Content

1.0 Introduction to Diesel Engines

1.1 Combustion Theory
1.2 Application
1.3 Energy Breakdown
1.4 Diesel & Otto Cycles
1.5 4 Stroke & 2 Stroke
2.0 Engine Classification
2.1 Fuel
2.2 Cylinder Arrangement
2.3 Camshaft Position
3.0 Engine Construction, Components and Functions
3.1 Crank Assembly
3.2 Valve Assembly
4.0 Engine Support Systems
4.1 Fuel Injection System
4.2 Lubrication System
4.3 Cooling System
4.4 Force Feed Air System
4.5 Starting System

Objectives
At the end of the session, trainees should be able to:

Describe the working principles, definitions, types, components, support systems and
maintenance of diesel engines.

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1.0 Introduction to Diesel Engines

The requirement of power has been a driving force for human advancement since the beginning
of civilization. Starting with animal power (oxen, horses) to wind and water power, the industrial
revolution truly began with steam, providing power on demand regardless of weather or the
mood of animals.

The problem with steam is it is large and slow, usually produced by burning coal to heat water in
a cast iron vessel. A more efficient process was needed so attention was turned to oils. Oils had
the advantage of being a liquid allowing it to be measured and burned in small amounts. This
lead to the development of the internal combustion engine.

Rudolph Diesel invented the diesel engine to deal with the very low efficiencies of current steam
and Otto cycle engines. Originally designed to run on peanut oil, Diesel did away with the
problematic sparkplug and distributor and replaced them with a fuel injector and much higher
engine compression ratio.

1.1 Combustion Theory

Diesel engines are a form of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) where the fuel is burnt inside
the engine allowing a much greater percentage of heat energy to be converted to work. External
combustion engines are engines where fuel is burnt outside the engine, causing a significant
amount of heat to be loss to the environment.

For combustion to occur, 3 things must be present:

Oxyg
en
AKA:
combusti
on
Heat pyramid
Fuel

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If either oxygen, fuel or heat is not available or not available in sufficient amounts combustion
will not happen. In an internal combustion engine usually the limiting factor is oxygen or air
because additional fuel can easily be injected into the engine and heat is supplied from the
compression of the air itself.

1.2 Application

With the advantages of high reliability, good power to weight ratio, quick startup and low
cost diesel engines have grown to fill many niches in our industry. Diesel engines are used for:

 Transport – trucks, boats

 Electrical power generation (backup systems)
 Fire water pumps
 Equipment drivers

A diesel truck pulling a diesel engine to be used to pump flood water in the US.

The disadvantages of diesel engines are high maintenance requirements, high vibration and
low power to weight ratio.

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1.3 Energy Breakdown

Due to the thermodynamic limitation, it is impossible for heat engine to have 100% efficiency.

Most heat engines suffer from low efficiency beginning with steam engines (10-20%), petrol
engines (20-30%) diesel engines (25-40%), simple gas turbines (30-40%) to gas turbines with
regeneration (40-60%).

Most of the energy produced from burning the fuel in an ICE is wasted through the exhaust,
cooling system, or mechanical losses (friction). Energy loss through the exhaust can be
recouped to:

 Preheat incoming fuel (when burning fuel oil which is semi solid at room temp)
 Recompress incoming air (turbocharging)
 Run a steam boiler (regeneration – used in large gas turbines)

Energy breakdown of ICE

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1.4 Diesel & Otto Cycle

For Internal Combustion Engines that use pistons, there are 2 main thermodynamic cycles used
to generate power from the combustion:

 Diesel Cycle
 Otto Cycle

In the diesel cycle, air is drawn into the cylinder, compressed by the piston and when the air
temperature is at its highest (~400oC) fuel is injected into the cylinder causing the fuel to self-
ignite increasing the pressure and pushing the piston and generating power.

Air is drawn into

the cylinder

Piston goes up, Piston compresses

ejecting exhaust the air, increasing
gasses the temperature

Fuel is injected
and self-ignites
Pressure
increases, piston
is forced down

Diesel Cycle

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The Otto cycle the same as the Diesel cycle except:

 Fuel and air is compressed during the compression stroke

 The fuel-air mixture is ignited by a sparkplug instead of the heat of the
compression stroke itself.

