ICE CREAM PRODUCTION

Introduction

There has been little tradition of ice cream production in tropical countries because of the
requirement for refrigerated production equipment and frozen storage. Now demand is
increasing for ice cream in many large towns and cities, and it has the potential to be a
profitable product for small scale dairies. However, ice cream carries a high risk of causing food
poisoning if it is not correctly made and stored (see Technical Brief: Overview of Dairy
Processing), and it should therefore only be produced by dairies that have knowledgeable and
experienced staff.

Ice cream is made by freezing and simultaneously beating air into (aerating) a liquid mixture
that contains fat, sugar, milk solids, an emulsifying agent, flavouring and sometimes colouring.

The fat can be from milk, cream or butter or from a non-dairy source. However, the
composition of ice cream is legally defined in many countries. Typically this is:

1. Standard ice cream that contains not less than 5% fat and not less than 2.5% milk
protein (from casein or whey solids).
2. ‘Dairy’ ice cream must contain a minimum of 5% fat that is only milk fat and not any
other type of fat.

There may also be legislation that covers the types of emulsifying agents, colourings,
flavourings or other additives that are permitted in ice cream, and potential producers should
check the local legislation at a Bureau of Standards before formulating a product.

Ingredient Fat (%) MSNF1 Sugar (%) Water (%)

(%)
Full cream milk 4.0 8.8 87.2
Liquid skim milk - 9.0 86.0
Full cream milk powder 27.0 70.0 3.0
Skim milk powder - 97.0 3.0
Double cream 48.0 4.5 47.5
Single cream 18.0 7.2 74.8
Butter 84.0 - 16.0
Sweetened condensed milk 9.0 22.0 44.0 25.0
Evaporated milk 9.0 22.0 69.0

Table 1: Typical composition of ice cream ingredients (From Opportunities in Dairy Processing).
1
MSNF = milk solids not fat

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Ice Cream Practical Action

Product variations
There are a large number of potential product variations, including a wide range of flavours
(e.g. vanilla, chocolate or fruit flavours) and corresponding colours, and different textures that
depend on the addition of additives or differences in the method of production. Fruit pulp may
also be added during or after making ice cream, and fruit, chocolate or nut pieces can be used
to decorate ice cream. In temperate climates, ice milk was the traditional lower-fat ice cream
product, and in places where there is a demand for reduced-fat products (with fat contents as
low as 4%) this may be an additional product in a range. Another product variation is frozen
yoghurt (see Technical Brief: Soured milk and yoghurt production), which is frozen in a similar
way to ice cream (below).

Ingredients

Fats
Fats increase the richness of the ice cream flavour, produce a smooth texture, give ‘body’ to
the ice cream and produce good melting properties when the ice cream is eaten. Although
dairy fats (Table 1) are most commonly used to make ice cream, a number of vegetable fats
(including hydrogenated palm oil, coconut oil or salt-free margarine) may be cheaper and are
used to reduce the cost of ice cream.

Milk solids-not-fat
Milk solids-not-fat is included as skimmed milk powder or full-fat milk powder. They improve
the body and texture of ice cream, allow a higher overrun (below), and produce a thicker, less
icy product.

Sugars
Sweeteners improve the flavour, texture and palatability of ice cream. They contribute to a
lower freezing point, so that the ice cream has some unfrozen water. Without this the ice cream
would be too hard to eat. They also reduce the ‘fattiness’ of ice cream and help to produce a
smooth texture. Granulated or castor sugar (sucrose) is used, but other sugars (such as dextrose
powder) are also used to make the ice cream softer. Corn syrup produces a firmer and ‘chewier’
ice cream than sugar. It is available in different dextrose equivalents 1 (DE). The sweetness
increases with higher DE values. Lower DE corn syrups have a greater stabilising effect.

Stabilisers
Stabilisers are used to help bind together the complex mixture of fats, sugars, air and tiny ice
crystals that are present in ice cream and give a smooth texture. They increase the viscosity in
the unfrozen water to produce a firmer ice cream that resists melting (see ‘Product control’
below). Historically gelatine was used, but now the most widely used commercial stabiliser is
carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), which may have small amounts of vegetable gums (such as
guar gum or locust bean gum), or seaweed extract (available as sodium alginate) mixed with it
to improve its stabilising action. The vegetable gums may also be used instead of CMC. The
amounts of stabiliser used should follow the manufacturer’s recommendations.

Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers create a smooth texture and good melting characteristics. The traditional emulsifier
used in ice cream was egg yolk, but now mono- and di-glycerides and Polysorbate 80 are used
in most ice cream formulations.

Flavourings and colourings

Few people like unflavoured ice cream and both synthetic and natural flavours are used. The
colouring normally matches the flavour (e.g. green colour with mint flavour or orange with
mango). The flavours and colours must be ‘food grade’ and are usually available in
supermarkets in major towns and cities or from bakery ingredient suppliers. Vanilla flavour is
often the most

1
DE is a measure of the reducing sugar content of the syrup calculated as % dextrose

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popular flavouring, but producers should find out local preferences before deciding the range
of flavours to offer (see for example ice cream makers such as Ben and Jerry’s,
makeicecream.com, or flavour suppliers such as H. E. Stringer or other large producers for the
range of possible flavours).

Formulating an Ice Cream Mix

It is important that small producers understand how to develop new ice cream mixes to meet
changing customer demands. ‘Balancing’ the mix involves maintaining the correct balance
between:
 Fat and sugar which controls the ‘fattiness’ of the product in the mouth.
 Water and solids which controls the texture or hardness/softness.
The formulation of an ice cream mix should also take into account the cost and availability
of ingredients. Details of the method used to calculate the weights of each ingredient in a
recipe are beyond the scope of this Technical Brief, but details are given in Dairy Science
and Technology Education and ice cream recipes are available at http://makeicecream.com
and www.ice-cream-recipes.com. Examples of ice cream mixes are shown in table 2.

Low-fat ice Soft-frozen ice Hard ice creams

creams creams
Standard Premium Super-
brands brands premium
brands
Component (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Fat 3.0 - 8.0 10.0 - 10.0 10.0 - 12.0 12.0 - 15.0 15.0 - 18.0
Milk Solids-not- 13.0 - 11.5 12.5 - 12.0 11.0 - 9.5 11.0 - 9.5 11.0 - 9.5
fat
Sucrose 11.0 - 12 13.0 - 10.0 10.0 - 15.0 10.0 - 15.0 10.0 - 15.0
CSS 6.0 - 4.0 4.0 - 4.0 5.0 - 3.0 5.0 - 3.0 5.0 - 3.0
Stabilizer 0.35 - 0.15 0.35 - 0.15 0.35 - 0.15 0.35 - 0.15 0.35 - 0.15
Emulsifier 0.15 - 0.10 0.15 - 0.15 0.15 - 0.10 0.15 - 0.10 0.15 - 0.10
Water 66.3 - 63.7 64.0 - 63.7 64.0 62.0 - 60.0 <60.0
Total Solids 33.6 - 36.3 36.0 - 36.3 36.0 38.0 - 40.0 >40.0
Table 2: Mixes for ice creams (Adapted from: Dairy Science and Technology Education)

Production method
The general method for producing ice cream is shown in Figure 1.
The increase in volume of ice cream due to the incorporation of air is known as the ‘%
overrun’, and in commercially produced ice creams this varies from 60-100% or more. In
some countries there is a legal maximum of 120% overrun.
Overrun % can be calculated as follows:

Overrun % = 100 x weight of a given volume of mix – weight of same volume of ice cream
weight of same volume of ice cream

If, for example, 3.1 kg of ingredient mixture is needed to fill a container so that it is level with
the top of the container and then with 1.6 kg of ice cream, again level with the top,
the % overrun = 100 x (3.1 – 1.6)
1.6
= 100 x 1.5/1.6
= 93.75%

Because ice cream is sold by volume, the amount of air in the finished product has an important
effect on profitability. Small batch freezers (below) can only beat small amounts of air into the
mixture as it freezes, to give an overrun of 50% or less. Commercial freezers are more efficient
at incorporating air and overruns can be 100% or more.

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Stage in process Notes

Weigh Premix dry ingredients with 3 or 4 times their weight of sugar. Weigh all
main ingredients, except fat, into pasteurisation vessel.

Heat To 50C and add any solid fats.

