ETHICS MIDTERMS POINTERS While those actions which are within the control of man

Ethics is from the Greek word "ethos" which means like walking, talking, thinking, eating and biting are
custom or a manner of acting and behaving. Mores is the examples of the Human Act. They are deliberate, hence
root word of morality that means custom or practice. they are voluntary acts.
Ethics is focused on the general principles, rules and
theories on determining what is right on wrong. While There are three essential elements of act of man and
morality is the praxis, the application of those principles human act:
(Fernandez, 2012). Human conduct or human act is the (1) Knowledge where the doer is aware of what he/she is
material object of Ethics. Whereas, the morality of doing; Obviously, one cannot hold a person fully
human act or human conduct is its formal object. responsible for something that he or she is not aware of.
Morality - system of beliefs about what is right behavior (2) Freedom - in which the act is not done by force; It is a
and wrong behavior - deals with how a person relates state of being unrestricted from the internal impulse and
with others and with the world to promote what is good external pressure. A person is free when he can exercise
control over himself and over his action, that is, he can
Two divisions of Ethics: General Ethics and Applied or make a wide range of choices whether to do it or not.
Special Ethics. On one hand, morality of human act (3) Will- of which the doer has giver his or her consent to
focuses on the basic concepts. On the other hand, the do the act. Consent can be seen as something emanating
second division refers to the application of the moral from freedom. Consent, simply puts it, as relating to the
principles, standards and norms in various specific areas approval of the doer for his action.
of human life and activity. Voluntariness is very much akin to consent. From the
Moral principles must have the following Latin word voluntas, voluntariness refers to the act of the
characteristics: will. Without the action of the will, an act is considered
1. Prescriptivity - refers to the action-guiding nature of involuntary, hence, the doer in this case cannot be held
morality. The principles should intend to guide and direct liable for his action. Only an act that proceeds from the
people what to do or should not do. command of the will is voluntary. Needless to say, only a
2. Impartiality - means that moral rule should be neutral. voluntary act is a human act. Conversely, an involuntary
anyone regardless of status or situation. act is obviously considered an act of man.
3. Overridingness - should mean that moral principles There are four kinds of voluntariness:
should tower over all other norms or standards of 1. Perfect voluntariness - where all the elements of
evaluation. Therefore, should be given primary and human act are present. Man is fully accountable of the
ultimate importance. act committed.
4. Autonomous from Arbitrary Authority-moral 2. Imperfect voluntariness - where knowledge is absent.
standards should be independent, hence be able to stand A man who is not aware of the act that he has done may
on its own. not be answerable of his act or no accountability at all.
5. Publicity since moral standards guide people what to 3. Simple voluntariness - it is simply doing or not doing
do, they should be made public. Reason dictates that the act since one has cannot do anything about it. It is
rules are made and promulgated to advice, as well as, either positive or negative.
praise or blame certain actions. 4. Conditional voluntariness this is when the person is
6. Practicability - rules are made for men to follow. forced to do an act in which in normal condition it should
Hence, moral standards exist in which human beings are not be done.
capable of doing. How do we know the morality of the act then? The
following are the determinants of morality:
There are two kinds of moral act: Act of Man and 1. The Object or Act itself - this refers to the deed done
Human Act. by the doer of the action. It is either good or bad.
Act of Man - refers to those acts of which man has no 2. Motive or Intent - the purpose or reason of doing the
control. Therefore, it is involuntary act like emotions, act.
circulation of the blood, the pumping of the heart, 3. Circumstances - this involves the situations that
grinding of the stomach and breathing. surrounds the commission of the act. They are basically
practical answers to particular questions. The key
questions that will help understand the situation and 3. Fear is the disturbance of the mind when a person is
context. confronted by danger or harm to oneself or loved ones.
a. Who - refers to the persons involved in the act It is also a form of emotion.
committed, the doer and the receiver or recipient of the 4. Violence happens when physical force is exerted to a
act. person by another for the purpose of compelling or
b. Why - it the reason or motive of doing the act. forcing the person to act against his will.
c. By What Means though the intention is good but 5. Habits are frequently repeated acts. It may be bad or
attaining the end is unlawful or illicit, then the act is still good. In most cases. habits are becoming involuntary
immoral. The standing moral principle here is "The end since they assume the role of a second nature.
does not justify the means." Moral Norm is used to measure whether an act done is
d. Where- refers to the setting of the action. good or bad, right or wrong, moral or immoral. It is a
e. When refers to the time of the commission of the act. rule or standard in gauging the goodness or badness of
Time element is important and in most cases vital to an act. There are two types.
assess and judge morally the human act. The first norm is the eternal divine law which is objective
f. How - raping a woman in front of her husband is a grave and is the ultimate and absolute norm of morality. It is
act. Stabbing a person many times indicates an extreme governed by Divine Reason that reveals the necessary
hatred. relations between the creator and the creatures. Moral
Generally, circumstances could be aggravating, justifying, law is ordinance of reason promulgated by those who
mitigating or exempting. The act of self-defense is have the authority and care of the community for
justifying since the person doing the act has no intention promotion of the common good.
of killing at all. It is mitigating when a person is forced to Human laws are those enacted by men. This includes
slap the face of another because he was boxed. A wife, precepts not only in the government but also in private
due to rush of emotions, killed her husband and her agencies as, in the churches. Further, the difference with
paramour catching them of having sexual intercourse the moral law and human law is that the former covers
falls under exempting. both the external and internal actions of man. Whereas,
Man is an organism that does not, act in a vacuum. He the former only covers external actions of man.
responds and reacts to stimulus. His personal Human reason is the second norm of morality. This is
background, education, social upbringing, political related to person's conscience which is proximate norm
persuasion. religion, personal aims and experiences of morality telling a person internally what to do and
contributed largely to his development and behavioral should not do.
preferences (Agapay, 1991). Thus, the accountability of According to the harmony or disharmony with the
the commission of an act can be modified. The liability objective truth, conscience can either be correct or true,
can be greater, great, less, lesser or none at all. The or erroneous or false. Having a correct conscience must
following are the modifiers: be always obeyed, whatever it commands or forbids. An
1. Ignorance is the absence of knowledge. Everyone erroneous conscience can be:
should ought to possess and be responsible to have (a) invincibly erroneous conscience - a kind of judgment
knowledge. There are two kinds of ignorance: (a) vincible where mistake cannot be avoid regardless of the effort or
ignorance is where the lack of knowledge can easily be attempt exerted to correct such;
rectified. (b) invincible ignorance is difficult to rectify. (b) vincibly erroneous conscience - person is moral
There is no way of knowing. accountable since the error could have been avoided
2. Concupiscence or passion refers to emotions whether with ordinary diligence on his/her part:
negative or positive desire. They are neither moral nor (c) perplexed conscience - this kind of judgment happens
immoral. Passions can either be antecedent or when a person has two alternative options but fears that
consequent. The former tend to weaken the will power bad consequences is present in both choices that either
of the person and so interfere with the freedom of the way he/she feels doomed, the person must postpone any
will. Man tends to become irrational. These are so called action in making a choice; and
"crimes of passion". Though, they are voluntary but the (d) pharisaical conscience - here the person magnifies
accountability is diminished. small offenses as grave and serious ones as little.
