Chapter 3: Cells the basic units of life

Introduction Cytoplasm

Development of the microscope Roles of cell organelles

Historical timeline Mitochondria

Differences between the light- and Endoplasmic reticulum

electron microscope
Ribosomes
The cell theory
Golgi apparatus
Functions of different parts of the light
microscope Plastids

Handling and care of the microscope Structure of a chloroplast

Calculating magnification Adaptations of a chloroplast

for photosynthesis
Practical Investigation: observing cells
Activity 4: Comparing
Measuring the size of cells chloroplasts and mitochondria

Activity 1: Calculate the size Vacuoles

of structures on a micrograph
Lysosomes
Cell structure and function
Centrosome
Cell wall
Differences between plant and
Cell membrane animal cells

Transport across membranes End of topic exercises

Activity 2: Investigating
diffusion and osmosis

Nucleus

Activity 3: The nucleus of the

cell
 CHAPTER 3: CELLS – THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

DIFFERENCES History of the

BETWEEN PLANT microscope
AND ANIMAL CELLS

MICROSCOPES

Using a
microscope

CELLS:
THE BASIC UNITS
OF LIFE

Large
vacuole
*Centrosome
CELL s
Small
Cell STRUCTURE AND
PLANT ANIMAL vacuole
wall FUNCTIONS

Lysosomes
Chloroplasts

Endoplasmic
Cell membrane
reticulum

Nucleus
Golgi body
Cytoplasm

Ribosomes
CHAPTER 3: CELLS - THE BASIC UNITS OF
LIFE

Introduction
Cells are the basic units of life. All living organisms, plants and animals, are made up
of cells. Cells are mostly made up of organic compounds such as proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and vitamins, as well as inorganic compounds,
such as water.
Some living organisms consist of ONE cell only and are called unicellular organisms
(“uni” meaning one). Most living organisms consist of MANY cells, which are
specialised to perform different functions. These organisms are referred to as
multicellular organisms (“multi” meaning many).
Cells are too small to see with the naked eye. It is only as a result of the invention of
microscopes that we have been able to study and observe the structure of cells.

Development of the Microscope

We can only see cells if we use instruments, such as hand lenses (magnifying
glasses) or microscopes, that make them look bigger (magnify them).
Key terminology
The study of using microscopes to magnify/enlarge very
microscopy
small objects.
Optical instruments used to view very small objects which
microscopes
cannot be seen with the naked eye.
compound light Microscope that uses visible light and more than one lens
microscope to magnify small objects.
Microscope that uses a parallel beam of electrons to
electron microscope
illuminate an object instead of a beam of light.
scanning electron Used to view outer surface of a specimen.
microscope (SEM)
transmission Used to view inner structures of a specimen because the
electron microscope
beam of electrons is transmitted through the specimen.
(TEM)
magnify To make an object appear bigger than it is.
Mounted specimen on a specimen slide.
mount
 A photo or drawing of a specimen as viewed through a
micrograph
microscope.
.

Historical timeline of the development of the

microscope

Table 1: Discovery of the microscope

YEAR DISCOVERER(S) INVENTIONS/CONTRIBUTIONS

1590 Zacharias and Hans First simple microscope: tube
with lenses that magnified
Jansen (Dutch)
objects up to 10x.
1609 Galileo Galilei (Italian) Microscope with focusing device.
1665 Robert Hooke (English) Studied cork under the
microscope: observed “cells”
1674 Antonie van Developed microscopes with
Leeuwenhoek (Dutch) lenses that magnified up to
270x.First person to discover
bacteria. He is regarded as the
FATHER OF MICROSCOPY.
1839 Theodor Schwann They formulated the CELL
(English) THEORY.
Matthias Schleiden
(German)
1855 Rudolf Virchow
(German)
1931 Max Knott They invented the electron
microscope.
Ernst Ruska (German)
 Figure 1: A compound light microscope1

Figure 2: An electron microscope2

1 http://www.cnoec.com/sale-11363404-a11-0101-laboratory-optical-microscope-compound-light-
microscope-dual-viewing-head.html
2 https://www.azom.com/equipment-details.aspx?EquipID=7526
Differences between a light microscope and an
electron microscope

Table 2: Differences between a light microscope and an electron microscope.

Light microscope Electron microscope

Uses a beam of light to magnify objects. Uses a parallel beam of electrons to
illuminate an object.
Can magnify an object up to 1500x. Can magnify an object up to a million
times.

The Cell Theory

The Cell Theory formulated by Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden and Rudolf
Virchow states that:
• All living organisms consist of cells.
• Cells are the most basic and smallest building blocks (units) of life.
• All cells originate from pre-existing cells.
• Cells contain hereditary information that is passed from cell to cell during cell
division.
• All cells show the same basic chemical composition.
Parts of a light microscope and their functions