Pasteurise At 65°C for 30 minutes or 72°C for 10 minutes with thorough mixing.
Cool For a minimum of 4 hours at 3-5C to allow fats to crystallise and the
viscosity to increase.
Freeze and aerate Using an ice cream machine to reduce the temperature to –5°C as quickly
as possible.
Pack Fill into pots or cardboard cartons.

Harden At below -20C

Cold store At –18 to -20C
Figure 1: Method of ice cream production

Equipment

Pasteuriser
A pasteuriser is used to heat the ice cream mixture. At a micro-scale of production, a stainless
steel pan (or less desirably an aluminium pan) is heated with constant stirring to prevent the
mixture overheating or burning at the base of the pan. At small- and medium-scale production,
a jacketed stainless steel pan (see Technical Brief Pasteurised milk) gives better control over
heating. Steam from a boiler heats the space between the outer jacket and inner pan to give
more uniform heating and avoid localised burning of the product. It may be fitted with an
agitator.

Ice Cream Freezers

Small manual or electric ice cream makers have a stainless steel bowl that is frozen by one of
three methods:
 the bowl is immersed in a freezing liquid (e.g. an ice/salt mixture).
 a double-walled bowl is placed in a freezer, and the salt/ice between the bowl walls is
frozen (the bowl needs to be refrozen for the next batch). Typically, both can freeze
ice cream within 15 - 20 minutes.
 the bowl is surrounded by refrigeration coils that are built into the machine (Figure
2). Some machines also have a built-in pasteuriser.

Other designs (Figure 3) pump the ice cream mixture to freeze and aerate it. These types of
machines can produce ice cream continuously and may be used in retail outlets.
Each type of ice cream maker has a rotor that scrapes the frozen ice cream mixture from the
bowl wall and at the same time incorporates air. Freezing continues until the liquid is frozen at
- 4 to -7°C. This soft ice cream is then either sold directly or hardened in a freezer at –18°C. At
a larger scale, more expensive continuous freezers that have capacities above 200 litres per
hour are used.

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Figure 2: Small ice cream maker

(Courtesy of Musso ice cream machines)

Figure 3: Commercial ice cream mak e

(Courtesy of Robot Coupe)

Quality assurance
The quality and amounts of dairy ingredients and the processing conditions that are used for
making ice cream should be standardised so that consistent quality products are made each
time. This involves control of factors in the process that affect the quality or safety of the
product. These are known as ‘control points’ and are the points at which checks and
measurements should be made (Table 3).

HACCP2
The specific potential hazards in making ice cream are food poisoning bacteria from the dairy
ingredients, poor hygiene and sanitation during processing, and incorrect processing
conditions. Other hazards that are common to all types of food processing (including
contamination of foods by insects, glass etc.) are prevented by correct quality assurance,
including the design and operation of the processing facilities, staff training in hygiene and
production methods, and correct cleaning and maintenance procedures.

Hygiene
Technical Brief: Dairy Processing - An Overview gives details of hygiene and sanitation, the
design of a dairy and the use of correct cleaning procedures. Hygiene requirements are also
described in Technical Brief: Hygiene and Safety Rules in Food Processing.

Avoiding food poisoning

Unclean equipment, contaminated ingredients, poor hygiene of production staff, and
incorrect processing and storage conditions can each lead to bacteria contaminating the ice
cream.
Although the low temperatures during frozen storage prevent the bacteria from growing, they can
cause illness when the ice cream is eaten. All equipment should be thoroughly cleaned after
use and checked before production starts again. The temperature and time of heating the
ingredient mixture should be monitored and controlled to ensure that it is not over- or under-
heated.

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2
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point

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Ingredient control
The milk used to produce the dairy ingredients should be fresh, good quality and free from dirt
and excessive contamination by bacteria. Older milk may impart an unpleasant flavour to the
final product. Technical Brief: Dairy Processing - An Overview gives details of the methods
needed to ensure that good quality milk is used, and Technical Briefs: Butter and Ghee and
Pasteurised Milk describe the quality assurance procedures for making some of the dairy
ingredients. Careful weighing is needed for all ingredients to make sure that the same amount
is used in every batch.

Process control
A process control schedule should be prepared for each product. Table 3 is an example of a
process control schedule for ice cream production.