As to the firmness in its judgment of the morality of the The Act Itself
act, conscience is either Foremost, the act itself is of paramount angle of
(a) certain conscience - the judgment is sure that the consideration. It is understood, when we say Act itself,
action is morally good or bad; this pertains to Human Action alone. (As Action is
(b) doubtful conscience - the person hesitates in making classified into three major areas: Action of Nature which
a particular judgment since he/ she is not certain or has no moral bearing; Action of man referring to
unsure whether something is good or bad, moral or Biological, Physiological and Psychological human deeds.
immoral. If a person has this kind of conscience, he/she Under normal circumstance, they have no moral bearing.
must never act; However, each can be subjected to moral evaluation
(c) scrupulous conscience - this type of judgment is a when the element of Intention is present.
described as very cautious or extremely fearful that the There are two Natures of the Act Itself. There is such a
person involved do not want to make any action in a concept of the so called Intrinsic action and the so-called
given situation. Extrinsic action. The act itself refers to the embedded
(d) lax conscience - is very different from the scrupulous essence of the act. The act of giving or sharing to the
conscience since the person takes serious bad act very poorest of the poor is intrinsically morally good. The act
lightly and considers as morally acceptable. of killing, as in the case of murder, is intrinsically morally
Norms are formal or material as derived from natural law. bad.
Formal norms refers to "what we ought to be" like we However, an intrinsically good action can become
should be sensitive, giving and obedient. "What ought to Extrinsically bad action. Meaning the the whole action is,
be done" is referring to material norms. in the first place, a facade not a genuine act of giving. This
is true in many other acts of giving where there is this so
Ethics: Square of Moral Evaluation and Decision called "hidden string attached" likened to a bait, in the
To evaluate an action done by a normal person whether fishing parlance. The naive person would simply take the
it is morally right or morally wrong. Professor L. Bete, a bait only sooner or later to realize he/she is eventually
REMASE theologian and Xavier University Philosophy hooked. How many affluent men able to hook prospect
Professor, purported a breakthrough matrix of moral victims by first initially giving money or other things, with
evaluation. He termed this matrix of moral evaluation as a covert intention to sooner victimize their hapless prey.
Square of Moral Evaluation, patterned after logical They are callus predators with intrinsic "bad heart"
presentation on Square on Oppostion as offshoot of the clothed with extrinsically facade good act of giving.
Art of Deductive Reasoning.
In like instance, an intrinsically morally bad action can
A wholesome and objective evaluation in of the four become extrinsically good action. This happens when
angles of moral evaluation in determining human action there is an element of valid justifiable action as in the
to be morally good and morally bad, here are the four case of self-defense and a times employing the so called
angles to exhaustively consider, namely: The Act Itself, "white lies". This will be discussed lengthily under the
philosophically termed as The Act perse or the Act as Is: moral angle on Circumstance. The action is indeed
The Intention, philosophically and legally termed as intrinsically bad but the "evil" effect is not directly
Premeditated Action; Circumstances as the third angle; intended but allowed to happen only as a consequence
The end, otherwise understood as The Result, The of the the so called "last recourse". In basic moral
Consequence - the forth angle.. principle, as there is no other way, after exhausting other
viable means, but to save or deter impending "evil" to
Square of Moral Evaluation and Decision prevail.
Act Itself
Intention The Intention
Circumstance One major element constituting the weight of moral
End gravity of a specific human action is the Intention.
Intention is otherwise known as Premeditated
motivation covertly present in the mind of the agent
before he/she executed the action. As it is first present in
the mind of the doer, only him/her knows the end target moral significant. Sometimes it is called no moral
of the act. The element of prior intention is not present bearing. What are these actions? The focus here is not
in indirect act as the action done is just but a a the action itself but on the doer or the agent of the
consequence of unplanned action. This is otherwise action.
known as concomitant consequence or incidental side In succinct form: the element of rationality, freewill,
effect.In legal parlance- a collateral effect. A police consent, voluntary and action proper to man as rational
officer, engaged in gun battle against a criminal but along being. These basic elements are hampered or even
the chasing and exchanging of gunfire, happened to absent in the following group of people, namely:
seriously hit a bystander. In this case, prior intention to 1) inborn mental abnormalities, as in the case of child
injure or to kill a bystander is not present in the mind of born with Dawn Syndrome,
the Police officer. 2) senile person,
What is crucial here, in moral evaluation and eventually 3) children below 9 years old,
given decision are those actions which are extrinsically 4) insane person and accident caused mental lapses, like
good. In its surface level it is good. But the question is, concussion. This is technically called post-traumatic
what lies behind the action, what is the underlying amnesia.
hidden intention of doing the act.
The End
Circumstance This is also known as the "End of the Action," the "Result
Circumstances, in Ethics, is understood as the prevailing of the action."
and prompting condition or situation behind the doing of The well accepted universal moral principle governing
the act. What are the circumstantial factors prompting a consequence of the action is "The end does not justify
particular act to be executed. This angle of moral the means." This is the general moral norm. That no
evaluation and decision is equally important in weighing matter how good the result is but the means or how it is
the total gravity of the moral offense. achieved is done through bad way, it does not diminished
There are four types of moral circumstance. 1) its culpability.?
Aggravating, 2) Mitigating, 3) Justifying, and 4) Excepting.
This is similar and also well considered in legal cases. Now, the next step in moral evaluation and decision is to
determine the weight of an offense. When can we say,
A. Aggravating moral circumstance is committed by an the action has some degrees of culpability? Is moral
agent or doer in different situation when there is an decision a "black and white"? In legal cases, all possible
element of added factor/s contributing to the first or evidences and circumstances are first explored and
initial action. exhausted before coming up a "beyond reasonable
B. Mitigating moral circumstance is understood as doubt" decision. In this study some terms are
lessening or diminishing the suppose moral gravity of the interchangeably used and each has the same meaning as
crime. used in this study. The terms moral liability, moral
C. Justifying moral circumstance. In this situation, the act culpability, moral accountability, moral responsibility and
is justified. This means "as if no moral offence is moral answerability meant the same.
committed". This is pictured out in the cases like, among
many others: self-defense, saving a person against all Moral action is non-countable therefore can not be
odds, Euthanasia, ectopic pregnancy, etc. Euthanasia, in quantified. It is deemed more on the weight of its quality
our layman's term- Mercy killing is morally justified under or gravity of the action either morally acceptable or
the following grounds. a) There is a signed written morally wrong not on quantity. It could either be less
request and waiver by the person himself or by by grave, very grave or not grave at all. In this study, it coins
immediate relative/s when the patient is unable to write three (3) levels, namely: a) Full responsibility, b) Partial
and signed. b) The patient is terminally ill. c) The liability, and Zero culpability.
psychological pain is heavier than than physical pain.
D. Exempting moral circumstance. However, there are
cases of action where it can be exempted from moral
liability. These actions are termed in Ethics Amoral or no
On the Act itself vs Intention Intention vs Circumstance
The act which is intrinsically good but the intention is An intrinsically zero prior intention or no premeditated
bad, the degree of culpability is FULL, Before an action is idea to injure or even kill a person as in the case of car
executed, there is a prior "evil" intention. "maitim na accident, doer has only Partial moral culpability.
budhi". However, in the case of real self-defense, the doer has no
moral culpability.
An intrinsically bad action but no prior intention only to Acts done by person with mental abnormalities, by senile
defend oneself at the cost of the life of the aggressor, the person, by insane person, by a child below 9 years old
action is justified, therefore Zero culpability. An and person with serious post-traumatic amnesia are all
intrinsically bad action (means) but the desired outcome have Zero moral culpability as Rational Intention is
is for greater and for general good, the doer or the absent. The aforementioned group of people are not on
conspirator has Partial culpability. Example to this is the their right or normal rational minds. Abortion is always
"drug war" of Duterte Administration. However, in cases immoral even though, in some countries, it is legal, like in
where there is a true element of "nanlaban"-resisting the China.
apprehension by engaging in gun battle initiated by the "Kamikaze" under war circumstance, can never be
suspect, the Police Officer or the doer can invoke self- justified. This a Japanese "last recourse" move where
defense. Hence the scenario is justified, therefore Zero intentionally a fighter plane is crashed to the enemy
moral culpability. stronghold, eventually killing some people including the
suicidal pilot.
