applied

sciences
Article
Spatial Skills and Perceptions of Space: Representing 2D
Drawings as 3D Drawings inside Immersive Virtual Reality
Hugo C. Gómez-Tone 1, * , Jorge Martin-Gutierrez 2 , John Bustamante-Escapa 1
and Paola Bustamante-Escapa 1

1 Academic Department of Architecture, Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, Arequipa 04002,
Peru; jbustamantee@unsa.edu.pe (J.B.-E.); pbustamantees@unsa.edu.pe (P.B.-E.)
2 Department of Techniques and Projects in Engineering and Architecture, Universidad de La Laguna,
38071 Tenerife, Spain; jmargu@ull.edu.es
* Correspondence: hgomezt@unsa.edu.pe

Abstract: Rapid freehand drawings are of great importance in the early years of university studies of
architecture, because both the physical characteristics of spaces and their sensory characteristics can
be communicated through them. In order to draw architectural spaces, it is necessary to have the
ability to visualize and manipulate them mentally, which leads us to the concept of spatial skills; but
it also requires a development of spatial perception to express them in the drawings. The purpose
of this research is to analyze the improvement of spatial skills through the full-scale sketching of
architectural spaces in virtual immersive environments and to analyze spatial perception in reference
to the capture of spatial sensations in virtual immersive environments. Spatial skills training was
created based on the freehand drawing of architectural spaces using Head Mounted Displays (HMD)




and registered the spatial sensations experienced also using HMD, but only in previously modeled

 realistic spaces. It was found that the training significantly improved orientation, rotation and
Citation: Gómez-Tone, H.C.; Martin- visualization, and that the sensory journey and experimentation of architectural spaces realistically
Gutierrez, J.; Bustamante-Escapa, J.; modeled in immersive virtual reality environments allows for the same sensations that the designer
Bustamante-Escapa, P. Spatial Skills initially sought to convey.
and Perceptions of Space: Representing
2D Drawings as 3D Drawings inside Keywords: spatial skills; spatial perception; immersive virtual reality; 3D drawing; sketching; architecture
Immersive Virtual Reality. Appl. Sci.
2021, 11, 1475. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app11041475

1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Enrico Vezzetti
Architectural professionals must efficiently communicate their ideas; therefore, they
Received: 15 December 2020
Accepted: 25 January 2021
must master graphic representation as it is the natural method of communication for the
Published: 6 February 2021
dissemination of their architectural designs. Among the various techniques of graphic
representation, freehand drawing or sketching are the most used by architects and designers
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
to quickly capture and communicate the instant wave of ideas as they appear in their
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
mind [1]. In a design process, ideas develop incrementally from an abstract level to a
published maps and institutional affil- concrete level by moving from a schematic level to a detailed level [2], hence the need for
iations. rapid freehand sketches. The architecture student must learn in the first few months of
university this important communication tool, which is essential for the traditional process
of teaching architectural design and fundamental in the initial and conceptual phases
of design. Sketches continue to be the most significant tools [3], even above models or
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
physical scale models, which are difficult to modify during the stages of communication or
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
while debating the design. These scaled models pose a couple of serious complications:
This article is an open access article
they do not lend themselves to the observation of interior spaces [4], and their assemblage
distributed under the terms and is unnecessarily time-consuming.
conditions of the Creative Commons In addition to the communicative function, rapid freehand drawings allow us, through
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the lens of perception, to imagine how the designed architectural space might ultimately
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ function [5]. It can even allow us to directly experience an architectural space despite
4.0/). not being physically inside or in front it. Spaces based on the observation of sketches

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041475 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 2 of 23

can be keenly perceived due to their ability to stimulate the observer into experiencing
new spatial realities. They allow the observer to perceive the represented space as if it
were real, permitting them to be able to walk around, observe the environment, enter
and exit at will, feel temperatures and textures, smell, etc. [6]. Although architecture
is perceived predominantly with our sense of sight, it is through all our senses that the
experience comes to complete fruition. It is represented through drawings that put a special
emphasis on form with parameters like measurements, proportion and scale, materials,
color, and so on. In the field of ephemeral architecture, it has taken a huge dimension
in the world of design in recent years. Currently, the representation of architecture has
reached its simplest and most effective expression calling on the senses and emotions
through forms and materiality, always seeking maximum expressiveness with a minimum
of space. In architectural education, the student must be able to perceive and interpret
sketches, not only in their exact forms, but also in sensory-based forms which respond
to a vital imperative in architectural studies: a special sensitivity to both the natural and
constructed environment.
In contrast to technical drawing, there is the act of drawing that is linked to natural
abilities and special skills, which complement the creative and design processes. The act of
drawing is not only about exteriorizing the pre-existing mental models [7], but it also deals
with the development of ideas while drawing and searching for new spatial relationships.
Fundamentally, this happens in the initial phases of the product’s creation process [3].
The technique of manual drawing is the essential catalyst for an action which involves
not only sight but also other senses that are found in the individual’s corporeal and uncon-
scious memory. This additionally allows for the reflection of past experiences [6] as well as
various mental, cognitive and imaginative processes, which are aimed at the draftsperson
so they are able to develop the skills required to manipulate the three dimensions.
Consequently, in order to draw architectural spaces, it is necessary to have the ability
to mentally visualize and manipulate them in any position and to know the techniques of
representation systems, which directly leads to the concept of spatial skills. Furthermore,
it is also necessary to develop one’s own spatial perception to capture the sensations
expressed in the drawings and express them in the designs.

1.1. The Spatial Skills and the Spatial Perception

Spatial skills have been the subject of extensive research for more than a century and
are an important line of research in cognitive and educational psychology. Researchers in
the field of human intelligence agree that our intelligence is not unique and that it consists
of several different components. All the theories and studies carried out in this field concur
that one of the components of intelligence is directly related to our visual and spatial
capacities as they function within the mental representation of two- and three-dimensional
spaces, as well as facilitate the resolution of spatial problems, whether real or imaginary.
Spatial skill is a component of human intelligence. It is understood as the ability to
generate, retain, retrieve, and transform well-structured visual images [8]. However, as
seen in the definition itself, there is no clear agreement about the subskills or components
that shape this ability [9]. For example, McGee [10] distinguishes five components of spatial
skills: spatial perception, spatial visualization, mental rotation, mental relationships, and
spatial orientation.
Recent research such as the Cattell–Horn–Carroll Model of Intelligence [11] shows
eleven spatial skills that constitute Spatial Cognition, while even more recent studies, based
on the previous model and new contemporary theories, conceptualize the Spatial Cognition
or Visual Processing consisting of 25 factors [12]. Many of these factors are interrelated
yet psychometrically measurable, thus rendering them highly important as they relate to
university educational success.
Some researchers, like Carroll [13], recognize only two components: spatial visual-
ization, understood as the ability to mentally handle complex forms, and mental rotation,
defined as the mental speed to rotate simple forms and recognize them whilst in another
 Cognition or Visual Processing consisting of 25 factors [12]. Many of these factors are in-
terrelated yet psychometrically measurable, thus rendering them highly important as they
relate to university educational success.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 3 of 23
Some researchers, like Carroll [13], recognize only two components: spatial visuali-
zation, understood as the ability to mentally handle complex forms, and mental rotation,
defined as the mental speed to rotate simple forms and recognize them whilst in another
position. Theposition. The simplification
simplification of the components
of the components of spatial
of spatial skills respondsskills
in responds
general tointhe general to the
relationship relationship
that researchersthat seek
researchers
with theseek with theofpossibility
possibility of training
training these these
skills in skillsofin the field of
the field
engineering,engineering,
and looks toand looksatopositive
generate generate a positive
impact [14]. impact [14].
For the methodological and practical effects of thiseffects
For the methodological and practical of this
research we research we will
will consider theconsider
two the two
components proposed by both Tartre [15] and supported by
components proposed by both Tartre [15] and supported by Sorby [16]: spatial visualiza- Sorby [16]: spatial visualization
andorientation.
tion and spatial spatial orientation. Thevisualization
The spatial spatial visualization
componentcomponent entails mentally
entails mentally moving moving an
object,the
an object, whereas whereas
spatialthe spatial orientation
orientation componentcomponent
requires therequires
ability tothe ability to
mentally mentally move
move
a given
a given viewpoint viewpoint
while while
the object the object
remains fixed inremains
space. fixed in space.
The spatial The spatial
visualization com-visualization
component
ponent is subdivided in is
twosubdivided
categories,inMental
two categories,
Rotation Mental Rotation
and Mental and Mental Transformation,
Transformation, the
difference being that with Mental Rotation, the whole object is transformedisbytransformed
the difference being that with Mental Rotation, the whole object rotating it by rotating
it in awhile
in a given space, givenwith
space, while
Mental with Mental Transformation,
Transformation, onlyofa the
only a specific part specific
objectpart
un-of the object
undergoes some kind of transformation (Figure 1). We consider
dergoes some kind of transformation (Figure 1). We consider that this scheme is better that this scheme is better
adapted
adapted for the for concerning
research the researchtheconcerning
exploration theofexploration
architecturalof spaces.
architectural
This isspaces.
due to This is due
the fact that the objects that must be mentally manipulated and understood are objects or are objects
to the fact that the objects that must be mentally manipulated and understood
or spaces
spaces in which in which
the user the user
can enter andcan enter
even and eventravel
(mentally) (mentally)
through,travel
thusthrough,
obtaining thus obtaining
perceptions or sensations within them as opposed to other objects in which the observerthe observer
perceptions or sensations within them as opposed to other objects in which
does not have does
thatnot have that possibility.
possibility.

Figure 1. Classification ofFigure

spatial1.skill [15].
Classification of spatial skill [15].

On the otherOn hand, the perception

the other of extrapersonal
hand, the perception space, or simply
of extrapersonal space, or spatial
simplypercep-
spatial perception,
tion, involves not onenot
involves butonemanybut specific skills. For
many specific example,
skills. within within
For example, the visual
the domain,
visual domain, they
they includeinclude
locating pointspoints
locating in space, determining
in space, determiningthe the
orientation
orientationof of
lines and
lines andobjects,
objects, evaluating
evaluating the
thelocation
location in depth,
depth, observing
observingthe thegeometric
geometricrelationships
relationships between
between objects
objects and processing
and processing movement
movement among
among many many
othersothers
[17].[17]. Although
Although therethere are proposals
are proposals that
that consider spatial
consider spatial perception
perception as aascomponent
a component of of spatial
spatial skills[8,18],
skills [8,18],mainly
mainlydue duetoto simplified
simplified or different
or different definitions of perception, in in this
this research
researchwe wewill
willconsider
considerperception
perceptionasasan anindependent
independentaspect
aspectofofspatial
spatialskills because
skills because wewe want
wantto notice
to noticehowhowstudents
studentsknow andand
know understand the
architectural
understand the architecturalspace through
space throughthethesenses
sensesand
andemotions
emotionswhere,
where, among
among others, the shapes,
colors,and
the shapes, colors, anddesign
designmaterials
materialsinfluence.
influence.