Air & fuel is

drawn into the
cylinder

Piston goes up,

Piston compresses
ejecting exhaust
the air-fuel mixture
gasses
Sparkplug
ignites the fuel

Pressure
increases, piston
is forced down

Otto Cycle

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1.5 4-stroke & 2-stroke

Power generation in piston engines are mainly divided into 2 categories; 4 stroke and 2 stroke
cycles.

In a 4 stroke engine, there are 4 piston strokes and 5 events required to produce power.

Events in a 4 Stroke Engine

Events Piston Movement Valve Movement What Happens
Intake stroke Down Intake valve only open Air is pulled into the cylinder.
Compression
Up All valves closed Air is compressed.
stroke
Fuel is injected into the cylinder
Ignition TDC All valves closed and self ignites because of high
compression temperature.
Power stroke Down All valves closed Hot combustion gasses expand,
pushing the piston down.
Exhaust stroke Up Exhaust valve only open Exhaust gasses are pushed out
of the cylinder by the piston.

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 Diagram of a 4 stroke engine

In a 2 stroke engine, the same things must happen as in a 4 stroke engine. Air must enter the
engine, be compressed, burned with the fuel, expanded and waste gasses exhausted.

The difference is in a 2 stroke engine all this happens with only 2 stroke of the piston instead of
4 strokes. The 2 strokes are:

1. Compression
2. Power

Air enters and waste gasses leave the engine during a single event called scavenging which
happens when the piston is at BDC (bottom dead center).

Events in a 2 Stroke Engine

Events Piston Movement Valve Movement What Happens
Exhaust valve closed
Compression stroke Up Air is compressed.
intake port closed.
Exhaust valve closed Fuel is injected into the cylinder
Ignition TDC
intake port closed. and self ignites because of high

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 compression temperature.
Exhaust valve closed Hot combustion gasses expand,
Power stroke Down
intake port closed. pushing the piston down.
Fresh air is forced into the cylinder
Exhaust valve open, from the bottom of the cylinder and
Scavenging BDC
intake port open. exhaust gasses leave the cylinder
from the top

For a 2 stroke engine to perform all this it requires some modifications to the conventional 4
stroke engine which are:

 Precompression of intake air outside of the cylinder by a turbocharger or

supercharger.
 Intake port at the bottom of the cylinder which is opened and closed by the
piston.
 Exhaust valve at the top of the cylinder which opens during the scavenging
process.

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 Diagram of a 2 stroke diesel engine

2.0 Engine Classification

Over the years many different kinds of engines have been developed depending on the
application and requirements. Most engines can be classified by fuel, cylinder
arrangement, camshaft position or valve position.

2.1 Fuel

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 Diesel engines are engines that run on the Diesel cycle but not necessarily run on diesel
fuel. Diesel engines can run on almost any liquid fuel including:
 Diesel fuel – distilled from crude oil. Low flash point and good lubrication
characteristics. C8 – C12.
 Biodiesel – processed from vegetable oil. Characteristics almost identical
to diesel oil but biodegradable.
 Fuel oil or Bunker oil – very heavy petroleum distillate. Usually semisolid
at room temperature and requires heating to be pumpable.C12 – C70.

2.2 Cylinder arrangement

Most engines have several cylinders to produce power throughout the crankshaft
revolution. This is because the piston only generates power during 1 stroke while the
other strokes (intake, compression, exhaust) consume power and to balance power
output, 3 or more cylinders are required.

Common cylinder arraignments are:

 Inline
o Cylinders are arranged in one line.
o Most economical to produce.
o Simplest design.

Inline Engine
 V or “Vee”
o Cylinders are arranged in 2 banks less than 1800 and connected to a
central crankshaft.
o More compact compared to an inline engine.
o Vibration is higher than an inline engine.

