ECONOMIC‌‌GEOGRAPHY‌ 

‌
  ‌ ‌
Economic‌‌Geography‌‌‌is‌‌the‌‌study‌‌of‌‌how‌‌people‌‌earn‌‌  
their‌‌living,‌‌how‌‌livelihood‌‌systems‌‌vary‌‌by‌‌area‌‌and‌‌how‌‌  
economic‌‌activities‌‌are‌‌spatially‌‌interrelated‌‌and‌‌linked.‌  ‌
Economic‌‌activity‌‌‌is‌‌the‌‌activity‌‌of‌‌making,‌‌providing,‌‌  
purchasing,‌‌or‌‌selling‌‌goods‌‌or‌‌services.‌‌Any‌‌action‌‌  
that‌‌involves‌‌producing,‌‌distributing,‌‌or‌‌consuming‌‌  
products‌‌or‌‌services‌‌is‌‌an‌‌economic‌‌activity.‌  ‌
Economic‌‌activities‌‌exist‌‌at‌‌all‌‌levels‌‌within‌‌a‌‌society.‌‌
 
Additionally,‌‌any‌‌activities‌‌involving‌‌money‌‌or‌‌the‌‌  
exchange‌‌of‌‌products‌‌or‌‌services‌‌are‌‌economic‌‌  
activities.‌‌For‌‌instance,‌‌running‌‌a‌‌small‌‌business‌‌is‌‌a ‌‌
great‌‌example‌‌of‌‌economic‌‌activity‌‌and‌‌one‌‌you‌‌can‌‌  
learn‌‌more‌‌about‌‌at‌M‌ ultipleStreams.org‌. ‌ ‌

 ‌
  ‌ ‌
FACTORS‌‌THAT‌‌CONTROL‌‌DISTRIBUTION‌‌OF‌‌  
ECONOMIC‌‌ACTIVITIES‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌‌The‌‌Physical‌‌Environment‌:‌‌Many‌‌production‌‌
‌  
activities‌‌are‌‌rooted‌‌in‌‌the‌‌limits‌‌set‌‌by‌‌the‌‌physical‌‌
 
