OPEN FILE 2004–10

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR

Coloured Gemstone Deposits in the Yukon

by Lori Walton May, 2004

Tigerstar Geoscience

Illustrations by
Christine Bannerman

Energy, Mines and Resources

OPEN FILE 2004–10

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR

Coloured Gemstone Deposits in the Yukon

by Lori Walton May, 2004

Tigerstar Geoscience
Published under the authority of the Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources, Yukon Government

http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca

Printed in Whitehorse, Yukon, 2004.

© Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources, Yukon Government

This, and other Yukon Geological Survey publications, may be obtained from:

Geoscience and Information Sales

c/o Whitehorse Mining Recorder
102–300 Main Street
Box 2703 (K102)
Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada Y1A 2C6
phone (867) 667-5200, fax (867) 667-5150

Visit the Yukon Geological Survey web site at www.geology.gov.yk.ca

In referring to this publication, please use the following citation:

Walton, L., 2004. Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon. Yukon Geological
Survey, 184 p.

This report is based on the 1996 Open File 1996–2(G), Exploration criteria for gemstone deposits and
their application to Yukon geology, by L. Walton, Walton Geological Services, prepared for Exploration
and Geological Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 130 p.

Production by K-L Services, Whitehorse, Yukon.

Illustrations by Christine Bannerman.

Note: All prices in this report are given in U.S. dollars.

Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2. Field identification of gemstones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3. Ruby and sapphire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
4. Emerald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6. Chrysoberyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .131
8. Gem topaz and red beryl associated with rhyolites
and greisens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .157

9. Application to Yukon geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .161

Appendices
A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of
emerald deposits and exploration guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .177

B. Coloured posters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .182

 PREFACE

The ancient Greeks believed that four elements — fire, air, water and earth —
comprised the universe and that metals in ore deposits were water elements. There
is some scientific evidence today that the mysterious fifth element first postulated
by the Greeks may in fact exist as ‘dark energy’ or ‘dark matter’ comprising 95% of
our universe. Ancient Greek philosophers/naturalists/historians were, like all humans
thoughout history, fascinated by geology and gemstones, especially the beautiful
coloured gems that came from the island of Serendipity, or Sri Lanka. The physico-
chemical controls on gem formation were beautifully described in those days by
the philosopher Theophrastus who declared gemstones to be ‘solidified lynx urine’
and in fact valuable gem crystals grew wherever this beautiful feline decided to
pee. Before scoffing, we must think about how our present day ideas and models
for gemstone formation may be viewed not just 100 years in the future, but 1,000 or
even 10,000 years. Some of the best and most useful work on gemstone deposits is
not the fluid inclusion and stable isotope laboratory work, but the careful, detailed
and precise descriptions, sometimes hand drawn, of the geology, mineralogy and
general nature of the deposit. So little is known about some of the best gem deposits
on our planet, such as the ruby deposits of Burma or the sapphire deposits of Kashmir,
India. We must rely on descriptive geology done many years ago until we can unleash
our modern scientific arsenal to decode how and why these fabulous gems formed
and if there is potential for finding world-class coloured gemstone deposits in Canada.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to gratefully acknowledge the funding granted for this report by the
Yukon Geological Survey, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Government
of Yukon.

Many individuals contributed their expertise and took the time to discuss aspects
of gemstone deposits and I thank all of them. I would also like to thank the people
who contributed to the editing. Brad Wilson, Robert Simpson, Peter Long and Diane
Emond. K-L Services did their usual outstanding job. I would also like to thank my
family for their support.

2
 1. INTRODUCTION

For over 20,000 years and probably longer, humans have looked for beautiful and
durable natural materials from which to make personal ornaments and attractive
decorative objects. Shell necklaces from graves near Rome have been dated at 22,000
years old and amazingly, would not look out of place around the neck of a woman
from the 21st century. Magnificent jewellery sets of gold, lapis lazuli and carnelian
agate, belonging to a Sumerian queen in the area we now call Iraq, continue to
astonish us by their intricate beauty. Besides being beautiful, gems are an important
part of our cultural heritage on this planet. For centuries, gemstones have been a
globally recognized and easily transportable form of wealth. Their acquisition can
cost lives, as in the conquest of the Indian tribes of South America by the Spaniards
in the 16th century, or save lives, as in the efforts of Jewish people to leave Nazi
Germany before and during the Second World War. A more recent example is that of
emerald mining in Afghanistan, which helped finance the Northern Alliance rebellion
against Taliban-ruled Afghanistan in the late 1990s up to 2001. Now, at the beginning
of the 21st century, consumers are becoming more and more aware of the manner
in which gems are mined and marketed. Canada’s fledgling gem trade has no long
tradition or history behind it, but we can market our stones as being mined in a
socially and environmentally responsible manner.

For decades, Canadian geologists have been at the leading edge of developing
exploration guidelines and techniques for exploring for gold, silver, copper, lead,
nickel and zinc deposits, and, more recently diamond deposits. Before diamonds
were discovered in the Northwest Territories, Canadian geologists and prospectors
really had no idea what the kimberlitic hostrock for diamond looked like and how to
find it. Since then, there has been a flood of technical special volumes, short courses,
seminars and papers outlining diamond exploration guidelines for geologists and
prospectors. In fact, in less than 15 years, the geologists of Canada have become
world-leaders in the geology of diamond deposits and how to explore for them.

When it comes to coloured gemstones like ruby, emerald and sapphire, geologists
and prospectors know very little about how to explore for and evaluate occurrences
of these very rare minerals. Recent discoveries of emerald mineralization in the Yukon,
Northwest Territories and Ontario have generated a flurry of scientific papers and
heightened awareness of the coloured gemstone market, but it is still an unfamiliar
market, not only to exploration geologists, but also to governments, securities
commissions and investors.

A main area of concern is that of identification of gem rough in the field. Many, if
not most coloured gemstones we see today in jewellery stores are coated, fracture-
filled, dyed and/or irradiated in linear accelerators in efforts to enhance their
appearance. Heat treatment is the most common technique used. The gemstones

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 3
1. Introduction

that one sees in the jewellery store, the vivid violet-blue tanzanites, midnight blue
sapphires, crimson red rubies and brilliant yellow sapphires, are typically, almost
without exception, heat-treated or treated in some other manner to improve their
appearance. In some cases this improvement is dramatic, as in the heat treatment
of tanzanite, which transforms non-descript greyish crystals to vivid violet-blue
stones. Buckets of plain white, cloudy corundum (sapphire) crystals can be heat
treated to a clear, sparkly midnight blue. Emeralds are quite easy to identify in the
field, although almost all of them have been oiled after mining to improve the clarity
of the stone. Most gem crystals are difficult to identify in the field in their rough form
and embedded within the hostrock, or within a bucket of placer concentrate.

SCOPE OF THIS OPEN FILE

This report is an updated version of an Open File report (Walton, 1996) describing
the geology and geochemistry of gemstone deposits and applicable exploration
criteria. At the time of the 1996 report, emeralds had not yet been reported in the
Yukon or NWT and yet it was obvious that Canada’s geology is very prospective
for significant coloured gemstone deposits. Exploration efforts in the north are
hampered by the short exploration season and harsh climate. The 1996 report
and this update are both aimed at exploration geologists and prospectors who
are unfamiliar with the geology of gemstone deposits and how to explore for
them. Its objective is to provide information on gemstone deposit geology and
provide general guidelines for the identification of, and exploration for, gemstone
occurrences. The report focuses on a selection of some of the most valuable

Educating the Canadian mining industry

Listed below are some significant Canadian Gemstones: Old & New, by Northern Gems Short Course, organized
papers, seminars and short courses on Willow Wight. (Excerpts from a by L. Walton, H. Falck and S. Craig,
the subject of the geology of coloured presentation, Canadian Gemological presented at 2002 Geoscience Forums
gemstones. In addition, the Canadian Association Conference in Toronto, in Whitehorse and Yellowknife.
Institute of Gemology and the Canadian 1994.) Canadian Gemmologist, 1995, Gem Materials and Mineralogy, special
Gemological Association sponsor XVI (3) p. 82–87. session organized by L. Groat,
gemstone talks and seminars throughout University of British Columbia,
the year, and there are articles on Sessions and short courses
Geological Association of Canada
gemstones on the Canadian Rockhound Coloured Gemstones and Ornamental
– Mineralogical Association of Canada
website. Stones II Session, Chaired by
Annual General Meeting, Vancouver,
G. Simandl and D. Lefebure, Canadian
Papers 2003.
Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Gemstones of Canada, by Warren F. April 27–30, 1997, Vancouver, British Websites
Boyd and Willow Wight. Journal Colombia. Canadian Rockhound:
of Gemmology, 1983, vol. 18, no. 6,
Gemstones of the Pacific Rim Session, www.canadianrockhound.com
p. 544–562.
Meeting of the Cordilleran Section Canadian Gemological Institute:
Gemstone Occurrences in British Columbia, of the Geological Society of America, www.cigem.ca
by Bradley Wilson, Canadian April 27–29, 2000, Vancouver, British
Gemmologist, 1997, vol. 18, no. 3. Canadian Gemological Association:
Colombia.
www.canadiangemological.com
Explosion of New Interest in Canadian
Gemstones, by Willow Wight, Canadian
Gemmologist, 1999, XX(2), p. 45–129.

4
 1. Introduction

gemstones in the global gem trade: ruby, sapphire, emerald, chrysoberyl, tsavorite
garnet, tanzanite and the gem minerals (topaz, aquamarine, tourmaline) found
in pegmatites or rhyolites. Exploration criteria for other gemstones such as opal,
nephrite jade, jadeite jade, zircon, lapis lazuli and rhodonite are beyond the scope of
this report.

For each gem mineral covered in this report, background information is introduced
and the physical and chemical characteristics of the gem are presented. The geology
and genesis of each gem deposit type is summarized and exploration guidelines are
listed. Because pegmatites are so closely associated with several gemstones, such
as aquamarine, tourmaline and topaz, there is a chapter devoted to pegmatites and
their gem minerals. Topaz rhyolite is a distinctive deposit type which is discussed
in Chapter 8. Application of the exploration criteria to Yukon geology is given in
Chapter 9. Reference lists are provided to those readers who want to pursue further
details.

For this version of the Open File, the existing English language literature on gemstone
deposits was identified through databases such as GEOREF and the Geological Survey
of Canada catalog. Research was carried out on-line, through interviews and by
utilizing the Geological Survey of Canada library in Ottawa, the University of British
Columbia library, the main public library in Vancouver, the University of Alberta
library and various magazines and newspapers. An invaluable source, as always, was
the Government of the Yukon, Department of Energy, Mines and Resources library in
Whitehorse, Yukon and its very knowledgeable librarians.

One of the difficulties in developing exploration guidelines is that many of the world’s
gem deposits are unique. The global supply of tanzanite (the fifth largest selling
coloured gemstone in the United States jewellery trade), for example, comes from
one deposit in northern Tanzania. The largest and most prolific emerald deposits
in the world are in Colombia; and these deposits have a unique paragenesis which
is not duplicated anywhere else in the world. It is difficult to determine the range
of variations and physico-chemical conditions under which a particular type of
gemstone deposit may form, if there is only one deposit to study.

ABOUT COLOURED GEMSTONES

There are over 4,000 known mineral species, however, very few of these are
gemstones. A gemstone can be defined as a mineral, or in the case of coral or pearl,
an organic substance, which looks attractive when fashioned into an ornamental
object such as a bead, carving, box, cabochon or faceted stone. A gemstone’s value
is based on its beauty, rarity, durability and history behind that particular stone. Well
known gemstones such as diamond, emerald, ruby and sapphire have all four of
these qualities, which makes them more valuable than, for example, quartz, which is
beautiful, attractive and durable, but not rare.

The carat is the standard unit of measure in the global gem trade. One carat is equal
to 1/5 of a gram or 200 milligrams. The size of a one carat faceted gemstone will differ
according to the specific gravity of that gem. For an easy reference, the size of an
eraser at the end of a pencil is usually about one carat.

The global gem trade is divided into two broad categories: diamonds and coloured
stones. (A third smaller category includes organic materials such as pearl and

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 5
1. Introduction

coral.) Unlike diamonds, there is no standard grading or pricing system in place for
ruby, sapphire, emerald or other coloured stones. The price of coloured gemstones
fluctuates according to supply and demand and depends on the quality and size
of the gemstone rough. The price set also depends on the country from which the
gemstone was mined. For instance, a quality ruby from Burma because of its superior
colour, fetches a higher price than a comparable ruby from any other source. In
order to take advantage of this price premium, rubies in the wholesale trade may be
described by sellers as ‘Burmese,’ ‘Burma-like,’ ‘Burmese pigeon-blood red,’ etc. The
stone may have actually been mined in Africa, but the dealer knows that rubies from
Burma are more valuable, and this is reflected in the ‘name’ given to the stone to
make it sell at a higher price.

From its discovery in some far-off land to its final destination in a jewellery store
window, a gemstone’s value is marked up several times. The increase in value to
size is not a one-to-one relationship, since larger coloured gemstones are more
rare. Hughes (1997) describes the ‘Indian Law’ or ‘Tavernier’s Law’ formula for
determining the price of a gem:

Wt2 x C = price per stone

Where Wt = weight of gem in carats

C = Cost of a one-carat gemstone of equal quality

Price per stone = the weight of the gem squared multiplied by the price of a one-
carat gemstone

Obviously, the price paid by the consumer in a jewellery store and the amount of
As Pliny, the historian of the money earned by the diligent gemstone prospector or miner in selling the gem
ancient Greek world put it so rough are grossly different (Table 1.1). Also spectacular is the progression of heat
eloquently, “To tell the truth, treatment, irradiation, dying, and other kinds of treatment to improve upon a gem’s
there is no fraud or deceit in natural colour or clarity. Naturally, as long as humans have sought after and lusted
the world which yields greater after gems, they have created a multitude of methods to create fake gems. As
gain and profit than that of an example, Pliny, the natural historian who lived from 23 to 79 A.D., described
counterfeiting gems.” how stones could be soaked in vinegar to improve their colour. Ancient Sanscrit
translations describe how to cook gems over a fire to improve their colour; an early
description of heat treatment (Hughes, 1997). Besides heat treating, people have
used more ‘natural’ methods of treating gems; for example pearls. As Hughes (1997)
reports, the whiteness and luster of pearl is improved by the grinding action and
acidic conditions of the intestinal track of chickens.

Table 1.1. This chart illustrates a Distributor Purchase price Mark-up Selling price
hypothetical ‘mark-up’ of a 5-carat Miner 5-carat rough ruby – $100/carat rough
rough ruby mined in southeast Small-time gem rough buyer $100/carat rough 30% $130/carat rough
Asia and eventually cut and sold Cutter (a 5-carat rough stone cut to a $130/carat rough 30% $845/carat cut
in an American retail jewellery 1-carat stone)
store. Modified from Hughes Dealer $845/carat cut 20% $1014/carat cut
(1997). Bangkok dealer $1014/carat cut 28% $1300/carat cut
U.S. buyer $1300/carat cut 40% $1820/carat cut
U.S. jewellery manufacturer $1820/carat cut 50% $2730/carat cut and set
U.S. retail jeweler $2730/carat cut and set 100% $5460/cut and set
U.S. consumer $5460 cut and set

6
 1. Introduction

One of the main problems in the coloured stone trade is the lack of deposits which
produce a regular supply of facetable material. For example, tsavorite garnet is a
beautiful gem that has never been able to fetch the higher price it deserves, simply
because the supply of tsavorite is very limited. Only a handful of mines in the world
provide regular supplies of good to excellent grade of coloured gemstone rough;
and the jewellery industry needs to ensure that a regular supply is definitely available
before the money is spent on marketing and promoting the stone.

A problem specific to Canada, and perhaps a few other countries, is the lack of
awareness in the mining community about the coloured gemstone trade and its
value. This lack of awareness creates problems in government departments and
agencies, especially in the area of ore reserve estimation and valuation. It is hoped
that this updated Open File will help promote awareness of the geological and
geochemical environments in which coloured gemstones form, and that Canada
will soon be known as a producer of the full spectrum of quality gemstones, from
diamond to emerald, rubies, sapphires and other beautiful gems.

REFERENCES
Hughes, R.W., 1997. Ruby and Sapphire. RWH Publishing, Boulder, Colorado, 512 p.

Walton, L., 1996. Exploration Criteria for Gemstone Deposits and their Application to
Yukon Geology. Exploration and Geological Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian
and Northern Affairs Canada, Open File 1996–2(G), 130 p.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 7
8
 2. FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF GEMSTONES

INTRODUCTION
Gemstone deposits can be discovered by using the same basic prospecting and
exploration techniques used for precious metal and base metal exploration and
diamond exploration. Most of the techniques used by geologists and prospectors
such as surface prospecting, heavy mineral sampling, soil sampling and geochemical
surveys can be adapted for gemstone deposit prospecting. The most important
factor is that the exploration geologist or prospector must be aware of the
appearance of gemstone rough in the field and the geological environments in
which gemstones can form. The book Prospecting for Gemstones and Minerals by
John Sinkankas is recommended as a practical guide to the techniques of gemstone
prospecting and collecting.

Gemstones can be found in place (in situ) or in secondary eluvial, colluvial and
alluvial deposits (Figure 2.1). Most gemstones are hard, resistant to weathering, and

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Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 9
2. Field identification of gemstones

have a specific gravity higher than that of the common rock-forming minerals. They
concentrate in alluvial deposits the same way that gold placers develop.

This chapter provides some supplemental information on field techniques and

equipment which might help find and identify gemstone rough.

The most basic exploration technique is to closely observe bedrock, eluvial and
alluvial deposits for any bright coloured or unusual crystals. This is accomplished by
visual prospecting, and sampling gravels and sediments in streams. In areas where
outcrop is rare, rock and mineral fragments in soil samples can be used as indicators
for bedrock or mineral deposits below the surface. Canadian geologists have long
used this same technique by studying the waste dirt piles created by the ubiquitous
digging beast known as the ground squirrel, gopher and many other not-so benign
names. Unusual or glittering mineral grains spotted within the handy little heaps of
dirt provide a glimpse of what lies under the surface. In gem-rich Tanzania, where
everyone is aware of the value of what lies underneath the flat African grassland,
prospectors and tribal bushmen alike make it a habit to examine antheaps for
gemstone fragments. They also lift up tufts of grass to examine the dirt underneath,
much like Canadian geologists and prospectors like to examine uprooted tree stumps
for gold nuggets.

Most prospectors and exploration geologists are familiar with basic mineral
identification tools such as a knife, streak plate, magnet and hand lens, and
know how to use them. Gemstone prospecting requires some additional field
equipment. Effective use can be made of instruments routinely used for gemstone
identification in the gem and jewellery trade. Depending on one’s enthusiasm for
mineral and gemstone identification, a home ‘lab’ can be set up at very little expense
using hand-made instruments or, for more expense, bought instruments (Dunn,
1993). Although some of these instruments require special training, a few of them can
be adapted for use in gemstone exploration. Gemstone identification reference books
by Liddicoat (1981) and Webster (1983) are recommended.

INSTRUMENTS FOR IDENTIFYING GEMSTONE ROUGH

Thermal testing probe
Thermal testing probes were first introduced to the jewellery market in the late 1970s
as a quick and easy method of separating diamond from diamond simulants. I have
successfully used one of these probes, the GEM DiamondMaster (specifically called
the “Pocket Diamond Tester1”), for identification of diamond rough and gem
corundum (ruby and sapphire) rough. A description of the thermal properties of
gems and the use of the Pocket Diamond Tester probe in gem identification is given
by Hoover (1983). The probe measures the thermal inertia of a gemstone, which is
how fast the surface temperature of a material can be changed by application of a
given quantity of heat-per-second to the surface. This property is illustrated by the
cold feeling of mineral crystals compared to the warm feeling of glass or plastic when
held in one’s hand.

1Available from the Gemological Institute of America; follow the ‘gem instruments link’ at www.gia.org.

10
 2. Field identification of gemstones

The copper rod tip is placed on a gemstone and the temperature difference
between the hot internal junction and the surface temperature of the gem material
is measured. Many probes on the market operate by emitting a single beep or
showing a red light when diamond is identified; these kinds of probes are not very
useful for identification of gemstone rough. The Pocket Diamond Tester provides
a semiquantitative analysis by the use of a meter, which helps to identify other
gemstones in addition to diamond. Thermal testing instruments should never be
used as a conclusive test to identify a gem, but instead used to help confirm an
identification or as a guide. In addition, the Pocket Diamond Tester is extremely
rugged; over the years I have lent it out to various prospectors for entire field seasons,
and it is still in good working condition.

Next to diamond, the most useful identification is that of corundum, which has the
largest thermal inertia next to diamond. It may be possible to separate spinel and
garnet as well. When the probe tip is placed on a corundum grain, the meter gives an
average reading of 60% of the scale. Spinel gives a reading of 35% of the scale and
garnet registers 0%. Topaz should register between garnet and corundum.

Dichroscope
Some minerals split light into two rays when light passes through the stone. This
feature, called double refraction, is based on the internal crystal structure and
chemical composition of the mineral. Minerals or gems which are doubly refractive
will show two or even three different or slightly different colours when viewed
through a dichroscope. A dichroscope is a small tube, about 2.5 cm long, which
contains two polaroid plates, or pieces of optical calcite, at right angles to each
other. It is used to determine pleochroic colours. One can observe pleochroic colours
by looking at the gem through the tube while shining a light behind the gem. A
dichroscope works best on larger, transparent crystals. For example, ruby crystals
(doubly refractive) can easily be separated from two other (singly refractive) red
gemstones, garnet and spinel. Gemstones which are singly refractive such as spinel
and garnet do not show pleochroic colours. Care must be taken to look for pleochroic
colours in more than one direction.

Heavy liquids
Canadian exploration geologists and prospectors became more aware of the use
of heavy liquids in the early 1990s because of their use in separating out diamond
indicator minerals. Minerals with a low specific gravity will float, while minerals with
a higher specific gravity will sink. Most gemstones will sink in methylene iodide liquid
(specific gravity of 3.32), which is an easy method of separating them from quartz,
feldspar and other common minerals (Table 2.1).

A small vial of methylene iodide can be carried in the field to provide a quick specific
gravity test. A couple of density ‘standards’ like a tourmaline crystal (will sink) can
be left in the liquid to ensure it is calibrated. A copper penny left in the vial will help
prevent the liquid turning brown or black on exposure to light (due to release of
free iodine). Although methylene iodide is the least toxic of several heavy liquids,
care must be taken to keep the vial from being broken and to keep it away from
children. A less toxic heavy liquid called sodium polytungstate is being sold. It is

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 11
2. Field identification of gemstones

Table 2.1. Specific gravity of Specific Specific

gemstones. Modified from gravity Gemstone gravity Gemstone
Anderson (1990) 1.08 Amber 3.18 Spodumene
1.29 Tortoiseshell 3.33 Jadeite Jade
1.80 Ivory 3.34 Peridot
2.00 Bone 3.35 Zoisite (tanzanite)
2.00 Fire Opal 3.52 Diamond
2.10 Opal 3.53 Topaz (pink)
2.40 Obsidian 3.53 Topaz (yellow)
2.57 Moonstone 3.56 Topaz (white)
2.60 Chalcedony (agate, carnelian) 3.53 Sphene
2.65 Quartz 3.60 Spinel
2.68 Coral 3.65 Garnet (hessonite)
2.69 Beryl (aquamarine) 3.7 to 3.8 Garnet (pyrope)
2.69 Beryl (yellow) 3.72 Chrysoberyl
2.71 Beryl (emerald) 3.85 Garnet (demantoid)
2.80 Beryl (pink) 3.9 to 4.20 Garnet (almandine)
2.71 Pearl (natural) 3.99 Corundum
2.75 Pearl (cultured) 4.0 to 4.5 Zircon (green)
2.70 Turquoise (American) 4.69 Zircon (blue, white, golden)
2.80 Turquoise (Iranian and Egyptian) 4.90 Pyrite
2.8 Lapis Lazuli 5.10 Hematite
3.00 Nephrite Jade 10.50 Silver
3.05 Tourmaline 19.3 Gold
3.15 Andalusite 21.50 Platinum
3.18 Fluorite

not volatile and, unlike methylene iodide, has no noxious odor. It has a base density
of 2.8.

Pans and screens

Most gemstones are heavier than common minerals like quartz and feldspar. One of
the most efficient ways of prospecting for gemstones in a particular area is to sample
and examine the heavy mineral fraction of gravels, stream sediments or eluvial
deposits. By doing this, the gemstone potential of the entire drainage area can be
evaluated.

One method is to concentrate the heavy minerals by using a gold pan. This technique
is often used by crews carrying out mineral exploration for precious and base metals,
or diamond exploration crews looking for pathfinder minerals. The concentrate can
be examined with an ultraviolet light (see next section) and then sent on for chemical
assay. The problem with examining the heavy mineral fraction is that the material
tends to be very fine grained and it may be difficult to pick out gemstone material
that is not brightly coloured or does not glow under ultraviolet light.

One of the best ways to separate heavy gemstone minerals from soil, clay, sand or
other minerals is to use screens. Sinkankas (1970) describes the use of two types of
screens, an ordinary box screen and a cone screen.

12
 2. Field identification of gemstones

O RDINARY BOX SCREEN

An ordinary box screen is good for separating gem minerals from soil, gravel, clay or
common minerals. Sinkankas (1970) gives detailed instructions on how to construct
a box using the desired screen size. The screen can be used with dry material or with
water. He recommends a rectangular screen no more than 18 inches x 24 inches in
size be used for a single person to operate. These screens or sieves can be purchased
at most geological field supply stores.

CONE SCREEN
By using a cone screen, heavy minerals of a particular size can be examined. When
the screen is filled about half full with unsorted material, it is moved up and down
in water and the heavy minerals settle at the apex of the cone. The cone screen can
then be taken and flipped over. Heavy minerals settled at the apex will show up
at the top of the pile. Sinkankas (1970) tested the cone screen method by mixing
garnets, which are high in specific gravity, with lighter feldspar. He used a cone-
shaped kitchen sieve, about 8 inches in diameter to separate 15 lbs of garnet from
100 lbs of unsorted material in about 1 hour.

Ultraviolet light
An ultraviolet light is one of the most useful instruments for gemstone
identification. It is the quickest method, for example, of distinguishing between ruby
and garnet. There are several small, portable models of ultraviolet light which emit
both longwave and shortwave radiation.

Other tools
A few other instruments which may be useful in gem rough identification include the
Chelsea Filter, refractive index oils, spectroscope, and using the refractive index of
heavy liquids to estimate the refractive index of the gem rough.

REFERENCES
Anderson, B.W., 1990. Gem Testing (10th edition). Revised by E.A. Jobbins, Butterworth
& Co. Ltd., London, England, 390 p.

Dunn, P.J., 1993. Mineral identification in the home laboratory: some useful techniques.
Mineralogical Record, vol. 24, p. 3–9.

Hoover, D.B., 1983, GEM DiamondMaster and thermal properties of gems. Gems and
Gemology, vol. 19, no. 2, p. 77–86.

Liddicoat, R.T., Jr., 1981. Handbook of Gem Identification (11th edition). Gemological
Institute of America, Santa Monica, California, U.S.A., 450 p.

Proctor, K., 1984. Gem pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: Exploration, occurrence, and
acquamarine deposits. Gems and Gemology, vol. 20, no. 4, p. 78–100.

Sinkankas, J., 1970. Prospecting for Gemstones and Minerals (2nd edition). Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, New York, U.S.A., 397 p.

Webster, R., 1983. Gems - Their Sources, Descriptions and Identification (4th edition).
Butterworth & Co. Ltd., London, England, 1006 p.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 13
14
 3. RUBY AND SAPPHIRE

INTRODUCTION
Although it had been suspected for centuries, it was only in the year 1802 that ruby
and sapphire were proven to be varieties of the same mineral species, corundum
(Hughes, 1997). The word ‘ruby’ is derived from the Latin word ruber, meaning red,
and refers to transparent or translucent red corundum crystals. The exact origin of
the word ‘sapphire’ is unknown, but in ancient times ‘sapphire’ was used to refer to all
blue gemstones, including lapis lazuli. Today, blue gem (translucent or transparent)
corundum is called sapphire and all other colours including yellow, orange, violet,
green, brown and black corundum are referred to by colour (e.g., yellow sapphire,
green sapphire, pink-orange sapphire).

Ruby and sapphire in jewellery first appeared in Europe in Greco-Roman

times. Ancient jewellery such as a necklace dating back to 400 A.D. found in
Carthage, Tunisia featured blue sapphires, most likely from Sri Lanka. In Pliny’s Natural
History, written 2,000 years ago, he discusses the gem ‘carbunculus’ (some of which
were probably rubies) and how ancient lapidaries used to treat the gems with vinegar
to enhance their appearance (human nature has remained consistent throughout the
centuries).

Ruby and sapphire are the most important coloured gemstones in today’s world
gem trade; together they account for over 50% of global gem production (Hughes,
1990). Ruby is the world’s most expensive gemstone; the best Burmese rubies are
more valued than an equivalent-sized flawless diamond. The world record price at
auction paid for a ruby is $227,300 per carat in 1988 for a 15.97-carat Burmese ruby
(total $3.63 million)1. The world record price paid at auction for a blue sapphire is
$2.8 million for a spectacular 62-carat rectangular-cut royal blue Burmese sapphire;
this works out to $45,000 per carat.

For the previous edition of this Open File, the book Corundum by Hughes (1990)
was an invaluable comprehensive gemological and geological overview of gem
corundum. For this edition, the successor book Ruby and Sapphire by Hughes (1997)
is even more splendid in its literary treatment and content. Hughes accomplishes
the notable feat of relating rubies and sapphires to sex, in addition to discussing the
origin of our universe, all in one page (no. 258). The book is a fascinating treatise
on absolutely everything to do with ruby and sapphire. The in-depth Geology of
Gems, recently translated from Russian (Kievlenko, 2003) and edited by Canadian
Art Soregaroli, provides a wonderful chapter on ruby and sapphire deposits with
a focus on the geology. Gemstones of Afghanistan by Bowersox and Chamberlain
(1995) is full of geological information on the famous ‘lost’ ruby mines in this war-
torn country. For a general overview, the book Rubies and Sapphires (Ward, 1995)
1The only exception is a record $926,315 per carat paid for a .95-carat red-purple diamond at auction in 1987.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 15
3. Ruby and sapphire

is recommended. This is an easy-to-read book full of first-hand information and

photographs. The book is an extension of articles about gemstones written for
National Geographic Magazine. For readers interested in buying fine quality ruby
and sapphire, the book The Ruby and Sapphire Buying Guide by Newman (1994) is
recommended.

Global sources of ruby and sapphire

Most Canadian geologists and prospectors are familiar with statistics citing the
rarity of diamond deposits. From recent short courses, papers, seminars and
articles in Canadian mining newspapers and magazines, geologists are aware that
of approximately 6,000 known kimberlites, only 10% have diamonds and of those
only 1%2 have been mined. Diamond deposits are indeed rare, however, there are
several significant new Canadian diamond mines and prospects in Canada and
active exploration for diamonds is locating diamondiferous kimberlite around the
globe. The situation is much different with ruby and sapphire.

Commercial deposits of rubies are very, very rare. Hughes (1990) lists only 10
deposits world-wide which produce significant amounts of ruby and/or sapphire of
facetable or even cabochon quality (Table 3.1). An updated map is shown in Figure
3.1. Cabochon quality means that the crystals are not transparent, however, they are
translucent enough that they can be polished into an attractive dome-shape (e.g., star
sapphires). Significant occurrences of ruby discovered since 1990 include those in
Vietnam, Madagascar and the Mong Hsu area of Burma (Burma). Other deposits not
listed are known to occasionally produce gem corundum; these include Idaho (U.S.),
North Carolina (U.S.), Mozambique, China, Malawi, and Russia (Table 3.2).