Table 3: Various parts of a compound light microscope and their functions

Microscope part Function and characteristics

eyepiece / ocular The lens closest to the eye; can magnify
the object 5x,10x or 20x.
nosepiece (rotating) Holds the three objectives; can be
rotated.
objectives (three lenses) Lens closest to the specimen; can
magnify the image 4x,10x or 40x.
coarse adjustment knob Moves the stage closer to the objective
using large movements to bring the
specimen clearly into focus.
fine adjustment knob Moves the stage/specimen for a precise
and final adjustment or focus.
stage Platform or flat surface on which slide is
mounted; has an opening through which
light shines.
clamps/clips Holds the slide in position on the stage.
condenser(lens) Focuses light rays from the light source
onto the specimen to produce a sharp
image.
diaphragm Opening in the condenser; a small lever
is used to regulate/control the amount of
light that shines on the specimen.
light source/illuminator Shines light through the slide into the
objective lens; attached to the base; it
can be an electric light bulb or a mirror.
base Bottom of the microscope; keeps it
stable.
arm Handle used to carry the microscope;
microscope tube, adjustment knobs and
stage are attached to it.
microscope tube Holds the eyepiece in position and
connects it to the objectives.
 Figure 3: A light microscope3

3 http://sarahoovermicroscopy2.weebly.com/parts-of-a-light-microscope.html
 Figure 4: Parts of a light microscope4

4 (Clitheroe, et al., 2013)

Handling and care of the microscope
A microscope is a very expensive instrument and should always be handled with
great care.
• Carry the microscope by the arm in an upright position while supporting the
base with your other hand.
• Place the microscope on a firm, flat surface with the arm facing you.
• Plug the microscope in and turn the light switch on.
• Turn the nosepiece so that the shortest objective with the lowest magnification
(4x) is in position.
• Place your slide(mount) on the stage with the specimen positioned over the
opening. Use the clamps to clip the slide in position/place.
• Look through the eyepiece (ocular) and adjust the diaphragm and the
condenser to control the amount of light passing through the specimen.
• Use the coarse adjustment knob (screw) to move the objective lens slowly
towards the slide until it is almost touching your slide. Move the slide around
until the specimen is in the centre of your field of vision.
• Now look through the eyepiece and turn the coarse adjustment knob slowly,
moving the objective lens away from the specimen until the specimen is in
focus and you can see it clearly.
• Use the fine adjustment knob to make finer, more precise adjustments until
the specimen is clearly in focus.
• To enlarge/magnify the specimen even further, turn the nosepiece so that the
second (medium power) objective (10x) is in position.
• After this, only the fine adjustment knob is used to focus.
• The longest objective (40x) can be turned into position for an even higher
magnification.
• Very carefully move the high-power lens into position. The lens will be very
close to the slide. Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the structure into
focus. If the lens presses against your slide, the lens can be damaged.
• Before the mount is removed, the shortest objective must be turned back into
position, to provide more space to remove the mount.
• The shortest objective must always be in position when the microscope is not
in use.
• Remember the objective lenses come in different magnifications (4x, 10x or
40x) as do the eyepieces/oculars (10x or 20x).
Calculating magnification
TOTAL MAGNIFICATION = eyepiece magnification x objective magnification
E.g. = 10 x 40
= 400 times

Practical investigation: observing cells

Preparing a wet mount of onion epidermis cells

You will need:
• An onion
• Microscope slide
• Cover slip
• Tweezers/Forceps
• Scalpel/blade
• Dissecting needle
• Iodine solution
• Medicine dropper
• Tissue paper
• Microscope

Method
1. Place a drop of iodine solution (mounting liquid) in the middle of a clean slide
using a dropper.
2. Cut a small square out of one of the innermost layers of an onion.
3. Remove the epidermis (thin membrane) on the hollow side of the small square
using the tweezers.
4. Place the epidermis, very carefully, in the middle of the drop of iodine solution on
the slide. Make sure it is smooth and has no folds in it.
5. Place the cover slip on the edge of the iodine solution. Use a dissecting needle to
gently lower the cover slip onto the slide to prevent any air bubbles from forming.
6. Soak up any excess water with the tissue paper.
7. Place the slide onto the stage of the microscope.
8. Study the wet mount under low magnification and then under higher
magnification.
9. Draw and label four cells under 100x and 400x magnification.

Figure 5: Preparing a wet mount5

5 (Clitheroe, et al., 2013)

Measuring the size of cells
Cells are so small that their size is measured in micrometres (μm).
1m = 1000mm
1mm = 1000μm (micrometre or micron)
1μm = 1000nm (nanometres)
Calculate the actual/true size of a specimen on a micrograph:
1. If the scale line is given:
The magnification of a specimen (a cell or an organelle) is indicated on a
micrograph. Sometimes a scale line or bar is given on or next to the micrograph,
and this can be used to calculate the size.

6https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-1-cell-biology/12-ultrastructure-of-cells/cell-
micrographs.html
 7

Figure 6: Micrograph of a cross-section through cell organelles

Method
➢ Measure the scale line with a ruler (in mm).
➢ Measure the size of the specimen (cell or organelle) in mm.
➢ Use the following formula to calculate the actual size of the specimen:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛(𝑚𝑚)× 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒(𝜇𝑚)

Actual size =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒(𝑚𝑚)

2. If the magnification is given:

𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 (𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟)

Actual size =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Activity 1: Calculate the size of a specimen on a micrograph

In this activity you will calculate the size of an organelle on a micrograph using the
scale line provided.

7 https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-wmopen-biology1/chapter/outcome-organelles/
 *
8

Figure 7: Palisade cell

Determine the length of the palisade cell on the micrograph indicated with an *. You
will need a ruler. Show all your calculations.