1.2. The Importance of Spatial Skills and Perception in the Field of Architecture
For the design of three-dimensional spaces in real and virtual and interactive envi-
ronment, a balanced combination of spatial skills and spatial perception must be achieved.
Regarding spatial skills, it is suitable to have a good level in each of the components
because benefit the designer to draw in 3D. These components provide the designer the
ability to manipulate “mentally” the positions of the object and their parts, the relation-
ships between them and their volumetric properties which help the designer to draw in
3D, giving coherence and cohesion to the projected space. As for spatial perception in
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 4 of 23

the field of architecture, the experience of space by means of the senses is given special
consideration so that the qualities which are not considered in the drawing, such as color,
texture, lighting and sounds, become fundamental, thus allowing for the development of
a spatial sensitivity. This type of sensitivity is understood as the unconscious awareness
of the body in the world as a result of intersubjective interactions, and the receptiveness
to the transitory amalgamation of sensory signals that make up the sense of place at a
given time [19].
About the balance between spatial skills and spatial perception (including spatial
sensibility and emotions) in the architectural field, it is given a human and poetic dimension
that can guide students towards the creation of spaces as embodied experiences, rather
than abstract constructions, therefore, the teaching of architecture issues should focus on
developing both skills equally, on the one hand the spatial skills and on the other the
spatial perception and sensitivity, especially at the beginning of the student’s education,
skills that should be consistent with the competences covered in the current architectural
pedagogy [20].
There are some studies that also link spatial skills with spatial creativity, a necessary
component to undergo architectural design, such as the research of Suh and Cho [21]. Their
research found a correlation between spatial visualization and mental rotation as three-
dimensional volumetric design is creatively generated, and in terms of spatial strategies,
individuals with high spatial skills show strengths in the formation of shapes, while those
with medium and low spatial skills show strengths in additional approaches of a simpler
nature. However, this research, like many others, has failed to establish a real and direct link
of spatial skills with spatial creativity and this is because the complexity of architectural
designs requires the interaction of multiple cognitive skills and not just one or two of
them [21]. The truth is that learning spatial skills is an important supporting strategy in
the pedagogy and teaching of architecture at the beginning of the student’s university
studies, such that it can then provide a basis on which to build more complex skills for
solving complex real-world problems. Nevertheless, they are not necessarily predictive of
academic success towards the end of a degree plan [20] due to the different cognitive skills
required, but they are definitely at the beginning stages of their studies when the student is
first learning to express their ideas through drawing.
Several authors mention that there is a direct relationship between academic perfor-
mance, motivation, and self-regulated learning. They state that the ability to effectively
visualize graphics in university drawing courses can affect academic performance [21–23].
A study conducted by Burton and Dowling [24] with high school students determined that
the ability to visualize, understood as the ability to understand spatial shapes and mentally
rotate them in two dimensions in relation to a model, was a predictor for determining a
student’s academic success. This was further supported by Potter, Potter, van Der Merwe,
Kaufman and Delacour [25], who concluded that the student’s ability to understand spatial
relationships in three dimensions influenced academic success. Both studies show that
there is a direct relationship between academic performance in engineering studies and
spatial abilities. In the specific case of a university degree in architecture, because it is
within the set of science, technology, engineering, arts and math (STEAM) disciplines and
because it has several subjects related to drawing and descriptive geometry, there is also the
same relationship in which spatial skills are fundamental to success in the initial courses
of design and drawing [26], although most research has focused largely on the field of
engineering and its relationship with spatial skills [27–29].

1.3. Training of the Spacial Abilities

Further research has demonstrated effective training methods to improve spatial skills
in real open environments [30,31]. However, given the rise of emerging technologies such
as virtual reality, an increasing body of research is seeking to develop spatial skills in virtual
worlds [32,33], in immersive and interactive environments [34], and in virtual navigation
experiences [35–37].
 1.3. Training of the Spacial Abilities
Further research has demonstrated effective training methods to improve spatial
skills in real open environments [30,31]. However, given the rise of emerging technologies
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 5 of 23
such as virtual reality, an increasing body of research is seeking to develop spatial skills
in virtual worlds [32,33], in immersive and interactive environments [34], and in virtual
navigation experiences [35–37].
Differentcourses,
Different courses,training
trainingexercises
exercisesand anddifferent
differenttechnologies
technologieshave havebeen
beendeveloped
developed
ininthe
thelast
lastdecades
decadestotoaddress
addressthe thelow
lowlevels
levelsofofspatial
spatialskills
skillsavailable
availabletotostudents
studentswith with
technicaldegrees.
technical degrees. Numerous
Numerous and andspecific
specificremedial
remedialtrainings
trainings are widely
are widely available. WeWe
available. will
mention
will mention those
thosebased
based on on
virtual
virtualtechnologies
technologies to toimprove
improve spatial
spatial skills
skillsand
andknowledge
knowledgeof
ofarchitecture
architectureissueissue[38]
[38]and
andtrainings
trainings focused
focused onon thetheimprovement
improvement ofof
visualization
visualization and andro-
tation components through human–computer interaction
rotation components through human–computer interaction with screens [39–41]. with screens [39–41].
InInthe
thespecific
specificfield
fieldofofarchitecture
architectureand andspatial
spatialskills
skillsresearch,
research,ititisisknown
knownthat thatthere
there
arethree
are three areas
areas that require
requirefurther
furtherstudy.
study.The The first is the
first relationship
is the relationship between
betweenspatial skills
spatial
and design
skills performance.
and design performance. The Thesecond is the
second is development
the development of domain-specific
of domain-specific tools that
tools
that measure
measure spatial
spatial skills.
skills . The Thethirdthird
is theis use
the ofusevirtual
of virtual reality
reality technology
technology in spatial
in spatial skills
skills training
training [42].
[42]. In theIn the search
search of thisoflast
this last deficiency,
deficiency, we do we notdohavenotanyhave any evidence
evidence of trainingof
training methods (designed) through the drawing of architectural
methods (designed) through the drawing of architectural spaces which propose the inter- spaces which propose
the interactivity
activity and immersion
and immersion of the student,
of the student, and that and thatus
allow allow us toifknow
to know if the experience
the experience that the
that the student
student acquires acquires
in virtualin virtual environments,
environments, induces induces
them to them
have to ahave a similar
similar behavior
behavior in the
inreal
theworld
real world
and and in similar
in similar circumstances.
circumstances. In our
In our research
research wewe haveproposed
have proposedtotocreate
create a
atraining
trainingsystem
system based
based on on immersive
immersive virtual
virtual reality
reality in in which
which the thestudent
studentcan caninteract
interacttoto
perform sketches of architectural elements that promote the
perform sketches of architectural elements that promote the development of mental development of mental actions ac-
oftions
rotation, visualization, perception and orientation in order to improve
of rotation, visualization, perception and orientation in order to improve their spatial their spatial skills
and, therefore,
skills receivereceive
and, therefore, the necessary trainingtraining
the necessary to perform the action
to perform the of drawing.
action of drawing.
1.4. The Immersive Virtual Reality
1.4. The Immersive Virtual Reality
Virtual reality (VR) is a synthetic environment created by computer technologies
Virtual reality (VR) is a synthetic environment created by computer technologies that
that allow the user to see realistic scenes or objects. In its most primitive mode, the user
allow the user to see realistic scenes or objects. In its most primitive mode, the user can
can see these scenes or objects on a screen and can interact with them through different
see these scenes or objects on a screen and can interact with them through different control
control devices (mouse, keyboard, joysticks, knobs, controllers, etc.). Currently, the user
devices (mouse, keyboard, joysticks, knobs, controllers, etc.). Currently, the user can vis-
can visualize the virtual environments through devices known as glasses or “virtual reality
ualize the virtual environments through devices known as glasses or “virtual reality hel-
helmets” (Figure 2) with immersion characteristics that can even be accompanied by other
mets” (Figure 2.) with immersion characteristics that can even be accompanied by other
devices, such as gloves or special suits. The combination of these devices allows for a much
devices, such as gloves or special suits. The combination of these devices allows for a
greater interactive experiences with the environment as well as an increased sensorial
much greater
perception thatinteractive
intensifiesexperiences with
the sensation of the environment
reality. The user,aswhile
well as an increased
immersed in thesenso-
VR
rial perception that intensifies the sensation of reality. The user, while immersed
system, cannot see the real world around them due to their entire perceived environment in the VR
system, cannot see the real world around them due to their entire perceived
is synthetic and simulated; nevertheless, meaningful interaction can still be achieved.environment
is synthetic and simulated; nevertheless, meaningful interaction can still be achieved.

Figure 2. Example of VR uses.

Figure 2. Example of VR uses.

InInthe
thefields
fieldsofofengineering
engineeringand
andarchitecture,
architecture,virtual
virtualreality
realitytechnology
technologyisisapplied
appliedand
and
supported by the use of 3D modeling tools and visualization techniques as
supported by the use of 3D modeling tools and visualization techniques as part of the part of the
design process. VR allows architects and engineers to see their project in 3D and to gain a
better understanding of how it works. In addition, they are able to detect any potential
defects or risks prior to implementation. This also allows the design team to observe
their project within a safe environment, make operational simulations and make all the
necessary changes.
Virtual reality has been integrated into the work routines of architects and engineers
and is therefore used from the beginning stages of the design life cycle. For example, VR
is implemented from the initial concept stage to the construction and execution stages,
positioning itself as an important tool to be incorporated into the work routines in order
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 6 of 23

to review each stage of the project and check for flaws, structural weaknesses or other
design issues.