Table 3.1. Major sources of ruby Locality Mode of occurrence

and sapphire. Modified from Mogok, Mong Hsu, Burma Ruby is most common, also blue sapphire, yellow,
Hughes (1990). violet and green sapphires, stars and colour change
(marble host rock)
Chanthaburi, Kanchanaburi, Trat and Phrae Ruby, blue, yellow, green and black star sapphires
provinces, Thailand and Pailin, Cambodia (alkali basalt host rock)
Sri Lanka All colours of gem corundum except green (granulite
facies metamorphic rocks)
Luc Yen, Vietnam Ruby, other (marble)
Madagascar Ruby and sapphire
Kashmir, India Blue sapphire, rare pink, also star sapphire (feldspar
pegmatites)
Queensland and New South Wales, Australia Blue, green, yellow and black star sapphires (alkali
basalt)
Jagdalek, Afghanistan Ruby (marble)
Umba Valley, Tanzania All colours of gem corundum (ultramafic intruded by
pegmatite)
Mangari District, Kenya Ruby (ultramafic intruded by pegmatite)
Yogo Gulch, Montana, U.S. Blue and lilac sapphires (lamprophyre dyke)
Kaduna, Nigeria Mainly blue sapphires, also greens, yellows and
bicolour (alkali basalt)

2From Northern Gems Short Course, Whitehorse, Yukon, 2002, talk by M. Dufresene, Apex Geoscience Ltd.

16
 3. Ruby and sapphire

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Figure 3.1. Ruby and sapphire For over 800 years, the alluvial deposits at Mogok, Burma3 have been the source of
deposits. the world’s ‘best’ rubies. Official closure of the mines in 1962 led to the promotion
of easily attainable Thailand and Cambodian rubies, long considered to be inferior,
as the new global ‘ideal.’ Traditional sources in Chanthaburi, Thailand, and Pailin,
Cambodia were major producers of ruby during the 1980s (Shigley et al., 1990). Ruby
deposits in Kenya, Vietnam, and Madagascar became significant as the traditional
areas in Thailand became depleted. Hughes (1990) reports that sapphire and ruby
mining proceeded at such a frantic rate in Thailand during the 1980s that he observed
one operation where the miners dumped gem-bearing mud into a tunnel that ran
directly beneath their houses into a jig on the other side. The enterprising Thai gem
industry now absorbs sapphire production from Australia and Sri Lanka. The prolific
Pailin gem district in Cambodia now suffers from the horrific aura of being the last
Khmer Rouge stronghold in Cambodia, leaving a legacy of deadly land mines and

Table 3.2. Minor sources of ruby Locality Mode of occurrence

and sapphire. Modified from North Carolina, U.S. Mainly ruby, also sapphires of various colour
Hughes (1990). (ultrabasic rocks)
Hunza Valley, Pakistan Mainly ruby, some purple to violet sapphires (marble)
Mingxi Fujiian Province, China Yellow-green, green, blue-green and blue sapphires
(alkali basalt)
Penglai and Wenchang, Hainan Island, China Translucent to opaque ruby (alkali basalt)
Sichuan Province, China Translucent to opaque ruby
Mercaderes-Rio Mayo area, Cauca, Colombia Blue and green sapphires, yellows, pinks, reds and
colour-change stones (alkali basalt)
Rio Coxim, Mato Grosso, Brazil Blue sapphires
Ural Mountain area, Russia Ruby, pink corundum
Chimwadzulu Hill, Malawi All colours
Barauta, Zimbabwe Blue sapphire (pegmatite)

3In 1989, the military dictatorship government changed the country’s name to the Union of Myanmar. For

this Open File, the historic name of Burma is used.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 17
3. Ruby and sapphire

The story of the rise of the Australian sapphire

Sapphires were first discovered in Broughton (1979) states that the Thailand in the 1980s was actually
1851 in Australia by an observant state Russian nobility favoured the deep, mined in Australia.
geological surveyor, who noticed the inky blue colour of the Australian An increased volume of sapphire
gems in a gold sluicebox. sapphire. Hughes (1990) suggests that mined from Thailand in the 1990s has
During the 1980s, Australia emerged perhaps the Russian court favoured the decreased the Australian share to 25 to
as a major supplier of sapphires, due to much lower price of Australian sapphire 30% (Levinson and Cook, 1994). As
increased mining efficiencies and the as opposed to Burma or Sri Lankan noted in Hughes (1997), there are
heat treatment processes of Thai sapphire sapphire, and that colour was not as continual complaints from Australians
buyers. The Anakie field, the largest of much of an issue. who are resentful that the bulk of their
two Australian sapphire districts, was In any case, mining was intermittent gem sapphire production is sent to
developed in the years before World War I until the 1980s when, owing to declining Thailand for processing, cutting and
by German gem merchants to supply the production in Thailand and Cambodia, distribution, however, without Thai
Russian Imperial Court with sapphires. Australia emerged as the primary source efficiency and skill at heat treatment, the
Australian sapphires have always been of sapphire in the world. Almost all sapphire industry would never be able
considered ‘inferior’ and ‘substandard’ in Australian production in the 1980s and to sustain itself due to high Australian
the gem trade due to strong blue/green 1990s was sold to Thai buyers who took labour costs.
pleochroism and the dark blue, almost the stones to Thailand, heat-treated them
black colour of the stones. Depending and put them on the global marketplace
on how the stone is cut, many Australian (sometimes as Thai stones). It is
sapphires end up showing a greenish tint estimated by Coldham (1985) that 50%
which is considered unattractive. by weight of sapphire sold through

ex-Khmer Rouge soldiers digging for gems. During the last couple of years, the
military dictatorship government of Burma was loosening trade restrictions and
a brand new ruby deposit at Mong Hsu provided a much needed global source
of excellent Burmese rubies. Most recently, in July, 2003, the U.S. government
announced an embargo in response to an attack on government opposition leader
and Nobel laureate Aung San Suu Kyi that bans the import into the U.S. of any
Burmese precious gemstones, jewellery and mineral specimens. Since Burma supplies
95% of the higher-end rubies in the global coloured stone trade4, there will definitely
be an impact. Another government policy which may have a significant impact on
the global coloured gemstone market is the anticipated upcoming announcement by
the Sri Lankan government to ban all export of gueda sapphires. These are colourless
sapphires routinely sent out of the country to Thailand to be heat-treated and sold.

The ruby and sapphire gem market and pricing

One of the great connoisseur’s of ruby and sapphire is the gem dealer Richard
Hughes, who devotes a fascinating chapter in his book (Hughes, 1997) on how to
judge the quality of fine ruby and sapphire. Although starting off with a rather weird
discussion about eating pork and flat earth theory, he then summarizes what to look
for when buying ruby and sapphire. The following information is taken largely from
that chapter.

One of the more interesting sections in the chapter is a ranking of rubies and
sapphires in order of importance by origin, meaning a list of most valuable, per carat,
to least valuable. This is summarized at the top of the following page.

4From www.ruby-sapphire.com and interesting articles on the Burma situation by R. Hughes (1997).

18
 3. Ruby and sapphire

QUALITY RANKING OF RUBIES QUALITY RANKING OF BLUE SAPPHIRES BY

BY COUNTRY COUNTRY
1. Burma 1. India (Kashmir)
2. Vietnam 2. Burma
3. Sri Lanka 3. Sri Lanka
4. Kenya, Tanzania 4. All other sources: Australia, Cambodia,
5. Afghanistan China, Nigeria, Thailand, U.S.
6. Thailand/Cambodia
7. India

When buying a quality ruby or sapphire, the colour, clarity, cut and overall look of the
stone are important.

A customer in a Canadian jewellery store can expect to pay $1,500 to $4,000 per carat
(CDN) for a fine quality one-carat blue sapphire. A fine quality one-carat red ruby may
go for between $5,000 to $8,000 (CDN). Prices may fluctuate from store to store by as
much as ± $2,000 per carat for the same gem. This is because the definition of ‘fine’
may vary from one store to another, the original wholesale price of the gem may vary,
and each store’s mark-up from wholesale to retail pricing is different5.

As mentioned earlier, the effect of heat on rubies and sapphires has been known
and used for hundreds if not thousands of years. Hughes (1997) points out that
Sanskrit texts dating back a thousand years mention heat treatment to improve the
appearance of what are probably Sri Lankan sapphires. It was only during the 1970s
that treatment on an industrial scale began and spread so pervasively that now, sadly,
it is very, very rare to see a ruby or sapphire that has not been heat-treated. Heat
treatment on such a large scale began when Thai gem dealers found that they could
easily heat treat a cloudy, colourless to pale type of sapphire crystal from Sri Lanka,
called geuda, to produce a beautiful clear blue gem by changing the valence state of
the iron and melting the rutile inclusions. Now crystals from Thailand, Australia and
other places are routinely heat-treated.

A trained gemologist can not only detect heat treatment, but also diffusion
treatments, glass infilling of cracks, irradiation, coatings, dyes and oils. There are also
the ubiquitous vermiel synthetic rubies, responsible for over 90% of all synthetic
corundums produced worldwide (Hughes, 1997). Even at the ‘source,’ gem miners
will acquire cheap vermiel rough and break it, burn it, heat it, cool it and tumble
For everything about corundum, it so it looks like a genuine rough gem corundum crystal. In fact, initial parcels of
from a corundum enthusiast’s Vietnamese rough sold to U.S. and European dealers shortly after the discovery of
point-of-view, check out the gem ruby in Vietnam in the early 1990s contained so much synthetic ruby that this
website at www.corunduminium. source quickly lost favour with gem trade dealers for quite some time. Synthetic
com. There are lots of photos star sapphires produced by Linde are a popular stone. There are hydrothermal
of rough corundum crystals synthetic rubies and a myriad of flux-grown synthetics that are often sold as natural
from many localities, as well as stones. Once again, when buying a piece of jewellery with a ruby or sapphire,
jokes and humour relating to buy from a reputable firm with graduate gemologists on staff and ask lots of
corundum. questions. Jewellers are supposed to disclose to the public all treatments made to
natural gems.

5For detailed price information on quality ruby and sapphire, check www.ruby-sapphire.com.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 19
3. Ruby and sapphire

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

The physical and chemical properties of gem corundum are listed in Table 3.3.

Cause of colour in ruby and sapphire

Pure corundum, an aluminum oxide mineral (Al203) is colourless. The remarkable
array of gem corundum colours, the vibrant reds, royal blues and pastel oranges,
pinks, purples and greens are all due to impurities in the corundum crystal
structure. Hughes (1997) provides an excellent summary of the colour, spectra
and special luminescence of gem ruby and sapphire. Another excellent, technical
discussion of colour in corundum is provided by Emmett et al. (2003).

When chromium in the form of Cr3+ enters the corundum structure and replaces
aluminum, a rich crimson red colour results if the Cr3+ content reaches 0.1 to
3.0% (Hughes, 1997). Colour in ruby, as with other gemstones such as sapphire,
tourmaline, tanzanite, emerald and alexandrite, results from selective absorption of
certain wavelengths of visible light. The ability of ruby to absorb light is the result
of interaction between incoming white light and electrons ‘orbiting’ around the
Cr3+ ions at different levels, akin to our own sun and the solar system. When white
light hits the electrons they ‘jump’ from one orbital to another. As a result, green-
yellow and violet wavelengths are absorbed and we see ruby as having a red body
colour. The energy used to make the electrons jump from one orbital to another must
reappear at some point in order to balance the equation, so when the electrons fall
back down to their home orbital, energy is released in the form of red fluorescence. It
is a wonderful coincidence in nature that the various wavelengths, orbitals and
electrons converge to infuse in ruby not only a rich red body colour but also vivid
red fluorescence. Hughes (1997) reports that about 0.4 to 2.0% of chromium must
be present in ruby for a rich red colour. The type of light hitting the stone and the
physiology of the observer’s eye will also affect the colour seen.

Red fluorescence is easily seen under ultraviolet light and will be discussed later. With
certain rubies, especially those from Burma, and more recently, Vietnam, the red

Table 3.3. Physical and chemical Chemical Al2O3 (aluminum oxide)

characteristics of corundum. formula It is a member of the Hematite group and is related to hematite and ilmenite.
Crystal system Hexagonal crystal system
The corundum structure is based on hexagonal closest packing of oxygen atoms.
Al3+ cations are in octahedral coordination. Chromium as Cr+3 replaces Al3+ cations in
the corundum structure.
Habit Ruby: Tabular hexagonal prisms modified by rhombohedron faces. Tend to be barrel
shaped.
Sapphire: Spindle-shaped hexagonal pyramids and bipyramids.
Colour Ruby: Red
Sapphire: All other colours
Hardness 9.0
Fracture No cleavage
Cleavage Distinctive parting
Parting
Specific gravity 3.98 to 4.06
Pleochroism Strong for red, blue, green, orange, violet
Weak to distinct for yellow
See Table 3.4
Fluorescence See Table 3.5

20
 3. Ruby and sapphire

fluorescence is visible even in daylight. This red fluorescence combined with the
rich red body colour causes these particular rubies to glow as if a fire was burning
inside. Rubies from other localities such as Thailand and Cambodia do not show
as strong a fluorescent red colour. Unlike rubies from Burma and Vietnam, rubies
derived from alkali basalt tend to contain more iron, which quenches and reduces
the fluorescent effect. This is why rubies from Burma are up to tens of thousands of
dollars more expensive than rubies from anywhere else. They show a unique red
fluorescence and are historically the standard against which all other rubies in the
world are judged.

The gorgeous blue colour of sapphire results from a different mechanism, the
substitution of iron and titanium for aluminum in the corundum structure,
specifically ferrous iron (Fe2+), which interacts with titanium to produce the desired
blue colour. Very little (less than .01%) iron and titanium are needed to colour blue
sapphire, however, iron must be in the ferrous state rather than the ferric (Fe3+)
state. Heat treatment under reducing conditions transforms Fe3+ to Fe2+. In general,
the impurities that replace aluminum in the corundum crystal structure can be the
direct cause of colour, can chemically interact with one another to cause colour or
can modify the saturation of a colour (Emmet et al., 2003). Green, purple and orange
corundum colours are caused by combinations of iron, titanium, chromium and
magnesium impurities.

Crystal habits of ruby and sapphire

Although ruby and sapphire are varieties of the same mineral (corundum), they tend
to have different crystal habits (Figure 3.2).

Ruby tends to form hexagonal tabular crystals which are wider in the middle and
truncated at the ends. The overall effect is that of a six-sided barrel or ‘keg of beer’
shape. The crystals commonly show a series of horizontal lines or striations, similar to
the ones sometimes seen on quartz crystals. When ruby crystals weather out of their
host rock and are subjected to mechanical weathering in streams, they break up into
thick, six-sided slabs, or ‘plates.’ The six-sided nature of the crystal becomes more and
more vague as erosion and mechanical weathering soften the crystal edges.

Figure 3.2. Ruby and sapphire

crystals. Modified from Hughes
(1990).

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 21
3. Ruby and sapphire

Table 3.4. Pleochroic colours in ruby Variety Pleochroic colour Strength

and sapphire crystals. Ruby Slightly purplish red Slightly orangy red Moderate to strong
Modified from Hughes, 1997.
Blue sapphire Slightly violetish blue Slightly greenish blue Moderate to very strong
Violet and purple Bluish purple to violet Yellowish purple to Strong to very strong
sapphire greenish blue
Yellow and orange Slightly reddish yellow Slightly greenish yellow Weak to very weak
sapphire to orange

Sapphire crystals tend to grow as hexagonal ‘spindle-shaped’ or ‘barrel-shaped’

crystals (Figure 3.2). This is nicely illustrated by the beautifully formed sapphire
crystals found in Sri Lanka and Kashmir, India. Sapphires from Montana tend to be
more flattened and can show raised, triangular-shaped figures on crystal faces. In
the Australian placer deposits, sapphire crystals are usually somewhat shapeless but
infrequently may form elongate prisms, pointed at one end and rounded to resemble
‘fangs’ or as they are called locally, ‘dog’s teeth’ (Broughton, 1979).

In certain corundum crystals, tiny needle-like crystals of rutile or hematite may align
along three crystallographic axes which intersect at 060°/120°. When the corundum
crystal is polished into a ‘cabochon’ or dome-shape, a six-rayed star may be visible
when light is reflected off the stone.

Pleochroism can be seen in transparent corundum crystals when viewed through a

dichroscope. The standard pleochroic colours are listed in Table 3.4.

Ruby and sapphire show varying reactions to ultraviolet light. Table 3.5 lists some of
the more common responses.

Corundum has a high thermal intertia compared to spinel or garnet. Certain types
of diamond-tester probes used by jewelers to identify natural diamonds can also be
used to identify ruby and sapphire.

Corundum’s major industrial use is as an abrasive, due to its high hardness, however,
it also has superior insulating qualities. This insulating quality, in addition to high
stability under harsh conditions, makes colourless sapphire ideal for use in space
probes.

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF RUBY AND SAPPHIRE

Ruby and sapphire have a high specific gravity (3.9–4.1) and are physically and
chemically resistant; they will show up in placer deposits and stream concentrates.

Any hard crystals showing a six-sided shape, barrel shape or spindle shape should be
examined. Colourless or pale-coloured crystals should not be ignored; they can, in
some cases, be heat-treated to improve their appearance.

The minerals most likely to be confused with ruby are red spinel and garnet. Red
tourmaline usually forms elongated slender crystals which are striated. In some
countries, red spinel is found with ruby in placer concentrate. Ultraviolet light is
an easy way of separating ruby and red spinel (both valuable gemstones) from red
garnet (less valuable). Ruby and spinel will both fluoresce red under longwave and
shortwave light; garnet is inert. To distinguish ruby and red spinel, look at:

22
 3. Ruby and sapphire

1. Crystal form: Ruby crystals often show a six-sided shape or barrel shape;
spinels form octahedrons. However, ‘pseudo octahedral’ ruby crystals do
exist, most notably from Tanzania, and look remarkably similar to spinel.

2. Thermal inertia: A thermal inertia probe can be used to separate ruby

(moderate reaction) from spinel (low reaction).

3. Pleochroism: If the crystals are large enough and transparent, the

presence of pleochroism will separate ruby (red/orange pleochroic
colours) from spinel (non-pleochroic).

For other colours of gem corundum, note any ultraviolet light reaction and examine
the crystal form. Compare fluorescence to Table 3.5 and look for six-sided forms,
especially spindle shapes. Do not ignore opaque corundum crystals. If you see
six-sided crystals that look opaque or have a ‘silky’ texture, wet them with a drop of
water and shine a light on the surface. Look for a six-rayed star, indicative of a star
sapphire. Star sapphires can exist in many different colours.

Table 3.5. Fluorescent colours of Variety Long wave Short wave

gem corundum. Modified from Ruby, Burma, Sri Lanka Moderate to very strong red Moderate to strong red or red-orange,
Hughes, 1990. or red-orange slightly weaker than long wave
Ruby, Thailand, Cambodia Weak to moderate red or Inert to moderate red or red-orange,
red-orange slightly weaker than long wave
Ruby, Kenya Strong to very strong red or Moderate to very strong red or red-
red-orange orange, slightly weaker than long wave
Ruby, other sources Weak to very strong red or Inert to very strong red or red-orange,
red-orange slightly weaker than long wave
Blue sapphire, Sri Lanka Inert to strong red or orange Inert to strong red or orange, or, in
heat-treated stones, weak to moderate
chalky blue-green or green (the
colourless areas fluoresce)
Blue sapphire, Burma Inert to moderate red or Inert to moderate red or orange
orange
Blue sapphire, Cambodia, Generally inert Generally inert, rarely weak chalky blue
Australia, Thailand to green
Blue sapphire, Kashmir Inert to moderate red or Inert to moderate red or orange
orange
Blue sapphire, other sources Inert to strong red or orange Inert to moderate red or orange or
weak to moderate chalky blue to green
Yellow and orange sapphire, Inert to strong orange to Inert to strong orange to orange-red
Sri Lanka orange-red
Yellow and orange sapphire, Inert to moderate red Very weak to weak red
Thailand, Australia
Yellow and orange sapphire, Inert to strong orange to red Inert to strong orange to red
other sources
Purple and violet sapphire, Weak to strong red to orange- Inert to strong red to orange red
Sri Lanka red
Purple and violet sapphire, Inert to strong red to orange- Inert to strong red to orange red
other sources red
Green sapphire, all sources Generally inert, rarely weak to Generally inert, rarely weak red to
moderate red to orange orange, or weak chalky blue to green
Colourless sapphire, Inert to strong orange to Inert to moderate orange to orange
Sri Lanka and other sources orange red red, rarely weak to moderate chalky
blue to green

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 23
3. Ruby and sapphire

GEOLOGY OF RUBY AND SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS

Ruby and sapphire associated with alkali basalt
Most rubies and sapphires in the gem trade are mined from alluvial placer deposits
spatially associated with alkali basalt. Gem corundum occurs as rare megacrysts in the
basalt. Much like diamonds that are formed deep within the earth and then brought
up to surface by kimberlitic magma, rubies and sapphires also form at great depths
and are brought up by alkali basalt magma. The association between gem corundum
and alkali basalt has been noted at the following localities:

• Thailand (Chanthaburi-Trat, Denchai, Bo Ploi, Khorat Plateau)

• Cambodia (Pailin, Bokeo Plateau, Xuan Loc Plateau, Cardomones Massif,

Solovens Plateau and Kassens Plateau)

• Vietnam (Haut Chalong Plateau, Pleiku Plateau, Darlac Plateau, Djiring

Plateau)

• Southern China (Kouang Tcheoci Wan, Hainan Island)

• Gimi Valley (Nigeria)

• Australia (New England, Anakie)

• Kenya (Lake Turkana)

• Colombia (Mercaderes Rio Mayo)

• Rwanda

• Burundi

Basalt is a dark coloured, fine-grained extrusive volcanic rock composed

predominantly of calcic-plagioclase and pyroxene. Levinson and Cook (1994) review
the occurrence, classification and mineralogy of basalt. Most basalt found on the
continents is ‘tholeiitic,’ meaning the magma formed at shallow levels (20–30 km
depth) in the earth’s crust, and has a certain chemical composition distinct from other
types of basalt (Table 3.6). Alkali basalt, on the other hand, originates from the lower
continental crust or upper mantle at depths of 50 to 60 km (Figure 3.3).

Table 3.6. Mineralogy and Minerals and chemical content Tholeiite basalt Alkali basalt
chemistry of thoeliite and alkali Major minerals
basalts. Modified from Barr and Calcium-rich plagioclase Yes Yes
MacDonald (1978).
Calcium-rich pyroxene Yes Yes
Minor and characteristic minerals
Quartz (normative) Yes No
Low-calcium pyroxene Yes No
Feldspathoid minerals No Yes
Olivine (e.g., nepheline) Locally Yes
Chemical content (average)
SiO2 48.62 wt % 46.33 wt %
Na2O 2.76 wt % 3.20 wt %
K 2O 0.84 wt % 1.28 wt %

24
 3. Ruby and sapphire

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Figure 3.3. Subduction zone About 10% of continental basalt is alkali basalt. The alkali group of basalts typically
and origin of alkali and tholeiite contain undersaturated minerals like olivine or nepheline, instead of quartz. Under-
basalt. Modified from Levinson saturated minerals would normally react with silica to form other minerals.
and Cook (1994).
The classification of a basalt into either the ‘tholeiitic’ or ‘alkali’ class is not usually
made in the field since the two types can be identical in appearance. Petrographic
studies and chemical analysis of the rock must be conducted before positive
identification.

A list of characteristics shared by ruby and sapphire deposits hosted by alkali basalt is
given by Coenraads et al. (1990):
• alkaline basalt (except China, Nigeria), including nephelinite, nepheline
hawaiite, basanite and basanitoid
• the alkali basalt forms small hills and volcanic plugs
• crater lakes, cones, cone remnants or plugs are common

Southeast Asia • ultramafic mantle xenolith are common, especially spinel-lherzolite

Buried placer deposits of rubies xenoliths
and sapphires in rich-brown • older tholeiitic flows, younger alkaline flows
volcanic soil are scattered
throughout southeast Asia, and • sapphire megacrysts are corroded
more recently have been recognized • in situ megacrysts are corroded
in China. It is reported by Furui
(1988) that sparkling blue sapphire • in situ corundum megacrysts are extremely rare
crystals were first recognized on • zoning of gemstone types and corundum colours within a small area (less
Hainan Island in the early 1960s than 10 km)
by a local farmer who received
$1.00 from the local geological • accessory heavy minerals in alluvial deposits include zircon, spinel
brigade for his discovery. (especially black spinel), ilmenite, olivine, clinopyroxene, garnet,
magnetite or feldspar.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 25
3. Ruby and sapphire

GEOCHEMISTRY OF THE BASALTS

The occurrence of corundum megacrysts in basalt is rare. Furthermore, for a
particular alkali basalt field to contain economic alluvial gem corundum deposits is
extremely rare. Many alkali basalt provinces contain spinel-lherzolite nodules and
associated megacrysts, yet they do not carry corundum or any other type of gem
material. Depending on the exact mechanism of formation for corundum, there may
be a connection between the chemistry of the alkali host rock and its gem-bearing
potential.

R ESULTS OF THAILAND STUDY

Sapphires in Rwanda The geochemistry of Cenozoic (12 to 0.5 million years old) alkaline basalts of Thailand
Rwanda, given its location was studied by Barr and MacDonald (1978) to determine if there were chemical
in gem-rich east central Africa, differences between gem-bearing basalt and non-gem-bearing basalt. A later
is now known to have the study looked at linking new geochemical data for the basalts with the origin of
potential to host coloured the corundum (Barr and Dostal, 1986). Cenozoic basalts in Thailand were found to
gemstone deposits. Krzemnicki be mainly alkalic. Specifically, hawaiite, mugearite, nepheline hawaiite, nepheline
et al. (1996) spent two months mugearite, alkali olivine basalt, basanite and nephelinite and tholeiitic basalt were
investigating a basalt find in the classified on the basis of petrography and chemical analysis. In general, it was found
mid-1990s, at the time of the that gem corundum is restricted to the more undersaturated rocks, mainly nepheline
horrific genocide. The authors hawaiite, basanite and nephelinite (Barr and MacDonald, 1978). These rocks are
trenched and sampled an area dark, dense, aphanitic, and contain ultramafic nodules and megacrysts. Megacrysts
of approximately 200 km2 to include quartz, nepheline, sanidine, anorthoclase, oligoclase, clinopyroxene,
determine areas of interest. Due orthopyroxene, spinel and magnetite. Corundum megacrysts are extremely rare. The
to the intense tropical climate ultramafic nodules are spinel-lherzolite or, more rarely, dunite and pyroxenite. The
in Rwanda, the sapphires have petrochemistry of the megacrysts was described by Barr and Dostal (1986).
easily weathered out of Tertiary-
Quaternary alkali olivine In a study of trace element geochemistry of Upper Cenozoic basaltic rocks of
basalts, and have accumulated in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, Barr and James (1990) found that nephelinites are
stream deposits. Several areas of characterized by enrichment in most trace elements including barium, strontium,
potential economic interest were zirconium, yttrium, niobium, vanadium, lanthanium, cesium and neodymium.
identified.
R ESULTS OF AUSTRALIAN STUDY
The study by Stephenson (1976) showed that there were no special chemical
characteristics to distinguish between corundum-bearing and ‘barren’ Cenozoic alkali
basalt in Australia. The exception was elevated strontium, zirconium and niobium
as trace elements in the gem corundum-bearing basalts, similar to what Barr and
James (1990) noted for corundum-bearing nephelinites in Thailand. Australian basalts
associated with gem sapphire were classified chemically as nepheline basanite,
basanitoid, hawaiite, trachybasalt, trachyandesite and alkali basalt. The rocks are
strongly nepheline normative.

AGE OF BASALT AND GEM CORUNDUMS

Coenraads et al. (1990; 1995) dated zircons in sapphires using U-Pb isotope dating
methods. In Australia, the age of the inclusions (33 to 35 million years) falls within
the range of basalt K-Ar ages of 19 to 38 million years and 2 to 49 million years for
the timing of volcanism, based on zircon fission track ages. In Thailand, U-Pb isotope
dating of zircon gives an age of 1 to 2 million years which falls within the K/Ar ages of
0.44 to 3.0 million years for the alkali basalt volcanism in the Chanthaburi province.

26
 3. Ruby and sapphire

Coenraads et al. (1995) suggest that once more information becomes available,
accurate mapping of alkali basalt of the proper age may target drainage basins with
high gem potential.

D ISTRIBUTION OF GEMSTONES
The gemstone distribution across placer deposits overlying an alkali basalt province
may be zoned. If only zircon is discovered in a stream draining a basalt field, there
may be potential for more valuable ruby and sapphire in streams draining different
parts of the basalt.

A regional zoning pattern of ruby, sapphire and zircon is evident in the great
Cenozoic alkali basalt province which extends across Asia, from southern China
to Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Malaysia. In southern China, only blue
sapphires are found (Furui, 1988), although more varieties of corundum may be
discovered through additional working of the deposit. In Vietnam and eastern and
north-central Cambodia, zircon is the primary gemstone associated with alkali basalt
fields. Further west at Pailin, just inside the Cambodian border with Thailand, blue
sapphire and ruby are predominant. Other colours of corundum are rare. On the
Thailand side of this same alkali basalt field, at Chanthaburi-Trat, ruby is the most
common gemstone, with blue sapphire and zircon decreasing in abundance. West
of Bangkok at Kanchanaburi, sapphire is predominant over ruby. Even particular
gem fields are zoned with respect to the alluvial gems recovered. For instance, in the
famous Chanthaburi-Trat gem region, the western deposits produce blue, blue-green
and yellow sapphires in addition to black star sapphires (Hughes, 1990). About 50 km
east, the Bo Rai/Bo Wain mining area produces mainly ruby.

In Australia, Coenraads (1990) notes that sapphires may vary in colour and shape as
mining proceeds along a particular stream. For example, sapphires may be blue-
yellow parti-coloured in one area, proceeding to blue and then to a blue-green.

HEAVY MINERALS ASSOCIATED WITH RUBY OR SAPPHIRE

A characteristic set of heavy minerals is associated with alluvial ruby and sapphire
deposits derived from alkali basalt. The most common minerals are listed below:

• Black spinel: may be partly corroded

• Black clinopyroxene

• Zircon: brown to pale reddish and orange-brown

• Garnet: mainly pyrope, pale to dark reddish brown

• Ilmenite

• Magnetite

• Olivine

Less common: phlogopite, sanidine

Spinel is very common as a heavy mineral. Although red and pink gem spinel is
used as a pathfinder mineral, black spinel, sometimes called ‘pleonast’ is used most
commonly. Pleonastic spinels are iron-rich, where iron has replaced magnesium

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 27
3. Ruby and sapphire

in the spinel structure. Spinel can also contain appreciable amounts of titanium
and zinc. Black spinel is typically octahedral, and strongly resembles chromite or
magnetite, which show the same octahedral form.

In each particular gem field, the miners look for certain heavy minerals as a guide
to the gem-bearing layer of gravel: for instance, an abundance of black spinel or
the presence of phlogopite in the basaltic topsoil. Coldham (1985) notes that since
pleonastic (black) spinel has a specific gravity similar to that of sapphire, it is often
used as an indicator mineral when mining for sapphires.

In the New South Wales gem fields of Australia, Coenraads (1990) reports that when
sapphire is found, zircon is always found with it. Abundant spinel or limonite indicates
that fluvial concentration of heavy minerals has taken place, although sapphires
and zircons are not necessarily present. In situ soils from basalts and associated
volcaniclastic rocks in that area contain sapphire, zircon, pleonaste, chromium spinel,
titanium magnetite-ulvospinel and ilmentite in varying amounts.

Coenraads (1990) tested for differences in mineral constitution and composition

within and between drainage catchments and found no significant differences in
mineral composition from the various drainage systems. However, there was some
variation in the abundance of certain mineral species, the type of mineral species, and
the corundum/zircon ratio.

Ruby and sapphire crystals mined from placer deposits associated with alkali basalts
tend to be ‘glassy’ and exhibit corrosion or etching on the crystal faces. The corrosion
is not a result of mechanical abrasion, but is a result of chemical corrosion during the
transport of the corundum crystal in the host magma from depth.