An intrinsically good intention but the act itself is
intrinsically bad, like stealing medicine from a pharmacy Act itself vs The End
outlet just to save the life of a wife, has Partial culpability. Generally, any good outcome or a good resulting
An intrinsically bad intention but the act itself is good, like consequence however it is achieved by an intrinsically
giving money during election or any occasion where bad means, generally, the action is NOT justified. Like the
there is covert ill motive behind, the doer has Full case of a woman who engaged herself in promiscuity just
culpability. to let her two children survive, the action is not justified.
She could have looked for other descent work for
The Act itself vs Circumstance survival. Just in the cases of ectopic pregnancy and
An intrinsically bad act and the under aggravating eventual abortion and Euthanasia. Here, the "evil" effect
circumstance, like the case of "hit and run", has Full is not directly intended but morally allowed to happen as
moral culpability. a regrettable side moral issue. The eventual consequence
An intrinsically bad act and under mitigating is saving the life of the mother in ectopic pregnancy and
circumstance, like a car driver who happened to bump a terminating the excruciating mental and physical pain
person where he immediate helped and brought the bored both the terminally ill patient and the attending
victim to hospital, the car driver has only Partial moral relative in the case of Euthanasia. In some foreign
culpability. He is still culpable by reason of "reckless counties this is considered as legal and moral but in the
imprudence resulting to serious injury. The question is, Philippines, no laws,
what if the victim died along the way. This is a case of
homicide not murder and still the car driver has only Intention vs The End
Partial moral culpability. An perceived good intention does not always warrant a
An intrinsically bad action like killing the aggressor in the morally acceptable consequence, like for Adolf Hitler
process of self-defense. the action is justified, therefore killing millions of Jewish people just, to his mind, to
it has Zero moral culpability. An intrinsically bad action replace Jewish race with Arian race to rule the world. Just
done by truly a senile person, by an insane person, by a as Vladimir Putin invading Ukraine with huge devastation
child below 9 years, by a person suffering mental to get it back to Russian Domain. One can not just simply
abnormal development and by a person suffering from wipe out one tribe or one generation, in the face of the
post-traumatic amnesia, the action has no moral bearing world, just to establish a new tribe as consequence to
therefore Zero moral culpability. rule.
THE NEED TO STUDY ETHICS interest. Feelings of guilt and shame are often associated
The Commission on Higher Education states "ethics deals when the person goes against his or her moral standards
with principles of ethical behavior in modern society at (Mandal, 2010; Velasquez, 2012).
the level of the person, society, and in interaction with
the environment and other shared resources." (CMO 20 Moral standards have six characteristics that set it apart
series 2013) from non-moral standards (Velasquez, 2012). These are:
Understanding your moral compass in order to develop 1. Moral standards involve behaviors that seriously affect
better judgment is the aim for studying Ethics. Upon other people's well- being. It can either profoundly injure
entering college, students are not blank sheets, devoid of or benefit a person or persons.
pre-existing beliefs and values. College students already
have developed a set of moral standards by which they 2. Moral standards take a more important consideration
use to understand the world and a moral compass to than other standards, including self-interest.
navigate in it (Billett, 2006; Campbell, 2009). The end goal
for studying Ethics is for the student to become a person 3. Moral standards do not depend on any external
who makes sound judgments, sensitive to the common authority but in how the person perceives the
good. reasonableness of the action.

Relevance of Studying Ethics in your Chosen Profession 4. Moral standards are believed to be universal. Thus,
Ethics ensure a generally agreed standard of work- when you truly believe an act is wrong you also will not
related behavior that empowers professionals to foster agree or consent when other people commit what you
moral values through their work. Ethics gives a sense of consider a wrongful act. On the other hand, if you believe
justification in one's judgment, and helps ensure that an action is morally right, then you will also support other
decisions at work are not made based on purely people doing such acts.
subjective factors. Without the study of ethics, the
practice of one's profession will fall prey to vastly 5. Moral standards are based on objectivity. This means
conflicting individual interpretations. what you consider as right or wrong does not depend on
whether the action advances the interest of a particular
Importance of Rules to Social Beings person or group, but your action depends on a universal
Humans, in general, do not live in isolation. Instead, an standpoint where everyone's interest is counted as
individual is a member of a community of people whose equal.
common goal is to survive and thrive. As human societies
evolved, they found that human communities have 6. Moral standards are associated with vocabulary that
better chances to survive if they work together; and that depicts emotion or feelings. For example, when you go
working together is more effective when there is a against your moral standards you will say you feel guilty,
system in place. One of the systems that humans remorseful, or ashamed.
developed are standards that guide human activities, or
simply, "rules". Moral versus Non-moral Standards
Whether your computer can download a movie from the
Characteristics Of Moral Standards internet is a factual question. On the other hand, should
One definition of moral standard is "a code of what is you pirate movies from the internet is a moral question.
right or wrong without reference to specific behaviors or When judgment is founded on the rightness or
beliefs" (O'Connor, Lynn, 1997). It has been observed wrongness of an action the criteria is based on one's
that this intrinsic code of honor is already present in moral standards.
children, and it continually undergoes revisions as the
child matures and influenced by his or her surroundings. What are non-moral standards? Non-moral standards
Moral standards deal with matters that the person thinks can be considered as relative standards by which
have serious consequence. However, these standards are something or someone is judged as either good or bad.
not hinged on external authority or rules, but based on The rules of non-moral standards vary because these
good reason and impartial considerations overriding self-
rules depend on the guidelines agreed by a particular Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
group. Personal moral dilemma is when your decision in a
situation where there is moral conflict is the cause of
Etiquette, Policy, Law, and Commandment either your own; that of another person; or a group of
Etiquette is a set of rules on how an individual should people's potential harm. Our sample situation of Jane
responsibly behave in the society (Taylor and Williams, versus Ana was an example of a personal dilemma.
2017).). Table manners such as the proper use of utensils
and the proper manner of eating are examples of An organizational dilemma is when a member or
etiquette. members of the organization is in a situation where there
Meanwhile, a policy is a clear, simple statement of how is moral conflict, and the decision will potentially harm
an organization plans to handle its services, actions, or either some members of the group or the entire
business. Policies are guiding rules to help with decision organization (syn. company, cooperative, association)
making (The University of Sydney, © 2002-2017). itself.
A law is a rule created and enforced by the government
and its agencies to maintain order, resolve disputes, and Structural moral dilemma is when a person or group of
protect a person's liberty and rights (Robertson, 2008; persons who holds high- level positions in the society
Brickley and Gottesman, ©2017). faces a morally conflicting situation wherein the entire
A commandment is a rule that is to be strictly observed social system is affected.
because it was said to be set by a divine entity, such as
those in the Ten Commandments (Stahl, 2009). Why Only Human Beings Can be Ethical
There has been some claim that morality is not unique to
What is the advantage of owning moral standards over human beings. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, the
merely abiding by moral standards? fundamental difference between animal ethics and
For most people, the fundamental moral question is, human ethics is that animals behave instinctively while
"What should I do?" or "How should I act?" Ethics are human behavior is rational (BBC 2014).
presumed as moral rules on how a person should act. For
example, "every person is obligated to do the greatest Instinctive behavior is a hard-wired, inborn,
good for the most number of people." There is also the characteristic response to specific environmental stimuli;
philosophy that "everyone is obligated to act in ways that an example is the altruistic behavior of social animals
upholds the human dignity for all people." Moral (Spink. 2010). However, researchers found that the
principles like these guide the practice of various animal's intent of self-sacrifice is more on ensuring
professions (professional ethics). reproductive success (kin selection) rather than out of
true selfless motive (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009).