8 https://projects.ncsu.edu/project/bio183de/Lab/photosynthesis_lab/photosynthesis2H.html
Cell structure and function
All cells, both plant and animal cells, have the same basic cell structure. They
contain a variety of organelles which perform specific functions. All cells have a cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body
and ribosomes. Plant cells have a cell wall, plastids and a large vacuole, not found in
animal cells. Animal cells have vesicles, such as lysosomes, and centrosomes not
found in plant cells. We will look at each of these structures in greater detail.
Key terminology
Protoplasm Living part of plant and animal cells.
Cytoplasm Jelly-like transparent substance;
between cell membrane and nucleus.
Cell membrane Outer boundary of cytoplasm; a living,
selectively permeable structure.
Organelles Membrane-bound structures found in
the cytoplasm; they perform specific
functions.
Cell wall Rigid, outer layer of plant cells made of
cellulose; it is non-living and completely
permeable.
Active transport Movement of substances through a
selectively permeable membrane
against a concentration gradient;
requires energy.
Passive transport Movement of substances through a
selectively permeable membrane down
a gradient; does not require energy.
Diffusion Movement of particles of a gas or a
liquid, from a high- to a low
concentration, down a concentration
gradient, until equilibrium is reached.
Osmosis Movement of particles of a liquid(water)
from a high- to a low concentration
through a selectively permeable
membrane.
Selectively permeable Allows certain substances to enter or
leave the cell; controls movement of
substances into and out of the cell.
Cell wall
The cell wall is the rigid, outer, non-living part of the plant cell; it is permeable and
allows free movement of all substances.
The cell wall consists of three parts:
1. Primary cell wall
2. Secondary cell wall
3. Middle lamella

Table 4: Parts of the cell wall and their functions

Structure Location Composition Function

Primary cell wall Occurs outside Thin, made up of Protects living cell
(found in all plant cell membrane. cellulose (a contents.
cells). polysaccharide); Plasmodesmata
has small facilitate transport
openings: pits of substances
which contain between cells.
plasmodesmata:
cytoplasmic
strands that
connect adjacent
cells. Elastic- it
can stretch.
Secondary cell Develops between Consists of thick Provides support
wall (found in older the cell membrane cellulose fibres and gives
cells). and primary cell with lignin, a rigidity(shape) to
wall. woody substance, the plant cell.
in between.
Inelastic- it cannot
stretch.
Middle lamella(e) Occurs outside the It is made up of Connects the cell
primary cell wall. pectin, a soluble walls of adjacent
jelly-like (neighbouring)
polysaccharide. plant cells to each
other.
Functions of the cell wall

• It protects the living cell contents (the cytoplasm and nucleus).

• It gives the plant cells a more uniform and regular shape – it provides
rigidity.

• It provides support.

Figure 8: Structure of the cell wall

Cell membrane
A cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane or plasmalemma) is found in
all living cells. It is secreted by the cytoplasm and forms the outer living boundary of
animal cells. In plant cells it is surrounded by the cell wall.

Table 5: The cell membrane

Structure Location Composition Function

Cell membrane/plasma Surrounds the It is made up of a The cell
membrane/plasmalemma. cytoplasm. phospholipid membrane is
Scientists use the Fluid bilayer with selectively
Mosaic Model to large protein permeable and
describe the structure of molecules controls the
the cell membrane. (channel- and movement of
carrier proteins) substances into
embedded in and out of the
between. cell. In animal
cells it encloses
and protects
the cell
contents.

Figure 9: Three-dimensional representation of a cell membrane

9 https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/questions-and-answers/diagram-plasma-membrane-state-
function-outlined-parts--b-c-d-e-q38698356
 Figure 10: Cross section of a cell membrane10

Transport across membranes

Water and other substances such as gases, dissolved salts, amino acids and
glucose continuously enter and leave the cell, through the selectively permeable cell
membrane, by one of the following processes:
1. Diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Active transport

1. Diffusion
Diffusion is the spontaneous, random movement of the particles of a gas or a
liquid from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
until equilibrium is reached (the particles are evenly spread out).
• The particles move as a result of their own kinetic energy- energy is not
needed for this process.
• The difference in concentration – higher concentration of particles in one
area and lower concentration of the same particles in another area- is
called the concentration gradient.
NOTE: The greater the difference in concentration, the steeper the
gradient, the quicker diffusion will take place.
• This is an example of passive transport, because no energy is required
to move the particles down the gradient.

10 https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Anatomy_and_Physiology_of_Animals/The_Cell
Practical Investigation: Observing diffusion
You will need:
• air freshener spray / deodorant spray / perfume
• two teabags
• two glass beakers / containers
• a heat source (a kettle / a Bunsen burner)
• water
Method
1. Close all the windows and doors in the classroom.
2. Sit at your desks while your teacher sprays some deodorant into the air at the
front of the classroom.
3. Put up your hand when you can smell the deodorant. What do you notice?
Explain what happens.
4. Fill beaker number 1 with cold water.
5. Gently place a teabag in the water so that it lies on the bottom of the beaker.
Do NOT move the beaker at all. What do you notice after an hour?
6. Leave the beaker overnight and observe it the following day. What do you
notice? Explain what has happened.
7. Fill beaker number 2 with boiling water.
8. Gently place a teabag into the water so that it lies on the bottom of the
beaker. Do NOT move the container. Compare beaker 1 and beaker 2.
a) What do you notice immediately?
b) What do you notice after an hour?
c) What conclusion can you draw from your observations?
 Figure 11: Diffusion results in a substance spreading to fill a space11

2. Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of high water
potential to an area of low water potential, through a selectively permeable
membrane, down a water potential gradient, until equilibrium is reached.
• It is a special type of diffusion.
• Movement takes place through a selectively permeable membrane.
• Water (H2O) molecules move down a gradient.
• It is an example of passive transport, because no energy is required.