ABUNDANCE OF RUBY AND SAPPHIRE IN THE ALKALI BASALT HOST ROCK

The alluvial ruby and sapphire deposits in Southeast Asia and Australia required
a tremendous amount of fluvial concentration in order to concentrate the gems
into economic deposits. The tropical weathering conditions and intense rainfall
in Southeast Asia aided the process. Ruby and sapphire crystal are extremely rare
in situ. Coenraads (1990) studied methods of outlining areas of sapphire (and alluvial
diamond) exploration based on interpretation of structure, volcanic activity, and
geomorphological processes which operated during the Tertiary. In short, the
sapphire grade of the underlying alkali basalt source rock is extremely low. Economic
concentrations of sapphire formed very close to host rock sources after favourable
hydrogeologic conditions vigorously reworked the material through a largely vertical
movement. The finer, lighter material was washed downstream.

GENESIS OF RUBY AND SAPPHIRES IN BASALT

There is uncertainty about the genesis of ruby and sapphires found associated with
alkali basalt, although most researchers now believe that the gems formed at great
depths, due to either magmatic or metamorphic processes, and then were simply
transported upwards by alkalic basalt magma. Levinson and Cook (1994) list three
critical observations regarding the occurrence of gem corundum with alkali basalt:

1. Corundum does not crystallize from alkali basalt melt in labouratory

experiments.

28
 3. Ruby and sapphire

2. The surface of corundum crystals found in alkali olivine basalt fields is

commonly etched, suggesting that the corundum crystals were partially
absorbed into the alkali olivine basalt magma.

3. Inclusions contained within sapphire and ruby are composed of elements

such as vanadium, thorium, zirconium, niobium and tantalum. The
sapphires must have grown in an environment rich in these elements,
alkali elements (sodium and potassium), iron, aluminum and volatile
gases. This host environment is incompatible with an alkali basalt melt.

The exact mechanism by which rubies and sapphires form at depth is unresolved
— whether they form as a result of magmatic or metamorphic processes.
Limtrakun et al., (2001) summarize the various models proposed for ruby and sapphire
crystallization associated with alkali basalt:

1. Plutonic crystallization of corundum at high pressures requiring aluminous

and trace element-rich magma.

2. Generation of gem corundum by magma mixing at mid-crustal levels.

3. Generation of gem corundum by metamorphic recrystallization.

4. Recrystallization of aluminum-rich and silicon-poor host rock by either

ocean floor subduction or contact metamorphism.

Current research indicates support for several different models. Limtrakun et al. (2001)
concluded that the gem sapphires at Denchai, Thailand were produced at the lower
crust or upper mantle and then ascended to the surface during a subsequent alkali-
magmatic event. Further work on the oxygen isotope composition (Yui et al., 2003)
suggests a hybrid origin model for Denchai sapphires, where a melt derived from the
mantle interacted with a lower- to middle-crustal aluminum-rich rock.

Also in Thailand, Sutthirat et al. (2001) studied an inclusion of ruby within a

clinopyroxene xenocryst in alkali basalt from the Chanthaburi-Trat area of eastern
Thailand. Results indicated crystallization temperatures between 800 and 1150°C at
depths of 35 to 88 km, within the upper mantle.

One theory for corundum formation suggests that corundum crystallized from a
second magma distinct from the alkali basalt magma that brought the gems to the
surface. Barr and Dostal (1986) suggest, based on their studies on Cenozoic basalts
in Southeast Asia, that feldspar, nepheline, gem corundum, magnetite and zircon
crystallized from a more evolved, highly fractionated alkalic and felsic magma and
were later incorporated into the alkali basalt host. They speculate that the highly
fractionated magma for the megacrysts could have been derived from trachytic or
phonolitic liquids or be produced by mechanical disintegration of coarse-grained
rocks like pegmatites or nepheline syenites during transport.

From studies in Australia, Coenraads et al. (1990) argue that because U-Pb dating
of zircon in sapphires falls within the range of K-Ar ages for the gem-bearing alkali
basalts in Australia, there is a complex genetic link between the gem-corundum
megacrysts and the generation of alkali basalt magma. They present the results
of a study of an unusual sapphire-zircon-magnetite xenolith from Chanthaburi,
Thailand as evidence of pegmatite-like crystallization of the xenolith in an
incompatible-element-enriched, silica-poor magma in the deep crust or upper

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 29
3. Ruby and sapphire

mantle. The xenolith was transported by rising alkali basalt magma (Coenraads et al.,
1995). Guo et al. (1994) also suggests mixing of magmas, however, their model
implies a more complicated process of mixing different types of magmas. Sutherland
et al. (1998) compared suites of gem corundum from Australia and Cambodia and
distinguished two distinct suites of gems. One suite appears to be produced by
metamorphic recrystallization of aluminous material (metamorphic). A second suite
appears to have crystallized at depth (magmatic).

Levinson and Cook (1994) note that alkali basalts associated with gem corundum
are found in association with subduction zones involving ocean-continental plate
collisions and therefore propose a metamorphic, as opposed to an igneous, origin
for gem ruby and sapphire. They suggest that gem corundum could form when
aluminum-rich rocks such as shales, laterites or bauxites are subducted to depths
of about 25 to 50 km, where metamorphism takes place and corundum crystals
form. Alkali basalt, which forms at similar depths, then carries the gems up through
the crust, much like kimberlite transports diamonds.

Pecover (1987) suggests that alluvial sapphires in New South Wales, Australia were
not derived from the alkali basalt at all, but from tuffs which carried the corundum up
to the surface. Preferential weathering of the tuffs, compared to the overlying basalt,
released the corundum but the tuffs were hidden under the volcanic pile. The tuffs,
in addition to extensive deposits of laterites and bauxites, occur at or near the base
of the volcanic pile. This would imply that gem corundum can be found in tuffaceous
rocks in addition to alkali basalt.

Sapphires associated with lamprophyre dykes

MONTANA , U.S.A.
Excellent accounts of the discovery and subsequent mining history in Montana are
given by Hughes (1997) and Voynick (1985). Sapphires were discovered there in
1894 by gold prospectors who collected small flat blue wafers they found in their
sluiceboxes and goldpans. Once the stones were identified as fine blue sapphires
the rush was on with the first of many mining efforts, all of which failed, largely
because of difficulties in marketing an American gemstone to the gem trade and the
public. The latest venture involves a series of heat-treating experiments aimed at
improving the colour saturation of the sapphires.

The unique geology of this deposit is described in Meyer and Mitchell (1988) and
Brownlow and Komorowski (1988). The sapphires are derived from a lamprophyric
host rock known as the Yogo dyke which averages 2 m in thickness and has a length
of about 8 km. Chemical analysis by Meyer and Mitchell (1988) showed that the
lamprophyre dyke can be classified chemically and mineralogically as an ‘ouachitite.’
An ouachitite is a basic lamprophyric rock which contains abundant pyroxene, mica
and magnetite with common apatite as well as an unknown glassy substance. The
composition of the Yogo dyke is given in Table 3.7. Texturally, the Yogo dyke is finer
grained than other documented ouachitite occurrences. Fresh rock is dark grey to
greenish grey and contains numerous angular to rounded, light-coloured inclusions,
mostly of calcite. Small biotite flakes are common and pyroxene megacrysts are
visible in the fine- to medium-grained groundmass. Exposed bedrock on surface has
altered the dyke rock to a yellowish clay. Sapphires occur rarely as unusually clear,

30
 3. Ruby and sapphire

Table 3.7. Compositions and Yogo Average Average Yogo Average Average
lamprophyre monchiquite bassanite lamprophyre monchiquite bassanite
norms for the Yogo lamprophyre,
SiO2 38.54 41.06 44.30 CO2 5.56 2.13 0.18
average monchiquite, and average
bassanite (wt %). Modified from TiO2 1.06 2.63 2.51 BaO 0.41 0.21

Brownlow and Komorowski (1988). Al2O3 11.73 13.20 14.70 orthoclase 12.2 11.2 11.6
Fe2O3 3.33 4.39 3.94 albite 4.7 12.2
FeO 3.58 7.16 7.50 anorthosite 23.8 17.3 18.4
MgO 11.30 8.88 8.54 leucoxene 3.0
CaO 15.60 11.15 10.19 nepheline 6.0 13.0 9.7
Na2O 1.00 3.25 3.55 diopside 28.9 27.0 21.0
K 2O 2.32 1.99 1.96 olivine 15.2 12.8 12.9
H2 O + 2.33 1.20 magnetite 5.7 6.8 5.7
H2O- 1.34 0.42 ilmenite 2.3 5.0 4.8
P2 O 5 1.18 0.84 0.74 apatite 3.2 2.2 1.8

pale blue to steely blue megacrysts with flattened crystal form, with the average
weight less than one carat. The outer surface of the sapphire crystals are commonly
corroded and, like sapphires derived from alkali basalt fields, may be coated with a
thin layer of spinel. Meyer and Mitchell (1988) suggest that the sapphires in the Yogo
dyke are an ‘accidental’ product brought up by the lamprophyric magma.

A complex tectonic history for the Yogo deposit is proposed by Baker et al. (2003),
where a sequence of continent-continent collisions and flat-slab plate tectonic events
accounts for emplacement of the Yogo dyke.

The source of alluvial sapphire in western Montana, U.S., is a mystery, since there is
no recognized bedrock source. Surprisingly, trace element chemistry and inclusion
analysis suggests that the sapphires might be of metamorphic origin (Garland,
2003). Examination of temperature-pressure stability fields suggests that the
Montana alluvial sapphires formed within 580 to 720°C at about 30 km depth. She
suggests that the sapphires formed when a lobe of a large granitic batholith intruded
and re-metamorphosed metamorphic rocks at mid-crustal levels. Cretaceous thrust-
faulting exposed the rocks by early Tertiary. In contrast, Berg (2002) noted rhyolite
and volcanic glass on two of the alluvial sapphires from western Montana and
suggests that dacitic volcanic rocks, flows and breccias are a possible source rock.

SCOTLAND
Sapphires embedded in a lamprophyre dyke at Loch Roag, Isle of Lewis in Scotland
were exposed during cutting of an access track to peat diggings (Jackson, 1984). The
sapphires are small, thin blue platelets up 25 mm in diameter in a monchiquite of
lamprophyric affinities. The dyke contains mantle xenoliths and megacrysts of augite,
apatite, sanidine, anorthoclase and rare sapphire. Only 10,000 years of weathering
have taken place since the last glaciation in the Loch Roag area, so placer deposits of
sapphire have not yet formed. The Loch Roag deposit is the result of late Paleozoic
intrusive igneous activity confined to a small area. Jackson (1984) noted that alkalic
volcanic rocks associated with ruby and sapphire deposits are generally significant
outpourings of Tertiary basaltic lavas from volcanic vents and dykes, for example, in

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 31
3. Ruby and sapphire

Thailand or Australia. The Loch Roag dyke is similar in composition to the Yogo dyke
in Montana, but the Yogo dyke lacks mantle xenoliths and large megacrysts.

Corundum asssociated with porphyry copper deposits

Corundum has been reported as an accessory mineral at a number of porphyry
deposits, including the Empress copper-gold-molybdenum mine in southwestern
British Columbia and the El Salvador deposit in Chile. A possible mechanism for
corundum grown is the movement of cool meteoric water over a thermal anomaly.
The rapid heating of the meteoric fluids would prevent the influx of quartz.

A detailed paper by Simandle et al. (1997) describes the results of a study on the
use of heavy minerals in exploration for sapphires using the Empress copper-gold-
molybdenum deposit. At the Empress mine, in southwestern British Columbia,
corundum up to 3 mm in diameter is reported in association with andalusite-
pyrophyllite rock as noted in drill core and in float. Corundum occurs in quartz-free
zones within a plagioclase-quartz-pyrophyllite-andalusite unit. The methodology
was to collect sediment samples from sites draining the deposit area and concentrate
and examine the heavy mineral fraction to determine the effectiveness of detecting
corundum. The authors found that close-spaced stream sediment sampling was
effective in recovering corundum fragments — some of them transparent, colourless
and blue. Interestingly, they also noted scheelite in the heavy mineral samples, a
mineral that had not been tested for in drill-core samples.

Ruby and sapphire associated with marble

Metamorphism, either regional or contact, is the mechanism for formation of the
world’s best ruby and sapphire deposits. Many of these wonderful gem deposits
hosted in marbles or ultramafic rocks have the process of ‘desilication’ to thank for the
bounty of gem ruby and sapphire. When a pegmatite, rich in silica, intrudes a host
rock such as marble or ultramafic rock that does not contain silica, then the silica from
the pegmatite reacts with the host rock minerals to form new minerals that contain
silicon. Some of the silica used to form feldspar is thus used up, and remaining
aluminum can combine only with left-over oxygen to form corundum crystals. Recent
studies of the marble-hosted ruby deposits in central and east Asia indicate that
regional metamorphism is also an important mechanism for gem ruby and sapphire
formation and that, like the emerald deposits in Colombia, evaporitic sequences
with organic matter played an important genetic role in ruby formation. The world’s
best ruby and sapphire deposits are in remote, inhospitable places where very few
scientists have been allowed to study and sample the deposits.

The association between gem corundum and marble has been noted at the following
ruby/sapphire deposits, including:

• Mogok Stone Tract, Burma

• Mong Hsu Stone Tract, Burma

• Luc Yen region, Vietnam

• Ekaterinburg, Ural Mountains

• Morogoro, Tanzania

32
 3. Ruby and sapphire

• Hunza, Pakistan

• Jagdalek, Afghanistan

• Nepal

In addition to the above deposits, marble has been noted where gem corundum
deposits are associated with ultramafic rocks.

MOGOK STONE TRACT, BURMA

For 800 years, the 175 km2 of gem-bearing alluvial gravels of the Mogok Stone Tract in
Burma have produced what some consider to be the only true rubies in the world. As
discussed previously, Burmese rubies appear to literally glow red like a flashlight
because of a high chromium content which gives them a rich red body colour
overlain by vivid red fluorescence. Burmese rubies lack the iron which would quench
the fluorescence. For centuries, Burmese rubies have been among the most expensive
and sought after gemstones in the world. It should be noted that Burma produces
gorgeous blue sapphires in association with the famous rubies. Some of these are
found as gigantic crystals (Hughes and Win, 1995), including the famous Rockefeller
Burma Ruby Mines
sapphire, a beautiful blue 62-carat gem that fetched the world record price at auction
Hughes (1997) reproduces
for a blue sapphire.
newspaper accounts of what
happened the day after the Sparkling rubies and spinels were undoubtedly picked up by the earliest humans
Times of London published the living in the area thousands of years ago who could not have missed the radiant
prospectus for the newly formed rough crystals. In later years, European explorers and travelers were fascinated by
Burma Ruby Mines, Ltd. in the exotic Burmese people and their ruby mines. Throughout those years, Burmese
1889. The next day, the £1 shares monarchs controlled the Mogok area and acquired, by law, all of the larger stones. In
went to £4 and chaos ensued. 1885, the British annexed Burma, including the Mogok area, and Burma Ruby Mines
“The crowd around New Ltd. started operation.
Court was so dense that Lord
Rothschild and other members Like so many other mining operations, past and present, little thought had been
of the house were unable to get given to the remote location, rugged jungle and lack of infrastructure to launch a
in by the door, so a ladder had to mining venture on the scale envisioned by Burma Ruby Mines, Ltd. and eventually
be got, and the spectacle was seen it went bust and the area reverted back to old-fashioned native mining methods. In
of a number of great financiers 1963, the military dictatorship government took over the ruby mines from private
entering their own office in a interests and severely restricted the legal gem trade. Although fine Burmese stones
burglarious fashion. The clerks still showed up in Thailand through smuggling, significant quantities of Burmese ruby
had to be smuggled in by a back were almost non-existent until the early 1990s when a spectacular new ruby find was
entrance behind the Mansion made at Mong Hsu. The usual rush ensued and over 2,000 miners were in the area
House. The surging crowd in by the time the rubies hit the market in Bangkok in 1992. The military dictatorship
front drove a telegraph boy in Burma is starting to loosen restrictions on international travel and trade. Burmese
right through the window of a rubies from both Mogok and Mong Hsu are now available on the global gem market,
baker’s shop opposite, the poor however, the easy-to-find alluvial deposits are becoming depleted and there is
fellow being rather severely more mining of the bedrock in order to extract the rubies. To make matters more
hurt. The fortunate possessors of complicated, in 2003, the United States put an embargo on the import of gem
Ruby Mine application forms, material from Burma to the United States, in protest of the government’s treatment of
which were being hawked at five government opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi.
shillings, had to pass between For a deposit that has produced the world’s best rubies and spectacular sapphires for
files of policemen to hand in their over eight centuries, there is very little information on geology and geochemistry of
applications.” the Mogok Stone Tract, although many gemological studies have been made of its

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 33
3. Ruby and sapphire

gemstones. Keller (1983) provides a summary of geology and gemological findings

up to that date. The first western researchers to visit the Mogok Stone Tract since the
government take-over in 1963 were R. Kane in 1991 and R. Kammerling in 1992. Their
article summarizes the geology and reports on the mining status and methods (Kane
and Kammerling, 1992).

In the last few years, there have been visits by western researchers and gem dealers
to the legendary deposits. Waltham (1999) reports on several hardrock mines in the
area. He describes the hostrock as crystalline marbles and notes that productive
calcite (richest in ruby) is clearer than the milky rhombs of the main marble. Another
mine follows a 2- to 3-m-wide calcite vein rich in ruby that appears to be a
hydrothermal feature within a narrow band of marble within gneiss. The vein has
The SLORC Ruby been followed to an incredible depth of 300 m; in fact it takes the miners over an
The story of the SLORC ruby hour to scramble down, without the benefit of ladders, to the working faces where
in Burma has been known for the ruby-bearing calcite is broken out of the vein and lifted up by hand-powered
a number of years, but Hughes winches.
(1997) provided an update on the Geological mapping and prospecting of terrain around the Mogok Stone Tract is
fate of the owner. extremely arduous. Harsh weather comprising intense seasonal rainfall and tropical
This ruby, with the heat, combined with dense jungle fauna inhabited by elephants, tigers, bears, cobras
most appalling name, was and leopards increase the challenge of geological mapping and exploration. Bedrock
discovered in 1990 at one of is buried under a thick mantle of soil and weathering products. Despite the
Mogok’s famed ruby mines. It difficulties, Iyer (1953) produced a geological map of the Mogok Stone Tract, which
was huge at 496 carats. The remains the sole source of geological information about the area.
fortunate/unfortunate miner
who unearthed the large stone It appears that the famous rubies and red/pink spinels are weathered from marbles
was supposed to disclose the interbedded with complex high-grade metamorphic schists and gneisses. The
discovery to the local State marble is coarsely crystalline, typically pure white, slightly pinkish or yellowish. Ruby,
Law and Order Restoration spinel, diopside, phlogopite, forsterite, chondrodite, scapolite, sphene, garnet and
Committee (SLORC), but graphite are present. Feldspar and diopside mark areas of contact metamorphism
instead chose to smuggle it into where granitic rocks have intruded the marbles. The metamorphic complex consists
Thailand. It was recovered by of scapolite and garnet-rich biotite gneisses, calc-granulites, quartzites, garnet-
SLORC military intelligence, sillimanite-rich gneisses and hornblende schists and gneisses. Intrusive rocks include
triumphantly brought back to granite, augite and hornblende granite, syenite and tourmaline granite. Pegmatites
Burma and is duly known as the containing topaz, tourmaline and aquamarine occur within the area.
‘SLORC’ ruby ever since. The
Iyer (1953) suggests that the granite, which has generated numerous quartz and
owner was imprisoned.
topaz-bearing pegmatites, with cassiterite, is responsible for contact metamorphism
and subsequent ruby and spinel formation. However, the Mogok Stone Tract
shares many similarities with regions in which rubies form in marbles as a direct
result of high-grade regional metamorphism: for example, the Ural Mountains
deposit described later in this chapter. It is amazing that so little is known about the
paragenesis of the best rubies on the planet.

MONG HSU STONE TRACT, BURMA

It is reported (Peretti et al., 1995) that a miner from the Mogok area may have been
the first person to notice rubies in a stream in Mong Hsu, Burma, approximately
250 km southeast of Mogok. The usual staking rush ensued and thousands of miners
were in the area by the time the rubies entered the global gem market.

34
 3. Ruby and sapphire

The newly discovered Mong Hsu deposits are situated at the contact of upper
Paleozoic marbles and other Paleozoic rocks. The major host rocks are mica schist,
phyllite and calc-silicate rocks. The rubies are hosted in dolomite marble and are
also mined in secondary deposits associated with the marbles. Peretti et al. (1995,
1996) suggest that, based on observed mineral assemblages, Mong Hsu formed
under regional metamorphic conditions, however, the marbles and metapelitic rocks
formed under amphibolite facies conditions as opposed to upper amphibolite-
granulite facies at Mogok.

An unusual feature of rubies from Mong Hsu is that many have a black sapphire core
and others show multiple zoning from ruby to violet sapphire to black sapphire
within a single crystal. The violet to black zones in the rubies are due to high
concentrations of titanium and chromium. Geochemical analysis indicates that Mong
Hsu rubies were formed at temperatures between 500 and 550°C, and at pressures of
2 to 2.5 kilobars. Fluorite inclusions were noted in the rubies, indicating that fluorine
played an important role during ruby precipitation from water-bearing multi-volatile
CO2-rich fluids. These fluids were enriched in chromium as well as fluorine. Fluorine
complexes with titanium in solution. The concentration of titanium at Mong Hsu
was strongly influenced by variations in temperature and fluorine concentration.
Peretti et al. (1996) further speculate that infiltration of fluorine-rich fluids from
metapelites migrated into the host carbonates during metasomatism. Precipitation
of fluorite would affect the titanium concentration in the corundum structure,
accounting for the odd colour zonation.

LUC YEN REGION, VIETNAM

The first report of corundum in the mountains north of Hanoi was in 1983. In 1987,
geologists informed the government that they had discovered rubies near the
town of Luc Yen, 270 km northwest of Hanoi. Subsequent discoveries were made
at Quy Chau, south of Hanoi. Millions of carats have been mined through legal and
illegal means since the initial discovery.

Descriptions of the geology and mining of the new finds are given by Kane et al.
(1991) and Kammerling et al. (1994 a,b). The alluvial deposits, which cover at least
50 km2, are underlain by Upper Proterozoic-Lower Cambrian marbles and crystalline
schists and quartzites intruded by pegmatites. Gemological studies carried out on the
rubies suggest they formed in a comparable geological environment to the Mogok
and Hunza ruby deposits.

HUNZA , PAKISTAN
The paragenesis and petrogenesis of a corundum and spinel-bearing marble at
Hunza (Pakistan) is described by Okrusch et al. (1976). This is one of the few published
papers which discusses the physico-chemical conditions of gemstone formation. A
geology overview and gemological study is given by Gübelin (1982). An overview of
the tectonic history of this part of the world is provided by Kazmi (1989). This area of
Pakistan is noted for its spectacular emerald deposits.

The colour photographs accompanying the Gübelin (1982) paper show some of
the most magnificent scenery in the world. The marble hosting the gem corundum
and spinel crystals is located in the Hunza Valley surrounded by mountains of the

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 35
3. Ruby and sapphire

Karakorum Range in a remote corner of north Pakistan. Majestic mountains attaining

over 7,500 m a.s.l. tower over the Hunza valley, which was virtually unknown until
construction of the Karakorum Highway in the early 1970s penetrated the rugged
terrain.

Intercalations of white to grey to yellowish marble 1- to 5-m thick are easily visible
sandwiched between layers of garnet-bearing mica schists and biotite-plagioclase
gneisses. Phlogopite, amphibole, chlorite, margarite and green muscovite are
accessory minerals in the marbles. Discordant veins of aplite and pegmatite cut
the metasedimentary rocks. Ruby, and more rarely, sapphire crystals accompany
red, brownish red, plum red, lilac, violet and blue spinel crystals up to 5 cm or more
in size in the marble. The contrast of crimson red ruby crystals on a white marble
background is very dramatic.

Okrasch et al. (1976) studied the mineral assemblages and chemical compositions of
individual minerals from the deposits and suggests that the marble is derived from
what was a limestone complex in which aluminum was enriched relative to silica. The
lateritic weathering of an impure limestone, perhaps in a karst environment, would
enhance aluminum enrichment. This would also explain the higher concentrations
of titanium seen in the deposit. Ruby, sapphire and spinel formed during a Tertiary
regional metamorphic event, related to the collision of India with Asia, which
generated temperatures of 600 to 620°C and pressures of 7 kbar.

This view is explored further by Garnier et al. (2003), Pecher et al. (2002), and
Giuliani et al. (2003) who are studying the marble-hosted ruby deposits of Burma,
Jagdalek (Afghanistan), Pakistan, Kashmir, Nepal and Vietnam with a regional
view. The Ar-Ar and U-Pb ages of these deposits were compared against the ages
from some of the host rocks, in order to determine the relationship between marble,
pegmatite and other rocks (Garnier et al., 2003). A study of fluid inclusions from
marble-hosted ruby deposits in Luc Yen and Quy Chau, North Vietnam indicates
that rubies probably grew during regional metamorphism of an evaporitic sequence
with organic matter. At the Nanga Parbat Himalaya ruby occurrence in Kashmir, ruby
is found within 0.1-to-2 cm-thick shear-veinlets and gash-veins cutting dolomitic
marbles and carbonate-bearing bands. The marble is underlain by high-grade
metamorphic gneisses. Isotopic analysis of the marbles suggest that metamorphic
fluids derived from decarbonation of the marbles. Chromium and aluminum were
leached from the marbles to form rubies in shear-zones. At Hunza, Garnier et al. (2003)
determined that ruby crystallization was contemporaneous with emplacement of the
Karakorum batholith, approximately 95 million years ago, and is probably genetically
related.

SOUTHERN URAL MOUNTAINS, RUSSIA

Although pink and blue opaque corundum crystals up to 20 cm in diameter had
been known since 1855 from the southern Ural Mountains near Ekaterinburg, it
was assumed that the crystals were genetically linked to the intrusion of abundant
pegmatites in the area. After noting similarities between the widespread marbles
in the Ekaterinburg area and the host rocks in the Mogok Stone Tract, Kissin (1994)
speculated as to whether the corundum might have originated within the marbles
(the pegmatites are presumed to be coincidental). He travelled to a marble quarry
to test his hypothesis and promptly discovered ruby, pink sapphire and other

36
 3. Ruby and sapphire

corundums embedded within the marble. Since then, several other primary or
alluvial gem corundum deposits associated with marbles have been found in a linear
belt about 600 km long. Several new deposits have been found using exploration
techniques based on studies of the original discovery in the quarry.

Kissin (1994) studied the geology of the quarry occurrence as a model for
gem corundum exploration. The corundum deposits are hosted in a series of
Middle to Upper Paleozoic marbles contained in linear belts of metamorphic
complexes. Metamorphism took place 300 million to 260 million years
ago. Alternating domes and graben-synclines characterize the complexes. Granitic
dykes and pegmatites have intruded the complexes, and pink topaz and green
tourmaline occur in silicified fractures. Metamorphic amphibolite facies rocks (typical
of moderate to high-pressure and high-temperature metamorphism) have been
identified in the domal structures. Metamorphic albite-epidote-amphibolite facies
rocks (formed under lower pressures and temperatures) occur in the graben-syncline
structures. The corundum occurrence at the quarry is located in the axial part of a
graben-syncline structure in which marbles are particularly widespread.

Kissin (1994) identified three types of marbles:

1. Calcite marble (corundum is not found in this marble)

- contains less than 0.05% MgO

- formed during prograde metamorphism

2. Magnesian calcite marble (contains corundum)

- contains 0.1 to 0.9% MgO

- formed during prograde metamorphism

3. Dolomitic calcite marble (contains corundum)

- contains greater than 1% MgO up to 22% MgO

- formed by magnesium metasomatism in the magnesian calcite marble

during retrograde (lower temperature/pressure) metamorphism.

Three types of corundum crystals are identified, each related to specific types of
marble and specific metamorphic conditions of temperature and pressure.

Type A: Ruby formed in magnesian calcite marbles during prograde metamorphism

as a result of fluid activity on limestone. During subsequent retrograde
metamorphism of the magnesian calcite marble to form dolomitic calcite marble,
most of the ruby was converted to spinel. As a result, most of the rubies that survived
show good colour, but are heavily fractured.

Type B: Pink sapphire formed during an early stage of retrograde metamorphism

of magnesian calcite and dolomitic calcite marbles. Where the marble had a high
magnesium content, spinel formed in place of pink sapphire.

Type C: Other sapphire formed under conditions of decreasing temperature, changes

in the fluid regime (increasing role of H2O) and high CO2 pressure. The metamorphic
fluid formed in and filled fractures in both the magnesian calcite and dolomitic calcite
marbles. When the CO2 pressure decreased, orange-red spinel formed instead of

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 37
3. Ruby and sapphire

corundum. Spinel is found in both types of marble, where it replaced ruby and pink
sapphire that had formed earlier.

The main geologic factors in the formation of ruby and sapphire are metamorphism
and magnesium content of the marble.

The Al203 content of the marble does not seem to be a critical factor in the Ural
deposits. Kissin (1994) notes that the Al203 content of the gem-bearing marbles is
lower at 0.08 to 0.13% than for the marbles that do not contain corundum (0.15 to
0.18%).

Rubies and sapphires are rarely found in the contact zones between pegmatite and
marble- or aluminum-bearing rocks.

MOROGORO R EGION, TANZANIA

Rubies in their rough form characteristically show a six-sided prismatic shape or
modified variations of this form. Red spinels are typically octahedral. In 1987, parcels
of gem-quality spinel rough from Tanzania were examined by Hänni and Schmelzer
(1991) and found to contain up to 10% gem quality ruby crystals. The ruby crystals
are of an unusual flattened rhombohedral form which closely resembles the typical
spinel octahedron. Comparisons of gemological characteristics between these rubies
and rubies from the Mogok Stone Tract show that the two are very similar; both
are found with red and purple spinels and therefore probably formed under similar
geological conditions.

NEPAL
The first gemological studies of ruby, and pink and violet sapphire from a reported
locality in Nepal is given by Harding and Scarratt (1986), and Kiefert and Schmetzer
Historical accounts (1987). The mineral assemblage of corundum associated with carbonates, phlogopite,
of ruby mining in apatite, graphite and calcium-aluminum-silicate minerals such as margarite, zoisite,
Afghanistan epidote and anorthite is similar to the Mogok Stone Tract and the Hunza deposit in
When workers in our Pakistan.
Canadian mines or other industries
are feeling hard done by, then
they might be advised to keep in
AFGHANISTAN
mind the fate of mine workers in The geology and occurrence of ruby and sapphire in the Jagdalek area of
17th century Afghanistan. Sparse, Afghanistan is described by Hughes (1997) and by Bowersox et al. (2000), who
intermittent production from the thanked Commander Ahmed Shah Massoud in the Acknowledgments section of his
ruby mines was partly caused paper. As the world sadly knows, this is the person assassinated by Al Qeida assassins
by flooding and inadequate masquerading as journalists two days before the horrendous September 11, 2001
ventilation at the lower levels. A attacks. Much of Afghanistan’s coloured gemstone mining was under the control of
local chief of the area became the Northern Alliance during the late 1990s and even during the Russian occupation
displeased with the small profit of the country.
and marched all inhabitants of Fabulous gem deposits never seem to be located in easily accessible pleasant areas
the district, about 500 families, and the gem-rich areas of Afghanistan are no exception. The fabulous emerald mines,
to Kunduz and then disposed of lapis lazuli deposits and occurrences of rubies, spinels, tourmalines and many other
them in the slave market (Hughes, gemstones are concentrated in the extremely rugged eastern portion of the country
1997). that borders Pakistan and Tajikistan.