1.5. Drawing and Immersive Virtual Reality

Since its emergence, virtual reality has shown significant potential in architectural
design especially during early design activities. In the last decade, the facility and acces-
sibility of equipment and software has caused innumerable investigations but not with
enough attention to the results and possibilities of architectural design and drawing in
immersive virtual environments [43].
Some investigations have probed that immersive virtual reality allows designers to
create new points of view by means of an immersive experience and the possibility to walk
around the three-dimensional sketches [44]. Other studies have highlighted the positive
effect of VR-based design that makes a significant leap forward allowing for a development
of design solutions in the same creative process [45]. Other researchers have successfully
integrated key attributes of hand drawing into a new virtual reality medium for design
development. Yang and Lee [46] have shown that three-dimensional drawings in immersive
virtual reality help designers reduce their dependence on external representations while
improving their mental processes for the transformation and consolidation of their ideas.
Furthermore, the application of immersive virtual reality extends to solution spaces and
has an overall positive effect on the problem-solving process as a whole.
In the field of perception of spaces, virtual environments have demonstrated to
maintain the feeling of presence within the digital 3D models which causes the important
advantage of conveying overall design intentions similar to physical models, constructed to
improve the perception of designs developed by drawings, giving the users an immediate
feedback not possible within CAD or traditional design media, helping them to explore
and express ideas unlike traditional methods [43].
The sense of presence created by virtual reality is an integral component of a system
that relies on automatic physiological responses. Some researchers suggest that virtual
environments generate strong emotional and physical responses and have which are
comparable to real-life tests, demonstrating the validity of this medium for psychological
assessment studies [47]. Studies related to the field of architectural design indicate the
appropriateness of using VR to simulate the sensation of presence in a corresponding
real physical space [48,49]. These studies support the idea that virtual environments,
in combination with virtual reality, could be considered as an alternative method when
investigating the impact of spatial stimuli.

2. Objectives and Hypothesis

The perception of architectural spaces and the spatial skills used to represent them and
manage their three-dimensionality are essential conditions that architecture students must
have to successfully undertake their university studies. The frequent low levels of spatial
perception and the poor development of spatial skills are not the only reason for high
dropout rates amongst architecture majors, but they can also contribute to low professional
performance in those who manage to complete their studies. This is because a fundamental
task of the architect is the creation of spaces for the development of human activities.
The aim of this research is twofold: to analyze the improvement of spatial skills in first-
year architecture students (freshmen) by training them in life-size sketching of architectural
spaces in virtual immersive environments, and to analyze the visuospatial perception in
reference to the acquisition of spatial sensations in virtual immersive environments in
last-year students in the same field of study.
The proposed general objectives are:
1. To determine if the sketching of architectural spaces in immersive 3D virtual environ-
ments using virtual reality glasses improves spatial skills.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 7 of 23

2. To confirm if the user immersion in architectural spaces artificially created in virtual

reality environments allows for spatial perception and sensorial awareness as if they
were performed in real spaces.
In order to verify these objectives, the following hypotheses will be addressed:
1. H1A: First-year architecture students improve the components of spatial skills (men-
tal rotation, visualization and orientation) after being trained in the sketching of
architectural spaces in immersive VR spaces.
2. H2A: First-year architecture students improve their spatial perception after being
trained in the sketching of architectural spaces in immersive VR spaces.
3. H3A: Immersive spatial reality environments allow for the capturing of user sensa-
tions by visualizing and virtually interacting with architectural spaces.
For this purpose, a pilot study has been developed with first-year architecture students
at the University of La Laguna in Spain and with students in the fifth and final year in
similar degrees at the National University of San Agustín in Arequipa, Peru.

3. Methodology
For this research, a double experiment was carried out. The first one, directed specifi-
cally at first-year architecture students, created a series of training-oriented tasks for the
development of spatial skills and required them to create three-dimensional drawings in
an immersive virtual environment using head mounted displays. The second one, directed
specifically at final-year students in the same degree, required them to visit a series of vir-
tual architectural spaces in an immersive virtual reality environment using head mounted
displays, where they were able to experience these spaces and register their perceptions
and sensations while being inside them.

3.1. Measuring Instruments

As a consequence of the different lines of research in the field of psychology, numerous
instruments have been developed to measure and evaluate the different components of
spatial skills [28]. The instruments that were chosen to measure each of the components
included in this research (see Figure 1) were the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) to measure
mental rotation, the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT-5) to measure spatial visualization, the
Perspective Taking/Spatial Orientation Test (SOT) to measure spatial orientation.
In order to detect possible problems related to visuoconstructive skills and visual
memory in the participants, the Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCFT) was ad-
ministered. This test is carried out to have a neuropsychological evaluation that allows
to jointly evaluate different functions such as visuospatial capacities, memory, attention,
planning, working memory and executive functions.
All these measurement instruments are standardized and are the most widely used in
international research.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 23
The Mental Rotation Test (MRT) created by Stephen Vandenberg [50] contains 20 items
in which the individual taking the test has a block figure in three-dimensional perspective.
They are then shown four block figures with a different orientation, from which they must
they must
choose twochoose two that correspond
that correspond to the modeltoblock
the model block3).
(see Figure (see
TheFigure 3). The
maximum maximum
score on this
score on this instrument
instrument is 40 points. is 40 points.

Figure 3. Example item in the Mental

Figure 3. Mental Rotation
Rotation Test
Test(MRT).
(MRT).

The Differential Aptitude Test: Spatial Rotation Subset (DAT-5) created by George K.
Bennet and Alexander G. Wesman [51] consists of 50 items that present a model or pattern
and to the right of each model are four three-dimensional figures. The student must de-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 8 of 23

Figure 3. Example item in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT).

The Differential Aptitude Test: Spatial Rotation Subset (DAT-5) created by George
The Differential Aptitude Test: Spatial Rotation Subset (DAT-5) created by George K.
K. Bennet and Alexander G. Wesman [51] consists of 50 items that present a model or
Bennet and Alexander G. Wesman [51] consists of 50 items that present a model or pattern
pattern and to the right of each model are four three-dimensional figures. The student
and to the right of each model are four three-dimensional figures. The student must de-
must determine from the original figure which is the only one that is able to be formed
termine from the original figure which is the only one that is able to be formed from the
from the model (see Figure 4). One point is given per correct answer, and the maximum
model (see Figure 4). One point is given per correct answer, and the maximum score is 50
score is 50 points.
points.

Figure 4. Example item in the Differential Aptitude Test: Spatial Rotation Subset (DAT-5).
Figure 4. Example item in the Differential Aptitude Test: Spatial Rotation Subset (DAT-5).

The Perspective Taking/Spatial

The Perspective Orientation
Taking/Spatial Test (SOT)
Orientation Testcreated by Hegarty
(SOT) created and Wal-
by Hegarty and Waller [52]
ler [52] consists of 12
consists items
of 12 itemsin which
in whichthetheuser must
user must imagine
imagine themself
themself located
locatedininthe
theposition
position of one of
of one of the
theobjects
objectsininaaset
set (which
(which will become the
will become thecenter
centerof ofthe
thecircle)
circle)looking
lookingatat another
another item (which
item (which will become the top of the circle). In response, they must
will become the top of the circle). In response, they must draw an arrow from draw an arrow from the center
the center object
objectindicating
indicatingthe thedirection
direction toto a third
a third object
object fromfromthe the
newnew orientation
orientation (see (see
Figure 5). The
Figure 5). The
scorescore of each
of each itemitem
is theisabsolute
the absolute deviation
deviation in sexagesimal
in sexagesimal degrees degrees
betweenbetween
the individual’s
the individual’s
answeranswer
and theand the correct
correct answer,answer,
so that asolower
that ascore
lower in score
the testinresults
the testinresults
a higher in score. The
a higher score. The
ability to ability to orient
orient oneself inoneself in an environment
an environment and tohow
and to imagine imagine how
it looks it looks
from different view-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23
from different
points viewpoints requires
requires different different
skills skillsbeing
than does thanadept
does at being adept
spatial at spatial trans-
transformations of individual
formationsobjects
of individual objects
[53] (spatial [53] (spatial visualization).
visualization).

Figure 5. Example
Figure item in the
5. Example itemPerspective Taking/Spatial
in the Perspective Orientation
Taking/Spatial Test (SOT).
Orientation Test (SOT).

The
The Rey–Osterrieth
Rey–Osterrieth Complex
Complex Figure
Figure Test
Test (ROCFT)
(ROCFT) created
createdby by Rey
Rey and
and Osterrieth
Osterrieth [54]
[54]
consists
consists of drawing an exact copy of the drawing shown in Figure 6, which is
of drawing an exact copy of the drawing shown in Figure 6, which is always
always in in
view.
view. Once
Once the
the user
user has
has finished
finished drawing
drawing and
and after
after aa lapse
lapse of
of three
three minutes
minutes the
the user
user must
must
draw
draw the
the same
sameimage
imageagain,
again,butbutthis
thistime
timewithout
without seeing
seeing thethe
original object.
original This
object. testtest
This hashas
no
time limit, and 18 aspects are evaluated with two points each, so the maximum
no time limit, and 18 aspects are evaluated with two points each, so the maximum score score is 36.
Several studies collect normative/standard data on non-clinical sample neuropsychological
is 36. Several studies collect normative/standard data on non-clinical sample neuropsy-
measures [55–58].
chological measures [55–58].
 The Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCFT) created by Rey and Osterrieth [54]
consists of drawing an exact copy of the drawing shown in Figure 6, which is always in
view. Once the user has finished drawing and after a lapse of three minutes the user must
draw the same image again, but this time without seeing the original object. This test has
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475
no time limit, and 18 aspects are evaluated with two points each, so the maximum score
9 of 23
is 36. Several studies collect normative/standard data on non-clinical sample neuropsy-
chological measures [55–58].

Figure
Figure 6. 6.
An An abstract
abstract drawing
drawing replica
replica in in
thethe Rey–Osterrieth
Rey–Osterrieth Complex
Complex Figure
Figure Test
Test (ROCFT).
(ROCFT).