Stage in process
Activity Process control points
Weighing/mixing Weigh out ingredients and mix Check ingredient weights (+/-
1g)
Pasteurisation Heat mixture to destroy Check temperature and
micro- organisms and time (e.g. 72°C +/- 1°C for
enzymes. 10 minutes).
Cool By immersing vessel in cold To 4°C +/- 1°C within 20 - 30
water and stirring milk minutes and store for 4
hours.
Freezing/ In ice cream machine To - 5°C. Check % overrun.
Aeration
Packaging Fill into pots or cartons Check the net weight of each
pot (e.g. 100g +/- 1g)
Seal Seal pots with a foil lid or clip-on Check that the foil seal is
plastic lid properly formed
Label Attach label to pots Check that correct labels are
used, that they are correctly
positioned, and show the
correct use-by date and batch
number.
Refrigerate Harden at -18 to -20°C and Check freezer temperature.
store at this temperature.
Table 3: Process control points in ice cream production

It is particularly important that the temperature and time of heating and cooling the mixture
should be controlled. Over-heating and slow cooling causes changes to the flavour and colour
of the milk, whereas under-heating may lead to survival of undesirable micro-organisms,
risking food poisoning from the product.

Product control
The main quality factors for ice cream are the colour, texture and taste. The colour should
remain unchanged as bright white/cream during processing if colours are not added. The
texture of ice cream can be either soft, or harder and made into blocks.
An understanding of the structure of ice cream is useful to help create the required texture: ice
cream has three components:
1. It is a foam (it has air bubbles in the unfrozen liquid).
2. It is an oil-in-water emulsion (made up of tiny globules of milk fat contained in
a complex water phase)
3. The water phase contains ice crystals and a concentrated unfrozen solution of
sugars, milk solids and other ingredients.

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The two main factors that affect the texture of the ice cream are:
1. the incorporation of air (overrun), which increases the softness and lightness of
the product and allows it to be easily scooped; and
2. the rate of freezing which affects the size of the ice crystals.

Commercially made ice creams usually have a smooth, soft texture, due in part to faster
freezing which produces smaller ice crystals. The smaller the ice crystals, the less detectable
they are by the tongue. They also need less heat to melt in the mouth and as a result the ice
cream does not feel excessively cold when eaten. Slow freezing creates larger ice crystals that
give the product a gritty texture, and it may also feel too cold when eaten. Other ingredients,
including proteins from the dairy ingredients and added emulsifiers, stabilise both the air
bubbles and the emulsion to give a smooth texture.

Packaging and storage control

The ice cream should be stored in a freezer at -18°C. It should not be allowed to melt for two
reasons: first this would allow any bacteria in the ice cream to grow and spoil the product, and
secondly the air in the ice cream escapes and it loses its texture to become solid ice when re-
frozen. When ice cream is warmed (e.g. by opening a freezer door) some of the ice crystals
nearest to the warm air partially melt and then refreeze when the temperature drops again.
This causes the ice crystals to grow and the ice cream to taste more ‘gritty’. Therefore
producers should advise retailers to minimise the number of times and the duration that ice
cream freezers are opened. There should also be rapid stock turnover to prevent the
development of grittiness in the products. Ice cream requires protection against dust and
insect contamination during distribution and retail display. Plastic pots are most commonly
used, sealed with a foil cover or clip-on plastic lid. Other alternatives are waxed paperboard
cartons or cups.

Summary
Ice cream is high-risk product that has the potential to cause food poisoning, but with care it
can be made successfully at a small scale. It may have a high demand in urban areas and a
wide range of products can be made with different flavours, textures and colours, provided
that suitable ingredients are available and the required skills and experience exist in the dairy.

Equipment required
 Pasteurising pan preferably made from stainless steel, but aluminium is acceptable
(see Technical Brief: Pasteuriser milk).
 Thermometer (-30 to 100oC) for checking product and freezer temperatures
(preferably an electronic thermometer).
 Ice cream maker
 Freezer or frozen storeroom
 Scales (e.g. 0-10 kg +/- 2 g for weighing ingredients).

Optional
 Pot sealer. Pot sealers can be made locally by fixing a domestic electric iron to a
drill stand. Commercially available pot sealers have a thermostatically controlled
sealing head, which can be adjusted for sealing foil or plastic lids.

Equipment suppliers
Note: This is a selective list of suppliers and does not imply endorsement by Practical Action.