38
 3. Ruby and sapphire

There seems to have been much confusion throughout history as to whether red
rubies and spinels were mined at one time in Afghanistan, and if so, then where
from? We know now that the Jagdalek ruby mines are located approximately 60 km
east-southeast of Kabul. The deposits are hosted by metamorphosed limestones
(marbles) that were originally deposited along the margins of the Asian and/or
Indian plates. The collision between the Indian and Asian tectonic plates took place
between 40 to 66 million years ago and resulted in the formation of the Himalaya,
Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Pamir mountain ranges. The host rocks are interstratified
Proterozoic gneisses and marbles, approximately 1.5 to 1.9 billion years old. The
marble horizons range from 0.5 m up to 200 to 300 m thick and are essentially
pure calcite with small amounts of magnesium impurities (0.68 to 4.78% MgO). The
gneisses are composed of kyanite-amphibole-pyroxene, pyroxene-biotite, biotite-
amphibole and other assemblages. Both the gneisses and marbles are intruded by
numerous Oligocene granitic dykes and desilicated pegmatites. Bowersox et al. (2000)
state that the Jagdalek deposit probably formed by regional metamorphism of the
marble and gneiss, with local contact metasomatic effects from the intruded granitic
rocks. The aluminum, magnesium and chromium necessary for ruby development
were likely present within the host marbles as impurities that were concentrated
before the marbles were metamorphosed.

THE SAPPHIRE OCCURRENCE AT K ASHMIR , INDIA

Just as the rubies from Burma are considered superior because of the red
fluorescence on top of red body colour, Kashmir sapphires are considered superior
because of their unique, velvety appearance. The velvety appearance is due to the
presence of layers of microscopic liquid inclusions. Kashmir sapphires (almost all of
which were mined during a period of only seven years between 1881 to 1887) are
so rare that Atkinson and Kothavala (1983) report that attempts by top gem dealers
around the globe to secure a fine 25-carat Kashmir sapphire for Prince Charles to give
to Princess Diana at the 1980 British royal wedding failed (the gorgeous sapphire in
the ring is reportedly from Sri Lanka).

This deposit was discovered just over 100 years ago, yet already is considered to be
legendary. The sapphire occurrence is situated in the Zanskar Range, part of the Great
Himalayan mountain range. The area is politically unstable; the Kashmir area has
been affected by China’s occupation of Tibet in 1950, two Indo-Pakistan wars, and
Russia’s invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Tribal unrest and guerilla warfare add to the
chaos. The deposit itself is situated in a small glacial cirque approximately 1,000 m
long and 400 m wide. It takes a minimum of 8 days by foot over a tortuous trail to get
to the mountain valley situated at 4100 m above sea level. Aside from a ‘police post,’
which is really a stone corral situated in mist and fog under a rock overhang at the
mine, the nearest ‘village’ is a couple of huts 3.2 km away and 1,000 m lower. Mining
can only take place from between 30 to 90 days in the summer, when the valley is
free of snow.

Beautiful blue spindle-shaped sapphires were exposed in an altered pegmatite

high up on the cirque wall after a landslide in 1881. From 1883 to 1887, the small pit
called ‘the Old Mine’ yielded what are acknowledged as the best and most beautiful
sapphires in the world. The sapphires lay embedded in clay within altered pegmatite
until miners dug them out like ‘potatoes’ or ‘plums in a pudding.’ The initial pit is

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 39
3. Ruby and sapphire

Kashmir adventure
The account by Gaines (1951) is a the Kashmir deposit. No fewer than the samples were duly sent out by porter
story about how Gaines, a determined six ‘police inspectors’ in this extremely over the same tortuous mountainous
mineral collector and mining engineer remote corner of the world followed their terrain, shipped to Calcutta and then
who was stationed in India during the every move, since they were not allowed shipped across the ocean to the United
war and an army buddy set out on a to collect any sapphires. The irony of States. After arriving at the dock,
25-day journey over majestic mountain the story is that Mr. Gaines had to leave 18 months after the trip to the mine,
ranges which very few people had ever his 13 kg of host rock samples at the the samples disappeared without a
seen. Armed only with their military ‘police station’ to await official sanction trace on the trip between the dock and
uniforms and some official looking papers to leave the area. Upon returning home Mr. Gaines’ home in the United States.
from the Geological Survey of India, they to North America, Mr. Gaines applied
managed to get permission to inspect for and received official sanction and

worked out and despite intermittent attempts at exploration and mining, the deposit
has remained idle, with only a small amount of material coming out each year.

Geologists working for the Geological Survey of India in the late 1800s and early
1900s produced descriptions of the deposit, although, as reported by Hughes (1990),
the first geologists and mining engineers on the scene were criticized by Middlemiss
(1931) for being so overwhelmed by the scenery and the spectacular sapphires
in the ‘Old Mine’ that they failed to provide adequate descriptions of the deposit
geology. The only westerners to have visited the site are R.B. Gaines in 1944 and
D. Atkinson and R. Kothavala in 1981. Detailed state government surveys of the area
done in the 1960s remain confidential.

The descriptive record and close attention paid to mineralogy and geology by
Mr. Gaines provided the only published record of this deposit since the Geological
Survey of India geology reports at the turn of the century. The only account since
Figure 3.4. Gondwanaland then has been that of Atkinson and Kothavala (1983) who, after several years of trying,
fit showing extent of Pan- obtained permission to visit the deposit in 1981. Hughes (1990) provides a good
African orogeny. Modified from summary of the accounts to date and some of the fascinating Geological Survey of
Kriegsman (1995). India reports are reproduced on the Pala Gems International website6.

Geology: Although some detailed gemological work has been carried

out on the sapphires themselves (Hänni, 1990), the only geological
research to date has been visual observations, most recently by Atkinson
and Kothavala (1983).
�����������
������������� The geology of the Zanskar Range seems to be relatively unknown
compared to the other mountain ranges in the area. At the Kashmir
deposit, coarse marble up to 30 m thick is locally interbedded with
biotite gneisses and schists. The gneisses contain graphite, hornblende
�
and are sometimes garnetiferous. In places, the marble has been altered
������ to form lens-shaped bodies of actinolite and tremolite. Within the
������� lenses, the tremolite and actinolite form felted and radiating aggregate
���������
����������� crystals that are olive-green to bright mint-green. The lenses range from
�������
one to hundreds of metres long and up to 30 m thick.
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The medium-grade metamorphic strata are disconcordantly intruded
������������������ by feldspar pegmatites. The greatest concentrations of sapphires are in
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6www.palagems.com

40
 3. Ruby and sapphire

quartz-free feldspar pegmatites where they intrude actinolite-tremolite lenses. The

sapphires are embedded in lens-shaped pockets of plagioclase feldspar pegmatite
which has been kaolinized. The pockets are approximately 1 m thick and 3 m to 4 m
long.

Atkinson and Kothavala (1983) report that where sapphires are in contact with
graphitic biotite schists, pink corundum crystals have been found. Other reported
minerals include red and green tourmaline, hambergite, cookeite, prehnite,
amblygonite, lazulite, amethyst, black and brown tourmaline, kyanite and fluorite.

Atkinson and Kothavala (1983) note that actinolite-tremolite lenses are a common
feature of the regional geology. The gem potential of the area is excellent, however,
exploration of the harsh terrain is restricted to only a short time in the summer, and
the current political situation is not conducive to effective exploration.

Ruby and sapphire associated with ultramafic rocks

Unlike most other world-class gem deposits, the easily accessible ultramafic-hosted
ruby (and tsavorite garnet) deposits of Kenya and Tanzania have been the subject of
several detailed studies. The conditions of formation for ruby growth in southeast
Kenya were defined by Key and Ochieng (1991a) and discussed further by Mercier et
al. (1999). Exploration guidelines for ruby deposits in southeast Kenya are given by
Key and Ochieng (1991b). The tectonic setting and physico-chemical controls on
gemstone formation in the Mozambique belt are given by Malisa and Muhongo
(1990). A first-hand view of mining and exploration for East African gemstone
deposits is provided by Bridges (1982). A summary of East African geology and
gemstone deposits is provided by Keller (1992).

To northern Canadian geologists and prospectors, the term terrane refers to exotic
rock assemblages accreted to the ancient North American continent margin. The
fault-bounded terranes are host to precious metal and base metal ore deposits. In
eastern Africa, the Proterozoic Metamorphic Terrane within the Mozambique
Orogenic belt refers to a ribbon of high-grade metamorphic rocks which originally lay
across the ancient supercontinent called Gondwanaland. Sections of this unique belt
survived the Gondwanaland disintegration (Figure 3.4) and presently underlie fields
of alluvial and in situ gem deposits in Africa, Brazil, Sri Lanka, Australia, Madagascar,
and, potentially, Antarctica. The Mozambique Orogenic Belt in Tanzania and Kenya is

Ownership dispute
For those in the Canadian mining year, so many high-ranking Kenyans records appeared with the name of one of
industry who feel hampered by periodic including the President’s wife, a friend the President’s closest friends. A lengthy
uncertainty regarding land tenure, it is who helped run the Kenya Trade and diplomatic fracas ensued, and the mine
worth noting that things are or have been Development Corporation, and others at Mangari is still known as the ‘John
worse elsewhere in the world. Hughes ‘requested’ a cut that the total amount Saul’ mine. After being dormant for a
(1997) summarizes a well publicized soon exceeded 150% of ownership. The number of years, it was modernized and
series of events where the original stakers, two discoverers of the deposit (Saul was upgraded and, indeed, the original John
geologists John Saul and Elliott Miller, a long-term resident of Kenya) were Saul co-authored a recent paper on ruby
of the world-class Mangari ruby deposit booted out of Kenya and records of formation at Mangari (Mercier et al.,
in Kenya, obtained a fully legal permit the original claims disappeared at the 1999).
to mine the deposit in 1974. Within a Ministry of Natural Resources. New

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 41
3. Ruby and sapphire

host to an incredible array of earth-history and natural resources in a relatively small

area straddling the Kenya-Tanzanian border. The Serengeti Plain, Tsavo National Park,
Olduvai Gorge, Mt. Kilamanjaro and fantastic gemstone deposits are contained within
a small area (by Canadian standards).

The lithostratigraphic units within the Mozambique Orogenic Belt are Proterozoic
in age, between 1,900 and 799 million years old. The rocks underwent a series
of collision-related metamorphic and deformational events. The regional
metamorphism reached amphibolite to granulite facies conditions, accompanied
by igneous intrusion. Gemstones such as ruby and tsavorite garnet formed during
this event (Key and Ochieng, 1991b). The tectonic events ended with the Pan-African
orogeny 500 to 438 million years ago.

Ruby and sapphire deposits have been found in a variety of geological

environments in Kenya and Tanzania. In addition, there are largely undeveloped
and underexplored alkali basalt fields hosting alluvial gem sapphire deposits in
Kenya and Tanzania. These deposits, covered earlier in this chapter, are potentially
large producers of gem rough. Several of the remaining types of ruby and sapphire
deposits are associated with ultramafic rocks. The two best known examples are the
ruby and sapphire deposits in the Umba River area, Tanzania and the ruby deposit at
Mangari, southeast Kenya.

The ruby discovery was important, since the Mangari deposit is one of the few ruby
deposits in the world which produces a regular supply of facetable material. Rubies
from the Mangari deposit are often passed off as Burmese stones since they show
intense red fluorescence and contain very little iron. As mentioned earlier, when
rubies contain iron, a brownish tint is produced and the red fluorescence is quenched.

The host rocks for both the Mangari and Umba River gem corundum deposits are
metamorphic rocks of amphibolite to granulite facies ranging from banded gneisses
to amphibolite facies marble and highly aluminous graphitic gneisses. The graphitic
gneisses are also host to tsavorite garnet and tanzanite gem deposits (described in
Chapter 7).

Ruby and sapphire deposits have been found in areas where feldspar pegmatites
have intruded serpentinized ultramafic bodies. At Mangari, rubies are found in lenses
on the inner side of the contacts between the ultramafic and metasedimentary
rocks or in veins within the ultramafic bodies or forming their margin (Mercier et al.,
1999). The rubies are associated with plagioclase, mica, tourmaline and kyanite in
the pegmatites, and with kyanite/sillimanite, tourmaline, and mica aggregates in the
gneisses (Key and Ochieng, 1991b).

UMBA RIVER
Southeast of the Mangari ruby deposit, the Umba River meanders along the eastern
edge of the Kenya-Tanzania border where it flushes into the Indian Ocean. Alluvial
rubies, and then sapphires, were discovered in 1960. Subsequent exploration found
a spectacular array of coloured sapphires associated with a serpentinized ultramafic
body intruded by feldspar-rich pegmatites. The deposit is unique, in that the
sapphires occur in virtually every colour: orange, yellow, violet, blue, colour-change
and parti-coloured stones. According to Hänni (1987), the sapphire colours are related
to varying iron, titanium, chromium and venadium content.

42
 3. Ruby and sapphire

At Umba, the serpentinite body embedded within high-grade metamorphic rocks

represents the core of a fold (Solesbury, 1967). Rubies and sapphires formed by
‘desilication,’ where any silica in the pegmatite is soaked up by the ultramafic body,
leaving aluminum to precipitate as Al203.

A second sapphire deposit was discovered 3 km south of the Umba locality, in the
Kalalani, Tanga Province area in Tanzania. This deposit produces gem-grade red
pyrope-almandine garnet and rare reddish orange sapphire from a desilicated
pegmatite that cross-cuts a small serpentinite massif. In 1994, tsavorite garnet (see
Chapter 7) was discovered in the surrounding graphitic gneisses and there are
indications of gem tanzanite (Seifert and Hyrsl, 1999).

GENESIS OF THE RUBY DEPOSIT AT MANGARI

Key and Ochieng (1991a,b) summarize the conditions of formation for the ultramafic-
associated ruby deposits in Kenya and Tanzania. Mercier et al. (1999) advanced this
work further to consider ruby formation within the entire Mozambique Metamorphic
Belt. The three controls on ruby formation are:

1. Host rock lithology. The lithologic control are the chromiferous ultramafic
bodies. The ultramafic bodies are of two different origins and ages, and rubies occur
with both and are genetically related to them.
Bead material
Low-grade gem material can still No stratigraphic control for ruby growth was found. There are other ultramafic bodies
be made into carvings, cabochons in southeast Kenya which do not host ruby deposits. Key and Ochieng (1991b) note
and beads. Barot and Harding that there must be chemical differences between the ruby/non-ruby ultramafic rocks
(1994) describe how most of the which affected ruby formation. This has not been further studied.
pink and reddish pink translucent 2. Metamorphic control. Key and Ochieng (1991b) noted the presence of kyanite
gem corundum from Kitui, as the Al2SiO5 polymorph in the mineral assemblage, which indicates pressures
Kenya is collected and then sold greater than 7 Kbar. They suggest that ruby crystals formed during regional upper
and exported to India. There, amphibolite to granulite facies conditions within the Mozambique Orogenic
the material is cut, polished in Belt. Growth of corundum crystals is dependent on the pressure, temperature,
cabochons and beads. Some of and activity of CO2 and H2O during regional metamorphism. Mercier et al. (1999)
the material is then dyed red and confined the metamorphic grade of the ruby-bearing rock as amphibolite facies,
than sold as ‘ruby’ beads. where temperatures were 700 to 750°C. In contrast, they found that the surrounding
gneisses were subject to lower-grade amphibolite facies metamorphism at 650°C.

3. Chemical control. The red colour of rubies is due to the presence of trace amounts
of chromium. The obvious source of chromium in the rubies is the ultramafic bodies
which, in other localities in Kenya, host chromite pods. Key and Ochieng (1991b) note
that chromium is also the colouring agent for green tourmaline and blue kyanite,
which are found in the area.

Mercier et al. (1999) suggest that the rubies and the ultramafic ruby host rock at
Mangari are exotic and are fragments of deeper crust brought up to present day
erosion levels by thrust movement. The exotic nature of the ultramafic rocks is
defined by the metamorphic grade which is granulite facies, compared with the
amphibolite facies metamorphism of the host rocks. Mercier et al. (1999) further
suggest that all rubies associated with ultramafic rocks in the Mozambique
Metamorphic Belt, including Madagascar, only formed under granulite facies
metamorphism and were tectonically inserted in country rocks.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 43
3. Ruby and sapphire

Gem corundum associated with granulite facies metamorphic

rocks
In 334 B.C., beautiful translucent gems were described as having come from an
island not far from Persia (Zwaan,1982). This island was Sri Lanka, host to the world’s
greatest concentration of gemstone wealth. Tens of thousands of carats of fine
quality gemstones including ruby, sapphire, yellow sapphire, orange sapphire, violet
sapphire, colourless sapphire, green sapphire, colour-change sapphire, star ruby
and sapphire, spinel, garnet, peridot, beryl, tourmaline, quartz, zircon, chrysoberyl,
alexandrite, moonstone, topaz, and lesser known gems such as taaffeite, ekanite
and sinhalite have been mined from this island. It seems that almost everywhere
gemstones can be found in the gravels. In the mid-1940s, a Sri Lankan engineer
working on an irrigation project put his ring down along a river while he was
bathing. While looking for his ring after he finished, he discovered blue and red
pebbles (Gunawardene and Rupasinghe, 1986). The area eventually became the
Elahera gem field, second largest gem field in Sri Lanka. The largest gem field is
Ratnapura, in the southwest part of the island. The gem-bearing gravel, called illam,
lies anywhere from 1 m to 10 m, sometimes up to 30 m, beneath the ground.

Despite incredibly rich alluvial deposits, gemstones are very rarely discovered in situ
on Sri Lanka. For this reason, the genesis of the fabulous gemstone deposits of the
island is uncertain. During the last 15 years, a number of geological and geochemical
studies have been carried out on the placer gemstone deposits in an attempt to
discover the ‘motherlode,’ much like Canadian mining companies continuously look
for the ‘motherlode’ in the Dawson area, Yukon. A prospectors’ guide map has been
developed (Dissanayake and Rupasinghe, 1993) as part of an ongoing systematic
study on the spatial distribution of gem deposits, their bedrock sources, and
determining the geological and geochemical methods of readily identifying areas
with high gem potential.

Alluvial gemstone deposits in Sri Lanka are derived from PreCambrian Highland/
Southwestern Complex rocks. The rocks of the Highland/Southwestern Complex
consist of closely interbanded pyroxene-granulite facies metamorphic rocks;
charnockites (acid, intermediate, basic); undifferentiated metasedimentary rocks
(garnetiferous granulites, garnetiferous biotite gneisses, garnet-sillimanite-biotite
gneisses); khondalites (quartz-feldspar-garnet-sillimanite-graphite schist); quartzites,
crystalline limestones, calc-gneisses and calc-granulites, amphibole granulites
and amphibolites. Many of the gemstone deposits are confined to calciphyres,
chamockites and cordierite-bearing gneisses in the southwestern part of the
Highland Complex.

Dahanalyake (1980) studied sediments in gem pits in order to determine the modes
of occurrence of the gem-bearing gravels and perhaps determine the nature of the
source rocks. He suggests that gem corundum and spinels were derived from both
garnetiferous gneisses and localized skarn deposits, while topaz, beryl, tourmaline
and chrysoberyl may have come from pegmatites.

Rupasinghe et al. (1984) summarize a study of the geochemistry of beryllium and

fluorine in the gem fields of Sri Lanka. They reviewed the findings of Munasinghe
and Dissanayake (1981) who suggest that the gem corundums on Sri Lanka formed
as a result of contact between basic charnockitic intrusions and highly aluminous
metasedimentary rocks of the Highland Group. Beryllium-enriched fluids related

44
 3. Ruby and sapphire

to the charnockitic intrusions reacted with the aluminum and silica in the Highland
Group country rocks to form beryl and chrysoberyl. The contents of beryllium and
fluorine and other elements in the gem sediments of Sri Lanka as compared to
average rocks is elevated. In contrast, Silva and Siriwardena (1988) document the
geology and origin of a rare in situ corundum-bearing skarn deposit. They suggest
that the corundum crystals in the skarn formed by the reaction of late magmatic fluid
from pegmatite intrusion with the marble which eventually enriched the fluids with
aluminum, causing corundum (Al2O3) to precipitate. Although the corundum crystals
formed were opaque light grey, Silva and Siriwardena (1988) suggest that this type of
occurrence is the source rock in Sri Lanka for the gem varieties of corundum, sapphire
and ruby.

Dissanayake and Rupasinghe (1992) recommend Sr/Rb ratios, thorium, uranium,

fluorine, tantalum, niobium, yttrium and rare-earth elements (REE) as pathfinders
for alluvial gem deposits in heavy mineral surveys. The REE content of the gem-
bearing sediments of Sri Lanka compared to shales, chondrites and crustal averages is
elevated.

In developing the prospectors’ guide map for Sri Lanka, Dissanayake and Rupasinghe
(1993) used the lithology, stream drainage density, the presence of alluvium and the
heavy mineral content to define previously unknown areas of gemstone potential.

Mendis et al. (1993) studied the application of structural geology in the exploration
for residual gem deposits. They found that corundum deposits, in particular, are
generally associated with axial plane areas of tight, doubly plunging synclinoria and
anticlinoria where occurrences of marble and pegmatites are observed. In general,
ruby and sapphire deposits are associated with structurally deformed areas where
both marble and pegmatite or marble and granite occur.

Using the theory that pegmatites, granites and other magmatic bodies are associated
with gemstone formation under granulite facies conditions, Gamage et al. (1992)
studied the Rb-Sr ratios in stream sediments to delineate areas with high gem
potential. They found that areas with higher Rb-Sr ratios correspond to high gem
potential. Metamorphic complexes in Sri Lanka which do not underlie gemstone
deposits were found to have lower Rb-Sr ratios. They suggest that depletion of
Sr is a function of the fractionation of the parental granite during granulite facies
metamorphism. The depletion of Sr and the enrichment of Rb during gem mineral
formation yields a characteristic geochemical signature. They suggest that Rb-Sr
ratios could be an effective tool when used in conjunction with geological, structural,
and mineralogical studies.

Researchers have focused on linking the Highland Complex in Sri Lanka to similar
complexes in Antarctica. Papers by Shiraishi et al. (1994) and Kriegsman (1995)
report the results of two of many studies looking at the ancient supercontinent
of Gondwanaland and its subsequent break-up into smaller blocks. Sri Lanka was
originally connected to what is now the northeast coast of Antarctica (Figure 3.4). It
is interesting to note that some reconstructions of Gondwanaland show that
equivalents of the Highland Group Complex of high-grade metamorphic rocks, host
rocks of the most varied and rich alluvial gemstone deposits in the world, are exposed
in Antarctica as the Lützow-Holm Complex.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 45
3. Ruby and sapphire

MADAGASCAR
Madagascar, once joined with its sister island, Sri Lanka as part of Gondwanaland,
is emerging as a new ‘island of gems’ with an astounding array of gemstones and
crystalline mineral species. Until the 1990s, deposits of gem-quality rubies and
sapphires were uncommon, but the larger-scale exploitation of sapphire deposits
starting in 1994 from the Andranondambo area has catapulted Madagascar into a
leading supplier of sapphires.

A flurry of scientific gemological papers speculating on the paragenesis of

the sapphires were published following the discovery of the Andranondambo
sapphires. One of the first papers, by Kiefert et al. (1996), described the host rocks
for the sapphires as small pegmatitic veins intruding Precambrian pyroxenite. A
comparison was made to the famous Kashmir sapphire deposit, where water-rich
feldspathic pegmatites intrude marble and basic rocks. Another paper by Milisenda
and Henn (1996) suggested that the sapphires formed by high-grade granulite
facies metamorphism of altered marbles and calc-silicate-gneisses. A third paper
(Gübelin and Peretti, 1997) puts forward evidence suggesting that the sapphires
formed as a result of various metasomatic skarn formation. They base this on the
mineral inclusions within sapphires, which are typical for rocks described as Th-U
skarns. Metasomatic skarn formation and corundum formation was in two stages.

Madagascar is underlain by very old, highly metamorphosed granulite facies rocks

very similar to the rocks on Sri Lanka; in fact the two islands were once part of the
Gondwana supercontinent and affected by the same Pan-African tectonothermal
event before separation. The sapphires occur primarily in small pegmatitic veins
0.05- to 0.2-m thick and 5- to 50-m long consisting mainly of calcite and plagioclase
which intrude pyroxenites in the Precambrian basement rocks. Sapphires can be
seen in situ, but have also been concentrated into gem-rich residual gravels. They
are specific to one type of miarolitic pegmatite-like host rock, and there is a close
association between intruding hydrous aluminum-rich pegmatite-like vein and basic
host rocks (Kiefert et al., 1996). The deposits are underlain by altered marbles and
calc-silicate gneisses in a belt of rocks which closely resembles the Highland Complex
in Sri Lanka (Milisenda and Henn, 1996).

Amazingly, sapphires are not just found associated with the granulite facies
metamorphic rock; they are also associated with alkalai basalts in the northern part
of the island at Ambondromifehy, which is overlain by a large field of Tertiary basaltic

Mining of ruby and sapphire, Ambondromifehy region, Madagascar

Schwarz et al. (2000) report that to transport gem-bearing soil into jigs • samples were then re-sorted after heat
there are two companies that have set up where the heavy minerals were separated, treatment;
commercial sapphire-mining operations collected and sorted by hand. • up to 10 separate heat treatments may
to recover the buried sapphires. One • 3 to 5 kg of sapphires were recovered be necessary.
company, MENAVI International Ramat in a typical 10 hour shift; In summary, about 5 kg of rough
Gan from Israel, provided interesting • 17% of the rough produced was usable sapphire from this mine would be
mining statistics. Between 1996 and for heat treatment and cutting; expected to produce 900 carats of faceted
1998, over 350 kg of corundum was • after initial sorting, samples were stones.
recovered, of which 12 to 16% was sent outside Madagascar for heat Mining operations halted in mid-
facetable. In this particular operation, an treatment; 2000 due to economics.
excavator and water cannon were used

46
 3. Ruby and sapphire

rocks. No sapphires have been found to date in situ (Schwarz et al., 2000) in the
Ambondromifehy area. It seems that sapphire-bearing alluvial material derived from
the eroded alkali basalts was deposited in voids and crevices of an older underlying
limestone. Miners prefer digging around the roots of trees since the greater
decomposition of the soil makes it easier to cut through the soil.

MALAWI
Gem yellow/green sapphire and rubies have been recovered from eluvial deposits
in southern Malawi since the 1960s. Rankin (2002) studied the inclusions within
the gem sapphires and rubies to determine the source of the corundum. Although
the sapphires and ruby are found in eluvial soils associated with a weathered,
serpentinized, ultramafic body intruded within metasedimentary gneisses and schists,
the primary source for the gems had not yet been determined. The analyses suggests
that indeed, these gems formed as a result of primary/hydrothermal processes as
opposed to being associated with alkali basalt magmatism.

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR RUBY AND SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS

Ruby and sapphire associated with alkali basalt
Look for:

• alkali basalt host rocks, especially those which are undersaturated; for
example nephelinite and nepheline hawaiitte

• spinel-lherzolite nodules

• heavy mineral suite of zircon, spinel, ilmenite, olivine, clinopyroxene,

garnet, magnetite or feldspar

• lamprophyre dykes

Rubies and sapphires associated with marbles or aluminum-

rich metasedimentary rocks
HOST ROCKS
The presence of marble, either as beds, lenses or intercalations within schist and
gneiss packages is important for gem corundum formation.

In the Urals, gem corundum preferentially precipitated with magnesian calcite marble
and dolomitic calcite marble as opposed to calcite marble.

METAMORPHIC GRADE
Okrusch et al. (1976) reported regional metamorphism under conditions reaching
600–700°C and 7 kilobars. The host rocks for the Ural Mountains (Russia) ruby deposit
were regionally metamorphosed under conditions of 620–660°C and 25 kbars. In
general, the regional metamorphic conditions are medium to high-grade.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 47
3. Ruby and sapphire

ALUMINUM CONTENT
At Hunza (Pakistan), it was suggested that the marbles were derived from aluminum-
rich limestones (e.g. karst environment), however, in the Urals, Kissin (1994) states that
the Al203 content of the marbles is not a factor.

PEGMATITES
Although pegmatites are abundant in the Urals, Kissin (1994) reports that they did
not influence corundum formation. Pegmatites are commonly found associated
with other ruby deposits, for example, the Mogok Stone Tract, but the geochemical
relationship between pegmatite intrusion and ruby formation is unknown.

Gem corundum associated with ultramafic rocks (Mangari, Kenya)

HOST ROCK LITHOLOGY
Chromite-bearing ultramafic bodies are the most suitable host rocks for ruby and
sapphire formation.

METAMORPHIC CONTROL
Ruby crystals formed during regional upper amphibolite to granulite facies
conditions.

The controls listed above define a high-grade granulite facies regional metamorphic
event. Ruby crystals grew adjacent to ultramafic/pegmatite or ultramafic/paragneiss
contacts during an upper amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphic event, or in
some cases may have formed within the ultramafic rocks and then were emplaced
during a tectonic event. Although the lithology of the host rocks next to the
ultramafic bodies is not important, the absence of fluids after the peak of regional

Table 3.8. Geophysical and Total count

geochemical properties of various Radioactive (counts per Geochemical
Rock type properties second) Resistivity Log (Rho) properties
rocks commonly associated with
gemstone deposits in southern Marble Low 90–120 Very high 2.4 Mg-, C- rich

Kenya. Modified from Simonet Ultramafic rock Low 60–150 Very low to 1.2 –18 Mg-rich, Si-poor
low Cr= 1300 to 3400 ppm
and Okundi (2003).
Ni = 800 to 1600 ppm
Quartzite Low 100–200 High >2
Quartzo- Low–high 200–500 High >2
feldspathic gneiss
Gneiss (biotite- Low Medium 1.8–2.4 K-, Rb-rich
bearing)
Gneiss (altered) Low–high Low 1.5–2 K-, Rb-, Cr-rich
Gneiss (graphite- Medium–very 300–800 Low- 1.8–2.4 V-, Cr- (U)-rich
bearing) high medium
Pegmatites Medium–high 200 –600 High >2 K-, Rb-rich
Corundum- High–very 400–800 High Not Mg-, Cr-, REE-, P-,
bearing high measured Th-rich
metasomatic
rocks (John Saul
Ruby mine)

48
 3. Ruby and sapphire

Table 3.9. Size of various types of Horizontal

gemstone deposits and associated extension Vertical extension
Deposit type Width (length) (depth) Dip (°)
structures. Data from field work
of Rockland Kenya Ltd. on several Ruby – metasomatic veins 0.2 to 5 m Up to about 150 m Up to about 70 m Common 90

gemstone deposits in Kenya and Ruby – metasomatic 0.2 to 1 m A few m A few m Variable
pockets
Tanzania. Modified from Simonet
Ruby – metamorphic 0.2 to 1 m Up to several Up to about 200 m Variable
and Okundi (2003). (amphibolites) 100s m
Ruby – metamorphic 0.1 to 3 m A few m to a few Variable
(gneisses) 10s m
Sapphire – igneous 0.1 to 6 m A few 100s m to a Probably up to a few Common 90
(e.g., Dusi) few km km
Sapphire basaltic tuff 0.5 to a few Several 10s km Not applicable 0
(e.g., Turkana) 10s m
Tsavorite – planar reef 0.1 to 1.5 m A few 10s m to a A few 10s m to a few Variable
few 100s m 100s m
Tsavorite – linear reef 0.1 to 2 m Not applicable A few 10s m to a few Common 15
100s m to 30
Rhodolite (with ultramafic 0.5 to 1 m Rarely more than Rarely more than a few Variable
boudins) a few 10s m 10s m
Rhodolite (in shear zones) 0.5 to 2 m Up to about Up to about 100 m ? Common 90
100 m
Rhodolite (in graphite 0.5 to 1 m Up to several Up to several 100s m Variable
gneisses, Tanzanian type) 100s m
Tourmaline – 0.1 to 0.2 m Up to a few m Up to a few m Variable
metamorphic (in gneisses)
Tourmaline – metasomatic 0.1 to 3 m Individual veins: Individual veins: up to Common
(in marbles) up to a few 10s; a few 10s m; close to 90
Groups of veins: Groups of veins: up to
up to a few km a few 100s m
Aquamarine pegmatites 5 to 50 m Up to a few km Up to a few km Common 90
Carbonated ultramafic 30 to 1000 m 50 to 2500 m Variable, linked to Not
bodies length applicable
Ophiolitic complexes (in Up to a few Up to a few 10s Not applicable Not
Kenya) km km applicable
Baragoian–Barsaloian 1 m to a few A few 10s m to a A few 10s to a few 10s 90
shear zones 10s km few 100s km km

metamorphism prevented retrograde mineral reactions during cooling and allowed

the preservation of gem corundum.