environment.‌‌For‌‌example‌‌logging‌‌is‌‌only‌‌possible‌‌in‌‌a ‌‌
forested‌‌region.‌‌The‌‌unequal‌‌distribution‌‌of‌‌minerals‌‌  
 makes‌‌mining‌‌only‌‌possible‌‌in‌‌areas‌‌where‌‌specific‌‌  
minerals‌‌occur.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
2.‌‌Cultural‌‌Considerations‌:‌‌Economic‌‌activity‌‌or‌‌
‌  
production‌‌of‌‌specific‌‌goods‌‌is‌‌sometimes‌‌dictated‌‌by‌‌  
cultural‌‌considerations.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌culturally‌‌based‌‌  
food‌‌preferences,‌‌rather‌‌than‌‌environmental‌‌limitations‌‌  
may‌‌dictate‌‌the‌‌choice‌‌of‌‌a‌‌crop‌‌or‌‌a‌‌livestock‌‌farm.‌‌  
Maize‌‌is‌‌a‌‌preferred‌‌grain‌‌in‌‌Africa,‌‌Rice‌‌in‌‌Asia,‌‌and‌‌  
Wheat‌‌for‌‌North‌‌Americans.‌‌Pigs‌‌are‌‌not‌‌reared‌‌in‌‌  
Muslim‌‌countries‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
3.‌‌Technological‌‌Advancement‌:‌‌The‌‌technological‌‌
‌  
advancement‌‌of‌‌a‌‌group‌‌of‌‌people‌‌affects‌‌their‌‌ability‌‌to‌‌  
recognize‌‌resources‌‌and‌‌exploit‌‌them.‌‌Highly‌‌advanced‌‌  
technologies‌‌make‌‌possible‌‌farming‌‌in‌‌dry‌‌areas‌‌such‌‌as‌‌  
deserts.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
4.‌‌Political‌‌Decisions‌:‌‌Decisions‌‌made‌‌by‌‌a‌‌country's‌‌
‌  
rulers,‌‌congressmen,‌‌and‌‌leaders‌‌may‌‌cause‌‌some‌‌  
economic‌‌activities‌‌to‌‌be‌‌located‌‌in‌‌certain‌‌areas.‌‌The‌‌  
government‌‌can‌‌influence‌‌such‌‌locations‌‌through‌‌  
subsidies,‌‌taxes‌‌and‌‌protective‌‌tariffs.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
 5.‌‌Economic‌‌Factors‌:‌‌The‌‌demand‌‌for‌‌certain‌‌goods‌‌
‌  
may‌‌attract‌‌capital‌‌and‌‌entrepreneurship‌‌and‌‌stimulate‌‌  
production‌‌for‌‌the‌‌goods‌‌in‌‌specific‌‌regions.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
CATEGORIES‌‌OF‌‌ECONOMIC‌‌ACTIVITY‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌‌Primary‌‌Economic‌‌Activities‌:‌‌These‌‌economic‌‌
‌  
activities‌‌are‌‌directly‌‌tied‌‌to‌‌the‌‌extraction‌‌resources‌‌of‌‌  
the‌‌earth.‌‌Such‌‌economic‌‌activities‌‌occur‌‌at‌‌the‌‌  
beginning‌‌of‌‌the‌‌production‌‌cycle‌‌where‌‌people‌‌live‌‌in‌‌  
close‌‌contact‌‌with‌‌the‌‌resources‌‌of‌‌the‌‌land.‌‌Such‌‌  
primary‌‌economic‌‌activities‌‌produce‌‌basic‌‌food‌‌stuff‌‌  
and‌‌raw‌‌materials‌‌for‌‌industry‌‌and‌‌may‌‌include;‌‌  
agriculture,‌‌hunting‌‌and‌‌gathering,‌‌pastoral‌‌farming,‌‌  
crop‌‌cultivation,‌‌forestry,‌‌mining,‌‌logging‌‌and‌‌fishing‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
2.‌‌Secondary‌‌Economic‌‌Activities‌:‌‌These‌‌economic‌‌
‌  
activities‌‌add‌‌value‌‌to‌‌the‌‌raw‌‌materials‌‌by‌‌changing‌‌  
their‌‌form,‌‌or‌‌combining‌‌them‌‌into‌‌useful‌‌and‌‌hence‌‌  
more‌‌valuable‌‌commodity.‌‌Examples‌‌are:‌‌steel‌‌making‌‌  
from‌‌a‌‌combination‌‌of‌‌minerals,‌‌Milk‌‌production‌‌from‌‌  
pastoral‌‌farming,‌‌textile‌‌production‌‌from‌‌cotton‌‌  
farming,‌‌furniture‌‌production‌‌from‌‌logging‌‌etc.,‌‌  
 Manufacturing‌‌and‌‌processing‌‌industries‌‌are‌‌included‌‌in‌‌  
this‌‌phase‌‌of‌‌the‌‌production‌‌process.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
3.‌‌Tertiary‌‌Economic‌‌Activities‌:‌‌Consist‌‌of‌‌those‌‌
‌  
businesses‌‌and‌‌labor‌‌specialization‌‌that‌‌provide‌‌services‌‌  
to‌‌the‌‌general‌‌community.‌‌They‌‌include‌‌professionals‌‌  
such‌‌as‌‌teachers‌‌&‌‌professors,‌‌lawyers,‌‌medical‌‌  
officers,‌‌clerical‌‌and‌‌personnel‌‌services.‌‌Others‌‌include‌‌  
professions‌‌such‌‌as‌‌postal‌‌services‌‌and‌‌music.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
4.‌‌Quaternary‌‌Economic‌‌Activities:‌‌‌Economic‌‌
‌  
Activities‌‌composed‌‌entirely‌‌of‌‌services‌‌rendered‌‌by‌‌  
white-collar‌‌professionals‌‌working‌‌on‌‌management‌‌and‌‌  
information‌‌processing‌‌and‌‌disseminating.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
TYPES‌‌OF‌‌ECONOMIC‌‌SYSTEMS‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
An‌  ‌economic‌  ‌system‌  ‌refers‌  ‌to‌  ‌the‌  ‌means‌‌
  or‌‌
  structures‌‌
  in‌‌
 
society‌  ‌within‌  ‌which‌  ‌decisions‌  ‌about‌  ‌what‌  ‌to‌  ‌produce,‌‌  
how,‌‌  and‌‌
 when‌‌
 to‌‌
 produce‌‌ goods‌‌  and‌‌  services‌‌
 and‌‌
 allocate‌‌  
them‌  ‌are‌  ‌made‌  ‌and‌  ‌implemented.‌  ‌The‌  ‌four‌  ‌main‌‌  
economic‌‌systems‌‌are:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌‌Traditional‌‌Systems‌  ‌
‌
 2.‌‌Capitalist‌‌or‌‌Commercial‌‌Systems‌  ‌
‌

3.‌‌Socialist‌‌or‌‌Centrally‌‌Planned‌‌Systems,‌‌and‌‌… ‌ ‌
‌

4.‌‌Mixed‌‌Economic‌‌Systems‌  ‌
‌

  ‌ ‌
There‌‌   are‌‌ no‌‌
 pure‌‌ economic‌‌  systems‌‌  in‌‌
 the‌‌
 world‌‌  for‌‌ none‌‌ 
of‌  ‌the‌  ‌systems‌  ‌exist‌  ‌in‌  ‌isolation‌  ‌in‌  ‌an‌  ‌increasingly‌‌  
interdependent‌‌world.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
1)‌‌Traditional‌‌Economic‌‌Systems‌: ‌ ‌
  ‌ ‌
An‌  ‌economic‌  ‌system‌  ‌under‌  ‌which‌  ‌people‌  ‌produce‌  ‌just‌‌  
enough‌  ‌to‌  ‌feed‌‌
  their‌‌   households‌‌   with‌‌
  very‌‌
  little‌‌
  goods‌‌   or‌‌
 