The website www.smalldairy.com/dairy%20resources.html also lists equipment suppliers,

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laboratory supplies, books and contacts for small dairy processing.

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Dairy processing equipment

 Fullwood Ltd., Grange Road, Ellesmere, Shropshire, SY12 9DF, UK. Tel: +44 (0) 1691
622391. Fax: +44 (0) 1691 622355. Website: www.fullwood.com

Batch Pasteuriser.
 C Van t Riet Dairy Technology, Dorpsstraat 25, 2445 AJ Aarlanderveen, The
Netherlands, Tel: +31 172 571304, Fax: +31 172 573406, E-mail: info@rietdairy.nl,
Website: http://www.rietdairy.nl/
 Dairy Udyog, C-230, Ghatkopar Industrial Estate, L.B.S. Marg, Ghatkopar (West), Mumbai
- 400 086, India. Tel: +91 (0)22 2517 1636 / 2517 1960. Fax: +91 (0) 22 2517 0878.
E-mail: jipun@vsnl.com
 Finest Kind, P.O. Box 1, Plettenberg Bay 6600, South Africa, Tel: +27 (0) 44 533
1623, E-mail: info@finestkind.co.za, Website:
www.finestkind.co.za/equipment.html
 Lehman’s, P.O. Box 41, Kidron, Ohio 44636, USA. Tel: +1 877 438 5346, +1 888 438
5346, E-mail: info@lehmans.com, Website: http://www.lehmans.com

Ice cream machines - small refrigerated machines

 Musso ice cream machines, c/o , Bats Singapore Pte Ltd., Attn: Kitchen Equipment
Division, 371 Beach Road, #21-06, Key Point, Singapore 199597, Tel: +65 62925658,
Fax: +65 62961651 E-mail: info@bats.sg, website: www.bats.sg/musso.htm
 Cuisinart® Commercial Quality Ice Cream Maker, contact for individual countries
via website: http://www.cuisinart.com/contact/international/

Ice cream machines - larger commercial machines

 Alfred & Co, West Carr Road Ind. Est., Retford, Nottinghamshire, DN22 7SN, UK.,
Tel: +44 (0) 208 795 5869, Fax: +44 (0) 208 795 5869, E-mail: info@icecream-
alfred.co.uk. New and second-hand machines.
 Bravo Trittico, Tel: 1 949 366-3480, Email: specequip@cox.net, Website:
www.sendicecream.com/brtrgebafrpa.html
 Gelato Batch Freezer & Pasteurizer, Bravo Trittico, Tel: +1 949 2129753, Email:
specequip@cox.net, Website: www.makeicecream.com/comeq.html
 Kitchen Professionals LLC, Hewitt, NJ. 07421, USA., Tel: +1 888 2332722, Fax: +1 973
9570344, E-mail: info@kitchenprofessional.com, Website:
http://icecreamprofessional.com/fiume-page.php
 Luna (UK) Ltd, Unit 20, The Vanguards, Vanguard Way, Shoeburyness, Essex, SS3
9QJ, UK, Tel: +44 (0)1702 297090, e-mail: info@lunamil.net, Website:
www.lunamil.net/OurMachines.php
 Robot Coupe, Head Office, Unit 16/1 Short Street, Chatswood, NSW. Australia 2067, P.O.
Box 146, Northbridge, NSW. Australia 1560, Tel: +61 (0) 2 9417 6233, Fax: +61 (0) 2
9417 6787, E-mail: sales@robotcoupe.com.au Website:
http://www.robotcoupe.com.au/categories.asp?cID=55
 Taylor equipment, E-mail: info@taylor-company.com, Website to find local
distributors: www.taylor-company.com/dist_intl/distributor.htm

Lists of suppliers are given at www.makeicecream.com/cuisicsupcom.html and www.ice-

cream.org/.
A guide to choosing and buying a small ice cream maker is given at
http://kitchen.cookery- guide.info/how-to-choose/ice-cream-makers.php

Ingredients
Essences and food colourings
These ingredients are used for bakery products and are suitable for use in ice cream. They are
available in large cities from supermarkets or bakery suppliers, or they can be ordered from

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flavouring suppliers, for example:

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 H E Stringer Ltd., Icknield Way Industrial Estate, Tring, Hertfordshire, HP23 4JZ, UK., Tel: +44
(0) 1442 822621, Fax: +44 (0)1442 822727, E-mail: info@stringer-flavour.com, Website:
www.stringer-flavour.com/rich/

References
 Butter and ghee Technical Brief
 Dairy processing - an overview Technical Brief
 Hygiene and safety rules in food processing Technical Brief
 Pasteurised milk Technical Brief
 Soured milk and yoghurt Technical Brief
 Ben & Jerry’s flavours, Ben & Jerry’s Homemade Holdings, Inc., 30 Community
Drive, South Burlington, VT 05403-6828, USA Tel: 1 8028461500, Website:
www.benjerry.com/our_products/flavor_locator/
 Dairy Science and Technology Education, Goff, D., website at the University of Guelph,
www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/dairyedu
 makeicecream.com, ice cream flavours, available at website:
www.makeicecream.com/15mospopicec.html
 makeicecream.com, ice cream recipes website: www.makeicecream.com/recformakice.html

Further reading
 A Guide to the Safe Handling and Service of Ice Cream, Ice Cream Alliance Ltd., 3
Melbourne Court, Pride Park, Derby, DE24 8LZ, UK., Tel: +44 (0)1332 203333, Fax: +44
(0) 1332 203420, E-mail: info@ice-cream.org . 1999.
 Appropriate Food Packaging. Fellows, P., and Axtell, B., IT Publications, 1993.
 FAO dairy information page: www.fao.org/ag/aga/lps/dairy/index.htm. FAO Information at
www.fao.org/docrep/007/y3548e/y3548e09.htm or www.fao.org and search ‘dairy
processing book’ for a list of publications that can be downloaded. FAO small scale
dairy manual (5 volumes): www.fao.org/ag/AGA/AGAP/Dairyman/Dairy/title1.htm
 Ice cream and aerated desserts, Andreasen, T.G. and Nielsen, H., in (R. Early, Ed.)
Technology of dairy products, Blackie, London, pp 197-220, 1992.
 Ice Cream Making, A practical booklet. J.Rothwell, Ice Cream Alliance Ltd., 3 Melbourne
Court, Pride Park, Derby, DE24 8LZ, UK, Tel: +44 (0)1332 203333, Fax: +44 (0)1332
203420, E-mail: info@ice-cream.org. 1999.
 Ice Cream! The Whole Scoop, Damerow, G., Glenbridge, 1991, ISBN 0-944435-09-2
 Opportunities in Dairy Processing, Fellows, P.J. and Axtell, B.L.A., (Eds.), CTA, 2008.
 Preparation of Dairy Products, Agrodok 36, Agromisa, Agromisa Foundation
P.O. Box 41, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands 1991. www.agromisa.org/

Support organisations

 Agromisa Foundation, P.O. Box 41, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands 1991.
www.agromisa.org
 Centre for Dairy Research, Madison, WI. www.cdr.wisc.edu
 Ice Cream Alliance Ltd., 3 Melbourne Court, Pride Park, Derby, DE24 8LZ, UK., Tel: +44
(0)1332 203333, Fax: +44 (0)1332 203420, E-mail: info@ice-cream.org, Website:
www.ice-cream.org
 Practical Action, Peru, Soluciones Prácticas, Av Jorge Chávez 275 - Miraflores, Apartado
Postal 18-0620, Lima 18, Peru, Tel: (511) 447-5127, 444-7055, 446-7324, Fax: (511)
446-6621, Email: info@solucionespracticas.org.pe, Website (in Spanish):
www.solucionespracticas.org.pe
 SKAT, Vadianstrasse 42, CH-9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland. Tel: +41 71 228 54 54, Fax:
+41 71 228 54 55, E-mail: info@skat.ch, Website: www.skat.ch.
 Strengthening African Food Processing, www.safpp.net

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This document was produced by Peter Fellows for Practical Action in Sep. 2008.

Practical Action
The Schumacher Centre for Technology and
Development Bourton-on-Dunsmore
Rugby, Warwickshire, CV23 9QZ
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1926 634400
Fax: +44 (0)1926 634401
E-mail: inforserv@practicalaction.org.uk
Website: http://practicalaction.org/practicalanswers/

Practical Action is a development charity with a difference. We know the simplest ideas can have the
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