Dilemma Defined
By definition, dilemma is "a situation in which a difficult Rational behavior is a decision-making process where the
choice has to be made between two or more person acts in ways that best achieve his or her needs in
alternatives, especially equally undesirable ones" accordance with his or her set preferences, priorities, and
(Dictionary.com ©2017). Thus, when you find yourself principles (Information Resources Management
facing a problem but the solutions available to you will Association, 2015). Rational behavior is tied to moral
only create another problem or worse create more standards. Additionally, the human person in his or her
problems, then you are in a dilemma. decision- making process is free to decide what to do and
A moral dilemma is a situation where: free to act on his or her decisions. Thus, only human
1. There are two or more actions that you can possibly beings can be ethical because only humans have the
do. capacity for free moral judgment.
2. There is a moral reason(s) for doing such actions.
3. You cannot do all the possible actions presented to The Foundation of Morality
you. You only need to choose one. Why is freedom crucial in your ability to make moral
decisions?
The personal aspect of morality is about developing According to Gabriel Marcel, freedom is the ability to act
virtue so that thinking morally, performing moral acts, significantly. Free acts are significant because they help
and choosing to do what is good becomes a habit. The to make us who we are as human beings. Freedom is the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2016) explained ability to make significant choices and, according to
that virtue is your thought or behavior guided by, and Marcel, it is a gift given to us by God. (Hernandez, 2009)
displays, high moral standards. Virtues are habits
developed through learning and practice. Once you have Freedom is Complementary to Reason
it, your virtues become your characteristic. Moreover, a In Aristotle's view, the human person as a moral agent
virtuous person characteristically acts in ways consistent must exercise practical rationality in order to determine
with his or her moral principles. Thus, a virtuous person how to pursue his or her ultimate end (telos). Self-
goes beyond moral behavior. A virtuous person not only direction, rather than bare spontaneity, is the crucial
does what is right but his or her behavior also becomes a characteristic of the free person. Aristotle considered
standard for everyone to follow. freedom and reason as necessary faculties for
consciously making sense of things (events, occurrences,
Meanwhile, when talking about the interpersonal aspect phenomena, situations). (Walsh, 1997).
of morality, the discussion turns to following rules. We
have previously discussed the importance of rules in Freedom is Absolute:
human societies. It is important to note that even in Existentialist philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre's concept of
following rules freedom is essential. Rules help people freedom is not the freedom to do something or anything.
live together in relative harmony. It makes a person In Sartre's view, the human person is "absolutely free".
recognize that apart from personal rights, other people's Freedom sets the human person apart from other
rights are equally important. If people are allowed to creatures. When they are caged, animals will try to
dominate others, then people become mere tools - a escape from their cages. This kind of freedom is called
means to an end. Not only does this fail to respect a freedom from restrictions. It is a primitive kind of
person's dignity, it also stifles the development and freedom. It is freedom for mere survival.
progress of the human potential. Only when a person is Humans, on the other hand, have a higher kind of
free to recognize that he or she has rights; that other freedom. The freedom of the human person is beyond
people equally have rights; and both need to be freedom from restrictions. In fact, a person in jail is still
respected will the person be able to pursue projects, be free. He is free to think, to change, and to become a
creative, and reach his or her full potential for the benefit better person. A prisoner is free to redefine himself. As
- not just of the self-but also of others. human persons, we are free to make choices. We are free
to decide. And we are free to use this freedom to attain
Finally, there is the question of the ultimate end. Why are goals higher than satisfying basic needs.
you here? What is your purpose? The human person's
final end is always a debatable topic because it often goes Freedom Demands Responsibility
hand in hand with specific religious views. However, the Jean-Paul Sartre said "You are free" because he believed
debate does not negate the fact that freedom remains a person always has a choice. These consequences to
essential with one's view of his or her ultimate purpose. freedom are something that the person must endure.
Therefore, it can be said that in Sartre's concept,
The Human Person as a Free Being responsibility follows freedom (Gallinero, 2014).
First, what does "human person" mean? In philosophy, a
human being is more than its biological components. The Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu also discussed freedom and
human being is a person endowed with characteristics responsibility. Lao Tzu advocated that a person can and
that are material, spiritual, rational, and free. One of the should choose to act, but his or her actions should be
inborn properties of the human person is freedom. that which would result in harmony. The person is free to
do anything; but it is not without consequence of one's
Philosophical Insights on Freedom actions (Gallinero, 2014). Responsibility, as a moral
Freedom is a Gift quality serves as a voluntary check and balance of one's
freedom. Without proper balance limitless freedom is as
dangerous as an extremely controlling social group. Values are culturally acceptable standards of behavior. It
Great social injustices have resulted from such radical is what a person considers important or beneficial in life.
mindsets. Norm is an informal guideline by a particular group of
people or social unit about what is considered normal or
What does "culture" mean? There are several correct/incorrect social behavior.
definitions of "culture". The father of sociology, Emile
Durkheim asserted that culture has the power over How does culture define Moral Behavior?
individuals to create beliefs, such as belief in God. One of the revered founders of Western philosophy Plato
Durkheim added that with more people holding the same in his famous philosophical work, The Republic cited
beliefs, social order is also strengthened (Little and three critical elements that jointly influence the human
McGivern, 2016). Meanwhile, the father of cultural person's moral development. These elements are native
anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general, traits (or what we might call genetic characteristics);
culture is the way of life of a group of people that early childhood experience; and one's cultural
"includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, surroundings (Pekarsky, 1998).
customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired Plato implied that if a person's cultural surroundings
by man as a member of society" (Tylor, 1974, 1981). reward conformity to agreeable norms it would lead the
person to behave much better and quell undesirable
Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all conduct. He also expressed that the power of culture
aspects of shared human experiences. How does culture over an individual is more potent in children because
affect human behavior? Since human beings are naturally they do not have any pre-existing values. The child's
social creatures, we as people, are also naturally drawn cultural surroundings create these values and
to participate in culture. People want to belong, to be dispositions.
accepted by peers. We also need protection from danger.
Being part of a social group not only feeds our need to be Why can't all cultural practices be always correct?
accepted, it also increases the human being's chances to The world is wide and huge. Part of what makes the
survive. Thus, because of the safety in numbers that world interesting is that it is home to different groups of
being part of a group provides, human beings learned to people who have developed their own unique outlook on
modify behaviors to match that which their cultural how to survive and thrive. These differences led people
group deem acceptable. to view life differently and live completely different
However, not all is well with culture's power and control lifestyles. However, the first to use the term "cultural
over people. Plato worried about the idols and ideologies relativism" was philosopher and social theorist Alain
of his day, and especially about the power of the public Locke in 1924. Cultural relativism explains why one
to corrupt a young person's mind. behavior or practice is completely acceptable by a
particular group of people, while it is taboo in another. It
Elements of Culture refers to the idea that values, knowledge, and behavior
The five basic elements of culture are: symbols, language, of people must be understood within its own cultural
beliefs, values, and norms. context, and not by the standards of other cultures.