Studying
Studyingemotions
emotions is is
a complex
a complex and
andsubjective phenomenon.
subjective phenomenon. Recently
Recently psychologists
psychologists
and neuroscientists have deepened their quantitative understanding
and neuroscientists have deepened their quantitative understanding of bodily of bodily reactions
reactions
using
using advanced biosensors [59]. Nevertheless, these studies are unable to provideguide-
advanced biosensors [59]. Nevertheless, these studies are unable to provide guide-
lines and
lines andpractical
practicalcriteria
criteriasosothat architects
that and
architects anddesigners
designersare able
are abletoto
incorporate
incorporate emotions
emotions
inin
their designs.
their designs.This
This reductionist
reductionist approach
approach toto
understanding
understanding thetheimpact
impact ofof
architecture
architecture
ononemotions
emotionsfails
failstotoaddress
addressthe the complex
complex andand multisensory
multisensory nature
natureofofthe thearchitectural
architecturalex-
experience [60].This
perience [60]. Thisbodybody of of literature
literature merely
merely indicates
indicates thatthat in order
in order to improve
to improve the
the meas-
measurement of emotions it is necessary to combine objective and subjective
urement of emotions it is necessary to combine objective and subjective tests (surveys or tests (surveys
orinterviews).
interviews).
For the measurement of the perceptual experience in the virtual world, an ad-hoc
survey was created for this study. It consists of 10 questions in which the participant
expressed their sensations about five dimensions that the virtually built space showed:
scale and size, construction materials, architectural style, use, and domain (Table 1).

Table 1. Table of perception of sensations.

Categories Sensations
1. Scale and size (a) Restlessness (b) Balance (c) Grandeur
(b)
2. Materials (a) Warmth/Comfort (c) Distance/Frigitity
Fragility/Exposure
(a) Ele- (b) (c)
3. Architectural style
gance/Satisfaction Simplicity/Serenity Eccentrism/Surprise
4. Use and related (b) (c)
(a) Joy/Theatricality
activity Sadness/Nostalgia Emotion/Spirituality
5. Degree of
(a) Protection (b) Calmness (c) Freedom
enclosure

3.2. Training Design Based on Architectural Spaces to Draw and Perceive

For the first part of this research, six modules of ephemeral architecture (small archi-
tectural spaces) were designed. Each was grouped into three levels of difficulty according
to their complexity. Students were presented with graphic representations of each space in
paper format: top, front and side views as well as three conic perspectives with a person
drawn inside so they could analyze and observe them in detail (Figure 7). Then, the
students were placed in an immersive virtual environment where the same images were
also available. With this additional help and by using the drawing tools of Tilt Brush, the
 3.2. Training Design Based on Architectural Spaces to Draw and Perceive
For the first part of this research, six modules of ephemeral architecture (small archi-
tectural spaces) were designed. Each was grouped into three levels of difficulty according
to their complexity. Students were presented with graphic representations of each space
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 in paper format: top, front and side views as well as three conic perspectives with a person
10 of 23
drawn inside so they could analyze and observe them in detail (Figure 7). Then, the stu-
dents were placed in an immersive virtual environment where the same images were also
available. With this additional help and by using the drawing tools of Tilt Brush, the
Google application proposed for the training (https://www.tiltbrush.com), they were able
Google application proposed for the training (https://www.tiltbrush.com), they were able
to draw the proposed space in life-size proportions.
to draw the proposed space in life-size proportions.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Architectural
Architecturalspaces
spacesto
tobe
bedrawn
drawn using
using immersive
immersive virtual
virtual reality.
reality.

For the
For the second
second part
partof
ofthe
theexperimentation,
experimentation, thethe
same
samesetset
of six architectural
of six spaces
architectural was
spaces
used,used,
was but on this
but onoccasion the three-dimensional
this occasion virtual models
the three-dimensional virtual were
modelscreated
werewith SketchUp
created with
pro 2019, pro
SketchUp where various
2019, wherematerials, textures, colors
various materials, textures,andcolors
natural
andlighting
naturalwere assigned
lighting were
(Figure 8). Then, the Enscape 3D virtual reality application (https://enscape3d.com)
assigned (Figure 8). Then, the Enscape 3D virtual reality application (https://en- was
used for their respective visualization. Finally, each student, with the use
scape3d.com) was used for their respective visualization. Finally, each student, with the of the HMDs,
underwent
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
use a virtual
of the HMDs, tour of each
underwent one of
a virtual theofspaces
tour each onewhile having
of the their
spaces perceptions
while and
having11their
of 23
sensations recorded.
perceptions and sensations recorded.

Figure 8. Architectural spaces to be perceived using immersive virtual reality.

Figure 8. Architectural spaces to be perceived using immersive virtual reality.

4.
4. The
The Experimental
Experimental Study
Study
In
In order to evaluate the
order to evaluate two objectives
the two objectives of
of this
this research,
research, the
the experimental
experimental study
study was
was
carried out with architecture students from two universities: first-year students at
carried out with architecture students from two universities: first-year students at the the Uni-
versity of La
University of Laguna
La Lagunain Spain and
in Spain final-year
and final-yearstudents
studentsatatthe
theNational
NationalUniversity
University of
of San
San
Agustín in Peru.
Agustín in Peru.

4.1. Participants
The participants in this research were students enrolled in the first course of the Ar-
chitecture degree program at the University of La Laguna (ULL) in Spain. They partici-
pated in the experiment to verify the first objective of this research, which is related to the
improvement of spatial skills as a result of specific training in 3D sketching in immersive
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 11 of 23

4.1. Participants
The participants in this research were students enrolled in the first course of the Archi-
tecture degree program at the University of La Laguna (ULL) in Spain. They participated
in the experiment to verify the first objective of this research, which is related to the im-
provement of spatial skills as a result of specific training in 3D sketching in immersive VR
environments. Additionally, students enrolled in the final course in the same degree plan
from the Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa (UNSA) in Peru, participated
in the second experiment of this study. They verified the second objective of the research
related to the experimentation of sensory and experiential perception of architectural spaces
built in virtual environments.
In both cases, students were voluntarily recruited to participate in this pilot study.
In the ULL experience the training group consisted of 14 individuals, aged between 18
and 20 years old, while the control group made up of 16 individuals, aged between 18
and 20 years old, did not perform the training experiment; none of the students of the
two groups that participated in the experiment had previous training in spatial skills or
virtual reality management. In the UNSA experience, the experimental group consisted of
11 participants, aged between 21 and 27, and none of them had previous training in spatial
skills or virtual reality management.

4.2. Equipment
The hardware used for the training of spatial skills improvement by drawing in
an immersive virtual environment consisted of a laptop HP OMEN 15-dc1015ns Core
i7 9750H/2.6 GHz—6 cores Win 10 Home 64 bit 16 GB RAM to which the HTC VIVE
Cosmos VR Headset was connected. The laptop was connected to a large format monitor
so that the moderator could see how the participant was doing the experiment within the
virtual environment. The software application used to draw was Tilt Brush, a commercial
application developed by Google, as previously mentioned.
The hardware used to gather the participants’ perceptions and sensations when
experiencing the given spaces in an immersive virtual environment consisted of a PC, with
8 Gb of RAM, to which the Oculus Rift VR Headset was connected. The architectural
spaces were modeled in SketchUp Pro 2019 and visualized in the VR Enscape 3D version
2.6 app.

4.3. Study Description

4.3.1. Training for the Improvement of Spatial Skills
The first contact with all the participants of the experimental group and the control
group was made in order to administer the measurement tests. The MRT and DAT tests
were administered one day, and they were scheduled to return the following day to
administer the SOT and ROCFT measurement tests. The experimental group was informed
of the dates and times they would individually have to start the training sessions. Each
participant was assigned a specific time and day to practice and become familiar with
the immersive virtual reality environment, the HMD, and the Tilt Brush application for
freehand 3D drawing. In addition, they were assigned a specific time and day for three
sessions on different days that they would have to attend for the training.
Each session lasted a maximum of 45 min and was conducted individually with each
of the participants. In each session, the participant, using the HMD, drew in free-form
two proposed architectural spaces in three dimensions. This occurred in such a way that
in three sessions six spaces were drawn (two basic, two intermediate and two advanced)
(see Figure 9). The three sessions were held on alternate days in the same week. Once all
the participants had completed the three sessions and therefore completed the training,
both the experimental and control groups, were again called to administer the tests, except
ROCFT. In order to compare and confirm if there were significant differences, pre and post-
test data were obtained from the group that performed an activity related to visuospatial
mental processes and a group that did not perform such activities.
 Figure 9). The three sessions were held on alternate days in the same week. Once all t
participants had completed the three sessions and therefore completed the training, bo
the experimental and control groups, were again called to administer the tests, exce
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 ROCFT. In order to compare and confirm if there were significant differences,
12 of 23 pre a
post-test data were obtained from the group that performed an activity related
visuospatial mental processes and a group that did not perform such activities.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23

Figure 9. 9.
Figure Scenes
Scenesdrawing withTilt-Brush.
drawing with Tilt-Brush.
space. Once inside the virtual environment, for a period between 20 and 25 min, the par-
4.3.2. Perceptive
4.3.2.ticipant
Perceptive Experience in
Experience in the
theVirtual World
Virtual World
had the possibility to take an immersive virtual tour of an open space where the
The initial contact was made with all the participants to obtain their general informa-
six ephemeral architecture
The initial contact wasmodules
made with were located.
all the The participant to
participants autonomously
obtain their
tion and to inform them of the dates and times they would have to individually attend
walked
general inf
mationalong the pedestrian path, being able to look all around, bend over, turn around and be
theand to inform
experiment. them
Only oneof the dates
45-min and
session wastimes theyforwould
required have to individually
each participant. The first atte
transported directly to some point in order to observe both the space inside and outside,
the experiment.
15 min were usedOnlyto one 45-min
practice session
and become was required
familiar with the HMD,
as well as the materials, shapes and dimensions (Figures 10–12).
for each participant.
the immersive The first
virtual
reality
min wereOnce environment
used and
to practice the haptic
and (handheld) controllers to be able to move in the virtual
inside each space, thebecome familiar
participant withtothe
was offered sit HMD,
in a realthe
chairimmersive
to better ex-virtual
space. Once inside the virtual environment, for a period between 20 and 25 min, the
ality perience
environment and
the space andthe haptic
answer the(handheld) controllers
questions of the to bewhich
ad-hoc survey, able was
to move intothe virtu
created
participant had the possibility to take an immersive virtual tour of an open space where the
obtain information about their perceptions and sensations. The participant was then asked
six ephemeral architecture modules were located. The participant autonomously walked
to choose one sensation from a set of three in the scale and size category, then one from
along the pedestrian path, being able to look all around, bend over, turn around and be
the set of three in the materials category, and so on, until five sensations were chosen, one
transported directly to some point in order to observe both the space inside and outside, as
from each category (see Table 1). Finally, the participant was asked to mention two sensa-
well as the materials, shapes and dimensions (Figures 10–12).
tions that, according to their own perception, were the most representative of each space.