Study the diagram below (Figure 10) which illustrates osmosis:

▪ Side A is filled with pure water (H2O) – high water potential.
▪ Side B is filled with a sugar solution – low water potential.
▪ Sides A and B are separated by a selectively permeable membrane.
▪ The water molecules are small enough to move through the membrane.
▪ The sugar molecules are too large to move through the membrane.

11 https://www.sciencefacts.net/diffusion.html
 B

A B A

Figure 12: Osmosis12

▪ Many of the water molecules, on side B, are bonded to sugar molecules.

▪ Side A contains most of the “free” water molecules.
▪ Side A has a higher water potential, meaning it has a greater ability to lose
water molecules to side B, because it has more free water molecules
available.
▪ Free water molecules will move from side A to side B through the selectively
permeable membrane.
▪ When there is an equal number of free water molecules on either side of
the membrane, the movement of water molecules will stop.
▪ Equilibrium has now been reached.

Practical Investigation: Investigating osmosis using raw potatoes

You will need:
• two glass beakers
• two small, fresh, raw potatoes
• 30 ml table salt (sodium chloride)
• cold water\

12 https://senecalearning.com/en-GB/definitions/osmosis/
Method
Step 1: Label the beakers A and B.
Step 2: Pour 125 ml water into each beaker. Add 30 ml salt to beaker B.
Step 3: Place a potato in each beaker and leave to soak overnight.
Step 4: Remove the potatoes the following day and note the difference between
the potatoes in beaker A and B.

Results
The potato in beaker A remained firm and rigid, while the potato in beaker B
became smaller, soft and flexible.

Questions
1. Define osmosis.
2. Describe what happened to the potato cells beaker A.
3. Describe what happened to the potato cells in beaker B.

3. Active transport
The movement of substances across a selectively permeable membrane in living
cells against a concentration gradient which therefore requires energy.
• Some organic molecules such as amino acids and glucose are too large to
move easily through the selectively permeable cell membrane.
• These molecules often have to be moved/carried against the concentration
gradient – from an area of lower to an area of higher concentration.
• This requires energy provided by ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in the
mitochondria during cellular respiration.
• The cell membrane has channel proteins and transport (carrier) proteins
which actively carry substances across the membrane.

Activity 2
Four cylinders of potato were carefully dried on absorbent paper and weighed.Each
piece weighed three grams .Each one was placed in a tube as shown below. After
six hours, the potato cylinders were dried and weighed a second time.
13

Figure 13: Apparatus to observe osmosis in potato tissue

a) What is the aim of the experiment?

b) After six hours, which potato cylinder would be the heaviest? Give a reason
for your answer.
c) The movement of which substance is mainly responsible for the weight
changes in the potato cylinders?
d) Name the process which is responsible for this movement in tubes B and C.
e) Describe the reasons for the direction of movement of substances in each
tube B and C.
f) Would there be any difference in the weights of the potato cylinders in tubes A
and D after 6 hours? Give a reason for your answer.

Nucleus
• The nucleus is the largest organelle in the cell and is a prominent round or
oval structure found in the cytoplasm of the cell.
• In animal cells it is found in the centre of the cell, while in plant cells it has been
moved to the side (displaced) as a result of the presence of a large vacuole.
• The nucleus is made up of four parts:
➢ the nuclear membrane
➢ nucleoplasm
➢ nucleolus
➢ the chromatin network (chromosomes)

Table 6: The nucleus

13 (Dawson, Holm, Jackson, & Skinner, 2008)

Structure Location Composition Function
Nuclear Surrounds/ Double membrane The pores control
membrane encloses the with nucleopores- the movement of
nucleoplasm tiny/small substances into
openings and out of the
nucleus
Nucleoplasm Fills the space Jelly-like Responsible for
surrounded by the substance, made certain metabolic
nuclear membrane up of water, and processes such as
dissolved organic DNA- replication
and inorganic and transcription
substances of mRNA
Nucleolus Found inside the A dark, dense It produces
nucleoplasm round or oval protein and
structure stores RNA for
containing RNA the processes of
and proteins. It is mitosis and
not surrounded by protein synthesis
a membrane. and it is where
There could be ribosomes are
one or more assembled
present.
Chromatin network Found throughout In a non-dividing During cell
the nucleoplasm cell it is an division it forms
arrangement of chromosomes,
tangled threads made up of genes,
which are folded which carry
and tightly genetic
packed in the (hereditary)
nucleus. In a characteristics
dividing cell the from parents to
threads form offspring.
chromosomes
made up of DNA
and proteins
 Figure 14: The nucleus of a cell14

Functions of the nucleus of a cell

• The nucleus controls all the activities of the cell, it is the control centre of
the cell.

