TRAINING DIRECTORATE

Module 5
Digital Techniques/Electronic Instrument Systems
BASIC TRAINING CENTER
BASIC TRAINING CENTER 28.04.2017
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 5.3 DATA CONVERSION

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Defining Analogue and Digital Data
 Analogue
 Most real life data are
analogue
 It can have variable value and
can fit into any readings.Like
as 5,25 V; 1,12 A; 125,3 m)
 It has continuous set of
values over a given range.
 Digital
 Digital signal is in any of the
given state like either 0 or 1,
True or False, High or Low,
etc.
 It cannot have any reading in
between.

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Types of Computer and Computer Terminology

 Analogue computers
 Analogue computers are characterised by the processing of analogue signals. An analogue signal
is an electrical signal whose amplitude varies continuously with time. Transducers, such as
temperature and fuel sensors, provide voltage and current outputs proportional to the quantity
being monitored. An analogue computer operates on a principle of creating a physical or
electrical analogy using mathematical formulas.
 Variables, such as temperature or fuel flow, are represented by the magnitude of a physical
phenomenon, such as voltage or current

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Types of Computer and Computer Terminology

 Digital computers
 Digital is defined as incremental or stepped. A digital
computer processes information and outputs an
incremented or stepped output.
 This output can be used to control an on-off type
device or to communicate with another digital
device. The mathematical formulas used to process
information and develop an output are stored in a
program in the computer’s memory.
 Should it become necessary to change these
formulas, the computer program is simply modified.
The ability to change a program, within a digital
computer allows one computer to be used in many
applications or on many airframe types.

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Types of Computer and Computer Terminology

 Interfaces
To interface digital and analogue systems requires converting of the analogue
signals to digital signals and vice versa.
 Digital to analogue converter:
Converts digital signals to analogue signals. Example: used to convert the digital
data stored on a CD ROM to audio signals to drive the speakers.
 Analogue to digital converter:
Converts analogue signals to digital signals. Example; used to convert the output of
a microphone into digital signals for storage on a minidisc.

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Examples of Data Convertion
 Digital to Analogue; Like CD data to speakers inputs.
 Analogue to Digital ; Microphone outputs to digital for storage in CD

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Digital bus
Digital devices usually need to
communicate with each other. One
device will send information to another
which will process this data and possibly
send it to another device.
The path or circuit over which these
devices communicate is called a digital
bus. This digital bus may be used to
connect several sources to any of several
destinations. For example, airspeed Typical digital Inputs
information is transmitted from the air One type of input used by digital systems is the discrete input. This
is a high/low or on/off input used by the digital computer to
data computer to several different
indicate certain conditions taking place within the aeroplane. An
destinations over a digital bus called an example of a discrete input would be an input from the air/ground
ARINC 429 Bus. switch indicating whether the aircraft is on the ground or in the air

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Analogue to digital conversion
 Almost all “real world” applications are analogue in nature. Therefore, analogue to digital (A/D)
converters are quite common in computer systems, and especially in those systems dedicated to
monitoring or controlling “real world” events. An A/D converter converts a continuous voltage signal,
or analogue signal into a multi-bit digital word.
 Principle
 There are seven techniques normally used for the conversion process. They are:
 flash
 pipeline
 ramp generation,
 successive approximation
 integration
 charge balancing
 sigma delta
Successive approximation and integration are the most common in use. Both the ramp generation and
successive approximation type converters require DACs as part of the circuit but these are usually built
into the ADC chip.

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Analogue to digital conversion
D/A converters change the digital data words of a digital computer to an equivalent analogue signal as either a
voltage or current source. There are many different types of D/A converters but each one has this same basic
description.
A/D converters change the analogue signals received from sensors to digital data understood by the digital computer.
Many different types of A/D converters exist. The type used depends on the type of analogue signal and what the
digital computer needs to know about the signal.
Digital data is represented by a unique data word. We will look at binary coding.
Analogue values must be converted so that digital computers can process the information.

While digital computers process information faster and more efficiently than analogue computers.

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Analogue to digital conversion
Flash ADC
Illustrated is a 3-bit flash ADC with resolution 1 volt. The
resistor network and comparators provide an input to the
combinational logic circuit, so the conversion time is just
the propagation delay through the network – it is not
limited by the clock rate or some convergence sequence.
It is the fastest type of ADC available, but requires a
comparator for each value of output (63 for 6-bit, 255 for
8-bit, etc.). Such ADCs are available in IC form up to 8-bit
and 10-bit flash ADCs (1023 comparators) are planned.
The encoder logic executes a truth table to convert the
ladder of inputs to the binary number output.

The flash converter is sometimes called a parallel The flash converter requires 2n-1 comparators, where n is
converter because the conversion takes place in a the number of bits. So a 4-bit flash ADC will require
single cycle. For this reason also, it is the fastest type of 15 comparators.
ADC, but it does have the most complicated
architecture.

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Analogue to digital conversion

 Pipeline ADC
 The ADC pipeline architecture
effectively overcomes the
limitations of the flash
architecture. A pipelined
converter divides the conversion
task into several consecutive
stages. Each of these stages
consists of a sample and hold
circuit, an m-bit ADC (e.g., a flash
converter), and an m-bit DAC.
First the sample and hold circuit
of the first stage acquires the
signal.