Figure 10. Immersion in architectural spaces.

Figure 10. Immersion in architectural spaces.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 13 of 23

Figure 10. Immersion in architectural spaces.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

Figure 11. Tour of architectural spaces.
Figure 11. Tour of architectural spaces.

Figure 12. Artificially created architectural spaces in virtual reality environments used for the exercise of identifying sen-
Figure 12. Artificially created architectural spaces in virtual reality environments used for the exercise of identifying sensations.
sations.
Once inside each space, the participant was offered to sit in a real chair to better
5. Results the space and answer the questions of the ad-hoc survey, which was created to
experience
5.1. Results
obtain and Analysis
information aboutoftheir
Spatial Skills in ULL
perceptions and sensations. The participant was then asked
to choose one sensation from a set of three
To know the effect produced by the training in the scale andexperimental
in the size category,group,
then one
thefrom
gain the
ac-
set of three in the materials category, and so on, until five sensations were chosen,
quired in each of the instruments that measure the components of the spatial skills is com- one from
each category
pared with the(see
gainTable 1). Finally,
acquired the participant
by the control group. Inwasthisasked
study,tothe
mention two sensations
independent variable
that, according to their own perception, were the most representative
was the groups, and the dependent variable was the gain of each of the components. of each space.
Table 2 displays the statistical description of data that was compiled for each of the
5. Results
groups.
5.1. Results and Analysis of Spatial Skills in ULL
TableTo know thedescription
2. Statistical effect produced
of data. by the training in the experimental group, the gain
acquired in each of the instruments that measure the components of the spatial skills is
MRT
compared with the gain acquired by theDAT-5 SOT
control group. In this ROCFT vari-
study, the independent
Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD)
able was the groups, and the dependent variable was the gain of each of the components.
PRE POST PRE POST PRE POST
Experimental 17.21 23.29 29.29 36.29 46.52 28.03 27.00
group
(8.30) (11.02) (10.67) (9.10) (26.97) (19.40) (5.85)
n = 14
Control 20.06 22.25 28.25 32.06 43.49 26.42 23.00
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 14 of 23

Table 2 displays the statistical description of data that was compiled for each of
the groups.

Table 2. Statistical description of data.

MRT DAT-5 SOT ROCFT

Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD)
PRE POST PRE POST PRE POST
Experimental group 17.21 23.29 29.29 36.29 46.52 28.03 27.00
n= 14 (8.30) (11.02) (10.67) (9.10) (26.97) (19.40) (5.85)
Control group 20.06 22.25 28.25 32.06 43.49 26.42 23.00
n= 16 (10.81) (9.57) (9.64) (8.50) (27.08) (28.37) (4.98)

First, it is verified that the data collected before training follows a normal distribution.
In order to do the statistical analysis, it was necessary to establish the fact if the experimental
groups and control groups were homogeneous in terms of their spatial skills.
The Shapiro–Wilk test (used on samples of less than 50 people) were used to test the
normality of each sample. This test was run on data pretest from MRT, DAT-5SR, SOT and
ROCFT from each group (experimental and control).
Table 3 summarizes the results of the normality distribution analysis of the study
samples. The results of the normality tests for both groups indicate that in all cases the
data are distributed according to the normal.

Table 3. Normality test for samples from both groups (experimental group and control group).

Group Shapiro–Wilk
F gl Sig.
MRT Experimental 0.901 14 0.115
Control 0.968 16 0.825
DAT5-SR Experimental 0.949 14 0.548
Control 0.932 16 0.263
SOT Experimental 0.945 14 0.479
Control 0.885 16 0.052
ROCFT Experimental 0.884 14 0.055
Control 0.950 16 0.528

On the other hand, the mean values obtained in the Rey–Osterrieth complex figure
test indicate that the participants in both groups (experimental and control) do not have
any neurological/clinical problem that prevents them from training and improving the
components of spatial ability. The values are aligned with normalized values [55–58].
At this stage of analysis, the research team checked whether there is a significant dif-
ference in the level of spatial awareness between the two groups prior to receiving training.
A Student’s t-test on independent samples produced p-value > 0.05 for the components of
spatial ability (see Table 4). This means that in the three components of spatial ability that
have been measured there is no significant difference between experimental and control
groups before training, in other words both groups have the same level of spatial ability
before training.

Table 4. p-Values prior training in each of the components of Spatial Skills.

Pre MRT Pre DAT-5 Pre SOT

Control Group vs.
p = 0.43 p = 0.78 p = 0.89
Experimental Group
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 15 of 23

The objective of this study was to assess whether the students made any gains in
spatial ability components after undergoing training based on drawing using full-scale 3D
sketching techniques in VR environments.
In a controlled experiment, students’ abilities were measured prior to and following
the proposed experiment. The control group did not perform any training. The mean value
of the gain in results of the pre and posttest of the experimental group and control group
are displayed at Table 5.

Table 5. Gain in scores for each of the spatial ability components.

Gain MRT Gain DAT-5 Gain SOT *

Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD) Mean Value (SD)
Experimental group 6.07 7 29.72
n = 14 (4.14) −4.62 −41.72
Control group 2.19 3.81 46.4
n = 16 −3.94 −3.71 −24.38
* Percentage decrease. It is the value to be taken into account as a gain. (it is better if the percentage is lower).

The research team proceeded to explore whether there are significant differences
between the control group and the experimental group at the Universidad de La Laguna
after training.
The following research hypotheses were defined to verify the improvement of spatial
skills on students at Universidad de La Laguna:
HR1: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial visualization
measured with the DAT5- following the proposed training experiment.
HR2: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial relation mea-
sured with the MRT following the proposed training experiment.
HR3: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial orientation
measured with the SOT test following the proposed training experiment.
The T-student statistic was applied to compare the average gain values of each of the
mean components between the two groups. It was obtained p-value = 0.01 for MRT gain,
p-value = 0.04 for DAT-5 gain and p-value = 0.039 for SOT.
In each case, the measurement of the components yields a p-value less than 0.05,
which means that there is a significant difference in the improvement of mental rotation,
visualization, orientation and spatial perception. It can be stated that the experimental
group has achieved greater gains in the measurements after training than the control group,
and the research hypotheses HR1, HR2 and HR3 were all accepted.

5.2. Results of Spatial Perception in UNSA

As previously mentioned, the ephemeral architecture has taken a huge dimension in
the world of design in recent years. The architect is not only concerned with making designs
and representations of attractive spaces but must also appeal in its designs to the senses
and emotions through forms and materiality, always seeking maximum expressiveness
with a minimum of space.
The architect is not only concerned with designs and representations of attractive
spaces but must also consider in their designs the senses and emotions that users may
feel through the shapes and materiality, always seeking maximum expressiveness with a
minimum of space.
The graphs in Figure 13 identify the sensations perceived by the participants in each
of the six spaces when experiencing them in an immersive virtual reality environment.
In each column of the graphs, each of the five dimensions of the instrument discussed in
Section 3.1, Table 1, is analyzed.
 Restlessness 13.64%

5.
Freedom 22.73%
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 16 of 23
Warmth-comfort 18.18%
Protection 18.18%
Fragility-Exposure 18.18%
Table 6 shows the sensations that the designer expects the users to perceive from their
designs and the real sensations that the participants perceived when experiencing and
6.
walking through such spaces in an immersive virtual reality environment. The percentage
indicates the degree of agreement of the user with the designer. The average degree of
Sadness-nostalgia 22.73%
coincidence considering the six spaces evaluated reaches 72.29%.
Protection 22.73%
Table 7 shows the two sensations that the participants considered the most representa-
tive and intense of each space.

Figure 13. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 17 of 23
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23

HR3: the experimental group demonstrates an improvement in spatial orientation

measured with the SOT test following the proposed training experiment.
The T-student statistic was applied to compare the average gain values of each of the
mean components between the two groups. It was obtained p-value = 0.01 for MRT gain,
p-value = 0.04 for DAT-5 gain and p-value = 0.039 for SOT.
In each case, the measurement of the components yields a p-value less than 0.05,
which means that there is a significant difference in the improvement of mental rotation,
visualization, orientation and spatial perception. It can be stated that the experimental
group has achieved greater gains in the measurements after training than the control
group, and the research hypotheses HR1, HR2 and HR3 were all accepted.

5.2. Results of Spatial Perception in UNSA

As previously mentioned, the ephemeral architecture has taken a huge dimension in
the world of design in recent years. The architect is not only concerned with making de-
signs and representations of attractive spaces but must also appeal in its designs to the
senses and emotions through forms and materiality, always seeking maximum expres-
siveness with a minimum of space.
The architect is not only concerned with designs and representations of attractive
spaces but must also consider in their designs the senses and emotions that users may feel
through the shapes and materiality, always seeking maximum expressiveness with a min-
imum of space.
The graphs in Figure 13 identify the sensations perceived by the participants in each
of the six spaces when experiencing them in an immersive virtual reality environment. In
each column of the graphs, each of the five dimensions of the instrument discussed in
Section 3.1, Table 1, is analyzed.
Table 6 shows the sensations that the designer expects the users to perceive from their
designs and the real sensations that the participants perceived when experiencing and
walking through such spaces in an immersive virtual reality environment. The percentage
indicates the degree of agreement of the user with the designer. The average degree of
coincidence considering the six spaces evaluated reaches 72.29%.
Figure 13. Sensations perceived by the participants in each of the spaces.
Sensations
Figure 13.Table perceived
6. Proposed and by the participants
predominant in each of the spaces.
sensations.
6. Discussion
Table 6. Proposed and predominant sensations.
The first Sensations
part of this research hasProposed
sought toby Predominant
determine Sensations
the effects of That
short training
Space
Sensations
Designer Proposed by Predominant Sensations
Participants Felt
sessions using immersive virtual reality to improve spatial skills by differentiating three
Space
Designer That Participants Felt
components: spatial rotation, spatial visualization and spatial orientation. Based on the
1.1. determined that there is a positive effect on the improvement of spatial
results, it has been
skills in each one of its dimensions. Most of the authors consider the spatial orientation
Warmth-comfort
Warmth-comfort
Warmth-comfort
Warmth-comfort
90.9%
component as part of rotation and spatial visualization, so they do not consider it90.9%
a specific
Protection
Protection Protection 61.5%
Protection 61.5%
and independent component. In this research, we tried to find a difference in the spatial
orientation with respect to the others, since in the proposed training tasks took into ac-
count working with architectural spaces at real scales, which demanded navigation capa-
bilities and orientation
2.2. in walkarounds much more related to that spatial orientation com-
ponent. However, this difference has not yet been found, which suggests that it should be
Restlessness 90.9%
90.9%
analysis of spatial orientation inRestlessness
Sadness-nostalgia
followed this tendence of specific Sadness-nostalgia trainings related to ge-
Sadness-nostalgia 81.8%
Sadness-nostalgia 81.8%
ographic and cartographic tasks [30,31,61,62]
Distance-Frigidity
Distance-Frigidity
Eccentrism-surprise 81.8%
Eccentrism-surprise 81.8%
We consider that this study serves as a clarifying contribution so that the analyses of
spatial skills improvement can follow the proposal of Carroll [13] and backed by numer-
ous authors [27,28,63] who propose two components for spatial skills: spatial relations,
which contain the spatial orientation, and spatial visualization.
In the second part of the study, six architectural spaces have been designed to gener-
ate different sensations in users, with at least two with greater intensity and clarity. By
 Appl.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, xx FOR PEER REVIEW 17
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2021,
2021, 11,
11, x FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 17
17
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 18 of 23

Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2021,
2021, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW
3.
3. 17 of
of 23
23
Appl. 17
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2021,
2021, 11,
11, xx FOR
FOR PEER REVIEW
PEERTable
REVIEW
6. Cont. 17
17 of
of 23
23
Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 90.9%
90.9%
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise
Sensations Proposed by Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise
Predominant Sensations 72.7%
72.7%
Space
Designer That Participants Felt
3.
3.
3.
3.3.
4. Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality Joy-theatricality 90.9%
Joy-theatricality 90.9%
4. Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 90.9%
90.9%
Eccentrism-surprise
Joy-theatricality
Eccentrism-surprise Eccentrism-surprise 72.7%
Joy-theatricality 90.9%
Eccentrism-surprise 72.7%
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise Fragility-Exposure
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise 72.7% 63.6%
72.7%
Fragility-Exposure
Eccentrism-surprise 72.7% 63.6%
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure Emotion-spirituality
Emotion-spirituality 54.5%
54.5%
Freedom
Freedom Restlessness
Restlessness 54.5%
54.5%
4.
4.
4.
4.4.
Fragility-Exposure 63.6%
Fragility-Exposure 63.6%
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure 63.6%
63.6%
Fragility-Exposure 63.6%
5.
5. Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure Emotion-spirituality
Emotion-spirituality 54.5%
54.5%
Freedom
Freedom Emotion-spirituality
Emotion-spirituality 54.5%
54.5%
Emotion-spirituality 54.5%
Freedom
FreedomFreedom Restlessness
Restlessness 54.5%
54.5%
Balance 90.9%
Balance
Balance Restlessness 54.5%90.9%
Balance
Restlessness
Restlessness 54.5%
54.5%
Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 63.6%
63.6%
Simplicity-Serenity
Simplicity-Serenity Simplicity-Serenity
Simplicity-Serenity 54.5%
54.5%
5.5.
5.
5.
5.
Balance 90.9%
Balance 90.9%
Balance
Balance Balance
Balance 90.9%
Balance 90.9%
90.9%
6.
6. Balance
BalanceBalance Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 63.6%
63.6%
Simplicity-Serenity
Simplicity-Serenity Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 63.6%
63.6%
63.6%
Simplicity-Serenity
Simplicity-Serenity Simplicity-Serenity 54.5%
Simplicity-Serenity
Sadness-nostalgia Simplicity-Serenity
Simplicity-Serenity 54.5%
54.5%
Restlessness
Simplicity-Serenity 72.7%
54.5%
Sadness-nostalgia Simplicity-Serenity 54.5%
Restlessness 72.7%
Protection
Protection Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 72.7%
72.7%
6.6.
6.
6.
6.
Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia Restlessness
Restlessness 72.7%
Restlessness 72.7%
72.7%
Table Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia Restlessness
Restlessness 72.7%
72.7%
Table 77 shows
shows the
the two
two sensations
sensations
Protection
Protection
Protection
that
that the
the participants
participants considered
72.7%the
considered
Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 72.7%
Sadness-nostalgia 72.7%the most
most re
re
sentative and intense Protection
Protection
of each space Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 72.7%
72.7%
sentative and intense of each space

Table
Table 7.
7. Most
Most representative
representative perceived
perceived sensations.
sensations.
Table
Table
Table 7. Most 777 shows
shows the
representative the two sensations
two
perceivedsensations that the
sensations.that the participants
participants considered
considered the
the most
most repre-
repre-
Table
Tableand 7 shows
shows the
the two
two sensations
Most
sensations
Most that
that the
Representative
the
Representative participants
Perceived
participants
Perceived considered
Sensations
considered
Sensations the
the most
Declared
most
Declaredrepre-
by
by Partic
repre-
Partic
sentative
sentative and intense
Space
intense
Space of
of each
each space
space
sentative and intense of each
sentative and intense of each spacespace pants
Most Representative Perceived Sensations
pants
Space
Table 7.
7. Most
Most representative
representative perceived
perceived sensations.
sensations. Declared by Participants
Table
Table
Table 7.
7. Most
Most representative
1.
representative
1.
1.
perceived
perceived sensations.
sensations.
Most Representative
Most Representative Perceived
Perceived Sensations
Sensations Declared
Declared by
by Partici-
Partici-
Space
Space Most
Most Representative Warmth-comfort
Representative Perceived
Perceived Sensations
Warmth-comfort 22.73%
Sensations Declared
22.73% by
Declared by Partici-
Partici-
Space
Space pants
pants
Warmth-comfort 22.73%
Protection
pants
pants
Protection 22.73%
22.73%
Protection 22.73%
1.
1.
1.
1.
Warmth-comfort 22.73%
Warmth-comfort 22.73%
2.
2. Warmth-comfort
Warmth-comfort 22.73%
22.73%
Protection
Protection 22.73%
22.73%
Restlessness 27.27%
Restlessness
Protection
Protection 22.73%
22.73% 27.27%
Restlessness 27.27%
Distance-Frigidity 27.27%
Distance-Frigidity 27.27%
Distance-Frigidity 27.27%
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure 13.64%
13.64%
Fragility-Exposure 13.64%
2. Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 13.64%
13.64%
Sadness-nostalgia 13.64%
2.
2.
2. Restlessness 27.27%
Restlessness 27.27%
Restlessness
Restlessness 27.27%
27.27%
Distance-Frigidity
Distance-Frigidity 27.27%
27.27%
3.
3.
3. Distance-Frigidity
Distance-Frigidity 27.27%
27.27%
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure 13.64%
13.64%
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure 13.64%
13.64%36.36%
Joy-theatricality
Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 13.64%
13.64%
Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 36.36%
36.36%
Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 13.64%
13.64% 22.73%
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise22.73%
Eccentrism-surprise 22.73%
3.
3.
3.
3.
Joy-theatricality 36.36%
Joy-theatricality 36.36%
Joy-theatricality
Joy-theatricality 36.36%
36.36%
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise 22.73%
22.73%
Eccentrism-surprise
Eccentrism-surprise 22.73%
22.73%
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 19 of 23

Appl. Sci.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11,
11, x FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 18
Appl. Sci. 2021,
2021, 11, xx FOR
FOR PEER
Table REVIEW
7. Cont. 18
18

Most Representative Perceived Sensations

Space
Declared by Participants
4.
4.
4. Fragility-Exposure 22.73%
22.73%
Fragility-Exposure
Fragility-Exposure 22.73%
Fragility-Exposure 22.73%
Distance-Frigidity 13.64%
Distance-Frigidity
Distance-Frigidity 13.64%
13.64%
Distance-Frigidity 13.64%
Emotion-spirituality 13.64%
Emotion-spirituality
Emotion-spirituality 13.64%
13.64%
Emotion-spirituality 13.64%
Restlessness
Restlessness 13.64%
13.64%
Restlessness 13.64%
Restlessness 13.64%

5.
5.
5. Freedom 22.73%
22.73%
Freedom
Freedom 22.73%
Freedom 22.73%
Warmth-comfort
Warmth-comfort 18.18%
18.18%
Warmth-comfort 18.18%
Warmth-comfort 18.18%
Protection
Protection
Protection 18.18%
18.18%
18.18%
Protection 18.18%
Fragility-Exposure 18.18%
Fragility-Exposure 18.18%
Fragility-Exposure 18.18%
Fragility-Exposure 18.18%

6.
6.
6.
Sadness-nostalgia
Sadness-nostalgia 22.73%
22.73%
Sadness-nostalgia 22.73%
Sadness-nostalgia 22.73%
Protection 22.73%
Protection 22.73%
Protection 22.73%
Protection 22.73%