PROSPECTING METHODS
Simonet and Okundi (2003) describe various geological, geochemical and geophysical
prospecting techniques used in Kenya to explore for coloured gemstone deposits. A
starting point in deciding which exploration tools to use in Africa depends on
the geophysical and geochemical properties of various rocks associated with
gemstone deposits and they present a table with this data (Table 3.8). The ultramafic
rocks associated with many ruby deposits have low apparent resistivity and low
radioactivity compared with the host rocks. They provide another interesting table
(Table 3.9) with the size of primary gem deposits in Africa. The size of the sampling
grid is important since so many gemstone deposits are small, commonly less than
a kilometre. Resistivity mapping was found to be an efficient method to locate and
delineate carbonatized ultramafic bodies completely covered by soil in Kenya.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 49
3. Ruby and sapphire

REFERENCES
Atkinson, D. and Kothavala, R., 1983. Kashmir Sapphire. Gems and Gemology, vol. 19,
no. 2, p. 64–76.

Baker, D.W., Groat, L.A., Taylor, R.P., Marshall, D.D., Fallick, A.E. and Sherlock, R., 2003.
Sapphire-bearing ultramafic lamprophyre dike at Yogo Gulch, Montana: Trace-element
geochemistry and implications for flat-slab tectonics. Gem Materials and Mineralogy,
Special Session, Geological Association of Canada (abstracts), May 26 to 28, 2003,
Vancouver, Canada.

Barot, N.R. and Harding, R.R., 1994. Pink corundum from Kitui, Kenya. Journal of
Gemmology, vol. 24, no. 3, p. 165–172.

Barr, S.M. and Dostal, J., 1986. Petrochemistry and origin of megacrysts in Upper Cenozoic
basalts, Thailand. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 1, no. 2, p. 107–116.

Barr, S.M. and James, D.E., 1990. Trace element characteristics of Upper Cenozoic basaltic
rocks of Thailand, Kampuchea and Vietnam. Journal of Southeast Asian Earth Sciences,
vol. 4, no. 3, p. 233–242.

Barr, S.M. and MacDonald, A.S., 1978. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of late Cenozoic
alkaline basalts of Thailand. Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin, no. 10, p. 21–48.

Berg, R.B., 2002. Probable sources of alluvial sapphires in Western Montana. Geological
Society of America, Rocky Mountain Section, 54th Annual Meeting, Session No. 20,
Gemstone and Semiprecious Minerals and Host Rocks in the Western United States,
May 7–9, 2002.

Bowersox, G.W. and Chamberlin, B.E.,1995. Gemstones of Afghanistan. Geoscience

Press, Tucson. 210 p.

Bowersox, G.W., Foord, E.E., Laurs, B.M., Shigley, J.E. and Smith, C.P., 2000. Ruby and
Sapphire from Jagdalek, Afghanistan. Gems and Gemology, vol. 36, no. 2, p. 110–126.

Bridges, C.R., 1982. Gemstones of East Africa. In: Proceedings of the International
Gemological Symposium 1982, D.M. Eash (ed.), p. 263–275.

Broughton, P., 1979. Economic geology of the Anakie sapphire mining district,
Queensland. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 16, no. 5, p. 318–337.

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50
 3. Ruby and sapphire

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Levinson, A.A. and Cook, F.A., 1994. Gem corundum in alkali basalt: origin and
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Limtrakun, P., Zaw, K., Ryan, C.G. and Mernagh, T.P., 2001. Formation of the Denchai
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Malisa, E. and Muhongo, S., 1990. Tectonic setting of gemstone mineralization in the
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Mendis, D.P.J., Rupasighe, M.S. and Dissanayake, C.B., 1993. Application of structural
geology in the exploration for residual gem deposits. Bulletin of the Geological Soceity
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Mercier, A., Debat, P. and Saul, J.M., 1999. Exotic origin of the ruby deposits of the
Mangari area in SE Kenya. Ore Geology Reviews, vol. 14, p. 83–104.

Meyer, H. and Mitchell, R., 1988. Sapphire-bearing ultramafic lamprophyre from Yugo,
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Milisenda, C.C. and Henn, U., 1996. Compositional characteristics of sapphires from a
new find in Madagascar. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 25, no. 3, p. 177–184.

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Newman, R., 1994. The Ruby and Sapphire buying Guide. International Jewelry
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Okrusch, M., Bunch, T.E. and Bank, H., 1976. Paragenesis and petrogenesis of a
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Pêcher, A., Giuliani, G., Garnier, V., Maluski, H., Kausar, A.B., Malik, R.H. and
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Sciences, vol. 21, no. 3, p. 265–282.

Pecover, S.R., 1987. New concepts on the origin of sapphire in northeastern New South
Wales. Australian Gemmologist, vol. 16, no. 6, p. 221.

Peretti, A., Schmetzer, K., Bernhardt, H. and Mouawad, F., 1995. Rubies from Mong Hsu.
Gems and Gemology, vol. 31, no. 1, p. 2–26.

Peretti, A., Mullis, J. and Mouawad, F., 1996. The role of fluorine in the formation of
colour zoning in rubies from Mong Hsu, Myanmar (Burma). Journal of Gemmology,
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Rankin, A.H., 2002. Natural and heat-treated corundum from Chimwadzulu Hill, Malawi:
genetic significance of zircon clusters and diaspore-bearing inclusions. Journal of
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Schwarz, D., Kanis, J. and Schmetzer, K., 2000. Sapphires from Antsiranana Province in
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Cambrian orogenic belt in East Antarctica and Sri Lanka: Implications for Gondwana
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Seifert, A.V. and Hyrsl, J., 1999. Sapphire and garnet from Kalalani, Tanga Province,
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Sutherland, F.L., Schwarz, D., Jobbins, E.A., Coenraads, R.R. and Webb, G., 1998.
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Sutthirat, C., Saminpanya, S., Droop, G.T.R., Henderson, C.M.B. and Manning, D.A.C.,
2001. Mineralogical Magazine, vol. 65, no. 2, p. 277–295.

Voynick, S.M., 1985. Yogo – The Great American Sapphire. Mountain Press Publishing
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Walthan, T., 1999. The Ruby Mines of Mogok. Geology Today, July-August, 1999,
p. 143–149.

Ward, F., 1995. Rubies and Sapphires. Gem Book Publishers, Bethesda, Maryland, U.S.A.,
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56
 4. EMERALD

INTRODUCTION
Emerald, the magnificent green gem variety of the mineral beryl, is the third most
valuable gemstone in the world after diamond and ruby. Superior emeralds may
command more than $15,000 per carat for the best stones, although one can also
buy a bag of ‘emeralds’ for $5 on the Internet. The highest price ever paid for an
emerald is $1,149,000 for an exceptional 10.11-carat Colombian emerald in a ring
sold at Christie’s auction house in Hong Kong on May 2, 2000, which works out to an
incredible $115,000 per carat (Giuliani et al., 2002). The pricing of emeralds is unique
in the coloured gemstone market since a greater weight is put on the colour of the
emerald rather than its clarity, brilliance (or ‘sparkle’) or other characteristics.

For most of recorded history, the only known emerald deposit was located in a bleak
area of desert 700 km southeast of Cairo, Egypt. It is not known when the deposit was
first mined; some estimates place the earliest workings at about 400 B.C. (Jennings
et al., 1993) or even earlier. Most of the Egyptian ‘emeralds’ mined in antiquity
were quite pale and cloudy and nowhere near the stunning quality of their as-yet
undiscovered Colombian counterparts. Despite this, the green colour of emerald
had special significance for a people so linked to the life-giving green fertile valley
lining the Nile River. In ancient Egypt, emeralds became a symbol for joy, desire and
female fertility (Sinkankas, 1981). Jewellery featuring Egyptian emeralds was found
in the ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. There is a historical ocular mystique about
emeralds; in antiquity and through the Middle Ages in Europe there was a recurring
belief of emeralds being beneficial for the eyes and eyesight.

Emerald deposits in Colombia were ‘re-discovered’ by the Spaniards in the 16th

century, although systematic mining and trading of emeralds took place by native
Americans as early as 1000 A.D. throughout Colombia and neighbouring countries
(Sinkankas, 1981). Word of the intense verdancy and gigantic size of the emeralds
quickly spread through Europe and the Middle East where the vast majority of
Colombian emeralds brought back by the Spaniards were traded to India and Persia
in return for gold.

As one of the world’s most sought after commodities, gemstones are often associated
with violence, but the history of the Colombian emerald mines reveals an unusually
bloody and riotous past. Despite their best efforts, it took the Spaniards five attempts
in the sixteenth century to conquer the fierce Muzo tribe controlling the Muzo
emerald mine. The secret weapon unleashed on the warriors to eventually win the
battle for the Spaniards were packs of European-trained hunting dogs (Ringsrud,
1988). Slavery and poor working conditions were rampant. A cave-in at the Muzo
emerald mine in 1646 buried 300 native people and Spaniard miners for over 200

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 57
4. Emerald

years until their bones were discovered by miners in 1850 (Ringsrud, 1988). The
mine manager’s duties at the Chivor emerald mine in the 1920s and 1930s regularly
involved shoot-outs with roving gangs of bandits (Feininger, 1970). In the 1970s,
anarchy existed at the government-run mines with rampant illegal mining and selling
of emeralds with little or no government control. Over 900 emerald-related murders
were reported at the Muzo mine in 1973. Over the years the situation has stabilized
and the major emerald workings are all underground, alleviating the tense situation
where people could freely sift through the tailings from open pit workings.

The ripple effect of the Colombian emerald trade during the sixteenth and later
centuries was astonishing. The most ardent gem collectors at the time were the
maharajahs of India who loved all types of gems; they were ecstatic at the size
and quality of emeralds coming out of Colombia. Over time, they enthusiastically
accumulated thousands and thousands of emeralds from different sources; also over
time the origin of these fabulous gems became murky, with many Indians insisting
that the green gems were actually from an ‘old mine’ in either Egypt or India. Gem
experts were doubtful, given the poor quality of Egyptian emeralds, although it was
not out of the question that some of the emeralds in the Indian collections may have
come from deposits in Pakistan, Afghanistan or Russia (Ward, 2001).

In an innovative study combining science with history, Giuliani et al. (2001) studied
nine historic emeralds. They showed that by analysing the isotopic composition
of the emerald, the country of origin and the emerald mine from which the stone
originated could be determined. Jewellery from the Gallo-Roman occupation of
France was historically thought to contain emeralds from Egypt or Austria, the only
two known sources at the time; but in fact the emeralds were found to be from
Swat, Pakistan. The treasury of the Nizam of Hyderadad, India is one of best gem
collections on the planet. Many of the emeralds in this collection were thought to be
from Egypt or from sources in Asia, however, three of the emeralds in this fabulous
collection were found to be from Colombia and others were from Pakistan and
Afghanistan. Although it does not appear that the emerald deposits of Pakistan and
Afghanistan were formally mined in ancient times, people were apparently picking
up the pretty stones on the surface and then trading them along the silk route. This
study also shows that Indian royalty acquired Colombian emeralds earlier and with
more vigour than was previously thought.

The world’s best collection of emeralds today, and this is a truly subjective
observation, is contained within the Crown Jewels of Iran. Remarkably, the collection
remained intact through the deposition of the Shah of Iran in 1979 by Ayatollah
Khomeini. Visitors to Tehran, the capital city of Iran, can now view the collection
at the Crown Jewels Museum housed in an underground vault in Iran’s central
bank. The collection is not indigenous to Iran; it is essentially war booty
from when Nadir Shah of Persia invaded India in 1739 and looted the
Mogul palace. The world had its first view of the Crown Jewels in 1960
when the astonishing collection first went on display revealing trays
and trays of gigantic uncut emeralds, tumbled emerald rough, Burmese
rubies, thousands of pearls, spinels, be-jewelled thrones, tiaras, crowns,
swords, a gold and gemstone globe and six cut diamonds larger than
100 carats. Also included within the collection is what many consider to
be the most exquisite gemstone ornamental object in the world; a little
box made of gigantic emeralds held together by gold studded with

58
 4. Emerald

diamonds. The Iran Crown Jewels collection is described fully in a wonderful book by
Meen and Tushingham (1968).

Current emerald production

Due to the nature of coloured gemstone mining, it is almost impossible to quantify
the production and value of emeralds, either globally or by country. Emeralds,
like most coloured gemstones, are primarily produced at relatively small, low-cost
operations in remote regions of developing countries.

After centuries of production, Colombia is still a prolific supplier of emeralds. In

2001, official production of emeralds was 5.5 million carats, of which 10% were kept
in Columbia and 90% destined for export1. In 2000, the official production was
over 8 million carats2. There is speculation that the emerald mines in Colombia are
becoming depleted and there is pressure to find new reserves using geological and
geochemical exploration techniques, however, Colombia still supplies an estimated
60% of emeralds in the world gem trade (Guiliani et al., 2002) and probably accounts
for over half the value of the estimated annual billion-dollar wholesale global emerald
trade (Ward, 2001). Another South American country, Brazil, only started supplying
emeralds in the mid-1960s but now produces about 10% of annual global emerald
production. Brazil is a prolific producer of many gemstones including diamond,
tourmaline, topaz and aquamarine, in addition to emerald. As reported in Guiliani
et al., 2002, the production of emeralds in Brazil in 1999 was worth $50 million.

Fine emeralds have also been mined from Zambia, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Nigeria,
Namibia, Tanzania, South Africa, Afghanistan, Austria, Australia, Bulgaria, India and
Pakistan (Figure 4.1). In Africa, Zambia used to be a prolific supplier of emeralds, but
Figure 4.1. World emerald now Zimbabwe is the primary producer. Emeralds from Pakistan and Afghanistan are
occurrences. Modified from noted for their fine colour. China is now producing good quality matrix specimens of
Giuliani et al., 2002. emerald.

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1Torres, I.E., 2001. The Mineral Industry of Colombia. United States Geological Survey, International Minerals,

Statistics and Information. website: www.minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country.

2Bermúdez-Lugo, 2000

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 59
4. Emerald

In North America, there are very few emerald localities. In 1875, emeralds were
discovered near the town of Hiddenite, Norh Carolina, U.S.A. Emerald deposits in the
Hiddenite area have been worked mainly by individual operators and production has
been sporadic. Some large crystals have been discovered; one of the most recent is a
massive 858-carat crystal unearthed in 1998.

One of the most promising new discoveries of emerald is the Regal Ridge emerald
occurrence in Yukon Territory, Canada. This remote area is being explored by a
public mining company called True North Gems3. The discovery of an emerald
occurrence in Canada’s remote north is welcome news for the emerald industry,
with the expectation that Canadian coloured gemstone deposits will be mined in an
environmentally and socially responsible manner. Some of the historical problems
facing the emerald sector are due to the fact that emerald deposits are commonly
located in countries with unstable political situations or socialist regimes where there
is no confirmed security of mineral tenure. Typically, primitive mining techniques
combined with little knowledge of exploration techniques combine to create
inefficient mining practices. Smuggling tends to be rampant and as with all coloured
gemstones, there is a lack of industry-wide standards for treatments and disclosure. A
suspicious public drove the price of emerald downwards during the mid-1990s due
to the failure of the industry to disclose ‘oiling’ and other commonly used techniques
to improve an emerald’s appearance. Despite the problems, emerald continues to be
one of the most sought-after coloured gemstones in the world.

Classic references on emeralds

For a comprehensive overview of emeralds, including history, lore, properties and
geology, the wonderful book Emeralds and Other Beryls by J. Sinkankas (1981) is
recommended. The comprehensive Emeralds of Pakistan edited by Kazmi and Snee
(1989) summarizes the results of an in-depth multi-disciplinary study of the emerald
deposits of the Karakoram, Hindu Kush and Himalayas mountain ranges. The lush
Emeralds of the World issue of extraLapis English No. 2: The Legendary Green Beryl
(Guiliani et al., 2002) is full of beautiful, stunning photographs of emeralds and
emerald localities and presents the latest scientific information in an easy to read
and understandable format. The book Emeralds by Fred Ward (2001) is an excellent
introductory non-technical description of the world of emeralds. The comprehensive
Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry, edited by E.S. Grew (2002) and
published by the Mineralogical Society of America, contains every known fact about
the rare element, including the latest research on emerald deposits.

How to buy an emerald

As emphasized before, there are no set prices for coloured gemstones. A customer
in a Canadian jewellery store may pay $3,000 for a fine quality one-carat emerald
or they may pay $15,000 for a different one-carat emerald. As with most excellent
quality coloured gemstones, there is almost a logarithmic scale involving price and
carat weight. The poorest quality emeralds are so full of flaws that they have lost
all transparency, and tend to be a milky, pale green colour. The best stones, from
Colombia, are a transparent pure green to bluish green, medium-dark in tone and
saturated with colour. The wholesale price of emerald is weighted more towards

3www.truenorthgems.com

60
 4. Emerald

colour than clarity. The reflectivity and sparkle of an emerald are not as important
as with ruby or sapphire, for example. In fact, the well known step cut was specially
designed to highlight the green colour of emerald and provide maximum exposure.

Customers, as always, should buy from reputable gem dealers or jewellery stores
with graduate gemologists on staff. It is very difficult to separate natural emeralds
from the vast array of synthetic, dyed and fake faceted emeralds seen in the gem
trade and in many fine stores. As an example of one test, gemologists often use a
Chelsea Filter to look at the light transmitted by an emerald. Real emeralds look red
when viewed through the filter. Only a trained expert has the expertise to not only
separate natural stones from synthetic emeralds, but to also advise the customer on
the common practice of ‘oiling’ or ‘fracture filling’ treatments using Opticon and other
fillers. Consumer confidence in the emerald trade took a downturn during the 1990s
when it was determined that not all jewelers were disclosing to the customer that
their emerald had been treated in some manner to improve the clarity. It is important
to disclose this information to avoid the sad situation where a beautiful green
emerald may turn colourless or cloudy after its owner or an uneducated jeweler
routinely cleans it in an ultrasonic cleaner.

CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY
Emerald is a variety of the mineral beryl. Other gem varieties of the mineral
beryl include aquamarine (blue-green), morganite (pink-peach) and heliodor
(yellow). There is even a rich red beryl found in Utah, U.S.A. This rich red variety of
beryl is discussed further in Chapter 8. The physical and chemical characteristics of
emerald are given in Table 4.1.

The chemical formula of the mineral beryl is Be3Al2(SiO3) 6. The beryl structure
is defined by flat rings of SiO4 tetrahedrons stacked on top of each other, like a
perfectly stacked pile of donuts. The resulting hole is a hollow channel that can

Table 4.1. Physical and chemical Chemical Be3Al2 (SiO3) 6 (beryllium aluminum silicate)
characteristics of emerald. formula
Crystal system Hexagonal crystal system: dihexagonal-dipyramidal crystal class.
Beryl is a cyclosilicate mineral and has hollow channels through vertically stacked
(Si6O18) rings. The structure consists of six-membered rings of Si tetrahedral lying
in parallel planes. The rings are linked together both laterally and vertically by Be
tetrahedra and Al octahedra, forming a three-dimensional framework that is a
tectosilicate. Elements such as lithium, potassium, sodium, rubidium and cesium and
even whole water molecules can fit into these spaces, generating open structural
channels called corrosion tubes.
Habit As single crystals with hexagonal six-sided prisms that can be short and stubby and
long and slender with flat termination
Colour Emerald: green
Hardness 7.5 to 8
Fracture Indistinct basal cleavage
Cleavage
Parting
Specific gravity 2.67 to 2.84 g/cm3
Pleochroism Emerald: Strong
Fluorescence Emerald: Longwave – inert to weak orange-red
Shortwave – inert to weak orange-red

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 61
4. Emerald

be filled with sodium, cesium or even water molecules. As with corundum, pure
beryl is colourless. The pretty colour of gem varieties of beryl — the emeralds,
aquamarines and morganites — is usually caused by the addition of trace elements,
such as iron, chromium, vanadium or manganese, substituting for aluminum within
the beryl mineral structure. For example, when the rather common element iron is
incorporated within the beryl mineral structure, a green beryl may result, however,
this colour of green is different from the rich, saturated more brilliant emerald green
colour. Some people compare this common green colour to leeks. There is a very
attractive green beryl of this sort mined in Finland for example, and set with gold
nuggets of the region to make attractive jewellery. The valence state of iron makes a
difference; for instance Fe2+ produces beautiful pale blue colour in beryl, the colour
we call aquamarine, while Fe3+ produces a golden-yellow colour. When both Fe2+ and
Fe3+ are present, a range of green colours between blue and yellow may result. When
a small amount of chromium or less commonly, vanadium, substitute for aluminum
in the emerald structure, emerald is the splendid result. This is because the elements
chromium and vanadium are chromophoric; that is, due to the configuration of
electrons around the atomic nucleus, chromium and vanadium selectively absorb
purple, yellow and red light and transmit blue and green, whereas iron transmits
yellow.

Emeralds are extremely rare. One reason is that their essential element, beryllium,
has been rare since the time of the Big Bang, estimated at fifteen billion years

The difference between emerald and green beryl

Although the grass-green colour of contained a large iron component, in File has been in that situation with the
emerald can result from the presence addition to chromium, resulting in Lened green beryl/emerald occurrence
of chromium, vanadium or a mixture somewhat pale crystals covering the range in Canada’s NWT where most of the
of both chromophores in the beryl of colours between rich aquamarine and vanadium-bearing beryl crystals were
structure, for years the accepted practice emerald. undoubtedly most properly termed green
was to identify a gem as ‘emerald’ Many gemological studies later, beryl, and yet some crystals showed,
only if the colour was derived from we know that the fabulous emerald though pale in hue, a distinct ‘emerald’
chromium. ‘Emeralds’ coloured by colour depends on the physico-chemical green tone and could legitimately be
vanadium were called the horrific name conditions under which the gem called ‘emerald.’ As reasoned by Dietmar
‘green vanadian beryl,’ even though precipitated and the balance of iron, Schwarz in an entire chapter (Guiliani et
some of these crystals looked identical vanadium and chromium in the beryl al, 2002) devoted to the definition of an
to emeralds mined from Colombia. In structure. Typically, iron itself cannot emerald, absorption spectroscopy remains
practice, this meant that prospectors produce an emerald colour in a beryl, the only modern, fast, non-destructive
would have had to carry a portable although it can contribute to the overall and objective method for determining
atomic absorption spectrophotometer lab colour, commonly diminishing the the cause of colour in a green beryl or
to determine whether the beautiful green richness of the emerald green colour by emerald. However, in a second entire
crystals they discovered could properly adding a greyish component. The human chapter devoted to the definition of
be called ‘emerald’! This restrictive eye can reportedly distinguish between ‘emerald,’ a different author reminds
definition of emerald fell by the wayside 10,000 shades of green (Guiliani et al., us that there is no way to quantify the
after beautiful dark green vanadium-rich 2002). At what point a green beryl colour saturation which would separate
emeralds were mined from Salininha, can be called an emerald is subjective green beryl from emerald, and in the end,
Brazil, and was finally discarded after the when looking at both colour tone and this determination depends on whether
recognition that emeralds from Nigeria saturation. The author of this Open one is the buyer or seller.

62
 4. Emerald

ago. It is unknown whether beryllium was forged at all in the primordial soup and
subsequent infant galaxies and stars, since beryllium, along with its sister elements,
lithium and boron, tend to be annihilated in stellar interiors as a result of fusion
thermonuclear reactions (Grew, 2002). It is thought that beryllium can only form
during nuclear processes that occur during rare supernova explosions. Indeed, the
famous Tagish Lake meteorite, thought to contain small grains of material from the
explosive death of a large star before our own solar system was formed, does contain
trace amounts of beryllium (.052 ppm, Brown et al., 2000), along with nanodiamonds
and other exotic materials. In any case, beryllium on our planet is quite rare; it is
usually a late-stage element associated with pegmatites, continental granites or
certain hydrothermal fluids, sometimes related to metasomatic exchange between
pegmatites and ultramafic rocks leading to the formation of biotite schists. It can also,
as shown by the emerald deposits in Colombia, be leached out of black shales by
hydrothermal fluids.

The element most commonly responsible for the glorious green colour of emerald
is chromium, as Cr3+. Chromium, as opposed to beryllium, usually precipitates
early and is typically associated with ultramafic and other dark coloured igneous
rocks. Chromium has a relatively large ionic radius and can readily substitute for
aluminum in the beryl crystal structure, however, beryls do not usually form until
late in the igneous process, and by this time all the chromium has typically already
precipitated. Also, the size of the chromium and beryllium atoms are so different that
a growing beryl crystal can only incorporate a limited amount of chromium without
becoming too distorted or ceasing to grow. The element vandium, as V3+, can also
produce a nice green colour in emerald.

Beryllium
The rare element beryllium is metal is used widely in aerospace and More information
an essential component of several defense. Beryllium is used in nuclear Grew, E.S. (ed.), 2002. Beryllium:
gemstones, including emerald, reactors as a canning material and Mineralogy, Petrology, and Geochemistry.
aquamarine, morganite, chrysoberyl and neutron moderator and in control rods. It Reviews in Mineralogy and
alexandrite. Aside from its contribution was previously used as a triggering Geochemistry, Mineralogical Society
to the genesis of beautiful gemstones, device in nuclear warheads. Beryllium of America, Washington, DC, U.S.A.,
beryllium has many important industrial remains an important strategic mineral vol. 50, 691 p., www.minsocam.org.
applications. Although there are about for the United States. Before the giant The United States Geological Survey
89 valid mineral species containing bertrandite mine at Spor Mountain, (U.S.G.S.) produces detailed
beryllium, only two beryllium Utah opened in the 1960s, the U.S. summaries of beryllium production and
minerals, beryl Be3Al2 (SiO3) 6 and had to import most of the beryl needed use on their website at http://minerals.
bertrandite Be4Si2O7(OH) 2 are of to produce enough beryllium for U.S. usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/
commercial importance. Beryllium consumption. The U.S. is now the beryllium. The U.S.G.S. commodity
metal is very light, yet has a high largest producer of beryllium and specialist responsible for the beryllium
melting point. When alloyed with beryllium products and is also the largest sector is Larry Cunningham,
copper and aluminum it is strong consumer. Other countries capable of available at (703) 648–4977 or
and resistant to corrosion. Beryllium supplying beryl ore are Madagascar, lcunning@usgs.gov.
metal and oxide are used extensively Mozambique, Rwanda, Zambia, South
in the telecommunications and Africa, Asia, China, Kazakhstan,
computer sectors, while beryllium Portugal, Russia and Brazil.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 63
4. Emerald

Figure 4.2. Emerald crystal habit. It is evident that, the very rare emerald variety of beryl can only form under very
unusual or catastrophic geological conditions, and this is indeed the case as shown
by some of the unique deposit models that have been developed to explain how and
why this gem can precipitate.

PHYSICAL AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES

Emeralds typically form distinctive six-sided prisms (Figure 4.2). Only Colombia
produces the interesting ‘traphiche’ emeralds. The dark six-rayed pattern is caused
by carbonaceous impurities and small opaque mineral inclusions aligned along the
crystallographic axes in the emerald.

Emerald shows two weak to distinct colours when viewed through a

dichroscope. One colour is yellowish green and the other colour is bluish
green. Pleochroic colours for the various beryl gems are listed in Table 4.2.

Fluorescence in emerald is not an important property. Some emeralds from Chivor,

Colombia glow very weak red under longwave ultraviolet light. Other varieties of
beryl weakly fluoresce.

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF EMERALD

Emerald is a resistant mineral; it is hard and will not break down easily. However
when it is heavily included it may not survive fluvial transport. It is not as heavy as
most other gem minerals. The specific gravity of emerald is only 2.67 to 2.78, which is
closer to that of quartz (2.66) than other gems such as ruby, sapphire, diamond, topaz,
garnet and zircon. Emerald will tend to show up in stream sediment samples because
of its resistant nature, but will not concentrate in the heavy mineral fraction.

Although its sister gems, aquamarine in particular, can form gigantic perfectly formed
transparent crystals, it is very, very rare to find a larger emerald crystal. Aquamarine

Table 4.2. Pleochroic colours in Apparent colour Dichroic colours Intensity

beryl. From Sinkankas (1981). Green (emerald) Yellowish green Bluish green Weak to distinct
Green (other than emerald) Colourless or slightly Bluish green Weak to distinct
yellowish
Green Colourless Very pale green Weak
Green (Maxixe type) Green Yellow Distinct
Greenish blue Colourless Pale bluish green Distinct
Greenish blue Pale yellowish green Pale bluish green Distinct
Blue Very pale yellow Blue Distinct
Blue Colourless Blue Distinct to strong
Blue (Maxixe type) Blue Colourless Strong
Blue (Maxixe type) Blue Pale pink Strong
Yellow Yellowish green Pale bluish green Very weak
Yellow Greenish yellow Yellow Distinct
Yellow Pale yellow Lighter yellow Weak
Pink (morganite) Yellowish pink Pink Weak to distinct
Pink (morganite) Pale pink Pale bluish pink Weak to distinct
Red (Utah) Yellowish red Purplish red Distinct
Violet Colourless Violet Distinct

64
 4. Emerald

and other pegmatite minerals such as tourmaline, spodumene and topaz can grow
to large sizes in a relatively calm geological environment which allows for continuous
crystal growth at the end stage of pegmatite crystallization. Emeralds tend to form in
environments characterized by abrupt changes and mechanical stress, so crystals are
smaller, more broken up and contain numerous healed or partially healed fissures.

When exploring for emeralds in the field, any bright green rough crystal should be
examined. If the crystal is not emerald, it could be tourmaline, chrome diopside or
tsavorite garnet, all of which are valuable gemstones. The six-sided prismatic crystal
form of emerald is very diagnostic as is its flat top. A red reaction through the Chelsea
Filter is an indication that the stone is emerald, however, other chromium-bearing
green gems may show the same reaction.

GEOLOGY OF EMERALD DEPOSITS

For years the classic emerald model of beryllium-bearing pegmatites interacting with
chromium-bearing ultramafic or mafic rocks seemed adequate, except for one glaring
exception. The lack of pegmatites or granitic activity in the Colombian emerald
district pointed to a completely different environment for emerald precipitation, one
that did not have a magmatic component. In addition, researchers are recognizing
that regional metamorphism and tectonometamorphic processes such as shear zone
formation may play a significant role in certain emerald deposits. Emeralds, though
exceedingly rare, can obviously form in a wider variety of geological environments
than previously thought.

In the previous edition of this Open File (Walton, 1996), the classification of emerald
deposits seemed self-evident; there was the Colombia model and then all others. This
somewhat simplistic thinking was inspired by the wonderful detailed work presented
in the classic Emeralds of Pakistan (Kazmi and Snee, 1989). Most of the world’s
emerald deposits, except for those in Colombia and Norway could be lumped into
two categories: those hosted in recent suture zones, including the Pakistan and
Afghanistan emerald deposits, and those hosted in old to very old suture zones
which were somewhat obliterated over time and transformed into chlorite schists,
greenstones and other host rocks.

Since then, a myriad of classification schemes have been presented; some of these are
shown in the sidebar on the next page. For the purposes of this Open File, the “black
shale” and “schist hosted” categories shall be used.

EMERALD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH BLACK SHALE

Spaniards received their first indication of an incredibly beautiful green gemstone in
1537 when Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, the conqueror of the interior of Colombia
and the founder in 1538 of the city of Bogata, entered the valley of Guacheta and
received nine emeralds as a gift from the local Indians. For a thousand years before
this auspicious meeting and for centuries afterwards to the present day, the emerald
deposits in Colombia have consistently produced the largest, most gloriously green
emerald crystals on the planet.