services‌  ‌left‌  ‌for‌  ‌sale‌  ‌or‌  ‌exchange‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌  ‌market.‌‌  
Production‌  ‌is‌  ‌geared‌  ‌towards‌  ‌subsistence‌  ‌and‌  ‌basic‌‌  
survival.‌  ‌Market‌  ‌and‌  ‌money‌  ‌are‌  ‌of‌  ‌little‌  ‌importance‌  ‌for‌‌  
trade‌  ‌is‌  ‌mainly‌  ‌by‌  ‌a ‌ ‌barter‌  ‌system‌  ‌(direct‌  ‌exchange‌  ‌of‌‌  
goods‌  ‌and‌  ‌services.‌‌   Several‌‌   traditional‌‌   systems‌‌   are‌‌
  today‌‌ 
replaced‌‌by‌‌market‌‌systems.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
2)‌‌Capitalist‌‌or‌‌Market‌‌Systems:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Under‌  ‌market‌  ‌capitalist‌  ‌systems,‌  ‌decisions‌‌   about‌‌  what‌‌  to‌‌
 
produce‌  ‌and‌  ‌how‌  ‌to‌  ‌allocate‌  ‌resources‌  ‌are‌  ‌influenced‌  ‌by‌‌  
interactions‌  ‌of‌  ‌price,‌  ‌supply‌  ‌and‌  ‌demand‌  ‌for‌  ‌goods.‌‌  
Demand‌  ‌for‌  ‌a ‌ ‌commodity‌  ‌tends‌  ‌to‌  ‌fall‌  ‌when‌  ‌the‌  ‌price‌‌  
rises‌  ‌and‌  ‌falls‌  ‌when‌  ‌price‌  ‌drops.‌  ‌Conversely,‌  ‌supply‌  ‌for‌‌  
the‌  ‌commodity‌  ‌will‌  ‌increase‌  ‌when‌  ‌the‌  ‌price‌  ‌rises‌  ‌and‌‌  
decrease‌  ‌when‌  ‌the‌  ‌price‌  ‌falls.‌  ‌The‌  ‌capitalist‌  ‌system‌‌  
encourages‌  ‌competition‌  ‌and‌  ‌allows‌  ‌for‌  ‌increased‌‌  
production.‌  ‌There‌  ‌are‌  ‌therefore‌  ‌externalities‌  ‌or‌‌  
environmental‌‌   side‌‌
  effects‌‌
  such‌‌  as‌‌
  air‌‌
  and‌‌
  water‌‌
  pollution‌‌  
that‌‌result‌‌from‌‌market‌‌operations.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
3)‌‌Socialist‌‌or‌‌Centrally‌‌Planned‌‌Economic‌‌Systems:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Under‌  ‌the‌  ‌centrally‌  ‌planned‌  ‌economies,‌  ‌decisions‌  ‌about‌‌  
what‌  ‌commodity‌  ‌to‌  ‌produce,‌  ‌how,‌  ‌and‌  ‌where‌‌   to‌‌
  produce‌‌  
and‌  ‌distribute‌  ‌the‌  ‌products‌  ‌are‌  ‌made‌  ‌by‌  ‌a ‌ ‌central‌‌  
government‌  ‌rather‌  ‌than‌  ‌individuals‌  ‌in‌  ‌a ‌ ‌market.‌  ‌Such‌‌  
command‌  ‌systems‌  ‌exist‌  ‌in‌  ‌socialist‌  ‌countries‌‌   such‌‌   as‌‌
  the‌‌
 
former‌‌Soviet‌‌Union,‌‌Cuba‌‌and‌‌China.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
4)‌‌Mixed‌‌Economic‌‌Systems:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Mixed‌‌economic‌‌systems‌‌combine‌‌elements‌‌of‌‌market‌‌  
and‌‌centrally‌‌planned‌‌economies.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌currently‌‌the‌‌most‌‌  
common‌‌economic‌‌system‌‌for‌‌many‌‌countries.‌‌In‌‌the‌‌  
mixed‌‌systems,‌‌governments‌‌often‌‌intervene‌‌to‌‌modify‌‌  
the‌‌market‌‌economy.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌governments‌‌intervene‌‌  
to‌‌prevent‌‌monopolies‌‌and‌‌ensure‌‌free‌‌competition,‌‌  
influence‌‌prices‌‌of‌‌agricultural‌‌products‌‌rather‌‌than‌‌leave‌‌  
them‌‌to‌‌be‌‌influenced‌‌by‌‌market‌‌forces.‌‌Government‌‌may‌‌  
also‌‌offer‌‌incentives‌‌(tax‌‌relief,‌‌grants,‌‌exemptions‌‌or‌‌  
penalties)‌‌to‌‌encourage‌‌particular‌‌activities‌‌(e.g.‌‌tree‌‌  
planting).‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
AGRICULTURE:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Agriculture‌‌involves‌‌the‌‌deliberate‌‌human‌‌effort‌‌to‌‌  
modify‌‌a‌‌portion‌‌of‌‌the‌‌earth's‌‌surface‌‌through‌‌cultivation‌ 
of‌‌crops‌‌and‌‌the‌‌rearing‌‌of‌‌livestock‌‌for‌‌sustenance‌‌or‌‌for‌‌  
economic‌‌gain.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Plants‌‌and‌‌Animals‌‌that‌‌serve‌‌as‌‌Food.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Biologists‌  ‌estimate‌  ‌that‌  ‌even‌  ‌though‌  ‌the‌  ‌earth‌  ‌has‌  ‌about‌‌  
30,000‌  ‌plant‌  ‌species‌  ‌with‌  ‌parts‌  ‌that‌  ‌people‌  ‌can‌  ‌eat,‌  ‌only‌‌  
15‌‌   plants‌‌  and‌‌  8 ‌‌animal‌‌   species‌‌  supply‌‌ ‌90%‌‌  of‌‌
 our‌‌  food‌. ‌‌
FOUR‌‌   CROPS,‌‌   namely‌‌   - ‌‌‌Wheat,‌‌   Rice,‌‌
 Corn‌‌  and‌‌ Potato‌‌  
-‌  ‌make‌  ‌up‌  ‌more‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌world's‌  ‌food‌  ‌production‌  ‌than‌  ‌all‌‌  
other‌‌   crops‌‌  combined.‌‌   All‌‌   the‌‌
  four‌‌
  crops‌‌
  and‌‌
  most‌‌  of‌‌  our‌‌
 