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Analogue to digital conversion

 Ramp generation ADC

 A ramp generation ADC,
sometimes called a counter ADC,
compares the unknown input
voltage to a DAC connected as a
ramp generator. As long as the
unknown input is greater than the Ramp generation
ramp signal the counter continues.
As soon as the ramp exceeds the
unknown voltage input the
counter stops and the ramp is held
at the fixed level. The count is Ramp generation ADC

then read by the computer.

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Analogue to digital conversion

 Successive approximation register

(SAR) ADC
 The successive approximation ADC (also known
as a bit-weighted converter) is similar to the
ramp generation ADC except that a
programmer is used to control the DAC ladder
network. A successive approximation converter
provides a fast conversion (second only to the
flash converter) of a momentary value of the
input signal. It works by first comparing the
input with a voltage which is half the input
range. If the input is over this level it compares
it with three-quarters of the range, and so on.
Twelve such steps gives 12-bit resolution. Successive approximation ADC
While these comparisons are taking place the
signal is frozen in a sample and hold circuit.

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Digital to analogue converters (DACs)
Since many systems used on aircraft will require outputs in analogue form, it will be necessary to be able
to convert the digital information back into analogue.
The input to the DAC is effectively a number, usually binary coded. This number must be converted to a
corresponding number of units of voltage (or current) by the DAC.
The output of the DAC will thus be stepped as the digital input changes, taking on a series of discrete
values. The spacing between these values (quantisation levels) will depend on the length of the input
digital word and the maximum range of the output voltage.
For example, a DAC, which can provide an output voltage of between 0 and 15 volts, will, with 4-bit
word input, have 1 volt between quantisation levels as illustrated.

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Digital to analogue converters (DACs)
Principle
Each DAC circuit has a specific purpose based on its use within
the system but the general purpose of all DACs is to provide an
analogue signal output based on the digital value represented in
the digital computer. This analogue signal is either a voltage or
current output but the principles involved are essentially the
same.
The basic principle of a DAC converter is to divide the analogue
output into a series of small steps. The number of steps depends
on the number of bits used in the data to be converted. If the
data consists of 8 bits then the output is divided into 256 (28)
steps. The size of each step depends on the range of the
converter. For a converter with a range of 0-5 volts each step
would be 0.0195 volts (5v/256 steps). If an 8-bit, 5 volt converter
is driven by a simple counter then the output of the converter
would be a series of 256 steps of 0.0195 volts. DAC principle

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Digital to analogue converters (DACs)
As the counter progresses from 0 to 255, the
converter output increases from 0 volts to 4.98v
then drops to zero when the counter rolls over.
Also, note that the maximum output voltage is not
5 volts. This is due to the fact that each digital input
bit is weighted according to its position within the
binary input. The least significant bit (LSB) has a
weight of 5v/256 = 0.0195 volts, the next most
significant bit has a weight of 5v/128 = 0.039 volts,
the next has a weight of 5v/64 = 0.078 volts, and so
on, with the most significant bit (MSB) having a
weight of 5v/2 = 2.5 volts. If you add all the
individual bit weights, you get a 4.98 volt maximum
output when the DAC input is 1111 1111.

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Weighted resistor DAC
In the weighted resistor DAC the
value of the resistance are such that
the next resistor in the network is
always twice the value of the
previous resistor i.e. R2 is X 2 R1, R3
is X 2 R2 and so on.

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 Weighted resistor DAC
The op-amp is used as a summation device, to sum the
weighted inputs of the digital information.
If we drive the inputs of this circuit with digital gates so that
each input is either 0 volts or full supply voltage, the output
voltage will be an analogue representation of the binary value
of these three bits.
The disadvantage of this circuit is that a high precision is
required of the resistors, especially the higher values (< ± 0.5%).
This makes it difficult to mass produce.
The weighted resistor network provides the simplest and most
direct method of DAC. However, its principle disadvantage is
that a large range of different resistor values are required. In a
12-bit DAC, the ratio of resistor values required is more than
2000 – 1 (typically 10k to 20M).

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R-2R ladder
The R-2R ladder network is another type of DAC. Each bit of the binary input controls a solid state switch
which connects either a reference voltage or a ground to the resistors. The ladder is constructed of
resistors of only two values, R or 2R rather than binary weighted. In this type of network the actual
resistor values are not as critical as in the binary weighted ladder. Also since the resistance values can be
small, it is much easier to implement this in a solid state device.
The inverting input of the op-amp is at virtual earth. Current flowing in the elements of the ladder
network is therefore unaffected by switch positions. The selected resistor values ensure that the
relationship:
is established where

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R-2R ladder
The current ITOTAL, is the sum of the currents switched
to the inverting input of the op-amp from the R-2R
ladder by the digitally controlled switches D0 – D3.
ITOTAL is given by the relationship:

The output voltage VOUT is the voltage across the

op-amp feedback resistor which is by Ohms law:

R-2R ladder

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