Despite this prolificacy, the exact nature of the Colombian emerald deposits
remained a mystery until advances in fluid inclusion and stable isotope analytical

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 65
4. Emerald

Classification schemes for emerald deposits

From Emerald – the Most Valuable Beryl, extraLapis b. Emerald in carbonate-talc-schists and quartz From Geology of Gems by Kievlenko (2003)
English No. 2, Giuliani et al., 2002 lenses 1. Endogenetic
This classification scheme is based on what Emeralds are found in mélange of blue schist,
the authors refer to as a ‘collector’s’ approach; a. Pegmatite
green schist and ophiolites bordered by faults
both practical and field oriented, based on b. Greisen
the appearance and relationship between rock Examples: Swat, Pakistan
types. The criteria for classification include: 1. Ultramafic greisen
Genesis: Recent suture zones where ophiolites
• what country rocks and host rocks are interact with anatectic continental fluids 2. Carbonate-siltstones
present Interesting feature: Very good quality c. Hydrothermal
• what are the characteristics of their origin emeralds, well studied 1. Telethermal in ultramafic rocks
• sources of beryllium, chromium and c. Emerald in phlogopite schists and carbonate 2. Telethermal in black shales and
vanadium talc schists carbonate rocks
• how and when do the emeralds crystallize? Emerald mineralization is stratabound 2. Exogenetic
Example: Santa Terezinha, Brazil
1. Pegmatites without schist
Genesis: Emeralds developed preferentially
The emerald crystals are hosted within along schistose layering of phlogopite and From Groat et al. (2003) paper on the Regal Ridge
granites and vugs within granites. carbonate-talc-schists from infiltration of emerald occurrence in Yukon
Example: Nigeria hydrothermal fluids during tectonic events.
1. Magmatic associated
Genesis: Be- and F-enriched magmatic Interesting feature: Beryllium origin is
2. Tectonic hydrothermal
fluids from granitic roof and F-enriched unknown.
hydrothermal fluids interacted with the host • found near crustal faults or shear zones
rock to scavenge Cr and V 4. Black shales with veins and breccias

Interesting feature: No ultramafic or mafic Emeralds are found in vugs with carbonates,
schist involved, emerald is in vugs or in pyrite and albite From Mineral Deposit Profiles – British Columbia
phlogopite alkali feldspar granites with Example: Colombia Geological Survey
quartz, blue topaz and aquamarine 1. Schist Hosted Emerald Deposits (Simandl
Genesis: Brines react with organic matter
in black shales, releasing Be, Cr and V into et al., 1999)
2. Pegmatites and greisens with a
phlogopite schist solution 2. Shale Hosted Emerald Deposits (Simandl
Interesting feature: Need structural et al., 1999)
Emerald crystals are in phlogopite schist at
contact zone between ultramafic rocks and preparation of shales for permeation of brines
pegmatites
Example: Ural Mountains, also Egypt, From Walton (1996)
W. Australia, Spain, Madagascar, From Mineralogical Society of America Special 1. Emeralds associated with bituminous black
Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Brazil Issue on Beryllium, Grew (ed.), 2002 shales
Genesis: At contact between rare element Barton and Young (2002) discuss 2. Emeralds associated with pegmatitic or
pegmatites and mafic or ultramafic rocks get emerald deposits in terms of beryllium, granitic rocks interacting with chromium-
metasomatism, resulting in formation of dark geological setting, sources and depositional bearing rocks
brown to black schist and emerald crystals, environment.
sometimes with chrysoberyl a. Recent suture zones
1. Occurrences of emerald with direct b. Ancient suture zones
Interesting feature: May be subject to tectonic igneous component
deformation
Main example – beryllium-bearing pegmatite
3. Schists without pegmatites intruding mafic or ultramafic rocks
From Emeralds of Pakistan (Kazmi and Snee,
a. Emerald in phlogopite schist 1989)
2. Occurrences of emerald with indirect or
Example: Habachtal, Austria absent (non-magmatic) igneous component • Focus is on sources of beryllium and sources
Main example would be Colombian emerald of chromium
Genesis: Same as (2.), but contact zone has
been regionally metamorphosed and the deposits. • Look at the geological process that brings
emeralds are metamorphic porphyroblasts Another example would be those emerald Be and Cr together
Interesting feature: Rocks are intensely deposits formed as a result of regional • Based on transport mechanism that carries
schistose, folded and split into nodules or metamorphism (e.g., Austria). Be to Cr-rich rocks
lenses

66
 4. Emerald

techniques enabled researchers to gain valuable scientific insights as to how and

why the emeralds formed. Although there have been excellent descriptions of the
local geology of the Colombian deposits (Oppenheim, 1948; Gilles, 1966), detailed
mapping of the Colombian emerald districts has always been hindered by thick
vegetation and steep terrain, not to mention the violent history of the area. Even
though there was no evidence of igneous activity in the area, it had been presumed
that the Columbian emerald deposits had formed as a result of igneous activity
of some sort because of the almost ubiquitous global association noted between
emeralds and pegmatites. Mention was often made of a presumed igneous presence
somewhere at depth, after all, geologists reasoned, since all other emerald deposits
known at the time were associated with granites and pegmatites, therefore the
Colombian emerald deposits must be as well. Only within the last fifteen years have
researchers developed a somewhat odd model relating emerald mineralization to a
unique sedimentary environment where organic material played a key role in emerald
precipitation.

LOCATION
The over 200 emerald deposits in Colombia are located in a mountain range called
the Cordillera Oriental, which is the easternmost of three ranges split off from
the northern end of the Andes (Figure 4.3). The Cordillera Occidental (west) and
Cordillera Central are known for their gold production. About 50 to 80 km northeast
of Bogota are the emerald deposits, contained within a northwest-trending belt 50
to 70 km wide and 200 km long. The Chivor, Gachalá and Macanal emerald districts
are on the eastern flank of the Cordillera Oriental and formed 65 million years ago

Figure 4.3. Location and geology

of the eastern and western
emerald districts, Colombia.
Modified from Cheilletz et al.
(1994) and Guiliani et al. (2002).

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Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 67
4. Emerald

(Chielletz et al., 1994). Muzo, Coscuez and La Glorieta-Yacobí emerald districts are
on the western flank of the Cordillera Oriental and are estimated to be 31–38 million
years old (Cheilletz et al., 1994).

TECTONIC SETTING
The emerald deposits are the result of a two-stage process during which shortening
tectonics affected the two borders of the Eastern Cordillera and provoked
decollement planes, thrusting and thrust-fault related folds in an Early Cretaceous
black shale series laid down in two back-arc basins (Branquet et al., 1999). The
sedimentary environment at the time was that of organic material, mud, silt and
limestone laid down in an anoxic lagoonal setting (Ottaway, 1991). High salinity and
reducing conditions inhibited decomposition of organic matter which accumulated in
places to 1 to 2%. Streams draining into the lagoon area contained beryllium-bearing
sediments, derived from continental granitic and volcanic rocks. Organic material was
in the form of algal mats, balls and fecal pellets. Evaporite deposits formed locally
and salt diapers intruded the sequence.

During late Miocene to Pliocene, thrusting and uplift of the Eastern Cordillera
took place in response to collision between the Caribbean arc system and South
America. The back arc basins were deformed during these tectonic episodes and
subsequently inverted during the Cenozoic. This action uplifted the emerald
deposits where they are presently exposed on the surface, a total of 6,000-m vertical
displacement (Cheilletz et al., 1994).

GEOLOGY OF THE EMERALD DEPOSITS

A good overview of the geology of the emerald deposit host rocks is given in
Sinkankas (1981). The Colombian emerald deposits are hosted in mainly lower to
middle Cretaceous sedimentary rocks including siltstones, sandstones, carbonates
and black shales with some horizons of sedimentary pyrite nodules. The sedimentary
sequence is cut by northeast-trending regional faults. Saline diapers, evaporite
deposits, salt and gypsum mines are spatially related to the emerald deposits. The
evaporite deposits typically contain ‘rute’ and a high iron content as shown by
extensive pyrite and hematite. Rute zones are believed to be the residue of leached
evaporites and consist of brecciated gypsum, shale fragments, abundant pyrite,
doubly-terminated quartz, calcite crystal fragments and fibrous calcite. A rotten egg
smell is common because of coatings of native sulphur (Ottaway, 1991).

The character of the host rocks at the Muzo mine is described by Keller (1981),
and Ottaway (1991). The host rocks consist of a thick sequence up to 100 m of
intensely folded and fractured soft, sooty, black carbonaceous shale and minor
limestone. Keller (1981) notes that the black shales are so carbon-rich that they leave
smears on one’s hands when handling the rocks. Ottaway (1991) noted that the
black shales make a ‘clinking’ sound when banged together. Emeralds are found in
numerous white calcite fracture-filling veins that cut the black shales.

Ottaway (1991) describes two distinct formations at Muzo; the Emerald Formation
and the Cambiado. The Emerald Formation consists of moderately folded and
faulted thinly bedded carbonaceous limestones and shales which weather to a
yellow-grey or brownish orange colour. Emeralds are contained within discordant

68
 4. Emerald
Figure 4.4. Geologic cross-section
of the Muzo emerald deposit,
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Columbia. Modified from Kazmi and
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Snee (1989).

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calcite-albite-pyrite veins. The Cambiado Formation disconformably underlies the

Emerald Formation (Figure 4.4). It consists of dark to medium-grey limestones and
shales which weather bluish green to white. Emeralds do not occur in this formation,
although calcite-dolomite veins do. Two more distinctive horizons occur at the
Emerald Formation and Combiado contact: the Cama, which is an agglomerate of
large calcite crystals cemented by hyaline quartz and the Cenicero, which is described
in the next section.

At the Coscuez emerald mine, also in the Muzo district, emeralds are found in calcite
veins that partly or completely fill fractures in a thick black shale sequence with minor
limestone. The sedimentary sequence has been faulted and fractured. As at Muzo,
there are two types of rock units: an underlying black carbonaceous shale with thinly
bedded limestone overlain by black to yellowish grey shale.

At the Chivor emerald mine in the eastern emerald district, the rock units are mainly
heavily folded and faulted Cretaceous shales and argillites with minor limestone and
sandstone (Keller, 1981). There appears to be a ‘cap’ of sorts overlying the emerald-
bearing rocks consisting of a poorly cemented yellowish shale. Three pyritic and

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 69
4. Emerald

limonitic bands appear to control the vertical distribution of emeralds since most
emeralds are below the bands.

There is no evidence of igneous intrusion or contact metamorphism relating to

igneous bodies in the emerald-bearing areas (Beus, 1979), and studies by Ottaway
(1991) and Cheilletz and Giuliani (1996) show no magmatic component to the
emerald-mineralizing fluids.

MINERALOGY OF THE EMERALD DEPOSITS

Giuliani et al. (1995) report that in general, emeralds from the Colombian deposits
occur within calcite-dolomite-pyrite veins. They list three stages of mineralization:

1. white fibrous calcite, pyrite, albite, quartz and green mica

2. white or grey rhombohedral calcite, dolomite, albite, pyrite, quartz and

some kerogens

3. fluorite, parasite, REE-rich dolomite, pyrite, quartz and emerald

Abundant calcite and pyrite are common to both the first and second stages.

At the Muzo mine, calcite, dolomite, albite and pyrite are the predominant gangue
minerals. Quartz and barite are uncommon. Emeralds are spatially associated with
fluorite and parisite (a fluorine-bearing rare earth carbonate mineral found only at
Muzo) (Ottaway, 1991). The emeralds range in size up to 10 cm. The narrow calcite
veins (less than 15 cm) contain the best emeralds. Green opaque beryl called ‘moralla’
is also used by miners as a pathfinder mineral.

There is no visible difference in host rock between a barren area and a rich pocket of
emerald crystals only a few centimetres away. Ottaway (1991) lists visual guidelines
used by miners at Muzo to indicate the presence of emeralds:

1. Emeralds occur predominantly in the calcite/albite veins.

2. Indicator minerals for emerald mineralization include fluorite, parasite,

apatite and opaque green beryl.

3. Intersections of two or more veins are more favourable than single veins.

4. Veins less than 15 cm are more productive.

5. A ‘gritty, scraping’ feeling felt when scuffing one’s mining boots over the
limestone means the ground is more favourable than smooth-feeling
limestone.

6. The veins are rarely productive below the water table.

7. The best emeralds are found where there is abundant pyrite.

At the Muzo emerald mine, there are odd ash-grey ‘Cenicero’ zones within the organic
black shales that are interpreted as either the product of an exothermic reaction with
briny fluids (Ottaway, 1991) or stratiform tectonic polygenetic breccias composed of
fragmented black shales and albitites cemented by pyrite, albite and crushed black
shale (Cheilletz and Giuliani, 1996). These zones, up to 1 m wide, are composed of
fine-grained crystals and calcite, dolomite, quartz, barite, pyrite and shale fragments

70
 4. Emerald

within a groundmass of carbonate. Native sulphur is sometimes present. Trapiche

emeralds occur in the outer parts of these zones. Emeralds are confined in the distal
parts of calcite-albite veins radiating from the Cenicero zones.

At the Chivor mine, emerald mineralization within a 10 by 5 km area is

stratigraphically controlled by three ‘iron bands’ 50 m apart, which are composed of
large veins and beds of partially limonitized pyrite crystals and localized hematite. As
at Muzo, emerald crystals are found in calcite-albite veins. Accessory minerals include
goethite, calcite, quartz, allophanite, halloysite, muscovite, fuchsite, apatite, hematite
and opal. Fluorite and parasite have not been noted at Chivor.

At the Coscuez emerald mine, there are numerous calcite veins up to 35 cm thick
and several metres in length. The veins are both concordant and discordant to the
host black shales. The calcite mostly completely fills the fractures, but there are
open cavities locally within the calcite which may contain free-standing emerald
crystals. In these areas of emerald-mineralized rock, the shale and limestone are often
discoloured to yellowish grey and emerald crystals are mostly found in the narrower
veins. The minerals pyrite, quartz, dolomite, parasite and more rarely fluorite, apatite,
albite and barite are associated with emerald at Coscuez (Ringsrud, 1986).

R EGIONAL GEOCHEMICAL ALTERATION HALOS

In one of the very few published papers on exploration geochemistry for a gemstone
deposit, Beus (1979) presents the results of a United Nations-sponsored geochemical
survey of the streams draining emerald mines in the Muzo and Chivor areas. The goal
of the study was to determine the geochemical features of an emerald-bearing region
and apply the results in regional exploration programs for emerald deposits. The
geochemical criteria are important, since the Cretaceous sedimentary package
contains both mineralized and unmineralized zones.

The spatial distribution of areas containing emerald mineralization was linked, on a

regional scale, to intersections of northeast and northwest fault zones. The tectonic
blocks are 200 to 300 m in width. The black shales in the tectonic blocks which
contain emerald mineralization are enriched in carbon dioxide, calcium, magnesium,
manganese, sodium and depleted in potassium, silicon and aluminum (Table 4.3,
Table 4.4). Beus (1979) reported that even if one could not visually see the alteration,
it was simple to determine geochemically whether a tectonic block was altered.

In a separate study of the geology and geochemical expression of the Gachalá

emerald district in Colombia, Escobar (1978) reports that sodium enrichment and
depletion of lithium, potassium, beryllium and molybdenum in the host rocks were
found to be very good indicators for locating mineralized areas.

The results of the United Nations study were tested in the Muzo area in a stream
sediment sampling program, where it was found that stream sediments collected
from emerald-bearing tectonic blocks had anomalously low K/Na ratios when
compared with those from background areas (Table 4.5). Overall, when the results
of the project were applied to regional emerald mineralization, it was found that
the measure of Na alone in the stream sediments was the best indicator of the
mineralized zones in the drainage basins. Several new emerald occurrences were
found by U.N. teams using the results of this study. Although Na was a great
pathfinder for locating mineralized blocks, the geochemical results were too

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 71
4. Emerald

Table 4.3. Chemical composition Emerald-bearing

of the Villeta black shales in the zone inside the
Outside the Within the main tectonic
Muzo area. Modified from Beus
main tectonic zone main tectonic zone zone
(1979).
1 2 3 4 5 6
SiO2 69.16 76.69 69.23 38.57 44.49 27.42 30.09
Al2O3 14.7 13.04 17.14 12.56 8.33 6.59 7.03
Fe2O3 7.61 3.11 4.85 4.72 5.32 6.71 2.30
MnO 0.04 0.05 0.08 0.17 0.15 0.20 0.19
MgO 0.28 0.12 0.13 4.02 4.42 7.52 4.08
CaO 0.19 0.29 0.40 15.08 14.17 22.06 26.29
Na2O 0.83 0.88 1.12 5.04 3.37 2.39 3.58
K 2O 1.07 1.12 1.24 0.67 0.24 0.19 0.31
TiO2 0.87 1.15 0.96 0.43 0.52 0.22 0.29
F 0.37 0.36 0.41 0.46 0.56 0.32 0.65
H2O- trace trace 0.11 0.38 trace 0.15 0.14
H2 O + 3.18 2.48 3.74 1.35 1.56 1.74 0.88
P2 O 5 0.21 0.09 0.17 0.30 0.31 0.29 0.44
CO2 1.72 not detected not detected 11.63 13.62 21.08 22.18
S 0.09 0.10 0.11 1.43 3.42 3.29 0.66
SO3 not detected not detected not detected 1.22 0.54 0.43 -
Loss on 0.43 0.81 1.06 2.06 1.54 1.60 1.71
ignition
Subtotal 100.75 100.29 100.74 100.69 102.56 102.20 100.82
-O=F2 -0.20 -0.15 -0.18 -0.19 -0.29 -0.14 -0.28
-O=S -0.05 -0.05 -0.05 -0.71 -1.71 -1.65 -0.33
Total 100.50 100.09 100.51 99.79 100.56 100.41 100.21

Na2O/K 2O 0.78 0.79 0.90 7.52 14.0 12.6 11.5

Table 4.4. Average values of some Location Na K K/Na Li Mo Pb Be

indicator elements in stream Background (outside an influence of the 0.25 1.35 4.6 95 50 26 4.1
sediments in the Muzo area. mineralized tectonic zones)
Modified from Beus (1979). Rio Itoco tributaries which drain the main 2.9 1.07 0.30 31.4 18 16 2.8
mineralized zone
Threshold value (break in cumulative 0.5 - 2.6 35 - 2 -
curve)*
*Established and applied by the U.N. Mineral Project

72
 4. Emerald

Table 4.5. Potassium and (a) (b)

sodium distribution in the black Within the Concentration
shales (%). Modified from Beus Outside the mineralized tectonic zones mineralized ration (CR)
(1979). (background) tectonic zones b/a
Na K Na K Na K
S X S X X
Muzo 0.8 0.27 3.2 0,74 4.1 0.95 5.26 0.30
Gachalá 0.6 0.25 3.9 0.89 2.9 1.18 4.76 0.30
X = arithmetical mean; S=standard deviation
Muzo: 38 samples outside and 50 samples within the mineralized tectonic zones
Gachalá: 16 and 65 samples, respectively

nebulous to narrow it down further within those blocks to find the actual emeralds
— a difficult task in dense jungle terrains. Ringsrud (1986) reports that Colombian
geologists were analysing for sodium, lithium and lead in soil samples collected from
altered tectonic blocks to delineate emerald mineralization.

Cheilletz et al. (1994) report that the background beryllium content in the black shales
away from the leached mineralized areas ranges between 3.4 to 4 ppm. Values of
beryllium in the leached areas range from 0.1 to 3.0 ppm (Beus, 1979).

PARAGENESIS OF THE EMERALD D EPOSITS

Researchers now believe that the Colombian emerald deposits formed as a result of
thermochemical reduction of mesothermal brines by organic-rich black shales. The
recognition that brine fluids could leach the required elements from the black shale
in the absence of an igneous intrusion or pegmatite was proposed as far back as 1981
(Escobar and Mariano, 1981). This model has evolved over the years and refined most
recently by Giuliani et al. (2000) who published detailed chemical and stable isotope
analyses in support of the model. There is no evidence of a magmatic component
and in fact, the current model bears most resemblance to that of sediment-hosted
stratabound and strataform base metal deposits. Giuliani et al. (1995) note that the
brine fluids responsible for emerald formation are remarkably similar to oil-field
brines and brines involved in the formation of Mississippi Valley-type lead-zinc
deposits.

The black shale sequences that host the emerald deposits in Colombia were derived
from shallow basins, indicated by evaporite sequences and salt beds interbedded
with the black shales. In the back arc basins, the black shale sequence was buried
to depths of at least 7 km (Giuliani et al., 2000) and reached temperatures of at least
250˚C.

A compressional tectonic event during the Oligocene and an extensional event

during the Late Cretaceous opened decollement planes between a thick sequence
of Early Cretaceous black shales and underlying more competent units formed on
both sides of the Eastern Cordillera. Hydrothermal fluids formed at depth from
meteoric and formational water interacting with salt beds. Banks et al. (2000) studied
the contents of fluid inclusions and suggested that there were two types of parent
brines associated with emerald deposition: a sodium-rich basinal brine and another
fluid with less sodium that was generated by reaction of formation water with halite
(Guiliani et al., 2000).

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 73
4. Emerald

The briny fluids were highly alkaline, up to 40 wt % NaCl and migrated upwards
Colombian emerald through the sedimentary sequence along the decollement thrust planes and then
colour interacted with black shales. During sodium and calcium metasomatism, the major
Colombian crystals are valued for elements silicon, aluminum, potassium, titanium, magnesium and phosphorus
their rich, saturated green colour in addition to trace (barium, beryllium, chromium, vanadium, carbon, boron and
which is considered superior to uranium) and rare-earth elements were leached from the enclosing black shale; this
the colour of other emeralds, most stage was accompanied by development of a vein system filled by fibrous calcite,
of which come from pegmatite- bitumen and pyrite. The next stage is characterized by extensional vein sets and
schist deposits. Much like in hydraulic breccia development filled by muscovite, albite, rhombohedral calcite
the Burmese rubies described in and dolomite, pyrite, bitumen, and by the precipitation in drusy cavities of fluorite,
Chapter Three, the presence of apatite, parasite, dolomite, emerald and quartz.
chromium in the beryl structure
causes a red fluorescence that Temperatures of precipitation are generally between 250 and 400˚C; Ottaway (1991)
enhances the luminosity of the gives a temperature of 325˚C for emerald precipitation at Muzo and Cheilletz et al.
green colour. If iron is present (1994) calculate temperatures between 290 to 360˚C for Coscuez and Quipama-Muzo.
in the emerald crystal, this
fortunate effect is suppressed. In O THER EMERALD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH BRINY FLUIDS
the Colombian deposits, iron is There are other emerald deposits in the world that show evidence of brine fluid
taken out of the system by the involvement, whether the brines are of evaporitic or metamorphic origin:
coeval precipitation of abundant
pyrite. Miners at Muzo report 1. Uinta Mountains in northeastern Utah (Keith et al., 1997, 2002): A single
that better quality emeralds are emerald crystal is reported from carbonate-rich veins that cut black shales.
found in areas of abundant pyrite
2. Brumado, Bahia, Brazil: Emerald and aquamarine are found in magnesite
(Ottaway, 1991).
deposits. Associated minerals are uvite, dolomite and topaz in quartz
veins. Magnesite is commonly of basinal brine origin. There are no
associated igneous rocks in the area.

3. Mingora and other emerald deposits of Swat, Pakistan (and perhaps some
of the Afghanistan emerald deposits): Beryl-carbonate-quartz veins cut
ultramafic-bearing metamorphic rocks. As reported in Kazmi et al. (1989),
fluid inclusion analysis indicates salinities of up to 20% NaCl, suggesting a
possible evaporitic component and/or mixing with other fluids.

Franz and Morteani (2002) report that the Afghanistan emerald deposits of
Panjshir are very similar to those in Colombia, in terms of low iron content
and saturation of chromium and vanadium. They suggest that leaching of
a metaevaporite sequence generated a briny fluid which caused strong
sodium-potassium-boron metasomatism. The resulting rock is white. The
metamorphic grade of the host rocks is higher than at the Colombian
emerald deposits. In addition, emerald precipitation in Afghanistan was
probably caused by the tectonism that preceded uplift of the Himalayan
orogen.

4. Gravelotte, South Africa: Researchers Nwe and Morteani (1993) suggest

that brines of metamorphic origin were associated with the late-stage
emerald precipitation.

74
 4. Emerald

O THER EMERALD DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH BLACK SHALES

An emerald deposit is associated with organic black shales at Edsvoll, Norway. The
emeralds are within a pegmatitic quartz-feldspar-fluorite-topaz vein intruded into
Cambrian-age aluminum-bearing bituminous shales (Kazmi and Snee, 1989).

At the Lened occurrence in Northwest Territories, Canada, emeralds are in quartz-

calcite veins cutting skarn within a metalliferous black shale (Marshall et al.,
2003). This deposit is described in more detail in a later section.

It is interesting for Canadian geologists familiar with the Pine Point lead-zinc deposit
in the Northwest Territories to note that the chemistry of the emerald fluids in
Colombia is very similar to that observed in oil-field brines and in Mississippi Valley-
type deposits (Giuliani et al., 1995). Indeed, Ottaway (1991) proposes the Mississippi
Valley-type Pine Point deposit in the NWT as a lower temperature analog to the
higher temperature Colombian emerald deposits.

SCHIST-HOSTED EMERALD DEPOSITS

The ‘classic’ host rock for emerald deposits is a biotite or phlogopite schist developed
in the metasomatic contact zone between beryllium-bearing pegmatites and
chromium- or vanadium-rich rocks. The contact boundary can be tectonic or
intrusive.

An excellent summary of characteristics of schist-hosted emerald deposits is given by

Simandl et al. (1999a). The list of synonyms for ‘schist-hosted’ is especially informative
and many are derived from Russian scientific literature; suture-zone-related,
pegmatite-related schist-hosted, exometamorphic, exometasomatic, biotite-schist-
type, desilicated pegmatite-related and glimmerite-hosted have all been used. Most
emerald deposits in association or separate from chrysoberyl and phenakite can
be put into this category. Many are situated in or near to suture zones. Some
deposits, such as those in Pakistan, are situated in a relatively ‘recent’ suture zone
(Fig. 4.5). Others may be related to ‘ancient’ suture zones in granite/greenstone
terrains, where there is a link between emerald mineralization, biotite schist and
pegmatites. Emerald deposits of this type are hosted in much older tectonic terrains
which, in some cases, exhibit the result of over one billion years of rifting, collision,
deformation and metamorphism. These could be very, very old suture zones, but the
exact geological relationships are uncertain.

There are, as always, exceptions to this lumping together of emerald deposits with
schistose rocks. Some emerald deposits, such as those in Nigeria, are hosted within
pegmatites and, closer to home, the Red Mountain emerald locality near Stewart,
British Columbia, is in quartz-calcite veins cutting volcanic andesite.

Typically the host rocks for schist-hosted emerald deposits are metamorphosed
serpentinized peridotites, amphibolites, greenstones or other mafic to ultramafic
units. The metamorphic grade is upper greenschist to amphibolite facies, rarely
granulite facies. The beryllium-bearing rock is typically granitic pegmatites or aplites
or beryllium-rich metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. The contact between the
beryllium-bearing rock and chromium-bearing rock can be tectonic or intrusive.

A schematic model for pegmatite/schist-hosted emerald deposits is given in

Figure 4.6.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 75
4. Emerald

���

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���� ��� �� ��� ���� ����

Figure 4.5. Suture zones.

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Figure 4.6. Schematic emerald ��������� �����������������
deposit model. ������� ������������������
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76
 4. Emerald

The metasomatic contact zone between the two rock types is often represented
by biotite schist or phlogopite schist. These areas are called ‘blackwall zones’
and can be several metres thick. Phenakite (Be2SiO4) is commonly formed before
emerald. Emeralds typically grow within veins and in biotite-rich selvages around
the veins. Common accessory minerals are K-feldspar, tourmaline, fluorite, apatite,
molybdenite and scheelite. Pegmatite dykes are variably metasomatically modified
(‘desilicated’), typically expressed by lack of K-feldspar, abundance of plagioclase
and diminished amounts of quartz. Where there has been intense chemical
exchange between the hostrock and incoming fluids, it may be impossible to tell
whether the fluids are magmatic or hydrothermal, and how much of a role regional
tectonometamorphic events had on emerald deposition. Aquamarine and common
beryl may be present in protected interiors of pegmatites and veins, whereas emerald
is most common in enveloping zones of metasomatic biotite-plagioclase-quartz.

In peridotite- or serpentinite-associated emerald deposits, the outer metasomatic

contact zones may consist of chlorite, talc, actinolite plus other amphiboles.
Chrysoberyl and alexandrite, both beryllium-bearing gemstones, may be embedded
with emeralds in the phlogopite schist.

Mafic rocks commonly only develop a biotite-rich envelope between the central veins
or dykes and the host rock.

Excellent descriptions of schist-hosted emerald deposits and occurrences are given

in Sinkankas (1981), Kazmi and Snee (1989), Giuliani et al. (2002), Černý (2002), Franz
and Morteani (2002), and Barton and Young (2002). The following sections rely on the
wonderful detail provided by the above-mentioned and other authors.

The emerald deposits of Pakistan and Afghanistan

The remote border regions of Pakistan and Afghanistan are marked by the imposing
Karakoram, Hindu Kush, Pamirs and Himalayan mountain ranges. This is one of the
most tectonically active areas in the world, where entire continents have collided
and pushed up the tallest mountains on the planet. The catastrophic and extreme
geological conditions made it possible for the elements beryllium and chromium to
interact and produce what are some of world’s best emeralds.
Figure 4.7. India colliding with
Asia. PAKISTAN
�������
Most of the following information on the emerald deposits of Pakistan
���������
���� is taken from the landmark book, Emeralds of Pakistan, edited by
�� Kazmi and Snee (1989).
��
Tectonic setting
��
An overview of the geological history and geology of Pakistan is
provided by Kazmi (1989). When the Indian continent separated
����������� from Gondwanaland and started its journey towards the Eurasian
�� � continent, the two continental masses were separated by the Tethys
�� �
� Ocean (Figure 4.7). Smaller fragmented blocks of Gondwanaland had
��

made the journey earlier and had collided with Eurasia in Early to
Middle Jurassic time to form parts of present day Afghanistan, Iran,
����������� and other Eurasian areas. India collided with Eurasia about 40 million

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 77
4. Emerald

years ago. The spectacular Himalayan mountain range was thrust upwards and the
Himalayan orogenic belt was formed. The Tethys Ocean floor was obducted onto the
Indian block and subsequently overridden by Kohistan island arc rocks. Metasomatic
alteration at depths up to 12 km transformed the ocean-floor rocks to a talc-dolomite
mélange. The deep burial of the frontal part of the Indian plate also generated
anatectic granites and late pneumatolytic and hydrothermal fluids.

Geology
The geological setting of emerald deposits in Pakistan is described in detail by
Lawrence et al. (1989). Pakistan is host to several other types of gemstone deposits,
most notably ruby, spectacular pink topaz and aquamarine, particularly in its
northern area, which has proven to be particularly favourable for providing the
proper physico-chemical conditions for gemstone formation. The area is one of the
most rugged and dangerous places in the world, both geographically and politically.

All the emerald deposits in Pakistan, except for one, are contained within the Mingora
ophiolitic mélange of the Indus suture zone. The exception is the Khaltaro deposit,
which is outside the suture zone area, but is closely associated with ultramafic rocks.

The Indus suture zone is a complex zone of diverse rock assemblages including
tectonic blocks of ophiolites, blueschists, greenschists, and metavolcanic and
metasedimentary rocks in a matrix of sheared and variously metamorphosed fine-
grained sedimentary rocks and/or serpentinite.

Emerald mineralization
Descriptions of emerald mineralization are given by Kazmi et al. (1989). The best and
largest emerald deposit in Pakistan is the only urban gem deposit in the world. The
Mingora emerald deposit spreads out over 180 acres on the northern edge of the
city of Mingora, located in the lower hills southwest of the Hindu Kush Mountains. At
Mingora, emeralds are located within a talc-dolomitic mélange containing tectonized
clasts of serpentinite, dolomite, greenschist and graphitic schist up to hundreds of
metres in size set in a fine- to coarse-grained ductilely deformed matrix.