6. Discussion
The first part of this research has sought to determine the effects of short training
sessions using immersive virtual reality to improve spatial skills by differentiating three
components: spatial rotation, spatial visualization and spatial orientation. Based on the
results, it has been determined that there is a positive effect on the improvement of spatial
skills in each one of its dimensions. Most of the authors consider the spatial orientation
component as part of rotation and spatial visualization, so they do not consider it a specific
and independent component. In this research, we tried to find a difference in the spatial
orientation with respect to the others, since in the proposed training tasks took into account
working with architectural spaces at real scales, which demanded navigation capabilities
and orientation in walkarounds much more related to that spatial orientation component.
However, this difference has not yet been found, which suggests that it should be followed
this tendence of specific analysis of spatial orientation in trainings related to geographic
and cartographic tasks [30,31,61,62].
We consider that this study serves as a clarifying contribution so that the analyses of
spatial skills improvement can follow the proposal of Carroll [13] and backed by numerous
authors [27,28,63] who propose two components for spatial skills: spatial relations, which
contain the spatial orientation, and spatial visualization.
In the second part of the study, six architectural spaces have been designed to gen-
erate different sensations in users, with at least two with greater intensity and clarity. By
experiencing the life-size spaces in immersive virtual reality, students reported having per-
ceived the same sensations with a very high coincidence, up to 72,29%, e.g., the sensations
experienced by the participants coincide by 72.29% with those indicated by the designers
(considering the ideal case that the designers agree 100% on the two predominant sensa-
tions per space). This is due to the sense of presence (subjective feeling of being present
elsewhere) that is determined in virtual environments by immersion and realism, which
has been an important concept in understanding and evaluating the effectiveness of virtual
environments primarily in the context of human experience [64,65] and the perception of
architectural spaces. Although the ideal measurement of sensations is the combination
of objective tests through biosensors and subjective tests through questionnaires or sur-
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 20 of 23

veys [59], in this study we have only used the last ones to complement them with sensors
in future research.
As for the categories of sensations proposed, it has been observed that the sensa-
tions for the category of use and activity (joy/theatricality, sadness/nostalgia and emo-
tion/spirituality), provoked greater coincidences, that is to say, the experience inside and
outside virtual spaces has allowed users to feel and imagine what activities they could
carry out in those spaces. This is essential in order to evaluate the spaces before they are
occupied and to additionally check whether the final utility of an architectural space has
been achieved before its actual construction by providing qualitative information on the
performance of the buildings [66,67].
The sensations caused by the category of materials (warmth/comfort, fragility/exposure
and distance/indifference) were expected to be the ones with the most coincidences; how-
ever, it was the second one behind use and activity. The realism of the materials used in
the virtual environment is an ever-present feature of immersive virtual reality, but the
texture to the touch is a huge weakness since modifying haptic impressions in VR remains
a challenge [68] and for now a disadvantage that distances it from the sensations that
the materials cause in the real world. This may explain why the sensations caused by
the materials have not been the most coincidental, but at the same time, it is a challenge
because users want the full experience of spatial perception like “touching” the elements
of space, interacting or feeling the real physical properties and effects of the elements.

7. Conclusions
There are many studies that have developed training programs aimed at the improve-
ment of spatial skills and supported by different technological tools in engineering students,
however, there is not much evidence of experiences that have used immersive virtual reality
and three-dimensional drawing of architectural spaces to achieve positive effects in three
components of spatial skills: spatial visualization, spatial rotation and spatial orientation.
In this research the experimental group has achieved a significant improvement of the three
mentioned components, which are important in the field of architecture. No significant
difference has been found that allows us to conclude that spatial orientation has been
improved by the training in which navigation and walkarounds were required and that it
could be of help to architecture students who manage spaces to be inhabited, experienced
and walked.
On the other hand, the walk arounds and sensory experimentation in architectural
spaces realistically modeled in immersive virtual reality environments allows for the same
sensations that the designer initially sought to convey. We are able to make this conclusion
based on the coincidences expressed by the students when interacting with the six spaces
in an immersive virtual environment. This second conclusion is also useful for learning
architectural design since it is essential to determine before building, if the designs will
meet the sensory expectations initially set by the architect, which will later determine the
appropriate use of these spaces.
In immersive virtual reality environments, as it happens in the real world, the percep-
tion of the physical characteristics of an architectural space, such as dimensions, materials
and degrees of enclosure, generate sensations that allow us to perceive a specific use and
activity for that space, which is supported by the relationship between the space and
the user who perceives it. This conclusion will allow us to investigate in the future, as
is already being done [69], which characteristics or specific physical elements generate
specific sensations, so that the student of architecture will be trained in this important
aspect of their education.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.C.G.-T. and J.M.-G.; Data curation, J.B.-E. and P.B.-
E.; Formal analysis, H.C.G.-T., J.B.-E., P.B.-E. and J.M.-G.; Methodology, H.C.G.-T. and J.M.-G.;
Resources, H.C.G.-T. and J.M.-G.; Software, J.B.-E. and P.B.-E.; Supervision, H.C.G.-T. and J.M.-G.;
Validation, H.C.G.-T., J.B.-E. and J.M.-G.; Visualization, P.B.-E.; Writing—original draft, J.B.-E. and
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 21 of 23

P.B.-E.; Writing—review and editing, H.C.G.-T., J.B.-E., P.B.-E. and J.M.-G. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa, grant
number IBA-IB-01-2019-UNSA.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: Thanks to the students of the Universidad La Laguna de Tenerife (Spain) and the
students of Universidad Nacional de San Agustín de Arequipa (Peru) for their generous participation
in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Sandnes, F.E. Sketching 3D Immersed Experiences Rapidly by Hand Through 2D Cross Sections. In Online Engineering & Internet
of Things; Auer, M.E., Zutin, D.G., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2018; Volume 22, pp. 1001–1013.
ISBN 978-3-319-64351-9.
2. Kvan, T.; Wong, J.T.; Vera, A.H. The Contribution of Structural Activities to Successful Design. Int. J. Comput. Appl. Technol. 2003,
16, 122–126. [CrossRef]
3. Israel, J.H.; Wiese, E.; Mateescu, M.; Zöllner, C.; Stark, R. Investigating Three-Dimensional Sketching for Early Conceptual
Design—Results from Expert Discussions and User Studies. Comput. Graph. 2009, 33, 462–473. [CrossRef]
4. Tsou, C.-H.; Hsu, T.-W.; Lin, C.-H.; Tsai, M.-H.; Hsu, P.-H.; Lin, I.-C.; Wang, Y.-S.; Lin, W.-C.; Chuang, J.-H. Immersive VR
Environment for Architectural Design Education. In Proceedings of the SA ‘17: SIGGRAPH Asia 2017 Posters; ACM Press: New
York, NY, USA, 2017; pp. 1–2.
5. Hermund, A.; Klint, L.S.; Bundgaard, T.S. The Perception of Architectural Space in Reality, in Virtual Reality, and through Plan
and Section Drawings. In Proceedings of the Computing for a better tomorrow, Lods, Poland, 19–21 September 2018; Volume 2,
pp. 735–744.
6. Gomes, R.; Aquilué, I.; Roca, E. Cuerpo, espacio y el dibujo arquitectónico. ACE Archit. City Environ. 2017, 12. [CrossRef]
7. Tversky, B.; Suwa, M.; Agrawala, M.; Heiser, J.; Stolte, C.; Hanrahan, P.; Phan, D.; Klingner, J.; Daniel, M.-P.; Lee, P.; et al.
Sketches for Design and Design of Sketches. In Human Behaviour in Design: Individuals, Teams, Tools; Lindemann, U., Ed.; Springer:
Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2003; pp. 79–86. ISBN 978-3-662-07811-2.
8. Lohman, D.F. Spatial ability and g. In Human Abilities: Their Nature and Measurement; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.: Hillsdale,
NJ, USA, 1996; pp. 97–116. ISBN 0-8058-1800-6.
9. Stumpf, H.; Eliot, J. A Structural Analysis of Visual Spatial Ability in Academically Talented Students. Learn. Individ. Differ. 1999,
11, 137–151. [CrossRef]
10. McGee, M.G. Human Spatial Abilities: Psychometric Studies and Environmental, Genetic, Hormonal, and Neurological Influences;
American Psychological Association: Washington, DC, USA, 1979; Volume 86, ISBN 1939-1455(Electronic), 0033-2909(Print).
11. Schneider, W.J.; McGrew, K.S. The Cattell-Horn-Carroll model of intelligence. In Contemporary Intellectual Assessment: Theories,
Tests, and Issues, 3rd ed.; The Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2012; pp. 99–144. ISBN 978-1-60918-995-2.
12. Buckley, J.; Seery, N.; Canty, D. Spatial Cognition in Engineering Education: Developing a Spatial Ability Framework to Support
the Translation of Theory into Practice. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 2019, 44, 164–178. [CrossRef]
13. Carroll, J.B. Human Cognitive Abilities. A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies; Cambridge University Press: New York, NY, USA, 1993.
14. Gómez-Tone, H.C. Impacto de La Enseñanza de La Geometría Descriptiva Usando Archivos 3D-PDF Como Entrenamiento de La
Habilidad Espacial de Estudiantes de Ingeniería Civil En El Perú. Form. Univ. 2019, 12, 73–82. [CrossRef]
15. Tartre, L.A. Spatial Orientation Skill and Mathematical Problem Solving. J. Res. Math. Educ. 1990, 21, 216–229. [CrossRef]
16. Sorby, S.A. Developing 3-D Spatial Visualization Skills. Eng. Des. Graph. J. 1999, 63, 21–32.
17. Colby, C.L. Perception of Extrapersonal Space: Psychological and Neural Aspects. In International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2001.
18. Linn, M.C.; Petersen, A.C. Emergence and Characterization of Sex Differences in Spatial Ability: A Meta-Analysis. Child. Dev.
1985, 56, 1479–1498. [CrossRef]
19. Mitrache, A. Spatial Sensibility in Architectural Education. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2013, 93, 544–548. [CrossRef]
20. Akin, Ö.; Erem, Ö. Architecture Students’ Spatial Reasoning with 3-D Shapes. J. Des. Res. 2011, 9, 339–359. [CrossRef]
21. Suh, J.; Cho, J.Y. Linking Spatial Ability, Spatial Strategies, and Spatial Creativity: A Step to Clarify the Fuzzy Relationship
between Spatial Ability and Creativity. Think. Ski. Creat. 2020, 35, 100628. [CrossRef]
22. Wigfield, A.; Eccles, J.S.; Schiefele, U.; Roeser, R.W.; Davis-Kean, P. Development of Achievement Motivation. In Handbook of Child
Psychology; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2007.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 22 of 23