Symbols can be anything that a group of people find Hence, all moral and ethical standards (or the judgment
meaningful. For example, in religious groups, the cross is of what is right or wrong) is valid and there is not "one"
a symbol for Christianity while the crescent is for Islam. standard that is "better" among all others.
Language is a complex symbol system that enabled
human beings to communicate either verbally or through Philosopher and university professor Dr. James Rachels
writing. In pre-colonial Philippines Their ancient script or (1941-2003), in his book The Elements of Moral
writing called baybayin had characters, and each Philosophy, laid out five claims of cultural relativists as to
character represented a complete syllable (Lewis, 2015). why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural standards.
Beliefs are assumptions or convictions held to be true by These claims are:
an individual or a group of people. These 1. Different societies have different moral codes..
assumptions/convictions could be about events, people,
or things.
2. The moral code of a society determines what is right 4. Adherence to the principles of justice, democracy,
or wrong. There is no objective standard considered tolerance, solidarity, cooperation, diversity, dialogue and
better than others. understanding in all levels of society The three phases to
3. There are no universal moral truths. accomplish peace:
4. The moral code of a particular society has no special 1. Cognitive phase which is understanding and
status. It is but one among many. being aware to the happenings in the society.
5. It is arrogant for one culture to judge another culture. 2. Affective phase which is being concerned and
There should be tolerance among cultures. responsible learning to value
peace since rational beings are species of social
The Advantages and Dangers of Cultural Relativism interaction.
Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from 3. Active phase which is taking practical action in
cultural relativism. which a course that will lead us to what is good for the
1. It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the benefit of the majority.
absolute rational standard.
2. It teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more Two types of peace:
amenable in discovering the truth. 1. Negative peace - Absence of direct/physical violence
Many of our practices are relevant only to our particular (both macro and micro)
community. This implies our moral views are a reflection Direct Violence - War, Torture, child and woman abuse 2.
of our society's prejudices. Cultural relativism makes us Positive peace - Presence of conditions of well-being and
understand that what we think as truth may actually be just relationships:
just the result of cultural conditioning. a. Economic, political, and ecological
b. Structural Violence - Poverty, hunger c. Socio-
On the other hand, the dangers of cultural relativism are: cultural Violence - Racism, sexism, religious intolerance
1. We cannot call out societal practices that promote d.Ecological Violence - Pollution,
harm. overconsumption
2. We cannot justifiably criticize our own culture's
harmful practices. Six Dimensions and Operative Values by: Archbishop
This implies that to decide whether your action is right or Antonio Ledesma
wrong all you need to do is check whether your action is 1. Personal & Family (Spiritual) Values formation starts in
in accordance with the standards of YOUR society. If your the family. These are taught to children by the parents.
actions are in line with your culture, then you have done 2. Human Rights & Democracy (Justice) indicates that
nothing wrong - even though your actions were harmful. political respect is the key towards human viability and
3. The idea of social progress becomes doubtful. sustainability in achieving peace and mitigating conflict in
Progress means replacing something old with something the complex and dynamic society
better. However, if cultural relativism is to be followed, by 3. Poverty Eradication (Compassion) - Poverty might be
what standards do we say that society has become inevitable, however with the help of lowering the
better? The idea of social reform is now eradicated poverty borderline, peace can somehow be attainable.
because we are prohibited from judging one society as 4. Intercultural Understanding & Solidarity (Dialogue)
better over others. "What is right for you might be wrong for me, what is
wrong for me might be right for you" Dialogue is one of
Peace Education the important factors towards attainable peace. It serves
Peace as defined in relation to culture according to as the foundation for consideration towards respect.
UNESCO is a set of beliefs, values, attitudes, traditions 5. Disarmament & Cessation of Hostilities (Active/non-
and modes of behavior and ways of life based on: violence). In promoting the culture of peace, we must
1. Respect for life share the same idea of cease fire towards active/ non-
2. Respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms violence. The absence of war is the absence of conflict,
3. Rejection of all forms of violence the absence of conflict, is the presence towards a culture
of peace.
6. Environmental Protection (Stewardship) The concepts this is primarily manifested by the wide use of the English
of stewardship must be universal to all regardless of the language in the Philippines today. It was from these
status, influence, and power. This connotes taking care of influences that formed the Filipino character. The brief
the environment and nature, economics, health to occupation of the British (1762-1764) and the Japanese
mitigate conflict and eventually a culture of peace may (1942-1945) however had no cultural influence in the
follow. Philippines at all.
Psychologist, educator, and former Chairperson of the
Peace education is broadly defined as education that Commission on Higher Education Dr. Patricia B.
seeks the transformation of people's mindsets, attitudes Licuanan wrote that the strengths and weaknesses of the
and behaviors toward peace, justice and environmental Filipino character are rooted in factors such as:
care. In a peacebuilding framework developed for the 1. The home environment
Philippines, peace-constituency building is indicated as 2. The social environment
an important element. The latter includes education 3. Culture and language
aimed at promoting a peace culture and agenda, 4. History
Philippines' E.O. 570 (Sept. 2006) - "Institutionalizing 5. The educational system
Peace Education in Basic Education and Teacher 6. Religion
Education" 7. The economic environment
8. The political environment
Peace education is important. It is an ethical imperative 9. Mass media, and
since it upholds core ethical principles such as value of 10. Leadership and role models
life, love and human dignity. It is a practical alternative.
We need to build a critical mass of people who will reject Strengths of the Filipino Character
war (and the death and destruction in breeds) and will 1. Pakikipagkapwa-Tao
claim their right to true human dignity. 2. Family Orientation
3. Joy and Humor
Why there are Universal Values 4. Flexibility, Adaptability, and Creativity
The dangers that cultural relativism present led thinkers 5. Hard work and Industry
such as ethics expert Dr. James Rachels to reject cultural 6. Faith and Religiosity
relativism because it is implausible. The empirical basis 7. Ability to Survive
of cultural relativism is that cultures are dramatically
different in its views of what is right or wrong. However, Weaknesses of the Filipino Character
when it comes to important moral issues, three are three 1. Extreme Personalism
are three values that are universal (Rachels, 2004). 2. Extreme Family-Centeredness
The three universal values shared by all cultures are: 3. Lack of Discipline
1. Caring for the young 4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
2. Murder is wrong 5. Colonial Mentality
3. Tell the truth 6. Kanya-Kanya Syndrome
The theoretical point here is that "there are some moral 7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection
rules that all societies will have in common, because
those rules are necessary for society to survive" (Rachels, What is Moral Character
2004). First let us take the most basic definition of the terms
moral, character, and moral character.
Qualities of the Filipino Moral Identity Moral is "concerned with the principles of right and
The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western wrong behavior or the goodness and badness of the
cultures. The beliefs and traditions of pre-colonial human character" (Merriam-Webster 2017).
