• If the receiver at same place as that of the issuer he shall follow all operators being
conducted so as to ensure that line clears are being issued on the correct line /
equipment

• At the work spot, after receiving a line clear, he shall earth the line / equipment on
either side of the equipment

• In case of any power lines are crossing near to work & spot the line on which the
L.C is received, he shall also obtain L.C’s on all such lines to avoid induction

• He shall write down on the duplicate form the number of persons engaged on the
work.

RULES TO BE FOLLOWED ON RETURNING OF L.C:

• The person who has received the L.C only should return it

• He shall personally ensure that there are no men, material on the line

• He shall all the workmen that it is no longer safer to work on the line as the line
clear is being returned

• The line / equipment shall not be charged until the L.C is returned.

BEFORE CANCELLATION OF L.C THE FOLK WING PRECAUTIONS SHALL BE

TAKEN:
• The returned L.C should be carefully examined it should be ensure that all the
certificates are required are furnished

• “MEN ON LINE”&“DANGER DO NOT OPERATE” should be removed

• It shall ensure that no L.C is pending. All men, material are removed and earthing
is removed

• All no back feed certificates should be returned

After charging the line / equipment check should be made for unusual sound (or)
noise

• All the work men supervision shall be permitted to leave the work spot after
normally restore

It shall be ensuring that L.C books are arranged at all the sub-
stations. All the concerned shall be instructed to invariably fill all the columns at
L.C forms before issue of line clears [LC’s], [permit to work] instructions for
issue of L.C’s & safety tips may be arranged to be printed on the back side L.C
forms for ready reference.

13.CONTROLROOM
 Fig: Control Room

Fig: Control & Relay panel in Kiosk Room

 A Control & Kiosk room is the main part of the sub-station in which various
operations will be done. It consists of elements for control indications and
 alarms the elements normally mounted in the control panel consist of
following:

 Mimic diagrams with control switches for electrically operated breakers, load
break switches, disconnects and earthing switches and indications for all
components provided with auxiliary switches.

 Local/remote selector switches.

 Alarms with indicating lamps for monitoring operating system, gas density and
auxiliary pipes.

 Contactors/timing relays etc.

 Terminal blocks.

 Interior lighting, heaters, cable glands.

 Batteries and battery chargers.

 Capacitor banks, OLTC panels of PTR’s.

The Kadapa 220/132/33 KV sub-stations control room is equipped with

sophisticated relays, C&R panels, DCDB boards, LTAC panels etc. The C&R panels
equipped the annunciation relays, semaphore indications, indicating lamps and interlocks
for smooth operation of ‘SS’.

A control and relay panels shall be connected with AC & DC supply

through AC/DC distribution boards and battery charger/batteries for annunciation & relay
functions respectively. In case of failure of main AC supply 63 KV D.G.set will be taken
into service.

GUIDE LINES FOR OPERATING PERSONNEL IN THE EHV SUBSTATIONS:

• Sub-station layout in detail including various equipment, particulars of power
transformers, breakers, CT’s, PT’s, isolators, LA’s, batteries and battery chargers,
station transformers, firefighting equipment, capacitor banks etc., shall be made
available in control room. Also sub-station operating instructions record shall be
made available in the control room for ready reference.

• Normal in-feed and alternate in-feed clear idea of the grid and location lf the sub-
station with reference to the grid. A grid map showing the in-feeding sources and
importantly load centers connected to the sub-stations to the prepared and
displayed.

• Should be familiar with various equipment available in the sub-station. Should be

thorough about normal operations and emergency operations to be carried out.

• Battery charger operation – change from float to boost and boost to float rates
changing in each mode.

• Paralleling and de-paralleling operations.

• Operating instructions for all contingencies including issue and receipt of line
clear should be made available. Shift staff should be conversant with such
operations.

• Lock-out values of gas pressures minimum air pressures where compressors shall
start automatically and hydraulic fluid pressure where pump shall start
automatically for different makes of circuit breakers. A chart showing make, type,
reference to P.O of power transformers, and breakers and the available and set
parameters such as temperature alarms, trips auto start and stop of cooler fans in
respect of power transformers and gas pressures, air/hydraulic pressures,
densities in respect of breakers shall be displayed for ready reference.

• CT available and adopted ratios relay setting meaning of relay indications on all
circuit breaker shall be available.
• Buchlozz and differential relay indications. All annunciations and meaning and
consequences of each.

• Knowledge of all relays and their functioning, purpose and shall be able to
interpret correctly to decide whether the equipment can be charged again or to be
kept isolated for further inspection/check-up by the concerned Maintenance/MRT
personnel [especially when lockout relays, pressure relief relays, temperature
relays, buchlozz relay and differential relay operate].