23. Zimmerman, B.J.; Martinez-Pons, M. Student Differences in Self-Regulated Learning: Relating Grade, Sex, and Giftedness to
Self-Efficacy and Strategy Use. J. Educ. Psychol. 1990, 82, 51–59. [CrossRef]
24. Burton, L.J.; Dowling, D.G. Key Factors That Influence Engineering Students’ Academic Success: A Longitudinal Study. In
Proceedings of the Research in Engineering Education Symposium (REES 2009); University of Melbourne: Parkville, VIC, Australia,
2009; pp. 1–6.
25. Potter, C.; Van Der Merwe, E.; Kaufman, W.; Delacour, J. A Longitudinal Evaluative Study of Student Difficulties with Engineering
Graphics. Eur. J. Eng. Educ. 2006, 31, 201–214. [CrossRef]
26. Sutton, K.; Williams, A.; Tremain, D.; Kilgour, P. University Entry Score Is It a Consideration for Spatial Performance in
Architecture Design Students? J. Eng. Des. Technol. 2016, 14, 328–342. [CrossRef]
27. Connolly, P.; Sadowski, M. Measuring and Enhancing Spatial Visualization in Engineering Technology Students. Age 2009, 14, 1.
28. Martín-Gutiérrez, J.; Luís Saorín, J.; Contero, M.; Alcañiz, M.; Pérez-López, D.C.; Ortega, M. Design and Validation of an
Augmented Book for Spatial Abilities Development in Engineering Students. Comput. Graph. 2010, 34, 77–91. [CrossRef]
29. Sorby, S.A. Educational Research in Developing 3-D Spatial Skills for Engineering Students. Int. J. Sci. Educ. 2009, 31, 459–480.
[CrossRef]
30. Hegarty, M.; Montello, D.R.; Richardson, A.E.; Ishikawa, T.; Lovelace, K. Spatial Abilities at Different Scales: Individual
Differences in Aptitude-Test Performance and Spatial-Layout Learning. Intelligence 2006, 34, 151–176. [CrossRef]
31. Montello, D.R.; Lovelace, K.L.; Golledge, R.G.; Self, C.M. Sex-Related Differences and Similarities in Geographic and Environ-
mental Spatial Abilities. Ann. Assoc. Am. Geogr. 1999, 89, 515–534. [CrossRef]
32. Gómez-Tone, H.C.; Martin-Gutierrez, J.; Valencia Anci, L.; Mora Luis, C.E. International Comparative Pilot Study of Spatial
Skill Development in Engineering Students through Autonomous Augmented Reality-Based Training. Symmetry 2020, 12, 1401.
[CrossRef]
33. Roca-González, C.; Martin-Gutierrez, J.; García-Dominguez, M.; Carrodeguas, M. del C.M. Virtual Technologies to Develop
Visual-Spatial Ability in Engineering Students. Eurasia J. Math. Sci. Technol. Educ. 2017, 13, 441–468. [CrossRef]
34. Kaufmann, H.; Schmalstieg, D.; Wagner, M. Construct3D: A Virtual Reality Application for Mathematics and Geometry Education.
Educ. Inf. Technol. 2000, 5, 263–276. [CrossRef]
35. Dahmani, L.; Ledoux, A.A.; Boyer, P.; Bohbot, V.D. Wayfinding: The Effects of Large Displays and 3-D Perception. Behav. Res. Meth-
ods 2012, 44, 447–454. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
36. Darken, R.P.; Goerger, S.R. The Transfer of Strategies from Virtual to Real Environments: An Explanation for Performance
Differences? Simul. Ser. 1999, 31, 159–164.
37. Lin, C.-H.; Chen, C.-M.; Lou, Y.-C. Developing Spatial Orientation and Spatial Memory with a Treasure Hunting Game. J. Educ.
Technol. Soc. 2014, 17, 79–92.
38. Navarro, I.; de Reina, O.; Rodiera, A.; Fonseca, D. Indoor Positioning Systems: 3D Virtual Model Visualization and Design
Process of Their Assessment Using Mixed Methods: Case Study: World Heritatge Buildings and Spatial Skills for Architecture
Students. In Proceedings of the 2016 11th Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI), Las Palmas,
Spain, 15–18 June 2016; pp. 1–6.
39. Gerson, H.B.P.; Sorby, S.A.; Wysocki, A.; Baartmans, B.J. The Development and Assessment of Multimedia Software for Improving
3-D Spatial Visualization Skills. Comput. Appl. Eng. Educ. 2001, 9, 105–113. [CrossRef]
40. Martin Gutierrez, J.; Garcia Dominguez, M.; Roca Gonzalez, C. Using 3D Virtual Technologies to Train Spatial Skills in Engineering.
Int. J. Eng. Educ. 2015, 31, 323–334.
41. Regian, J.W.; Shebilske, W.L.; Monk, J.M. Virtual Reality: An Instructional Medium for Visual-Spatial Tasks. J. Commun. 1992,
42, 136–149. [CrossRef]
42. Cho, J.Y. Three Areas of Research on Spatial Ability in the Architectural Design Domain. J. Archit. Eng. Technol. 2012, 1, 1.
[CrossRef]
43. Schnabel, M.A. The immersive virtual environment design studio. In Collaborative Design in Virtual Environments; Springer:
Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2011; pp. 177–191.
44. Milovanovic, J.; Moreau, G.; Siret, D.; Miguet, F. Virtual and Augmented Reality in Architectural Design and Education. In
Proceedings of the 17th International Conference; CAAD Futures: Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 2017.
45. Sandeep, G.; Harish, P. Tools and Techniques for Conceptual Design in Virtual Reality Environment. Manag. J. Future Eng. Technol.
2017, 12, 8. [CrossRef]
46. Yang, E.K.; Lee, J.H. Cognitive Impact of Virtual Reality Sketching on Designers’ Concept Generation. Digit. Creat. 2020, 1–16.
[CrossRef]
47. Roberts, G.; Holmes, N.; Alexander, N.; Boto, E.; Leggett, J.; Hill, R.M.; Shah, V.; Rea, M.; Vaughan, R.; Maguire, E.A.; et al.
Towards OPM-MEG in a Virtual Reality Environment. NeuroImage 2019, 199, 408–417. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
48. Kuliga, S.F.; Thrash, T.; Dalton, R.C.; Hölscher, C. Virtual Reality as an Empirical Research Tool—Exploring User Experience in a
Real Building and a Corresponding Virtual Model. Comput. Environ. Urban. Syst. 2015, 54, 363–375. [CrossRef]
49. Yeom, D.; Choi, J.-H.; Kang, S.-H. Investigation of the Physiological Differences in the Immersive Virtual Reality Environment
and Real Indoor Environment: Focused on Skin Temperature and Thermal Sensation. Build. Environ. 2019, 154, 44–54. [CrossRef]
50. Vandenberg, S.G.; Kuse, A.R. Mental Rotations, a Group Test of Three-Dimensional Spatial Visualization. Percept. Mot. Ski. 1978,
47, 599–604. [CrossRef]
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1475 23 of 23

51. Bennett, G.K.; Seashore, H.G.; Wesman, A.G. The Differential Aptitude Tests; Spanish Of.; TEA Ediciones: New York, NY, USA,
1947; Volume 35.
52. Hegarty, M.; Waller, D. A Dissociation between Mental Rotation and Perspective-Taking Spatial Abilities. Intelligence 2004,
32, 175–191. [CrossRef]
53. Kozhevnikov, M.; Hegarty, M. A Dissociation between Object Manipulation Spatial Ability and Spatial Orientation Ability.
Mem. Cognit. 2001, 29, 745–756. [CrossRef]
54. Osterrieth, P.A. Le Test de Copie d’une Figure Complexe; Contribution à l’étude de La Perception et de La Mémoire. [Test of
Copying a Complex Figure; Contribution to the Study of Perception and Memory.]. Arch. Psychol. 1944, 30, 206–356.
55. Bornstein, R.A. Normative Data on Selected Neuropsychological Measures from a Nonclinical Sample. J. Clin. Psychol. 1985,
41, 651–659. [CrossRef]
56. Caffarra, P.; Vezzadini, G.; Dieci, F.; Zonato, F.; Venneri, A. Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure: Normative Values in an Italian
Population Sample. Neurol. Sci. 2002, 22, 443–447. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
57. Bertolani, L.; De Renzi, E.; Faglioni, P. Normative Data on Non-Verbal Memory Test of Clinical Interest. Arch. Psicol. Neurol. Psichi-
atr. 1993, 54, 477–486.
58. Ardila, A.; Rosselli, M.; Rosas, P. Neuropsychological Assessment in Illiterates: Visuospatial and Memory Abilities. Brain Cogn.
1989, 11, 147–166. [CrossRef]
59. Homolja, M.; Maghool, S.A.H.; Schnabel, M.A. The Impact of Moving through the Built Environment on Emotional and
Neurophysiological State-A Systematic Literature Review. In Proceedings of the 25th CAADRIA Conference, Bangkok, Thailand,
5–6 August 2020.
60. Pallasmaa, J. The Thinking Hand: Existential and Embodied Wisdom in Architecture; Wiley Chichester: Chichester, UK, 2009; ISBN
0-470-77928-4.
61. Weisberg, S.M.; Newcombe, N.S. How Do (Some) People Make a Cognitive Map? Routes, Places, and Working Memory. J. Exp.
Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 2016, 42, 768–785. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
62. Carbonell-Carrera, C.; Saorin, J.L.; Hess-Medler, S. Spatial Orientation Skill for Landscape Architecture Education and Professional
Practice. Land 2020, 9, 161. [CrossRef]
63. Veurink, N.; Hamlin, A.J.; Sorby, S. Impact of Spatial Training on “Non-Rotators”. In Proceedings of the 68th Mid-Year Conference,
Worcester, MA, USA, 20–23 October 2013; pp. 15–22.
64. Ghani, I.; Rafi, A.; Woods, P. The Effect of Immersion towards Place Presence in Virtual Heritage Environments. Pers. Ubiquitous
Comput. 2020, 24, 861–872. [CrossRef]
65. Alatta, R.A.; Freewan, A. Investigating the effect of employing immersive virtual environment on enhancing spatial perception
within design process. ArchNet-IJAR Int. J. Archit. Res. 2017, 11, 219. [CrossRef]
66. Moloney, J.; Globa, A.; Wang, R.; Khoo, C. Principles for the Application of Mixed Reality as Pre-Occupancy Evaluation Tools
(P-OET) at the Early Design Stages. Archit. Sci. Rev. 2019, 63, 441–450. [CrossRef]
67. Ergan, S.; Radwan, A.; Zou, Z.; Tseng, H.; Han, X. Quantifying Human Experience in Architectural Spaces with Integrated Virtual
Reality and Body Sensor Networks. J. Comput. Civ. Eng. 2019, 33, 04018062. [CrossRef]
68. Degraen, D.; Zenner, A.; Krüger, A. Enhancing Texture Perception in Virtual Reality Using 3D-Printed Hair Structures. In
Proceedings of the 2019 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems; ACM: New York, NY, USA, 2019.
69. Shemesh, A.; Talmon, R.; Karp, O.; Amir, I.; Bar, M.; Grobman, Y.J. Affective Response to Architecture–Investigating Human
Reaction to Spaces with Different Geometry. Archit. Sci. Rev. 2017, 60, 116–125. [CrossRef]