other‌  ‌food‌  ‌crops‌  ‌are‌  ‌ANNUALS,‌  ‌whose‌  ‌seeds‌  ‌must‌  ‌be‌‌  
replanted‌‌each‌‌year.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Two‌‌   out‌‌  of‌‌
  three‌‌
  of‌‌
  the‌‌  world's‌‌   people‌‌   ‌survive‌‌   on‌‌   grains‌‌  
(mainly‌  ‌rice,‌  ‌wheat‌  ‌and‌  ‌corn)‌  ‌and‌  ‌as‌  ‌incomes‌  ‌of‌  ‌people‌‌  
rise,‌  ‌they‌  ‌consume‌  ‌more‌  ‌grains‌‌   but‌‌  now‌‌   indirectly‌‌   in‌‌
  the‌‌ 
form‌  ‌of‌  ‌meat‌  ‌(especially‌  ‌beef,‌  ‌pork,‌  ‌and‌  ‌chicken,‌  ‌and‌‌  
milk,‌  ‌cheese,‌  ‌eggs,‌  ‌and‌  ‌other‌  ‌products‌  ‌of‌  ‌grain-eating‌‌  
domesticated‌‌livestock).‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Types‌‌of‌‌Subsistence‌‌Agriculture‌‌in‌‌the‌‌Tropics‌‌  
(Developing‌‌Countries)‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌ Traditional‌  ‌Subsistence‌  ‌Agriculture‌: ‌ ‌Consists‌  ‌of‌‌
  ‌  
numerous‌  ‌forms‌  ‌of‌  ‌shifting‌  ‌cultivation‌  ‌in‌  ‌tropical‌‌  
forests‌  ‌and‌  ‌nomadic‌  ‌herding‌  ‌practiced‌  ‌mainly‌  ‌in‌‌  
Developing‌  ‌countries.‌  ‌It‌  ‌is‌  ‌a ‌ ‌form‌  ‌of‌  ‌agriculture‌  ‌in‌‌  
which‌‌   only‌‌  enough‌‌   crops‌‌   and‌‌
  livestock‌‌   are‌‌
  produced‌‌   to‌‌
 
meet‌  ‌the‌  ‌food‌  ‌requirements‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌family‌. ‌ ‌In‌  ‌good‌‌  
years,‌  ‌there‌  ‌may‌  ‌be‌  ‌a ‌ ‌surplus‌  ‌to‌  ‌sell‌  ‌and‌  ‌put‌  ‌aside‌  ‌for‌‌  
hard‌  ‌times.‌  ‌Subsistence‌  ‌farmers‌  ‌primarily‌  ‌use‌  ‌human‌‌  
labor‌‌and‌‌draft‌‌animals‌. ‌ ‌
  ‌ ‌
 2.‌ Traditional‌  ‌Intensive‌  ‌Agriculture:‌  ‌In‌  ‌this‌  ‌type‌  ‌of‌‌
  ‌  
agriculture‌  ‌also‌  ‌practiced‌  ‌in‌  ‌developing‌  ‌countries,‌‌  
farmers‌  ‌increase‌  ‌their‌  ‌inputs‌  ‌of‌  ‌human‌  ‌labor,‌  ‌fertilizer‌‌  
and‌  ‌water‌  ‌to‌  ‌reap‌  ‌a ‌ ‌higher‌  ‌yield‌  ‌per‌  ‌area‌  ‌of‌‌  cultivated‌‌  
land‌  ‌to‌  ‌produce‌  ‌enough‌  ‌to‌  ‌feed‌  ‌their‌  ‌families‌  ‌and‌  ‌sell‌‌  
the‌‌surplus.‌ 
  ‌ ‌
3.‌ Plantation‌  ‌Agriculture‌: ‌ ‌A ‌ ‌form‌  ‌of‌  ‌industrialized‌‌
  ‌  
agriculture‌  ‌found‌  ‌primarily‌  ‌in‌  ‌developing‌  ‌countries‌  ‌in‌‌  
the‌  ‌tropics.‌  ‌It‌‌
  is‌‌
  a ‌‌permanent‌‌   agriculture‌‌   in‌‌
  which‌‌   cash‌‌ 
crops‌  ‌such‌  ‌as‌  ‌banana,‌  ‌coffee,‌  ‌tea‌  ‌and‌  ‌cocoa‌  ‌are‌‌  
cultivated‌‌and‌‌harvested‌‌for‌‌sale‌‌in‌‌developed‌‌countries.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Pastoral‌‌Nomadism:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
A‌‌   form‌‌   of‌‌
  subsidence‌‌   agriculture‌‌   based‌‌   on‌‌
  the‌‌
  herding‌‌   of‌‌
 