Philippines was mainly indigenous Malay heritage Character is defined as "the mental and moral qualities
(Baringer, 2006). Then the Spanish colonized the islands distinct to an individual" (Merriam-Webster 2017). But in
and the Hispanic culture influenced the natives. In turn, Philosophy, the term character usually denotes to the
the Americans shaped the modern Filipino culture and moral dimension of a person (Timpe, 2007). Moral
character refers to the "existence (or lack of) virtues such
as integrity, courage, fortitude, honest, and loyalty". Virtue Ethics is largely identified with Aristotle. In ancient
(Merriam-Webster ©2017) Western philosophy, Aristotle's discussion on moral
character, particularly virtue, is the most influential view
Moral Character as Disposition on the topic. Aristotle argued that each person has a
Moral characters are those dispositions or the tendency built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is
to act or think in a particular way for which a person can focused on being a good person the right actions will
be held morally responsible. Thus, moral character traits follow effortlessly and you will do good things.
are rational, informed, stable and reliable dispositions
(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017). What does it mean to be a good person? Aristotle
believed that humans have an essence. He called this
Philosophical Views on Moral Character essence proper functioning where everything has a
Confucian Traditions function and the thing that performs as intended is called
For Confucian traditions moral development was good when it is able to fulfill this function. However, aside
attributed to "four beginnings" of the human personality from its natural instincts, a person according to Aristotle
(Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017). These "four is also a "rational animal" and a "social animal".
beginnings" were considered as seeds of human Therefore, using reason to live and get along with other
personality that will naturally unfold to become human people is also the human person's function. A "good"
activities. person is one who fulfills all these functions.
Thus, in this concept, every person is born with four
beginnings. However, each of these do not yet capture So what does it mean to be virtuous? Virtue for the
the concept of self. However, when the four beginnings Greeks is equivalent to excellence. A man has virtue as a
are put together, it may then be perceived in Western flutist, for instance, if he plays the flute well, since playing
understanding as the "pre-self "or "potential self the flute is the distinctive activity of a flutist. A person of
"(Klemme, WEB). virtue is someone who performs the distinctive activity
The four beginnings in Confucian traditions are: of being human well. The principle of being virtuous is
1. The heart of compassion, which leads to Jen. called the "Doctrine of the Golden Mean"- that moral
2. The heart of righteousness, which leads to Yi. behavior is the one that is in the middle of two extreme
3. The heart of propriety, which leads to Li. behaviors (or what he called vices). When he said
4. The heart of wisdom, which leads to Zhi. "extreme behavior", it meant the act was either
Jen means goodwill, sympathy towards others, and excessive or deficient. For example, in Aristotelian view
generosity. eating is a human function as demanded by nature.
Yi means righteousness and the respect of duty, that is, When a person overeats (gluttony), this behavior is
respect your position as guardian towards nature and excessive; while a person who diets too much
humanity. (starvation) is deficient. Thus, the virtue when eating is
Li deals with outward behavior such as etiquette. temperance or to eat just the right amount at all times to
customs, and rituals. keep your body nourished and healthy. Temperance is
Zhi means wisdom, and this wisdom is a product of the golden mean between gluttony and starvation.
practicing Jen, Yi, and Li in one's life (Liu, 2002). Aristotle understood virtue as a character that can be
developed, and that this can be developed by practicing
Aristotle & Virtue Ethics the golden mean (the doctrine of the Mean). In time,
Virtue ethics is an approach that reduces the emphasis good behavior will come naturally.
on rules, consequence, and particular acts. Instead,
virtue ethics focus on the quality of the person. Although It is important to note that Aristotle's Doctrine of the
action and consequence are significant, virtue ethics Mean does not claim that you behave in moderately at
does not focus on whether an action is right or wrong; all times; such as when you get angry, you should only
nor on whether the consequences are good or bad. It is ever be 'moderately' angry. In Aristotle's philosophy, you
more concerned with whether the person is acting as a should be as angry as the situation demands which can
virtuous person should act in the situation. be very angry or only slightly irritated. He concluded that
virtue is a choice of behaving the right way, at the right Stage 2: Reward Orientation
time, with the right people, and that this choice is As children grow older, they begin to see that there is
determined by rational principle and practical wisdom actually room for negotiation because other people have
(Lacewing, 2015). The virtuous man is the kind of man their own goals to meet and wants that must be satisfied
(note: the term 'man' in Aristotle's writing is equated too. Children learn to behave in a manner based on the
with person and not just as opposed to woman) who is principle "What's in it for me?"
able to satisfy both inclinations and rational desires
because his or her inclinations and desires are aligned. Level II: Conventional Morality
The virtuous man wants to do what is good and does it This level of moral reasoning is typical of adolescents and
because he/she derives pleasure from choosing and adults. Conventional morality is to reason in a
doing what is moral. conventional (something that is generally accepted)
manner. It is accepting the rules and standards of one's
But why do we have to be virtuous? The reason, group. This means decisions and the morality of his/her
according to virtue ethics, is Eudaimonia. Generally, actions are based on society's views and expectations.
eudaimonia can be translated as "happiness", "well- The focus on this level is the "significant others" or what
being" or the "good life" and that this is the goal of is also called "Tyranny of the They" (They say this.... They
human life. Aristotle believed that to achieve eudaimonia say that... They say I should....)
you need to practice the virtues in your everyday activity
all through your life. Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
At this stage, the child tries to seek approval from other
Kohlberg's Theory people by living up to their expectations. He/She also
Lawrence Kohlberg studied morality using a very now understands the concept of loyalty, trust, and
interesting (if controversial) technique. In his research. gratitude as well as become interested in motives and
Kohlberg would ask children and adults to try solve moral intentions behind a particular decision or action.
dilemmas in short stories and asked the participants to
think out loud so he could follow their reasoning. The Stage 4: Authority Orientation
reason for this was that Kohlberg was not interested with By this time, individuals have reached adulthood and
the specific answers to the dilemmas he wanted to know they usually consider society as a whole when making
how the person got to his or her answer. judgments. The focus at this stage is following the rules,
maintaining law and order, doing one's duty, and
After looking at hundreds of interviews using several respecting authority.
stories, Kohlberg outlined three broad levels and six
specific stages of moral development. Level III: Post conventional
This is also known as the 'principled level. It is marked by
Level I: Pre-conventional morality a growing realization that people are unique and are an
Judgment at this level is solely focused on the self. This independent part of the society. Therefore, the
line of moral reasoning is common among children individual's own perspective is more significant over
although some adults would also exhibit such behavior. what the rest of the society thinks and that this would
The child, having no concept about society's conventions sometimes lead to disobeying the law to follow personal
on what is right or wrong, would base its judgment principles.
mainly on the external consequences of its actions.
Stage 5: Social contract orientation
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation This stage means the individual is aware that much of
This is also called the 'pre-moral' stage where decisions what is considered to be moral or good is mainly based
and actions are determined by immediate physical on personal beliefs as well as on the social group they
consequence and not the true moral value. The overall belong to and that only a very few of the known
goal at this stage is to avoid punishment. fundamental values are actually universal.
The person at this level understands that the world holds feeling, thinking, resolve, etc.—as well as the inherent
different opinions, rights, and values; thus different views objects or correlates of these mental acts such as values,
should be mutually respected. Laws are also regarded as concepts, and plans (Frings, 2013).
a matter a social contract with one's fellow human beings
in order to promote universal values and that decisions He also claimed that feelings are independent of the
are made for "the greater good for the most number of mind; that it corresponds to the Divine Plan (Chuhina,
people". The best example for this level is the Democratic 1993; Frings, 2017; Tymieniecka, 1993). According to
form of government. Scheler, human feelings are not chaotic. It is actually
strict, exact, and objective. It follows a peculiar form of
Stage 6: Ethical - Principle Orientation laws that you cannot avoid and is obligated to follow. He
At this point, social contract takes a clear back seat and firmly rejected the idea that feelings are in the
the person makes a personal commitment to uphold subconscious and asserted that it is actually the "purest
universal principles of equal rights and respect. At this sphere" of human consciousness. (Tymieniecka, 1993)
stage, an individual already has a principled conscience;
and will follow universal, ethical principles regardless of Scheler presented four strata of feelings. He claimed
what the laws or the rules say. Judgment here is based on that these strata or levels are constant and it follows and
abstract reasoning such as being able to put oneself in exact order of importance. He called these levels of
other people's shoes. feelings as the "stratification model of emotive life".