Kazmi et al. (1989) summarize four modes of emerald occurrence at Mingora:

1. Associated with fuchsite and tourmaline in faults and fractures;

2. Fracture fillings;

3. Associated with fuchsite and tourmaline in quartz stockwork;

4. In talcose rock surrounding tension gashes in talc-chlorite-dolomite schist.

The second largest emerald deposit in Pakistan, the Gujarkili emerald deposit was
discovered in 1981 as a result of extensive geological exploration by the Gemstone
Corporation of Pakistan. Colour photographs of the deposit in Kazmi et al. (1989)
show it to be in a picturesque valley. The deposit is in a small triangular outcrop of
ophiolitic mélange which is barely 1.5 hectares across. Emeralds occur in a brown
to yellowish green, medium-grained talc-chlorite schist with associated muscovite,
fuchsite, siderite, magnesite and calcite.

78
 4. Emerald

The Indus suture zone in the Kot-Pranghar area consists of randomly oriented blocks
of greenstone, greenschist, metavolcanic rocks, serpentinite, pyroxenite, periodotite
and talc-chlorite-dolomite schist. This area is host to several emerald deposits.

As mentioned earlier, the Khaltaro emerald deposit differs from the other deposits
because the emeralds occur within pegmatite dykes located near a major suture
zone. The dykes intrude medium- to coarse-grained amphibolite-grade biotite schist
and gneiss with marble, calc-silicate gneiss and subordinate amphibolite. The deposit
was discovered in 1985 by the Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan while exploring for
gem pegmatites in the Haramosh region. Kazmi et al. (1989) stress that the tectonic
setting of this deposit is one of the most extraordinary in the world. It is situated
within extremely rugged and complex terrain. The uplifted area is at the junction of
three major suture zones: the Indus, Tsangpo and Karakoram suture zones. In this
tortuous terrain are not only emerald deposits, but also deposits of tourmaline, topaz,
aquamarine and garnet.

Genesis of the emerald deposits in Pakistan

According to Lawrence et al. (1989), the beryllium for emerald formation was provided
by early Miocene anatectic granites. The chromium to give emerald its colour was
provided by ophiolitic suture zone rocks.

During the collision of the Indian plate against Eurasia, the ocean floor ophiolitic
rocks were buried to an estimated depth of 12 km and metasomatic alteration
transformed the once ocean-floor volcanic rocks to a talc-dolomite mélange. The
deep burial of the frontal part of the Indian plate also generated anatectic granites
and late pneumatolytic and hydrothermal fluids. These fluids, the end result of
such a catastrophic joining of plates, moved through overlying rocks and along
shear zones. Where this fluid, containing beryllium, aluminum and silicon from
the continental anatectic granites, penetrated the soft, permeable chromium talc-
dolomite mélanges which were once the ocean floor rocks of the Tethys ocean,
emerald precipitation took place.

An important criterion for the percolation of the beryllium-bearing fluids was the
metasomatism of hard ultramafic ocean floor rock to soft, porous and permeable talc-
dolomite mélange matrix. It should also be noted that although the mélange rock
was a suitable host, emerald precipitation could not take place until beryllium was
chemically transported to the chromium-bearing rocks (Lawrence et al., 1989).

AFGHANISTAN
The Jurassic collision between Asia and the microcontinent, known as Cimmeria,
spawned not just a geologically complex, but also, an ultimately politically turbulent
area now called Afghanistan. Afghanistan is rich in gemstones; a remote deposit
of the gorgeous blue ornamental stone lapis lazuli has been continually mined for
over 5,000 years. Afghanistan is also known to produce tourmaline, aquamarine,
ruby, topaz, kunzite and spinel. In the 1970s, the gem world became aware that
velvety green emerald crystals rivaling those mined from Colombia were being
mined from the Panjshir Valley in Afghanistan, although it is likely that these green
crystals had been traded on the ‘Silk Road’ many years ago (Giuliani et al., 2001). The

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 79
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comprehensive book Gemstones of Afghanistan by Bowersox and Chamberlain (1995)

provides excellent descriptions of the gem mines and occurrences in Afghanistan.

Most of the gem deposits in Pakistan and Afghanistan, including the emerald
deposits of the Panjshir Valley, are situated in the treacherous and extremely rugged
mountain terrain close to the Pakistan border. The landmark paper Emeralds of
the Panjshir Valley, Afghanistan by Bowersox et al. (1991) described for the first time
in detail the emerald mines of this remote area. It is with a sense of disorienting
horror in rereading this paper that one realizes the western world is familiar with the
ominous geographical place names (Hindu Kush Mountains, Kabul) and even some
of the people. Bowersox, the lead author of the article and a gemstone dealer, began
traveling to Afghanistan in search of gemstones in 1972 at the time of the ill-fated
Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. He struck a personal friendship with Commander
Ahmad Shah Massoud who led the emerald mining efforts in the Panjshir
area. Proceeds from the emerald mining helped finance Massoud’s Northern Alliance
army efforts against the Soviet occupying forces and then later against the Taliban,
until his assassination on September 10, 2001. Bowersox reports4 that the emerald
mines are now under the political control of one of the members of the Northern
Alliance. Individual mines or pits are owned and operated by teams of five to seven
men.

A good description of the deposit and mining methods of the Panjshir emerald
deposits are given in Bowersox (1989). The words ‘Occupational Health and Safety’
do not exist in this part of the world, as shown by some spectacular examples of
unsafe mining methods described in this paper. The various groups of miners do not
monitor the amount of or timing of explosives, which seem to go off at random. No
one wears hardhats, and carbon monoxide poisoning inside the narrow tunnels is
common. There is no formal record keeping of property, so disputes over mining
rights between various groups are complicated and in fact, Mr. Massoud had acted
as a Mining Recorder of sorts for the area in sorting out emerald property disputes
and shaft ownerships. Agreements were made on sharing the proceeds and paying
taxes. To complicate matters, the area around the emerald deposits has to be de-
mined before expansion of the mining activities and more sophisticated exploration
can take place. Bowersox estimated that the country’s emerald production could
increase from a current production of $2 million to $150 million by 2006, using
modern exploration techniques. In total, the country’s entire gemstone production
could be worth between $300 and $400 million. Another setback is that government
records detailing the coordinates and particulars of Afghanistan’s gemstone deposits
were destroyed in a rocket attack on the Ministry of Mines in 1995. Traditionally,
Peshewar in the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan remains the traditional
destination for Afghani gem material. After Afghanistan stabilizes, the expectation is
that Kabul or one of the other Afghan cities can evolve into a gem buying and cutting
centre.

The Panjshir emerald deposits are in a sequence of upper greenschist facies

metasedimentary rocks including schists, quartzite and marble of probably Paleozoic
to Mesozoic age. The package has been intruded by sills and dykes of gabbro, diorite
and quartz porphyry. Emerald crystals are contained within small quartz-ankerite and
dolomite veinlets and silicified shear zones that contain phlogopite, albite, tourmaline
and pyrite. Some of the emeralds are in veinlets that cut metasomatically altered
4www.gems-afghan.com

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gabbro and meta-dolomite, marble, quartz-biotite schist and quartz-porphyry. The

emerald crystals are commonly intergrown with quartz, ankerite or calcite. Kazmi
and Snee (1989) suggested that the emeralds from the Panjshir Valley are suture
related. Fluid inclusion studies (Vapnik and Moroz, 2001) indicate that the overall
salinity of the emerald-forming fluids is surprisingly high; perhaps 80 to 90%, with
temperatures of about 400˚C. Franz and Morteani (2002) suggest a metaevaporite
component to the emerald formation.

Brazil
As with most gemstone occurrences, the emerald deposits of Brazil were found
accidentally, one by one, starting in 1963 when the Salininha deposit was
discovered. Significant emerald deposits were discovered in the Itabira-Nova era
region after a railroad built in 1978 opened up the area. The highly productive
Santa Terezinha deposit was found in the late 1970s when a farm road was opened
by a bulldozer and local children collected ‘green stones’ to throw at birds. A gem
dealer identified the stones as emeralds in 1981. In time-honoured Brazilian fashion,
a tremendous staking rush resulted in the usual chaos, largely due to the small 4 m
by 4 m legal size of the mining claims. Brazil has a history of riotous and violent
staking rushes; the most recent involved the fantastic find of alexandrite described in
Chapter 6. Amazingly, in Brazil, there are still emerald deposits being discovered, even
in areas which have been heavily prospected.

During the 1980s, Brazil became a significant emerald producer and by the end of the
century was exporting $50 million annually in emeralds. Researchers have just begun
to deconstruct the complex geology of the deposits. Detailed studies have been
carried out on individual deposits and a landmark paper on the origin of emerald
deposits of Brazil was published by Giuliani et al. (1990). Since then, more detailed
work on the complex structure, tectonic history and chemistry of individual deposits
has led to an increased understanding of the complexity of the Brazilian emerald
deposits and the nature of the emerald mineralizing fluids.

Giuliani et al. (1990) examined the geology of Brazilian emerald deposits and were
able to divide the deposits into three type:

Type I: Mafic-ultramafic host rocks, granitic proximal intrusive rocks and related
pegmatites.

Type II: Emeralds hosted in biotite schists characterized by absence of pegmatitic

veins and developed in ductile shear zones.

Type III: Emerald deposits related to the presence of aquamarine, beryl and/or
niobium-tantalum-cassiterite-bearing pegmatites of uncertain origin.

The geology, mineralogy and chronology of the different types of deposits are given
in Table 4.6.

The host rocks are typically Archean basement rocks (tonalitic gneisses, migmatites,
diatexites or granite gneiss), Proterozoic volcano-sedimentary sequences (intercalated
iron formation, felsic and mafic-ultramafic horizons, cherts and quartzites) and
granites or their magmatic equivalents. The Proterozoic sequences sometimes form
greenstone belts, imbricated structures or are intensely folded and deformed.

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4. Emerald
Table 4.6. Geology, mineralogy and chronology of the three main types of emerald deposits of Brazil.
BA – Bahia State, GO – Goias State, MG – Minas Gerais State, CE – Ceara State. Modified from Giuliani et al. (1990).

Deposits/ Type I Type II Type III

occurrences
1Carnaiba BA Pirenópolis Santa Terezinha de Goiás Itabira MG 1Tauá CE
2Socotó GO 2Coqui
BA GO
Volcano- Nature Serpentinites Talc-chlorite +Carbonate-talc schist -Biotite schist -Amphibolite
sedimentary schist +Chlorite schist -Talc-chlorite -Biotite schist
series (V.S.S.) schist
+Quartz-sericite schist -Tremolite schist
-Augen gneiss
Metamorphism Greenschist facies Greenschist Greenschist facies Greenschist Amphibolite facies
facies facies
Age Lower Proterozoic Middle Lower Proterozoic (?) Lower Upper Proterozoic
Proterozoic Proterozoic
Name V.S.S. of Serra da Araxá Series V.S.S. of Santa Terezinha Metasedimentary 1Independencia

Jacobina rocks of Minas complex

Supergroup 2Caico
and Nordestino
complexes
Intrusive rocks Nature Pegmatitic veins Pegmatitic veins – Pegmatitic veins Pegmatitic veins
Typical mineral Beryl (molybdenite) Garnet – Beryl Colombite
association Aquamarine Tantalite
Beryl
2Aquamarine

2Cassiterite

Related 1Carnaiba Quebra –

2Camp formoso Rabicho
Age Transamazonic Pre-Uruçuano – Probably 1Brazilian?

1.9 Ga (?) Brazilian 2Brazilian

0.5 to 0.7 Ga 0.5 to 0.7 Ga

Emerald and Nature Phlogopite Phlogopite +Phlogopite Phlogopite Phlogopite
metasomatic +Phlogopite-talc-
rocks carbonate schist
+Phlogopite-carbonate
schist
Typical mineral Molybdenite Tourmaline Pyrite Alexandrite Apatite
association 1Alexandrite Apatite Chromite (Mg, Al) Chrysoberyl 1Bismutite

Scheelite (cassiterite) Carbonate (Mg)

Apatite
Tourmaline
2Phenakite

Emerald 1 2 1 2

composition
Cr2O3 0.28 0.29 0.08 0.57 0.31 0.19 0.04
FeO 0.62 0.75 0.61 1.15 0.73 1.05 0.04
MgO 1.51 2.05 2.73 2.84 1.48 2.48 0.66
Na2O 1.29 1.09 1.77 1.77 0.92 1.84 0.59

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A number of conclusions were presented (Giuliani et al., 1990) regarding the geology
and genesis of the Brazilian deposits:

• Biotite schist is the host rock for all the deposits.

• For type I emerald deposits, molybdenum and, to a lesser degree,

tungsten are good pathfinders.

• In Type II emerald deposits, intense pyritization accompanied emerald

formation. This is also a good geological setting for gold.

• Type III emerald deposits are associated with aquamarine, tin and
niobium-tantalum.

GENESIS OF THE BRAZILIAN DEPOSITS

In general, Giuliani et al. (1990) report that emerald mineralization in the biotite
schists of Brazil results from K-metasomatism of serpentinites, talc schists, or
tremolitic schists from a volcano-sedimentary sequence usually metamorphosed
in the greenschist facies. Emeralds form when acid beryllium-bearing fluids, also
enriched in fluorine, chlorine, potassium and aluminum, penetrate mafic or ultramafic
rocks rich in chromium. Emerald precipitation took place at temperatures greater
than 500 degrees, as indicated by the presence of associated pathfinder minerals
scheelite and molybdenite (Schwarz and Eidt, 1989).

Age dating of mineral and rock samples from the emerald deposits at Capoeirana
and Belmont was published by Preinfalk et al. (2002). The age dating has enabled
researchers to place emerald mineralization in the context of tectonometamorphic
events. The following sequence of events is suggested:

1. High-grade metamorphism at 1.9 billion years.

2. Synmetamorphic injection of pegmatite veins at 1.9 billion years.

3. Synmetamorphic intrusion of beryllium-rich anatectic pegmatites into

ultrabasic rocks.

4. Synmetamorphic crystallization of emerald by reaction of beryllium-rich

anatectic pegmatites with ultrabasic rocks.

5. Metasomatic alteration of original pegmatitic feldspar into plagioclase of

albitic to oligoclasic composition.

6. Formation of pegmatitic schlieren in granitic gneiss.

The suggestion is that regional metamorphism and tectonic activity may play a
greater role in emerald mineralization than previously thought, and in fact may be
more important than contact metasomatism between pegmatites and chromium-
bearing host rocks.

Australia
Kazmi and Snee (1989) provide an excellent overview of Australia’s emerald
occurrences. Brown (1984) relates the discovery of Australia’s first emerald mine
near the town of Emmaville. In 1890, a mineralogist noted emerald crystals in an
abandoned tin deposit and a mining operation was duly started. Out of 25,000 carats

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4. Emerald

originally mined, only 0.01 to 0.02% were of gem quality. Since then the mine has
been re-opened and closed several times. Emeralds are contained within pegmatite
veins containing fluorite, beryl, quartz and topaz with associated arsenopyrite and
cassiterite. The crystals are embedded in granitic cavities that have weathered to
kaolin clay. The emeralds from Emmaville were found to be low in chromium and
vanadium and higher in iron.

Only 40 km away from Emmaville is the Torrington emerald occurrence. Emeralds

occur in quartz and pegmatite veins and are associated with quartz, feldspar, biotite
and wolframite.

Kazmi and Snee (1989) describe eight localities of emerald in western Australia
and two localities in eastern Australia (Emmaville and Torrington). Most of the
occurrences of emerald are associated with pegmatites intruding Archean greenstone
terrains and some are overprinted onto gold districts. At Poona, the pegmatite
dykes contain biotite, muscovite, lepidolite, zinnwaldite, topaz, tourmaline, fluorite,
cassiterite, manganocolumbite monazite and emerald. The emeralds at Poona are
the result of metasomatism and pegmatitic hydrothermal processes associated with
granitic intrusion into an Archean amphibolite. At Menzies, the emeralds are found
in feldspar-quartz pegmatites which have concordantly intruded metamorphosed
ultramafic rocks of basaltic komatiite to peridotitic komatiite composition in which
a bladed spinifex texture is preserved. The chlorite schist is altered by contact
metamorphism and pegmatitic hydrothermal processes to crenulated tremolite/
actinolite-phlogopite/biotite schist with bladed spinifex texture.

Austria
The emerald deposit at Habachtal, Austria is a historic emerald occurrence that may
have been mined by the Celts and the Romans. It also has the distinction of being
one of the few bedrock gemstone deposits to be mined profitably not just once, but
several times. This was the case in the mid-1800s when Viennese jeweler Samuel
Goldschmidt obtained the rights to the deposit and subsequently had the foresight
to send a mining official (who one presumes was a geologist) to investigate before
starting mining operations. Since then a number of tunnels have been excavated
to follow emerald-bearing schist horizons. The mine has recently been dormant,
although mineral collectors scour the dumps.

The emeralds at Habachtal, Austria are found in biotite schist, chlorite schist and
tremolite-actinolite-talc schist which formed at the margins of metasomatically
altered serpentinite. This deposit is somewhat unusual in that there are no pegmatites
associated with the deposit. Grundmann and Morteani (1989), suggested that the
Habachtal emeralds formed as porphyroblasts during regional metamorphism. The
regional metamorphism caused reactions between ultramafic rocks containing
chromium and mica-rich quartzofeldspathic rocks containing beryllium. The
beryllium in silicate minerals such as feldspar and muscovite was liberated during
metamorphism and these minerals were replaced by biotite, chlorite or talc.

Egypt
The famous ‘Cleopatra’s Emerald Mine,’ Egypt, is hosted in a district of Late
Proterozoic metasedimentary rocks, ophiolitic mélange and associated
intrusions. Younger tin- and beryllium-bearing granites intrude the package. Biotite

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schists associated with either quartz, actinolite or tourmaline contain emeralds

or are cross-cut by quartz veins with emerald. Kazmi and Snee (1989) report that
aeromagnetic surveys of the emerald-bearing region show three deep-seated faults
extending deep into the crust in this region, which may have provided pathways
for pneumatolytic and hydrothermal mineralizing fluids associated with tin-
bearing granite. The fluids caused intense alteration of the older rocks, including
the ophiolitic mélange unit, and precipitated tin, niobium, beryllium, tungsten,
molybdenum, bismuth, baron and fluorine minerals. A regional geochemical survey
showed a beryllium-rich zone parallel to one of the deep-seated faults. The ultramafic
mélange serpentinites are strung out bead fashion along this beryllium-enriched
zone, which contains emeralds and tin-bearing granites.

Mozambique
Emeralds are found in the portion of the Proterozoic Mozambique orogenic belt
which passes through Mozambique, southeastern Africa. Emeralds occur at the
contact between beryl-rich granitic pegmatites, and amphibolite and talc-actinolite
schist. Molybdenite, pyrite, scheelite, stilbite, apatite, calcite and fluorite are
associated minerals. The emeralds are found mainly within the metasomatic contact
zone between basic-ultrabasic rock and pegmatite. The emerald-bearing biotite-
phlogopite-talc schist zone varies between 50 and 80 cm and shows boudinaged
structure. Emeralds are associated with quartz and plagioclase within the zone
(Giuliani et al., 2002).

A study of the fluid inclusions in emerald from the Maria deposit in Mozambique
was published by Vapnik and Moroz (2002). They found that the fluid during emerald
growth was strongly alkaline and that an alkali-carbonic acid solution was responsible
for emerald formation.

Tanzania
The emerald and alexandrite deposit at Lake Manyara in Tanzania, southeastern
Africa, is described by Gübelin (1974) and Keller (1992). The deposit was discovered
in 1970 by a prospector who had been shown some emerald crystals. The emeralds
occur as aggregates with alexandrite in the contact zone between biotite-actinolite
schists and pegmatites. Over a million carats of emerald were mined in the first
two years of production; then alexandrite (a very valuable variety of the mineral
chrysoberyl) crystals were discovered in 1972 when labourers were digging a hole
for a swimming pool at the mine. Interestingly enough, rubies were also found in the
same amphibolite schist unit along with the emeralds, chrysoberyl and alexandrites
(Giuliani et al., 2002).

South Africa
Emeralds at Gravelotte, South Africa, an area rich in antimony and gold deposits,
occur in the contact zone between a highly metasomatized albitite pegmatite body
and lenticular masses of amphibole-muscovite schist and talc-biotite schist enclosed
in older granites. The schists are believed to be the alteration products of ultramafic
rocks. The emeralds formed 2.7 billion years ago during a period of regional
metamorphism and are associated with scheelite, native bismuth, molybdenite, black
tourmaline, fluorine-rich apatite and phenakite.

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The physico-chemical controls on emerald mineralization were defined by

Grundmann and Morteani (1989), and Nwe and Morteani (1993). These authors, as
summarized in Franz and Morteani (2002), suggest that regional metamorphism,
and in particular tectonometamorphic events, are more significant than previously
thought for certain ‘classic’ emerald deposits hosted in schists.

Zambia
Emerald mineralization in Zambia, southern Africa, has been known since the
1920s, and at one point in the 1980s, Zambia was producing $100 million annually
in emeralds. Many of the productive open-pit mines could not make the orderly
transition to an underground operation, and shortly afterwards Zambian emerald
production began to fall in comparison to Zimbabwe.

In the Miku area, emerald and tourmaline crystals are found in phlogopite schists and
are associated with talc-chlorite-magnetite-amphibolite schists and pegmatites.

In the Kafubu area, emeralds are found predominantly in serpentinites with tremolite
and phlogopite, or in quartz-tourmaline veins adjacent to the pegmatites. At the
Kamakanga mine, the emeralds occur mainly in metasomatic zones that developed
between tourmaline veins and mafic talc-schist. Tourmaline-bearing pegmatites
provided beryllium, and ultramafic units provided chromium (Sliwa and Nguluwe,
1984). During pegmatite intrusion, the wall rocks were altered to phlogopite-biotite
schist, and emeralds formed in response to pneumatolytic alteration. Emplacement
of the Kafubu pegmatites seemed to have occurred in two phases. The first phase
involved injection of quartz-feldspar-tourmaline pegmatites, while a second phase of
tourmaline and quartz-tourmaline crystallization followed. The sequence is described
by Sliwa and Nguluwe (1984):

“Most beryl/emerald mineralization seems to be related to the pneumatolitic-

hydrothermal quartz-tourmaline phases of pegmatite activity. These late,
highly volatile, mainly gaseous phases, enriched in silica and boron and devoid
of feldspar produced virtually bi-mineralic rocks, composed of quartz and
schorl (iron-rich tourmaline). They were commonly emplaced along glide
surfaces formed by intraformational detachment of schist, especially where
these planes formed suitable structural traps. It seems that undulating but
generally flat planes of schistosity created the most suitable structural traps
to facilitate crystallization of emeralds. The pegmatites cooled slowly, with
temperatures believed to have ranged from 300 to 500˚C and pressure of
1–2 kbar. Crystallization of beryl is believed to have taken place chiefly during
the metasomatic reaction between pegmatites and surrounding rocks. Thus,
the majority of emeralds lie within the zone of metasomatic biotite-phlogopite
schists developed along the contacts of the veins with the country rocks.”

They also note that after emeralds crystallized, the region was subject to intense
shearing and folding during orogenic events. This post-crystallization activity may be
the reason why so many of the crystals are fractured and opaque.

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Zimbabwe
Emeralds in Zimbabwe, southern Africa, first noted in 1956 when the country
was called Rhodesia, crystallized some 2.6 billion years ago in some of the oldest
rocks on the planet. At that time, numerous potassium-rich beryllium and lithium
pegmatites intruded into greenstones containing chromium-rich serpentinites
and schists. Subsequent tectono-metamorphic events allowed for mobilization
of essential elements for emerald formation and emeralds precipitated in albitites
and phlogopite schists. Tourmaline grew across the foliation of the mica schists
(Anderson, 1978a,b).

Emerald deposits found during the 1950s were romantically named Zeus, Orpheus,
Aeres 3, Vulcan and others. The Zeus mine, now known as the Sandawana mine,
made a successful transformation from open pit to a modern underground
operation. Emeralds from the Sandawana mine are known for their exceptional colour
and quality (Giuliani et al., 2002).

Significant emerald deposits at Machingwe in Zimbabwe were discovered in 1987 and

described by Kanis et al. (1991). At Machingwe, the emeralds are found in phlogopite
produced as a result of metasomatic reactions within the serpentinites.

Madagascar
Like Sri Lanka and Tanzania, the island country of Madagascar, southeastern Africa,
overflows with gemstones, mineral specimens and fossils of all kinds, so much so
that the publishers of Lapis magazine dedicated an entire issue to this wonderful
island (Pezzotta, 2001). The fourth largest island in the world, Madagascar is home to
14 million people and is exceptionally rich not only in gemstones but also rare species
of animals and plants. Political unrest and difficulties in effective natural resource
management in light of a poor economy has led to a fluctuating coloured gemstone
supply from this beautiful island5.

Madagascar was, as recently as 150 million years ago, still connected as part of the
Gondwanaland supercontinent to its sister gem-rich areas in Africa and India and
Antarctica. The oldest rocks in Madagascar are more than 3 billion years old and
have been extensively intruded by rare-element pegmatites that are loaded with
beryllium.

Emerald mineralization was known for a long time on Madagascar, but had not
been studied in detail until recently. Cheilletz et al. (2001) completed geological,
petrographic and geochemical analysis of the emerald-bearing areas and proposed
two distinct models for emerald formation.

1. Emerald deposits associated with pegmatites (Mananjary region)

Emerald mineralization in the area of Mananjary occurs at the contact

zone between pegmatitic and basic/ultrabasic rocks, mainly serpentinite
and amphibolite and Archean (1.89 million years old) schists, gneisses,
green-schists and migmatites. The emeralds are in a phlogopite schist
zone created after metamorphic and metasomatic processes during an

5In the fall, 2003 issue of Gems and Gemology, Gem News International, a visitor to the gem-mining areas

of Madagascar describes robberies and gunfights, and that was just the first night of the visit.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 87
4. Emerald

orogenic event remobilized elements. Later magmatic events introduced

molybdenite, wolframite and pyrite.

2. Emerald deposits with pegmatites absent (Ianapera region)

Emeralds are situated within an isoclinal fold related to shear zones within
Precambrian volcano-sedimentary rocks. The emerald mineralization
occurs in reaction zones developed within lenses of serpentinite and
amphibolite in the absence of pegmatites. Emeralds have formed in
quartz-phlogopite tourmaline-bearing veins that are scattered within
tremolite-chlorite schists. Giuliani et al. (2002) mention that given the
absence of pegmatites, the Ianapera emeralds may have formed from the
circulation of metamorphic deep-seated fluid released during the Pan-
African orogeny 530 to 500 million years ago. This is similar to the Santa
Terezinha deposit in Brazil.

India
The rulers of India loved emeralds and accumulated them with great enthusiasm,
but emeralds were not discovered within India until 1943, near Rajasthan. Emeralds
are found in talc, biotite and actinolite schist intruded by tourmaline granite
and associated pegmatite veins. Minerals associated with emerald include beryl,
tourmaline, apatite, quartz, feldspar, muscovite and biotite. The host rocks contain
kaolin, sericite, chlorite, albite, tourmaline, vermiculite, calcite, talc, serpentinite,
tremolite and anthophyllite.

Ural Mountains, Russia

Emerald deposits in the Ural Mountains are described by Sinkankas (1981), Snee
and Kazmi (1989), Schmetzer et al. (1991), and Laskovenkov and Zhernakov
(1995). It is interesting to note that the emerald deposits are located about 100 km
northeast of the infamous city of Ekaterinburg (which was a famous lapidary
and mining centre in the mid-1880s), whereas the ruby deposits described in the
previous chapter are southwest of Ekaterinburg. During the Late Paleozoic, Europe
and Asia collided, resulting in the formation of the Ural Mountains chain which
divides the two continents. Emeralds occur in a band of biotite and actinolite
schists associated with granite pegmatites. The metamorphic rocks consist of
serpentine, talc, chlorite, talc-phlogopite and tremolite, amphibolite, amphibole
gneisses and quartzites. Laskovenkov and Zhernakov (1995) call the phlogopite-
rich pods where emeralds are found “glimmerite ore bodies.” The ‘glimmerites’
average 1 m in thickness, are typically 25 to 50 m long, and consist of 95 to 99%
phlogopite. Emeralds are tightly enclosed by phlogopite. Minerals associated with
emerald are phlogopite, plagioclase, fluorite, topaz, apatite, chrysoberyl, phenakite,
alexandrite and fluorite.

Laskovenkov and Zhernakov (1995) report that special portable neutron-activation

analysis machines called ‘beryllometers’ are used to locate emerald occurrences by
mapping the beryllium content of the host rocks. Pathfinder minerals associated with
emerald mineralization are also helpful for finding ore zones.

This deposit has produced some very large emerald crystals. Laskovenkov and
Zhernakov (1995) report that an 11,000-carat crystal of grass green colour was found

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in 1831 and, more recently, a 4,400-carat stone was faceted from a rough Uralian
emerald in 1990.

EMERALDS IN NORTH AMERICA

The few documented emerald occurrences in North America are in a wide array of
tectonic settings and host rocks:

1. Quartz veins that cut migmatitic host rocks (Hiddenite, North Carolina,
U.S.A.).

2. Emerald crystals reported in oil-rich black shales (Uinta Mountains, Utah,

U.S.A.).

3. Quartz-tourmaline veins that cut lower greenschist chlorite schists (Regal

Ridge, Yukon, Canada)

4. Quartz-calcite veins developed in tungsten skarn within metalliferous

black shales (Lened, Northwest Territories, Canada)

5. Rare-element pegmatites (Ghost Lake, Ontario, Canada).

6. Quartz veins in andesite (Red Mountain, British Columbia, Canada).

North Carolina
North Carolina is a gem-rich state. It is host to alluvial ruby and sapphire, and
bedrock occurrences of emeralds. In fact, until emeralds were identified in northern
Canada, the only well documented and producing emerald localities in North
America, were in North Carolina. The emeralds are found with a lesser-known green
gemstone called hiddenite, which is gem-quality green spodumene. Steeply dipping
quartz-calcite-emerald veins cut migmatitic host rocks including biotite schist
interbedded with lenses of calc-silicate rock. Very large emerald crystals have been
recovered from workings in the Hiddenite area, however, the emeralds tend to have
a greyish tinge. Research reported by Wise and Anderson (2003) suggests that vein
emplacement was after intensive anatexis and regional deformation.

Utah
Keith et al. (1997, 2002) report that three emeralds have been recovered from within a
fault zone between Mississippian carbonate units and Proterozoic shale in the Uinta
mountain range, Utah. The emeralds are within the fault zone and shale, and are
associated with pyrite, barite, vein quartz, fibrous calcite, bleached shale and green
mica. The shale is a 1-km-thick sequence of organic black shale with arkosic arenite
units. A model very similar to that thought responsible for emerald deposit formation
in Colombia is proposed.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 89
4. Emerald

Emeralds in Canada
R EGAL RIDGE, YUKON
Emeralds were discovered in August, 1998 in the Finlayson Lake area, southeastern
Yukon by geologist William (Bill) Wengzynowski, who was working for Expatriate
Resources at the time. While exploring for signs of base metals, Mr. Wengzynowski
recognized emerald mineralization in a 900 by 400 m area on both sides of an
east-trending ridge on the Goal-Net claim group. True North Gems Inc. has since
purchased the property and has been working to evaluate the extent and quality of
the emerald mineralization. The first comprehensive scientific papers on the Regal
Ridge emerald occurrence were recently published (Groat et al., 2003; Marshall et al.,
2003). The following information is taken largely from their work and from Rohtert
and Montgomery (2001). A compilation of the research data to date is shown in
Figure 4.8.