domesticated‌‌   animals.‌‌   It‌‌
  is‌‌
  adapted‌‌   to‌‌
  dry‌‌
  climates‌‌   where‌‌  
intensive‌‌subsistence‌‌agriculture‌‌is‌‌difficult‌‌or‌‌impossible.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Pastoral‌  ‌Nomads‌  ‌live‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌  ‌arid‌  ‌and‌  ‌semi-arid‌  ‌belts‌  ‌of‌‌  
North‌‌   Africa,‌‌   Middle‌‌   East‌‌   and‌‌
  parts‌‌  of‌‌
  Central‌‌   Asia.‌‌  The‌‌ 
Bedouins‌  ‌of‌  ‌Saudi‌  ‌Arabia‌  ‌and‌  ‌Maasai‌  ‌of‌  ‌Kenya‌  ‌are‌‌  
examples‌  ‌of‌  ‌nomadic‌  ‌groups.‌  ‌Some‌  ‌pastoralists‌  ‌practice‌‌  
Transhumance‌‌  which‌‌  is‌‌
 a ‌‌seasonal‌‌  migration‌‌  of‌‌ livestock‌‌  
between‌  ‌mountains‌  ‌and‌  ‌lowland‌  ‌pastures‌  ‌in‌  ‌search‌  ‌of‌ 
green‌‌pasture‌‌following‌‌changes‌‌in‌‌climate.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Agricultural‌‌practices‌‌in‌‌Developing‌‌Countries‌: ‌ ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌‌  INTER‌‌   PLANTING;‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌
  simultaneous‌‌   cultivation‌‌   of‌‌
 
several‌  ‌crops‌  ‌on‌  ‌the‌  ‌same‌  ‌crop‌  ‌of‌  ‌land.‌  ‌Common‌‌  
inter-planting‌‌   strategies‌‌  practiced‌‌   in‌‌
  developing‌‌   countries‌‌  
include‌‌the‌‌following:‌  ‌
 Ÿ‌ Polyvarietal‌  ‌cultivation‌: ‌ ‌a ‌ ‌plot‌  ‌of‌  ‌land‌  ‌is‌‌
‌   planted‌‌  
with‌‌several‌‌varieties‌‌of‌‌the‌‌same‌‌crop.‌  ‌
 Ÿ‌ Intercropping:‌  ‌two‌  ‌or‌  ‌more‌  ‌different‌  ‌crops‌  ‌are‌‌
‌  
simultaneously‌  ‌planted‌  ‌on‌  ‌the‌  ‌same‌  ‌crop‌  ‌of‌  ‌land.‌‌  
(Merits‌  ‌include-‌  ‌pest‌  ‌control,‌  ‌self‌  ‌sufficiency,‌  ‌full‌  ‌use‌‌  
of‌‌fertilizers‌‌and‌‌nutrients).‌  ‌
 Ÿ‌ Agroforestry‌  ‌or‌  ‌Alley‌  ‌Cropping‌: ‌ ‌crops‌  ‌and‌‌
‌   trees‌‌
 
are‌  ‌planted‌  ‌together.‌  ‌For‌  ‌example,‌  ‌a ‌ ‌grain‌  ‌or‌  ‌legume‌‌  
can‌  ‌be‌  ‌planted‌  ‌around‌  ‌fruit-bearing‌  ‌orchard‌  ‌trees‌‌   or‌‌
  in‌‌
 
rows‌  ‌between‌  ‌fast-growing‌  ‌trees‌  ‌that‌  ‌can‌  ‌be‌  ‌used‌  ‌for‌‌  
fuelwood.‌  ‌
 Ÿ‌ Polyculture:‌‌
‌   A ‌‌more‌‌ complex‌‌  form‌‌ of‌‌
 intercropping‌‌  
in‌  ‌which‌  ‌many‌  ‌different‌  ‌plants‌  ‌maturing‌  ‌at‌  ‌various‌‌  
times‌  ‌are‌  ‌planted‌  ‌together.‌  ‌If‌  ‌cultivated‌  ‌properly,‌  ‌such‌‌  
 farms‌‌   can‌‌
  provide‌‌   food,‌‌   fuel,‌‌  fertilizers‌‌   and‌‌
  meet‌‌  other‌‌ 
food‌‌needs‌‌of‌‌farmers.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Ÿ‌‌ Merits‌‌of‌‌the‌‌Polyculture‌‌type‌‌of‌‌Farming‌‌are:‌  ‌
‌