• The chromosomes carry hereditary characteristics from cell to cell and

from one generation to the next generation (by means of the genes).
Activity 3: The nucleus of the cell
Study the micrograph below and answer the questions that follow.

14https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/structure-of-a-cell/prokaryotic-and-eukaryotic-
cells/a/nucleus-and-ribosomes
 A

Figure 15: Transmission electron micrograph of an animal cell15

1. Identify the structures/parts labelled A, B and C. (3)

2. Describe the functions of the nucleus. (4)
3. Name the gel-like substance that surrounds the nucleus. (1)
4. Describe the difference between chromatin and chromosomes. (4)
5. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane. Mention THREE ways
that substances can be transported across this membrane in the cell. (3)
[15]

15 https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/214699/view/tem-of-animal-cell
Cytoplasm /cytosol
The cytoplasm is the fluid part of the cell found between the cell membrane and the
nucleus. It is dynamic, constantly moving and changing and the different organelles
are suspended in it.

Table 7: Cytoplasm

Structure Location Composition Functions

Occurs in a sol Occurs between Made up of 90% It is the site of all
state: a more fluid the cell membrane water and metabolic and
or liquid state or a and the nuclear dissolved organic biochemical
gel state: a more membrane in the and inorganic processes that
jelly-like, less fluid cell. substances. It has occur in a cell.
state. a grey appearance It stores raw
due to the materials and/or
organelles reserve food
suspended in it. needed by the cell.
Substances
circulate through
the streaming
movement of the
cytoplasm called
cyclosis.
It brings about
exchange of
materials between
organelles.
It exchanges
materials with the
surrounding
environment such
as extra cellular
fluid.
ROLES OF ORGANELLES IN THE CELL

Mitochondria

Table 8: The mitochondrion

Structure Location Composition Function(s)

It is a rod-shaped, It is found in the The mitochondrion The mitochondrion
cylindrical, cytoplasm of is surrounded by a is responsible for
almost all animal double cellular
hollow organelle.
and plant cells. membrane. The respiration:
Some cells have a outer membrane A process during
single, large is smooth, while which energy is
mitochondrion, the inner released from
while other cells membrane is carbohydrates
may contain folded inwards to such as glucose
thousands. form finger-like in the presence of
projections called oxygen.
cristae. It
encloses a The energy that is
granular, fluid-filled released is used to
matrix. The matrix form ATP
contains (adenosine
ribosomes and triphosphate), the
enzymes. energy-carrier in
Mitochondria cells.
contain their own
DNA (mt-DNA).

Note: Mitochondria are often referred to as the “power houses” of the cell, because
they produce a large amount of energy.
Cells that are more active (have a high level of metabolic activity), such as muscle
cells, have the most mitochondria, because they require more energy.
 Figure 16: The structure of a mitochondrion16

16 https://www.shutterstock.com/search/mitochondria+diagram
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Table 9: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Structure Location Composition Function

It is a network of It is found in the It is made up of It increases the
branching cytoplasm and is membrane-bound internal surface
membranes. It joined to the sacs called area of the cell.
forms a continuous nuclear membrane cisternae that Proteins are
system of canals and to the cell contain fluid. made in the
throughout the membrane There are two ribosomes.
cytoplasm. types:
It transports
Rough ER: has lipids and
ribosomes on its proteins within the
outer surface. cell.
Smooth ER: has
no ribosomes.

Figure 17: The structure of the endoplasmic reticulum17

17 https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/mhccmajorsbio/chapter/4-9-the-endoplasmic-reticulum/
Ribosomes

Table 10: Ribosomes

Structure Location Composition Function

Ribosomes are They are attached Ribosomes are Ribosomes are the
small, round to the ER, found in made up of protein site of protein
organelles that are groups in the and RNA synthesis.
found in plant and cytoplasm, and (A protein is made
animal cells. occur in the when 51 or more
mitochondria and amino acids are
chloroplasts. joined by peptide
bonds).

Golgi body or Golgi apparatus

Table 11: Golgi body

Structure Location Composition Function

It consists of It is found near the The membrane- It plays a role in
stacks of hollow, nucleus and ER in bound sacs are producing and
flat membrane- the cytoplasm of called cisternae. processing
bound sacs in the cell. secretions such as
Small, rounded
plant and animal saliva and mucus.
vesicles, carrying
cells. proteins, break off It prepares
the ends of the proteins for
cisternae. storage or
transport to other
parts of the cell.

In a plant cell the Golgi body is called a dictyosome.

 18

Figure 18: Structure of a Golgi body

18https://www.dreamstime.com/structure-golgi-apparatus-vector-organelle-eukaryotic-
image137509522
Plastids
Plastids are small, disc-shaped organelles that occur in plant cells only. There
are three types of plastids:
• Leucoplasts
• Chromoplasts
• Chloroplasts
Learners have to know the structure of the chloroplast only.