1. Reason alone cannot be a motive to the will, but rather 1. Sensual feelings
is the "slave of the passions". 2. Vital feelings
2. Moral distinctions are not derived from reason. 3. Psychic feelings
3. Moral distinctions are derived from the moral 4. Spiritual feelings
sentiments: feelings of approval (esteem, praise) and
disapproval (blame) felt by spectators who contemplate Sensual feelings involve bodily pleasures or pain. Vital
a character trait or action. feelings are the life functions such as health, sickness,
4. While some virtues and vices are natural, others energy, fatigue, etc. Psychic feelings are about aesthetics,
(including justice) are artificial. justice, and knowledge (scientific). Lastly, Spiritual
feelings deal with the Divine. (Moran and Parker, 2015)
According to Hume's "Theory of the Mind", humans
have what he called passions (which he used to describe According to Scheler, of the four, it is spiritual feelings
emotions or feelings). He further classified passion as alone that is intentional. This means spiritual feelings are
direct and indirect. directed to a particular special object or a higher being
The direct passions are caused directly by the sensation that 'he attributed to as the Divine. Thus, since it
of pain or pleasure; the passion that "arises immediately possessed the nature of intent, Scheler philosophized
from good or evil, from pain or pleasure" that we that among all the four levels, spiritual feelings is the
experience or expect to experience. Other direct most important (Moran and Parker, 2015).
passions include aversion, hope, fear, grief, and joy.
Indirect passions are caused by the sensation of pain or Difference Between Responses Based on Reason and on
pleasure derived from some other idea or impression. Feelings
Other indirect passions are humility, ambition, vanity, Philosopher and Professor Dr. James Rachels asserted
love, hatred, envy, pity, malice, generosity. that in moral reasoning, you could not rely on your
feelings no matter how powerful these feelings may be.
Scheler and the Philosophy of Feelings Feelings can be irrational and merely a product of your
Max Ferdinand Scheler was an important German Ethical prejudice, selfishness, or cultural conditioning. The
philosopher distinguished for his contributions in morally right thing to do is one that is supported by
phenomenology, ethics, and philosophical anthropology rational arguments. An argument is reasonable if:
(Davis and Steinbock, 2016). As a phenomenologist, a. The facts are correct.
Scheler sought to know what comprised the structures of b. The moral principles are correctly applied.
consciousness, including that of mental acts such as
C. Each individual's well-being is treated equally 2. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which
important. alternatives are considered and the best one is chosen.
Without such consideration, we clearly cannot
What is the Role of Feelings in Decision-making understand the possible alternatives and are not
Reason plays a role in making a moral decision. responsible for preferring one of them.
Philosophers encourage the use of reason in making 3. Since intellectual deliberation is absent from emotions,
moral decisions. However, it should be noted too that our we cannot be responsible for our emotions
moral compasses are also powerfully influenced by
feelings. Hume claimed that in any given situation a The Partial Nature of Feelings
person would act based on emotions rather than reason Emotions notoriously play favorites. It operates on a
(Bucciarelli, et al., 2008 principle called "the law of concern" (Fridja, 1988) where
emotions give focus only on matters of personal interest.
On several instances, reasoning in moral decisions is However, emotions are quiet when it is of no personal
preceded by an initial intuition or gut-feel (Haidt, 2012). concern. Take for example a catastrophic event like an
For instance, in choosing between studying and partying earthquake. The sorrow that you feel for earthquake
before an exam you already feel some negative emotions victims from other countries is nowhere near the level of
(guilt, worry) just thinking about going out rather than sorrow that you feel if your family were the victims.
studying. 20th century philosopher Alfred Jules Ayer
described two elements in moral judgment: the There are two aspects in the partial nature of emotions:
"emotive" and the "prescriptive" elements (2012). The 1. Decisions based on feelings focus only on a narrow
emotive element in moral decisions meant expressing area, and
positive feelings towards a kindness. When you feel 2. It reflects personal and self-interest perspectives
positively about an act, you do not only do the act you
also feel particular act. For example, "Kindness is good" Emotions influence our attention. Thus, it governs what
meant you feel positive about acts of this act should be attracts and holds attention. Emotions make us
encouraged that others may follow. This is where the preoccupied with specific matters and we become
second element -prescriptive - comes in such as saying, oblivious to everything else (Harvard Business Review,
"Be kind to others." The prescriptive element. in a sense, 2015).
is an instruction or prescription of a particular behavior.
The second partial nature of emotion is that it draws its
Why feelings can be obstacles to making the right perspective from personal interest. It addresses
decisions subjective concerns and takes action primarily to satisfy
There are three central features as to why emotions can such concerns (O'Donohue, & Kitchener, 1996). For
be obstacles in making the right decisions: example, Gemma broke up with her boyfriend. She then
1. Its non-deliberate nature dropped out of school because she cannot bear to see
2. Its partial nature (Been Zeev, 1997); and him in campus with another girl. In this situation, Gemma
3. It is capricious (Pizarro, 2000) sacrificed her education, wasting time and money for a
broken relationship. A highly partial perspective is
THE NON-DELIBERATE NATURE OF FEELINGS interested only in the immediate situation; no rational
Deliberate means the act was intentional, planned, with explanations from a broader perspective are relevant.
conscious effort. Nondeliberate is the contrary term that
denotes spontaneous actions. It is doing something The Capricious Nature of Feelings
without thinking through. The third problem with emotions is that it rises up for
Philosopher Aaron Been Zeev summarized the arbitrary reasons. For example, you did not give money
nondeliberate nature of feelings as follows: to an old beggar asking for alms simply because she
1. Responsibility entails free choice; if we are not free to tugged at your shirt and startled you. Aspects or
behave in a certain manner, then we are not responsible situations that have nothing to do in moral situations
for this behavior. could rile up your emotion, and this emotion will
certainly influence your subsequent moral judgment feelings show that, with some effort, emotional reactions
(Pizarro, 2000). can be brought in accord with your beliefs and goals.
› Emotions are powerful and unavoidable. Upsurge of
How Emotions Help In Making the Right Decisions feelings is natural. However, it should not control
Although several studies point out the negative effects of behavior nor should it prevent reason. What we do with
emotion in making decisions, contemporary research on our feelings is what makes us ethical or unethical.
how emotions facilitate reasoning is also catching up.