1.‌ Root‌  ‌systems‌  ‌at‌  ‌different‌  ‌depths‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌  ‌soil‌‌

  ‌  
capture‌  ‌nutrients‌  ‌and‌  ‌moisture‌  ‌efficiently‌  ‌and‌‌  
minimize‌‌the‌‌need‌‌for‌  ‌
fertilizer‌‌and‌‌irrigation.‌  ‌
2.‌ Year‌  ‌round‌‌
  ‌   plant‌‌  coverage‌‌   also‌‌  protects‌‌  the‌‌  soil‌‌
 
from‌‌weeds,‌‌and‌‌erosion.‌  ‌
3.‌ The‌  ‌mixed‌  ‌cropping‌  ‌is‌  ‌a ‌ ‌check‌  ‌on‌  ‌insects‌  ‌that‌‌
  ‌  
may‌‌feed‌‌on‌‌one‌‌crop‌‌and‌‌leave‌‌the‌‌others.‌  ‌
4.‌ Crop‌  ‌diversity‌  ‌is‌  ‌also‌  ‌an‌  ‌insurance‌  ‌against‌  ‌bad‌‌
  ‌  
weather.‌  ‌
5.‌ Recent‌  ‌ecological‌‌
  ‌   research‌‌   on‌‌
  crop‌‌   yields‌‌
  of‌‌  14‌‌
 
ecosystems‌  ‌found‌  ‌that‌  ‌on‌  ‌the‌  ‌average,‌  ‌polyculture‌‌  
(with‌‌  four‌‌
  or‌‌
  five‌‌  crops)‌‌   produces‌‌  higher‌‌  yields‌‌  per‌ 
unit‌‌of‌‌area‌‌than‌‌high-input‌‌monoculture.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Commercialized‌  ‌Agriculture‌  ‌in‌  ‌Technologically‌‌  
Advanced‌‌Countries:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Characteristics‌  ‌of‌  ‌Commercial‌  ‌agriculture‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌‌  
developed‌‌countries.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌‌Crops‌‌and‌‌animals‌‌are‌‌raised‌‌primarily‌‌for‌‌sale‌  ‌
‌

2.‌ Small‌  ‌percentage‌  ‌of‌  ‌people‌  ‌(about‌  ‌5%‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌‌

  ‌  
population)‌‌are‌‌involved‌  ‌
3.‌‌Same‌‌plot‌‌of‌‌land‌‌is‌‌cultivated‌‌every‌‌year.‌  ‌
‌

4.‌Large‌‌
  ‌   farm‌‌
 sizes‌‌ usually‌‌
 larger‌‌  hectares‌‌
 (US‌‌  farms‌‌
 an‌‌
 
average‌‌of‌‌187‌‌hectares)‌  ‌
5.‌‌Heavy‌‌use‌‌of‌‌machinery‌‌and‌‌chemical‌‌fertilizers.‌  ‌
‌

6.‌Integration‌‌
  ‌   with‌‌
  other‌‌
  Businesses‌‌   (food‌‌
  production‌‌  is‌‌
 
integrated‌‌into‌‌a‌‌large‌‌food‌‌production‌‌industry)‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
The‌‌Green‌‌Revolution‌‌and‌‌Food‌‌Production:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Between‌  ‌1950‌  ‌and‌  ‌1970,‌  ‌farmers‌  ‌in‌  ‌developed‌  ‌countries‌‌  
engaged‌  ‌in‌  ‌agricultural‌  ‌practices‌  ‌that‌  ‌resulted‌  ‌in‌  ‌an‌‌  
increase‌‌in‌‌global‌‌food‌‌production.‌‌The‌‌process‌‌involves:‌  ‌
a.‌Developing‌‌
  ‌   and‌‌
  planting‌‌
  monocultures‌‌   of‌‌
 selectively‌‌  
bred‌  ‌or‌  ‌genetically‌  ‌engineered‌  ‌high-yield‌  ‌varieties‌  ‌of‌‌  
key‌‌crops‌‌such‌‌as‌‌rice,‌‌wheat‌‌and‌‌corn.‌  ‌
b.‌ Applying‌  ‌fertilizer,‌  ‌water‌  ‌and‌  ‌insecticides‌  ‌on‌  ‌crops‌‌
  ‌  
to‌‌produce‌‌high‌‌yields‌  ‌
c.‌ Increasing‌  ‌the‌  ‌intensity‌  ‌and‌  ‌frequency‌  ‌of‌  ‌cropping.‌‌
  ‌  
The‌  ‌green‌  ‌revolution‌  ‌dramatically‌  ‌increased‌  ‌crop‌‌  
yields‌‌in‌‌many‌‌developed‌‌countries.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
The‌  ‌Green‌  ‌revolution‌  ‌failed‌  ‌to‌  ‌improve‌  ‌food‌‌  
production‌  ‌in‌  ‌many‌  ‌developing‌  ‌countries‌  ‌because‌  ‌of‌‌  
the‌‌following:‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
a.‌ Depends‌‌
  ‌   mainly‌‌  on‌‌
  fertile‌‌
  soils‌‌
  that‌‌
  are‌‌
  generally‌‌  not‌‌
 