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 V or “Vee” engine

 Opposed/Boxer
o Cylinders are arranged in 2 banks, 1800 apart.
o Low center of gravity.
o Low vibration.

Opposed/Boxer cylinder engine

 Radial
o Cylinders are arranged in spokes around a central crankshaft.
o Very complicated design and construction.
o Obsolete.

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 A vintage radial aircraft engine installed on a motorcycle

2.3 Camshaft position

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 The camshaft is a very important component that controls the opening and closing of the
valves which are located at the end of the cylinder. The greater the distance between the
camshaft and the valves, the greater the power loss and vibration.

Camshafts are positioned in 2 locations:

 Side cam

o Camshaft is beside the piston.

o Usually driven by the crankshaft by a gear train.
o Actuates the valves by means of a push rod and rocker arm.
o Higher vibration compared to overhead cams because of greater
reciprocating mass.

Side Camshaft

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  Overhead cam

o Camshaft directly over head the piston.

o Usually driven by the crankshaft by a timing chain or timing belt.
o Actuates the valves direct without pushrods.
o Used for smaller, higher speed engines.

Overhead Camshaft

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3.0 Engine Construction, Components and Functions

The reciprocating engine is a complex machine with up to 200-300 different components

in a small engine. Engine components in a diesel engine can be divided into 3 main
categories, crank assembly, valve assembly, and fuel injection assembly.

3.1 Crank Assembly

The crank assembly is all the components used to move the piston up and down the
cylinder. The main components are:

 Piston – moves up and down to compress and expand the gasses to drive the
engine.

 Cylinder block – holds the cylinder liners, water jacket in place. Determines the
cylinder configuration.

 Cylinder liner – accurately bored cylinder in which the piston runs. Contains the
combustion gasses.

 Piston rings – seals the gap between the cylinder and piston, helps lubricate the
cylinder walls and minimizes consumption of lubrication oil during combustion.

 Connecting rod – links the crankshaft to the piston.

 Crankshaft – translate reciprocating movement of the piston to rotating

movement of the shaft.

 Crankcase – area in which the crankshaft rotates.

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 Fuel injector Cylinder
head
Valve
s Camshaft

Piston Cylinder liner

rings
Cylinder block/
Piston engine block

Connecting Water
Rod jacket

Crankshaft

Diagram showing the main components of a diesel engine

3.2 Valve Assembly

The valve assembly is all the components used to open and close the valves at the
correct time and in the correct sequence during the combustion cycle. The main
components are:

 Valve – control the entry and exit of gasses into the combustion chamber.

 Camshaft – opens the valves at the correct time during the combustion cycle.

 Valve spring – closes the valves after being opened by the camshaft.

 Rocker arm – transfers and redirects the motion from the camshaft to the valves.

 Pushrod – transfers the motion from the camshaft to the rocker arms when the
camshaft is far from the valves.

 Timing chain – connects the camshaft to the crankshaft ensuring the valves are
opened and closed at the correct time in the cycle. Used when the camshaft is
placed over the cylinder.

 Timing gear – same as a timing chain but used when the camshaft is places
beside the cylinder.

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  Cylinder head – holds the valve assembly components together and seals the
top of the combustion chamber.
4.0 Engine Support System

4.1 Fuel Injection System

In a diesel engine fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at the top of the compression
cycle. To ensure full combustion of the fuel it must be injected at very high pressures (500-
1500bar) to atomize the fuel, increasing surface area allowing efficient combustion.

Because of the high pressures required, all components must be manufactured to very high
tolerances and are very susceptible to damage from foreign particles and contamination of
the fuel.

The main components of the fuel injection system are:

 Fuel injection pump – plunger pump used to increase the fuel pressure (500-
1500bar) to ensure proper atomization during injection.

 Injector – directs and atomizes the fuel as it enters the combustion chamber.
One injector per cylinder.

 Governor – measures and controls the engine speed. Either electric or

mechanical.

 Fuel filter – removes large and small particles from fuel entering the fuel pump.
Even particles as small as 10 microns can damage a fuel pump and injector.