Several studies suggest that emotions are the foundation Is reason a requirement for morality?
of all our cognitive and behavioral processes; and Immanuel Kant, argued that reason alone is the basis for
emotional responses often guide a person in making morality, and once the person understood this basic
beneficial choices without any conscious reasoning requirement for morality, he or she would see that acting
(Arnold, 1960; Damasio, 2003). morally is the same as acting rationally (Beck, 1960). In
Kant's view, the definition of morality alone shows that a
There are at least three ways that feelings, especially person must decide what to do. You, as a person, are able
negative feelings, help in making the right decisions: to think and reflect on different actions and then choose
1. It signals the need to adjust behavior. what action to take. That a moral decision means mere
2. It can help us learn from our mistakes. desires did not force you to act in a particular manner.
3. Emotional responses can be reshaped as time pass by. You acted by the power of your will.

Psychologists have long acknowledged that emotions As a student, you are constantly in turmoil on whether to
serve as a red flag. Emotions signal that something is study or not to study. You know the importance of
happening and that it needs attention (Arnold, 1960). studying and the consequence of not studying. However,
Often times you get the feeling that "something is wrong" you also know the importance of taking a break from the
when you make an incorrect judgment. This red flag daily grind. So when exams are coming and you feel so
aspect in emotions helps in making better decisions. stressed from fulfilling all school requirements and you
feel the need to take a break - in Kant's argument that
We are all familiar with feelings of regret, shame, guilt, morality is based on reason, what is the moral choice?
disappointment, and sadness as a result from acting
contrary to what we believe as morally right. Studies, Is impartiality a requirement for morality?
however, have shown that negative feelings are integral Before discussing how impartiality is related to morality,
to our ability to learn. The surge of negative emotions it is important to understand what impartiality is. It is a
triggers "counterfactual thinking" (Smallman and Roese, broad concept, but it is also identified as a core value in
2009). Counterfactual thinking is a psychological concept professional codes of ethics. Impartiality is commonly
about the human tendency to create possible or understood as a principle of justice. It denotes that
alternative scenarios other than what had actually decisions should be "based on objective criteria rather
happened. Have you ever replayed a situation in your than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring to
mind repeatedly, thinking about how you could have benefit one person over another for improper reasons"
done better or how you should have reacted instead? (Jollimore, 2011); impartiality stresses everyone ought to
This analysis of what went wrong present an opportunity be given equal importance and not favor one class
to reflect and prepare oneself in making a different, and (people, animals, or things) in a capricious way.
possibly better, choice in the future. This idea is
supported by evidence that focusing on the action, rather How is impartiality a requirement for morality? For
than on shortcomings or weakness, can result in making example, during an exam you saw your friend (who is
better choices in similar encounters in the future (Roese, sitting next to you) secretly open her notebook to look
1994; McMullen and Markman, 2000). for an answer on one of the test questions. Your teacher
noticed that your classmate was doing something
The psychological state of "mindfulness", where you give suspicious. He called your classmate and asked if she was
active and open attention to personal thoughts and cheating. She surreptitiously closed her notebook and
answered, "No". Your teacher did not trust your
classmate's answer so he asked you. What will you say? Articulate the Dilemma
According to philosopher and professor Dr. James it is important that you express the ethical dilemma.
Rachels, for your decision to be moral, you should think What are the competing values? The purpose of
how your answer will affect your friend, your teacher, the articulating the dilemma is to make sure that you
rest of your classmates, and how it will affect you as a understand the situation and the moral conflict you are
person. An impartial choice involves basing your decision facing. Awareness and comprehension are important in
on how all the persons in the situation will be affected, making the right decision, especially when there are lives
and not to the advantage of a particular party that you that will be affected.
favor.
A key distinguishing feature of a moral dilemma is that it List the Alternatives
typically arises when individuals or groups might be Think creatively about potential actions, as there may be
harmed, disrespected, or unfairly disadvantaged (Beall, choices you neglected. This will help ensure that you
2017). Most ethical decisions lie in a gray area. Often have not been pushed back into a corner.
times you are faced with a situation where there are no
clear-cut or obvious choices; the situation cannot be Compare the Alternatives with the Principles
determined by simple quantitative analysis of data. In decision-making, specify the relevant values that you
Ethical decision-making requires interpretation of the want to uphold in making your decision. Then compare
situation, application of your values, and estimating the whether your alternative actions are in line with your
consequences of your action. In real life, our situations values. Identifying the values and comparing your action
do not only involve between right and wrong; good or with these values are important because it will help
bad. Oftentimes, it is about choosing between good and identify if your alternative action is illegal or unethical,
better or bad and worse. thus making this action easy to discard.

Making ethical choices requires the ability to make Why is it important to have a system in making decisions?
distinctions between competing options. Here are seven In systematically considering your set of values, the risk
steps to help you make better decisions. of overlooking important principles and considerations
are reduced. Hence, the chance of doing something you
The 7-step model for ethical decision-making will regret in the future is also reduced.
Adapted from 2nd gen. CHED-GET, XU Training
1. Gather the facts Weigh the Consequences
2. Identify the stakeholders When considering the effects of your actions, filter your
3. Articulate the dilemma choices to determine if your options will violate ethical
4. List the alternatives values. Determine how all the stakeholders will be
5. Compare the alternatives with the principles affected by your decision.
6. Weigh the consequences
7. Make a decision Make a decision
Remember, deliberation cannot go on forever. You must
Gather the Facts avoid "paralysis by analysis" or the state of over-analyzing
Do not jump to conclusions. Ask questions (who, what, (or over-thinking) a situation so that a decision or action
where, when, how. and why). Nevertheless, gather as is never taken, in effect paralyzing the outcome. There is
many facts as you can. Clarify what assumptions you are no easy, painless decision to a moral dilemma.
making. However, it is also important that the decision you make
reflects the value you want to uphold.
Identify the Stakeholders
Identify all the persons involved and will be affected in an Moral courage is the courage to put your moral principles
ethical situation. Who are the primary stakeholders? into action even though you may be in doubt, are afraid,
Who are the secondary stakeholders? Why are they or face adverse consequences. Moral courage involves
stakeholders in the issue? Get the proper perspective. careful deliberation and mastery of the self. Moral
courage is essential not for only a virtuous life, but also a
happy one because integrity is essential to self-esteem. Developing the "will"
Aristotle discussed the difference between what people
However, according to philosopher Mark Johnson, acting decide to do and what they actually do. In Aristotle's
morally often requires more than just strength of philosophy, using the intellect to decide is just one part
character (Drumwright and Murphy, 2004). Johnson of the moral decision. The resolve to put the decision into
added it is important to have "an ability to imaginatively action is the role of the "will". He said since vice and
discern various possibilities for acting within a given virtues are up to us, "we become just by the practice of
situation to envision the potential help and harm that are just actions; self-control by exercising self-control; and
likely to result from a given action (Johnson, 1994)." This courageous by practicing acts of courage (as translated
ability is called moral imagination. by Baird, 2016)."

Moral imagination is "ability in particular circumstances Self-mastery therefore is the product of the "will" that is
to discover and evaluate possibilities not merely achieved by actually putting rational, moral choice into
determined by that circumstance, or limited by its action.
operative mental mode or merely framed by a set of rules
or rule-governed concerns (Werhane, 1999)." Although it
is a necessary component, moral imagination is not
sufficient alone for moral decision-making. Moral
reasoning is still needed.

What is "will"?
Generally, "will" is the mental capacity to act decisively
on one's desire. It is the faculty of the mind to initiate
action after coming to a resolution following careful
deliberation (Joachim, 1952). Within Ethics, "will" is an
important topic along with reason because of its role in
enabling a person to act deliberately.

On the concept of "will" in Classical Philosophy, Aristotle

said: "The soul in living creatures is distinguished by two
functions, the judging capacity which is a function of the
intellect and of sensation combined, and the capacity for
exciting movement in space." (Hett, 1964)

Why is the "will" as important as reason?

Aristotle believed that "will" is the product of intellect
and sensation; and that "will" gave the person the
capacity for "exciting movement in space". For example,
Riza is torn between buying a new smart phone or save
up for a trip outside the country. On one hand, she can
afford the smart phone now. On the other hand, she
would be nowhere near her target travel date because
her savings is still far from enough. Riza weighed the pros
and cons between buying a new phone and saving up for
her trip. Eventually, she decided to walk away from the
store and go to the bank to deposit her money. It was
Riza's will" that enabled her to walk out of the store
without buying the phone she liked.