Table 12: Plastids

Type Location Composition Function

Leucoplasts Found in the Colourless, Specialised to store
cytoplasm of the cells contain starch, food in an
of roots and tubers lipids or proteins. If insoluble form such
and some fruits and leucoplasts are as starch
seeds. exposed to light,
they can turn into
chloroplasts.
Chromoplasts Found in the Contain pigments Give colour to fruit,
cytoplasm of the cells such as vegetables, and
of fruit, vegetables, carotenoids- red, flowers.
leaves and flowers orange, or yellow Chloroplasts change
into chromoplasts
when autumn leaves
change colour or
when fruit ripens.
Chloroplasts Found in the Contain the green Responsible for the
cytoplasm of the cells pigment called process of
of leaves and stems chlorophyll photosynthesis:
When energy-rich
carbohydrates (e.g
glucose) are
produced using
radiant energy from
the sun, CO2 and
H2O.Oxygen is
released as a by-
product.
Structure of a chloroplast
• A chloroplast is an oval-shaped plastid.
• It is surrounded by a double membrane.
• The inner membrane encloses a liquid(fluid) called the stroma.
• The stroma contains stacks of membranes called grana.
• Each granum is made up of many disc-shaped thylakoids.
• Chlorophyll, a green pigment, is found in the thylakoids.
• Grana are connected and separated by intergranal lamellae.
• The stroma also contains enzymes (that control photosynthesis), starch grains,
oil droplets, ribosomes and DNA.

19

fI
Figure 19: Structure of a chloroplast

19 https://ib.bioninja.com.au/higher-level/topic-8-metabolism-cell/untitled-2/chloroplast.html
Structural adaptations of a chloroplast for
photosynthesis
• The selectively permeable, double membrane controls the movement of
substances into and out of the chloroplast.
• Many thylakoids which contain many chlorophyll molecules to trap radiant
energy from the sun.
• Ribosomes in the stroma make enzymes which control chemical reactions.
• Starch granules store starch, consisting of many glucose molecules, that is
produced during photosynthesis.
• Oil droplets store oil.
Activity 4: Relationship between mitochondria and chloroplasts
When observing micrographs of plant cells, it is common to see mitochondria
situated close to the chloroplast. This is because they depend on each other.
Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

Figure 20: A chloroplast surrounded by mitochondria20

1. Identify organelle A and organelle B. (2)

2. Which of the two organelles is only found in plant cells? (1)
3. Use the linear scale to estimate the length of organelle A and B. (5)
4. Provide labels for the parts labelled 1 to 5. (5)
5. State the name of the pigment found in part number 3. (1)
6. Mention ONE function each of organelle A and B respectively. (2)
7. What type of energy is absorbed by organelle A? (1)
8. Name the molecule that stores and carries the energy, produced in organelle
B. (1)
9. Which type of cells, plant- or animal cells, contain more of organelle B? (1)
10. Provide a reason for your answer in question nr.9. (1)
[20]

20 (Dawson, Holm, Jackson, & Skinner, 2008)

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are fluid-filled, membrane-bound structures found in the cytoplasm of all
plant cells and certain animal cells.
Plant cells normally contain one, large, central vacuole which is always present.
Animal cells contain numerous, small, temporary vacuoles
A vacuole is surrounded by a single, selectively- permeable membrane, called the
tonoplast.
The contents of the vacuole is called cell sap and consists mainly of water and
dissolved substances including sugars, salts and pigments.

Functions of vacuoles in plant cells

• Stores water and dissolved mineral salts.

• The cell sap in certain plants contain dissolved pigments that give the blue,
violet and purple colour to flowers and fruit

• Transport of substances from one part of a cell to another.

• Responsible for movement of water from cell to cell via osmosis.
• Provides support (turgidity) for the cell:
If the vacuole is filled with water, it exerts a pressure called turgor pressure
on the cytoplasm and cell wall and the cell is described as being turgid(firm).
If the vacuole loses a lot of water, less pressure is exerted on the cytoplasm
and cell wall (the vacuole shrinks) and the cell is described as being flaccid.

Different types of vacuoles found in animal cells and their functions

Table 13: Vacuoles in animal cells

Type of vacuole Content Function

Vesicles Nutrients such as proteins Transport substances
from the Golgi body to
other parts inside and
outside the cell.
Form lysosomes.
Contractile vacuole Water Osmoregulation
(regulating the water
balance in the cell)
Food vacuole Digested food particles Responsible for the
digestion, storing and
distribution of nutrients

Lysosomes

• Small vesicles found in all animal cells.

• Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body or the ER.
• They are surrounded by a double membrane which ensures that the contents
does not leak out into the cytoplasm as it would digest and destroy the cell.
• Lysosomes contain powerful, digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes.
Functions of lysosomes
• In single-celled organisms, e.g .Amoeba, they play a role in the digestion of
food inside the cell (intracellular digestion).
• Lysosomes also digest dead cells, worn-out organelles and harmful bacteria.
Centrosome

Note: The centrosome is not mentioned in the CAPS document, but it is introduced
here because it plays an important role in mitosis in animal cells.

Structure of a centrosome
• A centrosome is a mass of specialised cytoplasm found near the nucleus in
an animal cell.
• It is made up of two rod-like structures, the centrioles, which lie
perpendicularly (at an angle of 90°) to each other.
• Each centriole is made up of tubular structures called microtubules.

Figure 21: Diagram of centrosome and centrioles21

Function of Centrosome
During mitosis (cell division) in animal cells, the centrioles form the spindle.
The spindle threads are attached to the centromeres of the chromosomes.