 Water separator – removes water and moisture from the fuel system. Water
corrodes metal components and reduces engine efficiency.

There are several types of fuel injection systems used in diesel engines depending on the
function and performance required.

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  Indirect injection:
o Fuel is injected into a small precombustion chamber before entering the main
combustion chamber.
o Each cylinder has its own dedicated plunger in the pump.
o Lower injection pressure.
o Less noise and vibration compared to direct injection.
o Less efficient compared to direct injection.
o Used for low speed, low power engines.

Indirect Injection

 Direct injection
o Fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber.
o Each cylinder has its own dedicated plunger in the pump.
o High injection pressures.
o Higher noise and vibration.
o More efficient compared to indirect injection.

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 Direct Injection

 Unit direct injection

o Pump and injector is combined into a single unit.
o Each cylinder has a separate injection pump and injector at the top of the
cylinder.
o Injection pump is actuated by a push rod and camshaft connected to the
crankshaft
o Used in large stationary engines.
o Eliminates high pressure piping from injection pump to the injector.

 Common rail
o Fuel is pressurized into a common accumulator (~1000bar). All injectors feed
of the accumulator.
o Injector opening is controlled by a solenoid or piezoelectric valve. Valve
opening is controlled by the Engine Control Unit (ECU).
o ECU and fast acting injector valves allow several injection events per cycle.
o High efficiency, low vibration, low noise, low emissions.

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 Common Rail

4.2 Lubrication System

All moving parts of an ICE must be lubricated to ensure a smooth running engine and
increase efficiency. The lubrication system also plays a crucial part in cooling the engine by
drawing heat from the moving components and transferring it to the cooling system.

The main components of the lubrication system are:

 Oil pump – pumps high pressure oil from the oil sump to the moving surfaces.

 Oil filter – removes small particles before they enter the engine and damage the
moving surfaces.

 Oil cooler – cools the oil.

 Oil sump – collects and stores oil.

 Oil gallery/channel – path the lubrication oil follows in the engine.

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 Oil Sump

Oil Pump

Oil Filter

Oil Gallery

Crankshaft Valve Train

Lubrication Lubrication

Diagram showing the lube oil flow in a ICE

4.3 Cooling System

About 30% of the energy generated from combustion of fuel in an ICE is carried away by the
cooling system. If left uncooled, an ICE will soon seize leading to major and costly repairs.

The main components of the cooling system are:

 Water jacket – cooling water that flow through and around the engine body to
cool the engine.

 Radiator/heat exchanger – rejects heat to the atmosphere.

 Water pump – circulates cooling water throughout the engine.

 Thermostat – controls the flow of cooling water depending on engine

temperature. Opens automatically when water temp reaches certain point
(~80oC).

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 Diagram showing the cooling system of a diesel engine

4.4 Force Feed Air System

The power output of an engine is directly proportional to the amount of air entering the
combustion chamber. A larger amount of air allows more fuel to be burned, producing more
power.

There are 2 kind of force feed air systems:

 Supercharger

o Low pressure compressor.

o Power by engine crankshaft.
o Usually roots or screw compressor.

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 Diagram showing the location of a supercharger

 Turbocharger

o Higher pressure than a supercharger.

o Powered by a turbine connected to the engine exhaust.
o Usually centrifugal compressor.
o Very high speed (~10,000rpm).

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 Diagram showing the location of a turbocharger

4.5 Starting System

When an engine is to be started, several things must happen:

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  The crankshaft must turn, moving the pistons.
 Fuel must be injected into the right cylinders at the right time.
 Valves must open and close at the right time.
 Lube oil must be circulated to all moving components.

In most engines all these things will happen when the crankshaft is turned because all other
components are connected to it.

The crankshaft can be turned either by:

 Electric motor

o A DC or AC motor is used to turn over the crankshaft. Requires very large

electric current and constant power supply.

 Pneumatic

o Compressed air is forced into the cylinder, turning over the crankshaft.
Requires compressed air tank and compressor.

 Hydraulic

o Hydraulic motor is connected to the crankshaft to turn it. Requires hydraulic

system.

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