available‌‌in‌‌tropical‌‌areas‌‌of‌‌the‌‌world.‌  ‌
b.‌ The‌  ‌green‌  ‌revolution‌  ‌depends‌‌
  ‌   heavily‌‌   on‌‌
  capital‌‌
  for‌‌
 
machinery,‌  ‌fossil-fuel‌  ‌energy,‌  ‌fertilizer,‌  ‌irrigation‌  ‌and‌‌  
pesticides‌‌which‌‌many‌‌farmers‌‌do‌‌not‌‌have‌  ‌
c.‌ To‌  ‌sustain‌  ‌continuous‌  ‌production,‌  ‌the‌  ‌green‌‌
  ‌  
revolution‌  ‌requires‌  ‌research‌  ‌into‌  ‌local‌  ‌crops‌  ‌for‌ 
development‌  ‌of‌  ‌high-yielding‌  ‌and‌  ‌disease‌  ‌resistant‌‌  
varieties‌‌of‌‌crops.‌  ‌
d.‌More‌‌
  ‌   often,‌‌  new‌‌
 varieties‌‌  of‌‌
 crops‌‌  (hybrid‌‌  types)‌‌
 that‌‌
 
get‌‌
  produced‌‌   outside‌‌
  the‌‌
  crops‌‌  forming‌‌   the‌‌
 main‌‌ diet‌‌
 of‌‌
 
the‌  ‌people‌  ‌may‌  ‌be‌  ‌neglected‌  ‌and‌  ‌not‌  ‌eaten‌  ‌by‌  ‌local‌‌ 
people.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
FOOD‌‌PRODUCTION‌‌IN‌‌THE‌‌UNITED‌‌STATES‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Since‌  ‌1940,‌  ‌US‌  ‌farmers‌  ‌have‌  ‌more‌  ‌than‌  ‌doubled‌  ‌crop‌‌  
production‌  ‌without‌  ‌cultivating‌  ‌more‌  ‌land.‌  ‌This‌  ‌has‌  ‌been‌‌  
the‌  ‌result‌  ‌of‌  ‌industrialized‌  ‌agriculture‌  ‌using‌‌  
green-revolution‌  ‌techniques‌  ‌in‌  ‌a ‌ ‌favorable‌  ‌climate.‌ 
Farming‌  ‌has‌  ‌become‌  ‌agribusiness‌  ‌as‌  ‌big‌  ‌companies‌  ‌and‌‌  
have‌‌taken‌‌control‌‌of‌‌most‌‌US‌‌food‌‌production.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Between‌  ‌1880‌  ‌and‌  ‌1995‌, ‌ ‌the‌  ‌percentage‌‌   of‌‌
  US‌‌  residents‌‌ 
living‌  ‌on‌  ‌farms‌  ‌dropped‌  ‌from‌  ‌44%‌  ‌to‌  ‌1.8%.‌  ‌By‌  ‌1997‌, ‌‌
only‌  ‌about‌  ‌650,000‌  ‌Americans‌  ‌were‌  ‌full‌  ‌time‌  ‌farmers.‌‌  
However‌  ‌from‌  ‌growing‌  ‌and‌  ‌processing‌  ‌food‌  ‌to‌‌  
distributing‌  ‌and‌  ‌selling‌  ‌it‌  ‌engages‌  ‌about‌  ‌9%‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌total‌‌  
US‌  ‌population.‌  ‌In‌  ‌terms‌‌   of‌‌
  total‌‌
  annual‌‌  sales,‌‌  agriculture‌‌  
is‌  ‌the‌  ‌biggest‌  ‌industry‌  ‌in‌  ‌the‌  ‌United‌  ‌States‌  ‌- ‌ ‌bigger‌‌   than‌‌
 
automotive,‌  ‌steel‌  ‌and‌  ‌housing‌  ‌industries‌  ‌- ‌ ‌generating‌‌  
about‌  ‌18%‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌country's‌  ‌GNP‌  ‌and‌  ‌19%‌  ‌of‌  ‌all‌  ‌jobs‌. ‌‌
US‌‌   farms‌‌   with‌‌
  about‌‌
  0.3%‌‌   of‌‌
  the‌‌
  world's‌‌  farm‌‌ labor‌‌ force‌‌ 
produced‌  ‌about‌  ‌25%‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌world's‌  ‌food‌  ‌and‌  ‌half‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌‌  
world's‌‌   grains‌‌   exports.‌‌  US‌‌   is‌‌
  the‌‌
  world's‌‌  largest‌‌  producer‌‌  
of‌  ‌poultry,‌  ‌and‌  ‌the‌  ‌third‌  ‌largest‌  ‌producer‌  ‌of‌  ‌pigs,‌  ‌(after‌‌  
China‌‌and‌‌the‌‌EEC).‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
Problems‌‌Facing‌‌American‌‌Farmers‌: ‌ ‌
  ‌ ‌
1.‌ Buckshot‌‌
  ‌   Urbanization‌: ‌‌suburban‌‌   homes,‌‌   shopping‌‌  
centers,‌  ‌factories‌  ‌and‌  ‌highways‌  ‌have‌  ‌taken‌  ‌up‌  ‌much‌‌  
prime‌‌   farmland.‌‌   New‌‌   England‌‌   has‌‌
  lost‌‌
 about‌‌  50%‌‌  of‌‌
 its‌‌
 