21https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Drawings-of-the-nucleus-the-centrosome-and-the-
centrioles_fig2_304562276
Comparison between plant and animal cells

Table 14: Differences between plant and animal cells

Plant cells Animal cells

Surrounded by a cell wall No cell wall
Have a regular/fixed shape Have more irregular and diverse shapes
Most contain plastids, e.g chloroplasts No plastids
Usually one, large storage vacuole No or a few small, specialised vacuoles
Lysosomes are absent Lysosomes are present

*Centrosomes absent *Centrosomes present

*Note: Centrosomes are not mentioned in CAPS, but it will be mentioned in the
section on mitosis.

Figure 22: Comparison of plant and animal cells22

22 https://www.twinkl.co.za/teaching-wiki/animal-cell
 Figure 23: Structure of plant and animal cells23

23 https://rsscience.com/animal-cells-vs-plant-cells/
Figure 24: A typical plant cell with structures that can be seen with an electron
microscope24

24 (Clitheroe, et al., 2013)

 Figure 25: A typical animal cell with structures that can be seen with an
electron microscope25

25 (Clitheroe, et al., 2013)

Cells - the basic unit of life: End of topic exercises
Section A
Question 1
1.1 Various options are given as possible answers to the following questions.
Choose the correct answer and write only the letter (A–D) next to the
question number (1.1.1–1.1.5). For example, 1.1.6 D.

1.1.1 The first person to see living cells using a microscope was:
A) Robert Hooke
B) Theodor Schwann
C) Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
D) Matthias Schleiden

1.1.2 Which of the following controls a cell and its functions?

A) Vacuole
B) Nucleus
C) Ribosome
D) Centrosome

1.1.3 The parts of a cell which are described as being selectively

permeable are the:

A) cell wall and cell membrane

B) cell wall and tonoplast
C) cell wall and nuclear membrane
D) cell membrane and tonoplast

1.1.4 Which ONE of the following carbohydrates forms a structural

component of the cell wall?
A) Glycogen
B) Starch
C) Cellulose
D) Sucrose

1.1.5 The fluid part of the cell that occurs between the nucleus and the cell
membrane is called the…
 A) cytoplasm
B) nucleoplasm
C) protoplasm
D) cell sap

1.1.6 Structures that play a role in cell division and are found in animal
cells only.
A) Lysosomes
B) Centrosomes
C) Chromosomes
D) Ribosomes

Question 1.1.7 and 1.1.8 refer to Figure 20

Figure 26: A plant cell

1.1.7 The diagram shows a plant cell because:

A) A nucleus is present.
B) A cell membrane is present.
C) A cell wall is present
D) Cytoplasm is present
 1.1.8 The part of the plant cell where chemical reactions occur, is…
A) Number 1
B) Number 2
C) Number 3
D) Number 4

1.1.9 The cell membrane is composed of…

A) Phospholipids and proteins
B) Cellulose and pectin
C) Proteins and lignin
D) Phospholipids and polysaccharides

1.1.10 A freshwater species of euglena was studied using a microscope,

the magnification of the object lens was 40x , the magnification of the
ocular lens was 10x and the measured length of the magnified image 2
cm. The actual size of the specimen is...
A) 10cm
B) 40cm
C) 400cm
D) 0.005cm
(5 × 2 = 10)

1.2 Give the correct term for each of the following descriptions. Write only the
term next to the question number.

1.2.1 The part of the microscope that focuses light on the specimen.
1.2.2 The basic unit of life.
1.2.3 The rigid structure that surrounds a plant cell.
1.2.4 The movement of the particles of a gas or liquid down a
concentration gradient until equilibrium is reached.
1.2.5 Structures found in plant cells only which can store substances such
as pigments and nutrients.
1.2.6 Organelles which are responsible for protein synthesis in a cell.
1.2.7 A linear collection of genes.
1.2.8 Transport of substances against a concentration gradient.
1.2.9 Small vesicles that contain powerful digestive enzymes and occur in
animal cells only.
1.2.10 The polysaccharide stored in plant cells only.
(10 × 1 = 10)
1.3 Indicate whether each of the descriptions in Column I applies to A ONLY, B
ONLY, BOTH A AND B or NONE of the items in Column II. Write A only, B
only, both A and B or none, next to the question number.

Column I Column II
A: DNA
1.3.1 Occurs in the nucleus
B: RNA
1.3.2 Movement across a membrane A: Active transport
which does not require energy. B: Osmosis
A: Turgid
1.3.3 A plant cell placed in pure water.
B: Flaccid
A: Plasmalemma
1.3.4 Membrane surrounding the vacuole.
B: Cell membrane
A: Chloroplasts
1.3.5 Organelles containing cristae.
B: Mitochondria
(5 × 2 = 10)

1.4 An egg is similar to one large cell. To prepare for an experiment, two raw
eggs are placed in acid, which removes their shells. Each egg is then
surrounded by a membrane only.
During the experiment, one egg is placed in a beaker containing tap water
and the other egg is placed in seawater. After three days, the eggs are
examined. Both eggs have changed their shape and size.

Figure 1: Eggs where the shells have been dissolved in acid (vinegar)26

26 https://untamedscience.com/biology/cells/osmosis/
 Figure 2: Egg in salt water (left) and egg in tap water (right) after 3 days27

1.4.1 Suggest a hypothesis for this experiment. (2)

1.4.2 Name TWO variables that have been controlled in this experiment. (2)
1.4.3 What is the dependent variable in this experiment? (1)
1.4.4 What is the independent variable in this experiment? (1)
1.4.5 Explain the results of your experiment after three days. (4)
[10]
SECTION A: 50

27 https://untamedscience.com/biology/cells/osmosis/
Section B
Question 2
2.1 Study the following diagrams of cells and answer the questions that follow.