• Shift should follow the work being done by MRT/Maintenance staff in the sub-
station.

• While taking over the shift duty, he shall go through the entire log of operations
from time last handed over to charge to know the important events happened,
works done, condition of the equipment, line clears pending etc.

• While over shift duty he has to check the condition of communication equipment,
lines, battery charger, batteries feeders and transformers, breakers gas pressures,
air pressures healthy trip circuits, any relay condition not reset etc.

• Whenever any feeder or any equipment is loaded beyond normal load due to
exigencies, such equipment shall be kept under close observation until normalcy
is restored, temperatures on transformers under such over loading conditions and
cooler fans operation shall be constantly monitored.

• In case of certain exigencies where operations started in particular shift are lightly
to be carried out during next shift, the personnel of both shifts are shall be
available till the operations are completely and normalcy restored. Shift duties
should not be handed over to successor staff in the middle of an exigency.

• ADE’S/AE’S posted to shift without earlier experience, shall be guided and

assisted by senior personnel till such time these get acquainted with the
equipment & operations n the sub-stations (say for a fortnight)
 • Red hot joints at the sub-stations shall not be continued even for a brief periods.
They shall be attended on priority. Each day during peak hours, the yard lighting
should be switched off for a while and bad clamps joints should be identified &
intimated to maintenance staff. This may be in addition to thermo vision scanning
periodically.

CHECKS & OBSERVATIONS TO BE MADE DURING SHIFTS:

• Voltage at all levels shall be observed and to be maintained nearest to the rated
values by operation of tap changes of transformers. A little higher voltage is to be
maintained [not exceeding 10%] so that tail end voltages are normal. Constant
monitoring of capacitor banks shall be done.

• Healthy tips of all breakers shall be checked every hour. If healthy trip fails, the
breaker shall immediately and notified. Only after ensuring DC supply, the breaker
shall be closed. Healthy trip indicating lamp shall be in working condition.

• Battery voltages, DC leakage, charger condition, switch off AC supply to charger

[once in a shift] & observe any fault in a battery charger.

• Communication equipment such as PLCC, P&T and wireless shall always be in

working condition. They are to be treated on par with all other equipment n the
sub-station.

• Check the loading on the transformer & capacitor banks. Load in all three phases
and in neutral circuit [where ever available] to be checked. Any difference in
phase currents shall be brought to notice of maintenance shift and concerned
transformer (or) capacitor bank shall be cut-off from service for detailed
information.

• Note the oil and winding temperature and physically check-up feeling the
temperature transformer by hand.
• Note the tap positions of several of various transformers, the tap positions of
transformers n parallel shall be same i.e., the voltage corresponding to the tap shall
be same.

• Note the oil in conservator tanks.

• Check up for any oil levels and red hot spots.

• Check up dehydrating breathers of transformers.

• Ensure that alarms and indications on annunciation panel are working.

• Check the diesel generator and trail run for five minutes daily once in the morning
shift and note down the voltage.

• Check the condition of air compressors provided either common (or) separately for
each breaker and drain the moisture accumulated once in a day during morning
shift. During rainy season this should be done in each shift. Drain sufficient air to
ensure auto start of compressors.

• Running hours of each station compressors to be noted periodically and they shall
be changed to ‘stand by’. Register of running hours of each station compressors
shall be maintained.

• Check entre yard for unusual sounds, sparks and red host during entre shift.

• Compressed are pipe lines to be checked for any air leakage. The oil levels in air
compressors are to be checked.

• Check oil levels and conditions of breather if available for the MOCB’s.

• Check up gas pressures in SF6 breakers.

• Check for any sparking and flash over marks in the earth pts especially when ever
feeders trip on faults.

• Watering of earth pits to be done daily.

• Ensure proper working of energy meters CB’s if the energy meters are slow (or)
not working, check the potential supply to the meters, fuses etc.

• Ensure the tripping of breakers on activation of relays whenever the LC’s are
issued on breakers.

• When LC issued on power transformers, alarms and trips are to be invariably

checked up with the assistance of MRT/maintenance personnel.

• Check five fighting equipment once in a week.

• OLTC counter reading to be noted.

• Ensure that lighting arrestor’s leakage current [micro] ammeter reading s in safe
zone [green].

• Whenever feeder trip, find out position of breakers at other end and note down
relay indicates if any at other end.

• Check up the marshalling boxes of breakers, CT junction boxes, PT junction boxes

etc. and ensure that they are vermin proof.

• Check up the batteries, exhaust fans in the battery room for proper preparation
once in every shift, and report any abnormalities to the maintenance staff
immediately.

• Ensure that wind doors of all controls and relay panels are properly closed and the
panels are properly sealed from the bottom and made vermin proof.