best‌  ‌acreage.‌  ‌Florida‌‌   could‌‌   loose‌‌   all‌‌  of‌‌
  its‌‌
  high‌‌   quality‌‌  
farmland‌‌by‌‌the‌‌year‌‌2000.‌  ‌
2.‌ Soil‌‌
  ‌   Erosion‌: ‌‌Soil‌‌   erosion‌‌   has‌‌   destroyed‌‌   or‌‌  seriously‌‌  
impaired‌  ‌about‌  ‌60‌  ‌million‌  ‌hectares‌‌   (150‌‌   million‌‌   acres)‌‌  
about‌  ‌15%‌  ‌of‌  ‌the‌  ‌nations‌  ‌total‌  ‌cropland‌  ‌area.‌  ‌Erosion‌‌  
losses‌  ‌are‌  ‌estimated‌  ‌between‌‌   22-29‌‌   tons‌‌   per‌‌  hectare‌‌   (9‌‌
 
and‌‌12‌‌tons‌‌an‌‌acre)‌‌per‌‌year.‌  ‌
3.‌ High‌  ‌Fuel‌  ‌Costs‌: ‌ ‌Modern‌  ‌American‌  ‌agriculture‌‌
  ‌  
depends‌‌   upon‌‌  huge‌‌   inputs‌‌   of‌‌ energy‌‌  derived‌‌  from‌‌  fossil‌‌ 
fuels‌‌such‌‌as‌‌oil‌‌and‌‌natural‌‌gas.‌  ‌
4.‌ Limited‌  ‌Water‌  ‌Supplies‌: ‌ ‌Water‌  ‌available‌  ‌for‌‌
  ‌  
irrigation‌‌   will‌‌
  sharply‌‌   fall‌‌  in‌‌  the‌‌   near‌‌   future‌‌   because‌‌   of‌‌
 
declining‌  ‌groundwater‌  ‌supplies‌  ‌and‌  ‌competing‌‌  
demands‌  ‌of‌  ‌expanding‌  ‌urban‌  ‌population‌  ‌and‌‌   industrial‌‌  
development.‌  ‌
5.‌Salinization:‌Because‌‌
  ‌    of‌‌  poor‌‌  drainage‌‌  and‌‌  improper‌‌  
farm‌  ‌practices‌  ‌some‌  ‌irrigated‌  ‌farms‌  ‌in‌  ‌California‌  ‌have‌‌  
been‌‌   rendered‌‌   impoverished‌‌   by‌‌   salinization.‌‌   The‌‌   salt‌‌
  is‌‌
 
deposited‌  ‌when‌  ‌irrigated‌‌   water‌‌   evaporates‌‌   from‌‌   poorly‌‌  
drained‌‌soil.‌  ‌
6.‌ High‌  ‌Fertilizer‌  ‌Costs‌: ‌ ‌American‌  ‌agriculture‌  ‌is‌‌
  ‌  
heavily‌  ‌dependent‌  ‌upon‌‌   the‌‌   use‌‌   of‌‌  synthetic‌‌   fertilizers,‌‌  
the‌‌
  cost‌‌  of‌‌
  which‌‌  is‌‌
 rising.‌‌  The‌‌  Fertilizer‌‌  is‌‌
 also‌‌  causing‌‌  
groundwater‌‌pollution.‌  ‌
 7.‌ Harmful‌  ‌effects‌  ‌of‌  ‌Pesticides‌: ‌ ‌The‌  ‌intensive‌‌
  ‌  
application‌  ‌of‌  ‌pesticides‌  ‌to‌  ‌crops‌  ‌has‌  ‌resulted‌  ‌in‌  ‌soil‌‌
 
contamination.‌  ‌Some‌  ‌of‌  ‌these‌  ‌pesticides‌  ‌affect‌‌  
nitrification,‌  ‌a ‌ ‌process‌  ‌by‌  ‌which‌  ‌soil‌  ‌bacteria‌  ‌convert‌‌  
nitrogen‌‌to‌‌a‌‌form‌‌usable‌‌by‌‌plants.‌  ‌
8.‌ Soil‌‌
  ‌   Compacting‌: ‌‌Continued‌‌   intensive‌‌   use‌‌
  of‌‌  heavy‌‌ 
machinery‌  ‌such‌  ‌as‌  ‌tractors‌  ‌and‌  ‌harvesters‌  ‌on‌  ‌soils‌  ‌are‌‌
 
causing‌‌them‌‌to‌‌be‌‌compacted.‌  ‌
  ‌ ‌
 ‌