2.1.1 Which diagram A or B represents an animal cell? (1)

2.1.2 Give TWO visible reasons for your answer in Question 2.3.1. (2)
2.1.3 Make a clearly labelled drawing of the part that controls all the metabolic
processes of the cell. (5)
2.1.4 Write down the NUMBER and NAME of the part that is associated with:
(a) cellular respiration
(b) protein synthesis
(c) spindle formation during cell division
(d) photosynthesis
(e) providing rigidity and support to the cell (5x2) (10)
2.1.5 If the plant cell is enlarged 1500x, what is the actual length of the plant
cell? (2)
(20)
2.2 Study the micrographs below showing two organelles.

2.2.1 Identify organelles 1 and 2 respectively. (2)

2.2.2 Which ONE of the organelles shown above is found in a plant cell only? (1)
2.2.3 Draw a fully labelled diagram of organelle 2. (5)
2.2.4 In which part of organelle 2 is the pigment responsible for the absorption of
light found? (1)
2.2.5 Support the statement that says organelle 1 is called the ‘powerhouse’ of the
cell. (2)
2.2.6 Which cell between a muscle cell and a skin cell contains more of organelle
1? Explain your answer. (2)
2.2.7 Tabulate THREE differences between organelle 1 and organelle 2. (7)
2.2.8 Calculate the actual size of the micrograph of organelle 2 in micrometres if the
measured size of the image using a ruler is 86 mm and the electron
microscopic magnification is 4000x. (3)
(23)
2.3 Explain that the structure of a cell membrane can be represented by the Fluid
Mosaic Model. (7)
(50)
QUESTION 3
3.1 The following set of six beakers was set up in the school laboratory. The little
“bags” inside the beakers are made up of dialysis tubing. Dialysis tubing
behaves in the same way as the cell membrane of a cell, allowing water to
move in and out of the bag.
The masses of the six “bags” of dialysis tubing, each containing 20ml of a
25% sugar solution, were recorded. Each bag of dialysis tubing was placed
inside one of six beakers. Each beaker contained 100ml solution of various
sugar concentrations, as shown in the diagrams below.

The sections of tubing remained in the beakers for 30 minutes before they
were removed and the outside of each section of tubing dried. The mass of
each tubing bag was measured again. The mass change of each bag in the
different sugar solutions is indicated in the data table below.
Mass change of tubing bags in different sugar solutions

Sugar concentration in beaker Mass change of the tubing (g)

(%)
0 5,1
5 4,7
10 4,4
15 2,5
20 1,4
25 0,0
 3.1.1 Use the information in the data table above to construct/draw a line
graph. (7)
3.1.2 Explain why there is the greatest mass change in the beaker filled with pure
water (0% sugar). (3)
3.1.3 Calculate the percentage decrease between the mass change of the tubing
in the 5% sugar solution and the 20% sugar solution. (3)
3.1.4 Why is there no mass change in the beaker containing a 25% sugar
solution? (2)
[15]

3.2 Study the following extract and answer the questions that follow.

The mitochondria are the cell’ s furnace. Oxygen and food materials are
burned there to produce energy. Unlike most of the cell’ s constituents,
mitochondria have their own piece of DNA which is a small closed circle of
DNA bases. Sperm do not transmit mitochondria, which means that these
mitochondria are passed down only through egg cells: both sons and
daughters inherit their mitochondria from their mothers, but only daughters
pass them on.
Several rare diseases arise from mistakes in mitochondrial DNA.
Sometimes, only a single DNA base is changed, more often, a whole
segment is missing. These mistakes in the mitochondrial DNA lead to
blindness, some to muscle weakness and brain damage of various kinds. All
are rare but all show the characteristic pattern of inheritance through
females.

3.2.1 How does mitochondrion differ from other cell organelles with regard to their
genetic material? (1)
3.2.2 What is the main function of mitochondria in a cell? (1)
3.2.3 Is it possible for sons to inherit the rare diseases mentioned in the passage
from their mothers? Explain. (2)
3.2.4 Mention TWO mistakes in the mitochondrial DNA resulting in genetic
diseases. (2)
3.2.5 Draw a well labelled structure of a mitochondrion (4)
(10)
3.3 The following flow chart illustrates the relationship between two important
processes found in the cells of plants.

3.3.1 Identify organelles X and Y (2)

3.3.2 Provide labels for parts A, B and C. (3)
3.3.3 Identify the metabolic processes that organelles X and Y control
respectively. (2)
3.3.4 Organelle Y is called the “powerhouse” of the cell. Suggest a reason for this.
(2)
3.3.5 Name the carbohydrate that is formed by X and used by Y. (1)
3.3.6 Described the interrelatedness between organelles X and Y based on the
waste products formed by these organelles during their respective metabolic
processes. (4)
3.3.7 Give ONE structural adaptation of each organelle and describe how this
adaptation enables the organelle to function efficiently. (4)
(18)
3.4 Explain the need for movement of substances in living systems (7)
(50)

Section B: [100]

Total marks: [150]