The host rocks for the Regal Ridge emerald occurrence are Upper Devonian Fire Lake
mafic volcanic rocks (chlorite schist) intruded by a 112-million-year-old peraluminous
granitic intrusion exposed about 600 m from the emerald occurrence. There is
a smaller exposure of the granitic intrusion between the main exposure and the
emerald occurrence. The granitic intrusion contains up to 13.2 ppm beryllium. The
mafic volcanic rocks consisting of chlorite schist with local muscovite schist are
classified as boninitic in composition. One of the geochemical characteristics of

Figure 4.8. Composite model,

crown showing, Regal Ridge Goal- ��������������
��������������������������������
Net property, Yukon. (Groat et al., ���������������������
2003; Marshall et al., 2003; Murphy ������������������
and Piercey, 2003; Mortensen, J.K., ����������
�������������������������������
1999; Murphy et al., 2002) ��������������������������������
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90
 4. Emerald

boninites are their elevated nickel, chromium and cobalt content (Piercey et al.,
2001). The bonititic host rocks in the Regal Ridge area are chlorite schists and contain
elevated chromium (up to 520 ppm) and vanadium (up to 190 ppm). The Fire Lake
unit overlies a slab of variably serpentinized mafic and ultramafic rock, which has
been interpreted as a comagmatic sill to the Fire Lake unit (Murphy and Piercey,
2000). The rocks are greenschist facies metamorphic grade.

Emeralds are found along the margins of discordant quartz-tourmaline veins

genetically related to the nearby mid-Cretaceous biotite (± muscovite) quartz
monzonite. The quartz monzonites grades to quartz-tourmaline pegmatites and
aplite, locally containing beryl before evolving to quartz-tourmaline (calcite) veins
with emerald. Emeralds are concentrated with an alteration envelope of massive,
fine tourmaline crystals which contain local minor scheelite. Emeralds are more
prevalent where the chlorite schist contains abundant muscovite and has weathered
a distinctive ‘golden’ colour. Black tourmaline is ubiquitous on the property as
attractive ‘birdsfoot’ arrangements on foliation planes within the schist and as
massive, felted fine needles in the alteration zones to the quartz-tourmaline veins. It is
also in the nearby granite, aplites and quartz veins.

References on Canadian emerald occurrences

Falck, H. and Marshall, D.D., Marshall, D., Groat, L., Giuliani, Neufeld, H.L.D., Groat, L.A. and
2003. Emerald exploration in the G., Murphy, D., Mattey, D., Ercit, Mortensen, J.K., 2003. Preliminary
Selwyn Mountains, NWT using a T.S., Wise, M.A., Wengzynowski, investigations of emerald mineralization
portable Gamma Ray spectrometer W. and Eaton, D.W., 2003. Pressure, in the Regal Ridge area, Finlayson
(abstract). Gem Materials and temperature and fluid inclusion Lake district, southeastern Yukon. In:
Mineralogy, Special Session, Geological conditions during emerald precipitation, Yukon Exploration and Geology 2002,
Association of Canada, May 26 to 28, southeastern Yukon, Canada: Emond, D.S. and Lewis, L.L. (eds.),
2003, Vancouver, Canada. fluid inclusion and stable isotope Exploration and Geological Services
Groat, L.A., Ercit, T.S., Marshall, evidence. Chemical Geology, vol. 194, Division, Yukon Region, Indian and
D.D., Gault, R.A., Wise, M.A., p. 187–199. Northern Affairs Canada, p. 281–284.
Wengzynowski, W. and Eaton, D.W., Marshall, D.D., Groat, L.A. and Rohtert, W.R. and Montgomery, J.H.,
2000. Newsletter, Mineralogical Giuliani, G., 2003. Mineralogy and 2002. Qualifying Report – 2001 report
Association of Canada, no. 63 and geochemistry of the Lened emerald on field activities for the Regal Ridge
also (2001), Canadian Gemmologist, showing, southwestern Northwest emerald project, Yukon Territory,
vol. 22, no. 3, p. 92–95. Territories (abstract). Gem Materials Canada. Prepared for True North
Groat, L.A., Marshall, D.D., Giuliani, and Mineralogy, Special Session, Gems Inc., www.sedar.com, 71 p.
G., Murphy, D.C., Piercey, S.J., Geological Association of Canada, May Wight, W., 2003. Emerald in Canada.
Jambor, J.L., Mortensen, J.K., Ercit, 26 to 28, 2003, Vancouver, Canada. Canadian Gemmologist, vol. 24, no. 2,
T.S., Gault, R.A., Mattey, D.P., Neufeld, H.L.D., Groat, L.A. and p. 61–65.
Schwartz, D.P., Maluski, H., Wise, Mortensen, J.K., 2003. Preliminary Wilson, B., 1997. Gemstone occurrences
M.A., Wengzynowski, W. and investigations of emerald mineralization in British Columbia. Canadian
Eaton, W.D., 2002. Mineralogical in the Regal Ridge area, Finlayson Gemmologist, vol. 18, no. 3.
and geochemical study of the Regal Lake District, southeastern Yukon
Ridge showing emeralds, southeastern (abstract). Gem Materials and
Yukon. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 40, Mineralogy, Special Session, Geological
no. 5, p. 1313–1338. Association of Canada, May 26 to 28,
2003, Vancouver, Canada.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 91
4. Emerald

Researchers are trying to determine whether the emerald mineralization is related to

magmatic events after the classic pegmatite schist model for emerald mineralization,
or whether tectonic-hydrothermal events were predominant. Initial fluid inclusion
and stable isotope results reported by Groat et al. (2003) and Marshall et al. (2003)
are inconclusive, but do indicate a 2 wt % NaCl fluid with vein formation at 365 to
498°C. It is likely that fluorine played a significant role in emerald precipitation since
the granitic intrusion at Regal Ridge contains highly elevated fluorine (up to 1010
ppm) and fluorite is reported associated with emerald precipitation. Groat et al. (2003)
also noted a strong association of tungsten and local molybdenite.

LENED, NORTHWEST TERRITORIES

Green beryl crystals had been noted at the Lened tungsten skarn by field crews
exploring for tungsten, lead and zinc during the 1970s and 1980s. In fact, a green
beryl crystal was donated to the Royal Ontario Museum where it rested within the
‘Beryl’ specimen drawer in the museum’s research collection. It wasn’t until Yukon
prospector Ron Berdahl staked the property for its tungsten value and then, in 1997,
noted the attractive green crystals while prospecting with his son, that the Lened was
‘rediscovered’ and recognized as an emerald occurrence.

Researchers have focused on identifying the paragenesis of the Lened emerald

occurrence, since the geological setting is rather mundane, with no unusual features
that would normally be required to form an emerald occurrence. The mineralogy and
geochemistry of the Lened emerald occurrence is reported by Marshall et al. (2003)
and summarized on the website for the C.S. Lord Northern Geoscience Centre6 in
Yellowknife, NWT. The emeralds at Lened occur in a garnet-diopside skarn outcrop
about 40 m by 15 m. The occurrence is situated about 500 m southeast of a mid-
Cretaceous granitic pluton (Lened pluton). The beryllium content of the Lened pluton
is 6 ppm. The skarn has formed at a fault contact between Devonian to Mississippian
Earn Group metalliferous black shales and Upper Cambrian and Lower Ordovician
Rabbitkettle Formation limestone. The vanadium content of the black shale
averages 1934 ppm. The skarn is cut by about 35 quartz-carbonate veins 2 to 30 cm
wide. Slender pale green beryl crystals up to 2.5 cm in length, some of which could
be called emerald, are concentrated at the contact between the vein and wallrock
and within the vein. The beryl crystals found were pale and small, but there is a high
proportion of transparent crystals.

The emerald crystals at Lened are coloured by vanadium; the vanadium content
averages 0.25 wt % V2O3. Fluid inclusion studies and preliminary isotope data by
Marshall et al., 2003 indicate that the skarn and subsequent quartz-carbonate-
emerald veins are the result of contact metamorphism related to the adjacent Lened
intrusion.

Falck and Marshall (2003) tested the effectiveness of a gamma-ray spectrometer7 in

delineating emerald-bearing quartz veins at the Lened emerald locality. They found
that the quartz veins were too narrow to have definitive signatures, but the method
might be useful for delineating fault contacts.

6www.nwtgeoscience.ca
7Exploranium GR-256 model

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 4. Emerald

GHOST L AKE, O NTARIO

Emeralds from the Taylor #1 pegmatite, Mavis Lake rare-element pegmatite group
near Dryden, Brownridge Township, Kenora district, were first recognized as such in
the early 1990s by Fred Breaks, a student at the time doing fieldwork for a Ph.D. thesis
on the Taylor pegmatite. The emeralds were recognized in a known pegmatite, one
that was noted in the 1940s for containing opaque, milky beryl crystals. Mr. Breaks,
now a geologist for the Ontario Geological Survey, donated a sample of the emerald
to the Canadian Museum of Nature where the emerald identification was confirmed
and duly noted8. The green colours were determined, through electron microprobe
analysis, to be chromium. The museum arranged to facet a gem out of the donated
specimen and a 0.13-carat light green, irregularly shaped faceted emerald was
produced. The green colour was determined, through electron microprobe analysis,
to be chromium and the emerald identification was duly noted.

A local prospector staked the showing, which by then was attracting interest for
tungsten, and carried out trenching but came to the conclusion that all the emeralds
were gone. The next owner was a company exploring for tantalum, and when the
claims became open, B. Wilson9 staked the property. He promptly discovered and
identified the emerald mineralization. True North Gems Inc. optioned the property in
2003 and carried out field work during the summer.

R ED MOUNTAIN
A excellent paper, Gemstone Occurrences in British Columbia, published in Canadian
Gemmologist (Wilson, 1997) describes small, fractured, opaque emeralds discovered
in 1989 in narrow quartz-calcite-pyrite veins that cut volcaniclastic rocks adjacent to
a quartz monzonite intrusive body on Red Mountain near Stewart, B.C. Mr. Wilson
had been working for a mining company in 1989 looking for gold associated with
galena and tetrahedrite in the Red Mountain area. A primary exploration target was
malachite staining, which could indicate tetrahedrite ore. Mr. Wilson had noticed
some green staining on a quartz-calcite-pyrite vein and, upon close inspection,
immediately recognized emerald crystals. The description in Gemstone Occurrences in
British Columbia, is as follows:

“Emerald green beryl was discovered in 1989 in narrow quartz-calcite-pyrite veins

that cut volcaniclastic rocks adjacent to a quartz monzonite intrusive on Red
Mountain (near Stewart). Since then, several other specimens have been found in
this area by geologists who were searching for gold. Microprobe analysis shows
that this beryl is coloured green by trace amounts of vanadium (G. Robinson,
pers. comm.). Although all of the crystals found so far have been small, fractured
and opaque, their presence suggests that better quality emerald may occur
elsewhere in the province.”

Mr. Wilson (pers. comm., 2003) confirmed that the emeralds were contained within
small quartz-calcite-pyrite stringer veins cutting andesitic volcaniclastic rocks. There
are no evident pegmatitc phases present.

8Breaks,F.W. and Moore, J.M., Jr., 1992. The Ghost Lake batholith, Superior Province of Northwestern Ontario.
Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 30, p. 835–875.
9 www.alpinegems.net

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 93
4. Emerald

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR EMERALD DEPOSITS

Besides the suggestions given below, Simandl et al. (1999a,b) provide excellent
summaries and exploration guides for both the shale-hosted and schist-hosted types
of emerald deposits (see Appendix A).

Emeralds associated with black shales (Columbian type)

HOST ROCKS
• Thick, intensely folded and faulted sequences of bituminous shales,
sandstones and limestones.

• Evaporites, salt domes, salt plugs, salt beds, briny hot springs associated
with above sequence (e.g. bituminous sedimentary sequence containing
evaporite beds or intruded by salt diapers).

R EGIONAL HOST ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

Bituminous host rocks of mineralized areas on a regional scale (100s metres ) are:

• Enriched in sodium, magnesium and manganese.

• Depleted in potassium, aluminum, silicon, lithium, molybdenum, barium,

zinc, chromium and vanadium.

• A host Na/K ratio of less than 1.1 was used in Colombia to separate altered
blocks from unaltered blocks.

R EGIONAL STREAM SEDIMENT GEOCHEMISTRY

• Sodium is the best single geochemical pathfinder for determining
mineralized from unmineralized areas.

• Lithium, molybedenum and lead may also be useful to determine if an

area has undergone leaching.

STRUCTURE
Structural analysis of regional faults in conjunction with either host rock geochemistry
or stream sediment geochemistry may show regional faults separating areas of Na
metasomatism from unaltered areas.

Branquet et al. (1999) suggest that Columbian emerald deposits are almost exhausted
and the finding of new deposits will necessitate prospecting that is structurally
oriented, focusing on the localization of (1) structural traps along regional tear faults
in the western zone and (2) the stratiform brecciated level in the eastern zone.

GROUND PROSPECTING
In general, one should look for areas with calcite-albite-dolomite vein networks,
fibrous calcite, bands of hematite, folded and brecciated sedimentary rocks, calcite
veins with abundant pyrite or albite and areas where veins intersect. Altered light
grey Cenicero zones generally contain brecciated calcite, albite, muscovite, pyrite and
quartz in a carbonate matrix. The zone may smell like H2S and native sulphur may be

94
 4. Emerald

present. If one of these zones is found, prospect for trapiche emeralds in the outer
parts of the alteration zone and gem emeralds in veins emanating away from the
alteration zone.

Fluorite, apatite and pale green opaque beryl in calcite veins are good indicators of
nearby emerald mineralization. The mineral parasite, which forms fudge-coloured
stubby hexagonal crystals is another good indicator.

As inspiration, it should be noted that a single pocket of emeralds discovered in a

calcite vein at Chivor had an estimated value of $6,000,000 (Ottaway, 1991).

Emeralds associated with bituminous sedimentary rocks

(Norway type)
• Pegmatites intruding bituminous aluminum-rich sedimentary rocks.

Emeralds associated with pegmatite/granites interacting with

chromium-bearing rock
HOST ROCKS
It seems that the exact lithology of the host rock is not as important as the
requirement that it contain chromium — the more chromium the better:

• Talc-dolomite schist, serpentinite, peridotite, dunite, biotite schist, biotite-

actinolite schist, phlogopite schist, tourmaline-biotite schist, talc schist or
other metamorphosed ultramafic rocks.

• Associated pegmatite, especially beryl-bearing pegmatite, tourmaline-

bearing pegmatite or anatectic granitic intrusion.

• Metasomatic contact zones between the pegmatites and meta-ultramafic

rock. This is usually a zone of biotite-phlogopite schist.

• Biotite schist, phlogopite schist, biotite-talc-carbonate schist

and carbonate-biotite schist without cross-cutting pegmatite
dykes. Hyrdrothermal fluids may carry beryllium from pegmatitic source
rocks through fault conduits and channelways.

STRUCTURE
• Areas of intensive tectonism, fracturing and folding are preferential hosts
for emerald mineralization. It is easier for beryllium-bearing fluids to
permeate and interact with chromium-bearing host rocks.

GEOCHEMISTRY
• The higher the chromium content of the ultramafic or metamorphosed
ultramafic rocks, the better chance there is of emerald formation. Look for
chromite pods or crystals in the meta-ultramafic host rocks. This indicates
abundant chromium content.

• Zones of beryllium enrichment coincident with biotite schist or other

metamorphosed ultramafic rocks.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 95
4. Emerald

• Zones of beryllium enrichment coincident with chromium, fluorine, tin,

molybdenum and/or tungsten anomalies, especially in areas containing
meta-ultramafic rocks.

• Rare-element pegmatite dykes intruding biotite schist or ultramafic rocks.

PATHFINDER MINERALS
• Thin to thick selvages of biotite-phlogopite.

• Molybdenite, alexandrite, scheelite, apatite, chrysoberyl, tourmaline,

phenakite and/or pyrite in the metasomatic contact zone.

GEOPHYSICS
• Zones of beryllium enrichment coincident with magnetic highs on aero-
magnetic maps.

REFERENCES
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Victoria, Rhodesia. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 15, no. 2, p. 80–82.

Anderson, S.M., 1978b. Notes on the occurrence and mineralogy of emeralds in Rhodesia.
Journal of Gemmology, vol. 16, no. 3, p. 177–185.

Bank, H., 1971. The emerald occurrence at Miku, Zambia. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 14,
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Banks, D.A., Giuliani, G., Yardley, B.W.D. and Cheilletz, A., 2000. Emerald mineralisation
in Colombia: fluid chemistry and the role of brine mixing. Mineralium Deposita. vol. 35,
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Barton, M.D. and Young, S., 2002. Non-pegmatitic deposits of beryllium: mineralogy,
geology, phase equilibria and origin. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and
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Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., U.S.A., p. 591–691.

Bermudez-Lugo, O., 2000. The Mineral Industry of Colombia. United States Geological
Survey, International Minerals, Statistics and Information.

Beus, A.A., 1979. Sodium – a geochemical indicator of emerald mineralization in the

Cordillera Oriental, Colombia. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, vol. 11, p. 195–208.

Bosshart, G., 1991. Emeralds from Colombia (Part 1). Journal of Gemmology. vol. 22,
no. 6, p. 355–361.

Bowersox, G.W. and Anwar, J., 1989. The Gujar Killi emerald deposit, Northwest Frontier
Province, Pakistan. Gems and Gemology, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 16–24.

Bowersox, G.W. and Chamberlain, B., 1995. Gemstones of Afghanistan. Geoscience Press
Inc., Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A., 220 p.

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Bowersox, G.W., Snee, L.W., Foord, E.F. and Seal, R.R. II., 1991. Emeralds of the Panjshir
Valley, Afghanistan. Gems and Gemology, vol. 27, no. 1, p. 26–39.

Branquet, Y., Laumonier, B., Cheilletz, A. and Giuliani, G., 1999. Emeralds in the eastern
Cordillera of Colombia: Two tectonic settings for one mineralization. Geology, vol. 27,
no. 7, p. 597–600.

Breaks, F.W. and Moore, J.M., Jr., 1992. The Ghost Lake batholith, Superior Province of
Northwestern Ontario. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 30, p. 835–875.

Brown, G., 1984. Australia’s first emeralds. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 4, p. 320–335.

Brown, P.G., Hildebrand, A.R., Zolensky, M.E., Grady, M., Clayton, R.N., Mayeda, T.K.,
Tagliaferri, E., Spalding, R., MacRae, N.D., Hoffman, E.L., Mittlefehldt, D.W., Wacker,
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Calvo, M. and Garcia, J.R., 1997. Emerald and associated minerals from A Franqueira,
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Cheilletz, A., Sabot, B., Marchand, P., De Donato, P., Taylor, B., Archibald, D., Barres, O.
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Giuliani, G., Jarnot, M., Neumeier, G., Ottaway, T., Sinkankas, J. and Staebler, G., (eds),
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 5. TSAVORITE GARNET AND TANZANITE

INTRODUCTION
These two beautiful gemstones, one green and one violet-blue, are very closely
related in terms of their chemistry and mode of occurrence. They are the two ‘newest’
gemstones to be introduced to the gem trade on a large scale within the last 25 years,
and are both mined from the bountiful Mozambique Orogenic Belt extending down
the length of Africa, from Tanzania, through Kenya and eventually to South Africa.

“Tsavorite what??” Canadian geologists and prospectors say, and yet this splendid
green garnet has been on the gem market for 20 years. It looks especially attractive
when set with Yukon nugget gold, yet most people have never heard of it. Tanzanite
gets much the same reaction, yet this violet-blue gemstone is now one of the top five
coloured gemstones in the United States in terms of retail sales (Table 5.1). Tanzanite
is also becoming well known in Canada; tanzanite jewellery sells in the larger
department stores and is now cultivating awareness among the general public
(tanzanite jewellery is for sale in the 2003 Sears catalog).

The proper mineralogical name for tsavorite garnet (the “t” is silent) is vanadium
grossular garnet, however, ever since its discovery in the 1970s it has been marketed
under the more glamorous and exotic name of tsavorite in honor of Tsavo National
Park in Kenya, where tsavorite was first found. To date, the world’s supply of tsavorite
garnet has come from a handful of small mines in Kenya and Tanzania, many of
them clustered near the Kenya-Tanzania border. The Mgama-Mindi Ridge complex
in southeast Kenya, near the Tanzanian border, and the Lelatema, Merelani Hills
and Komolo areas in Tanzania, are host to several tsavorite mines and significant
deposits. Currently, in the Taita Taveta district in Kenya, Bridges Exploration Ltd. and
First Green Garnet Mining Co. Ltd. produce tsavorite. The value of tsavorite garnet

Table 5.1. Top ten selling 2000 2001 2003

coloured gemstones in the United Blue sapphire Blue sapphire Blue sapphire
States (Coloured Stone, January/ Ruby Pearl Ruby
February 2003)
Emerald Tanzanite Emerald
Amethyst Ruby Tanzanite
Tanzanite Emerald Amethyst
Tourmaline Amethyst Rhodolite garnet
Garnet Green tourmaline Pearl
Fancy sapphire Rhodolite garnet Opal
Pearl Fancy sapphire and pink tourmaline (tie) Peridot
Blue topaz Blue topaz Blue topaz

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production in Kenya in 2001 was $744,0001. More recently, tsavorite garnet has been
discovered on the gem-rich island of Madagascar, and another showing has been
noted in Pakistan.

The correct mineralogical name for tanzanite is ‘blue zoisite.’ A gemstone with an
unappealing name like this would sink on the world gem market, and therefore in
1969, Tiffany and Company introduced this new gemstone as ‘tanzanite’ in honor
of the only country in the world from which it is mined. The bulk of the world’s
supply of tanzanite comes from a single deposit near the town of Merelani in the
Lelatema Mountains in Tanzania, 24 km southwest of the Kilimanjaro International
Airport. Tsavorite is also produced at this mine. Much of the tanzanite rough is
auctioned in the town of Arusha whose name may sound familiar for a sad reason:
it is where the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda is based to deal with
prosecuting those responsible for the Rwandan genocide in 1994.

The discovery of tsavorite garnet

It has been known for many years that garnets occur in all colours except
blue. Besides the familiar red shades, there are also purple, pink, orange, orange-
brown, yellow, yellow-green, and colourless garnets. Placer miners in the Yukon are
familiar with garnets, since, as a heavy mineral they tend to show up in placer gold
concentrate. Exploration geologists look for certain types of pyrope garnets when
exploring for diamond-bearing rocks. A beautiful yellow-green andradite garnet from
Russia called demantoid enjoyed popularity in the early part of the century. More
recently, demantoid garnet has enjoyed a resurgence of popularity due to the re-
discovery of ‘lost’ demantoid garnet deposits in the Ural Mountains. Rare chromium-
bearing uvarovite garnet that shows a beautiful, vivid emerald green colour has been
found only in small quantities and very small crystals.

According to various accounts (Gübelin and Weibel, 1975; Keller, 1992; Bridges,
1982), green garnets were first discovered by geologist Campbell Bridges in 1967
about 31 miles (50 km) from Arusha, Tanzania, although he had noted sparkling
green garnets much earlier in other parts of Africa. In 1970, he discovered significant
tsavorite in the Mindi Hills in southeastern Kenya in 1970. By early 1973, two groups,
one under the direction of South African mining engineer P. Morgan and the other
under Campbell Bridges discovered additional deposits in the Mgama Ridge-Mindi
Hills area. The gem-rich Precambrian rocks in this area are buried under a thin veneer
of red soil, ‘kunkar’ limestone or reddish cellular siliceous ironstone weathering
products. The dry, flat grasslands are home to many animals, including roaming lions
and poisonous snakes. Although 40 to 50 different tsavorite localities in Kenya and
Tanzania have been mined over the years, only a handful are now producing the
green gem. Mr. Bridges now operates the Scorpion tsavorite mine in Kenya, in which
two tunnels are at 320 feet depth, providing a steady source of tsavorite material to
the world market. The Scorpion tsavorite mine and the recently developed Elephant
Skull mine are described on Campbell’s website2, along with nice photos and
interesting comparisons between tsavorite garnet and emerald. Another tsavorite
locality is being mined in Kenya and a minor amount has been noted as an accessory

1United States Geological Survey, 2001, Mineral Resources by Country, Kenya and Uganda by

Thomas Yager.
2www.tsavorite.com

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mineral in gem deposits in Pakistan. In 1991, tsavorite garnet was discovered on the
gem-rich island of Madagascar, however the deposits in Kenya and Tanzania are the
most important sources of this beautiful, rare gem.

Tsavorite market
The supply from the East African deposits is small, yet the price of good quality one-
carat stones has steadily climbed ever since its introduction by Tiffany and Company
to the world market in 1974. One can expect to pay $1,500 to $3,000 for a one-carat
stone, a bargain when one considers an equivalent Colombian emerald would be
almost three or four times as much. Faceted tsavorite is rarely seen in sizes above
5 carats, and top quality tsavorite may fetch $8,000 per carat retail3. An attractive
feature of tsavorite garnet is that it is one of the few coloured gemstones which has
not been heat-treated, dyed, irradiated, oiled or treated in some other manner to
improve its appearance; most tsavorite bought in jewellery stores is ‘natural.’

The discovery of tanzanite

Tanzanite is the popular name given to the gem-quality blue transparent variety of
the mineral zoisite (Ca2AI3Si30120H). Tanzanite is not the only variety of zoisite used
as a gemstone. Rare transparent green and transparent yellow zoisite have been
found at the tanzanite mines. Green (grass green) massive opaque zoisite and bright
red opaque rubies are associated with hornblende at Longido in Tanzania. This
rock, locally called ‘anyolite,’ makes spectacular carving material. Another gem
variety of zoisite is one found just outside the city of Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada in
the Whitehorse Copper Belt. It is ‘thulite,’ a massive pink opaque variety of zoisite,
coloured by manganese.

Tanzanite was discovered in 1967 near Merelani in northern Tanzania. According to

Keller (1992), a tailor from Arusha was prospecting for rubies about 40 km southeast
of Arusha when he was shown a surface deposit of unknown blue stones by a local
Masai tribesman. Despite his disappointment that the blue stones were too soft to
be sapphires, he staked and registered the ground, thereby starting the standard
staking rush and long convoluted history of disputed mining rights and government
interference. The original mining area was relatively small, approximately 5 km long
by 1 km wide (Barot and Boehm, 1992). Open pits are up to 100 m deep (Keller, 1992),
however, most of the mining is now taking place underground (Barot and Boehm,
1992). Most freshly mined tanzanite must be heat-treated to drive off undesirable
brownish hues in the stone, leaving it violet-blue. Those first crystals discovered by
the tribesman may have been naturally ‘heat-treated’ by the hot African sun to turn
them a more noticeable blue colour.

Political instability over the last 20 years led to uneven supplies of this gemstone,
especially when the Tanzanian government took over the mines in the 1980s. They
lost control of the tanzanite mining area in the late 1980s when tens of thousands of
illegal, independent miners appeared, which led to total anarchy, murder and a glut
of tanzanite on the world market. By the early 1990s, tanzanite was gaining popularity
as a coloured gemstone in the United States and the Tanzanian government took
control of the mines again, by dividing the mining area into four blocks and leasing

3from www.palagems.com

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5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

the mining rights to private companies. Barot and Boehm (1992) report that in 1991,
7,000 local people worked at the mines, down from 35,000 during the anarchy years
in the late 1980s. It wasn’t until the late 1990s that some semblance of organized
mining and marketing efforts took place, with the entry of the African Gem Resources
Company (AFGEM) into the business of tanzanite mining and marketing. The
company has persevered during tumultuous times including continued unrest from
neighbouring miners, a story linking tanzanite mining to terrorism, and development
of the Tucson Tanzanite Protocol.

Tanzanite market
Tanzanite has gained considerable recognition and popularity in the United
States, and is starting to make a significant impression in the more conservative
Canadian jewellery market. The highest prices are paid for intense blue tanzanite
gemstones. Tanzanite crystals of enormous size and excellent clarity can be mined,
therefore most good quality tanzanite is eye-clean. Almost all tanzanite is heat-
treated at approximately 500ºC, which converts the brown pleochroic colour to
blue. Tanzanite prices tend to fluctuate wildly, largely due to irregular production

Tanzanite mining and AFGEM

The African Gem Resources company accounted for 61% of total revenue. Sale detailed pre-feasibility studies, a 15 year
(or AFGEM) was formed in the late of polished tanzanite makes up 39% of mine life. It was the miners’ view that
1990s in order to mine and promote AFGEMS total revenue with more than government should cancel the company’s
the gemstone tanzanite. The company 80% of the polished gems sold in South license in order to preserve the tanzanite
raised funds for the acquisition of Africa to tourists. resource for future generations. AFGEM
mining blocks and then listed on the In December, 2003, AFGEM took the view that although tanzanite has
Johannesburg Stock Exchange. AFGEM announced that it will sell its Tanzanite been mined for 33 years from Tanzania,
promotes itself as one of the first business for 158 million rand (about Tanzania has seen no benefits, no formal
vertically integrated coloured $25 million) to a group called Tanzanite employment, no investment of capital
gemstone companies; in other words One. Tanzanite One will list on the or re-investment of profits, no foreign
AFGEM conducts the exploration, Alternative Investment Market of the exchange earnings and no value-added
mining, beneficiation and marketing London Stock Exchange as well as the industry.
of tanzanite. A key component of Dar es Salaam Stock Exchange, which There have been several bloody
AFGEM’s marketing strategy, through its should provide better access to capital. confrontations, where the local miners
‘Tanzanite Foundation,’ was development When AFGEM was awarded the literally tried to invade the AFGEM
of a branding strategy for tanzanite right to mine its tanzanite block in the mining blocks, either on surface or
in order to develop new markets and late 1990s, local small scale miners of by tunneling underground onto the
promote the product by ensuring a tanzanite from the neighbouring block AFGEM block. There have been several
regular supply of material, supporting objected. They were particularly incensed horrific incidents involving cave-ins and
downstream demand and building brand at the ‘branding’ of tanzanite and did flooding at the tanzanite mine; these
awareness among customers. not want AFGEM to advertise that they accidents have all taken place on the
AFGEM claims the market for were the only producer of tanzanite. The unregulated blocks mined by the local
tanzanite is $100 million per year; Tanzanian government also took this people. Things came to a head when the
other estimates place the market view; that they wanted to advertise local miners and dealers sued AFGEM,
at $200 million. During the six tanzanite as a Tanzanian resource however, the Court in Tanzania handed
months from Jan to Sept., 2003, and not the product of an individual down an unaminous decision to dismiss
AFGEM produced 812,526 carats of company. The miners did not like the the lawsuit with costs.
tanzanite. The sale of rough tanzanite fact that AFGEM claimed, based on

108
 5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite
Tsavorite garnet vs from the mines. For extremely fine stones of less than 50 carats, prices can reach up
emerald to $1,000 per carat. Tanzanite is not particularly well suited for everyday wear in a
Both gems are formed under ring; it is sensitive to thermal shock and susceptible to cleavage breakage. Tanzanite
conditions of great stress, and jewellery should not be exposed to extreme temperature changes or to many
are seldom found in sizes large bumps. It can also be affected by hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid. Tanzanite
enough to cut clean stones above jewellery should be cleaned using warm, soapy water. Ultrasonic cleaners and steam
two or three carats. Tsavorite is cleaners should never be used.
extremely rare, much rarer than
emerald. Tsavorite sells for about
1/4 the price of emerald, is more PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
brilliant due to a higher refractive
index (1.74 vs. 1.596) and is Tsavorite garnet
harder than an emerald. Finally, Tsavorite is the name given to the gem variety of the mineral species ‘grossular
almost all emeralds are oiled. garnet.’ The garnet group is composed of structurally and chemically related mineral
Tsavorite is not usually treated species that crystallize in the isometric crystal system. The most important garnet
in any manner to enhance its species and their ideal chemical compositions are given below:
appearance.
Pyrope Mg3Al2(SiO4)3

Almandine Fe3Al2(SiO4)3

Spessartine Mn3Al2(SiO4)3

Grossular Ca3Al2(SiO4)3

Andradite Ca3Fe2Si3O12

Uvarovite Ca3Cr2Si3O12

There is usually some mixing between the garnet species; for instance, the beautiful
rose-red ‘rhodolite’ garnet found in Tanzania is a mixture of pyrope and almandine.

Grossular garnets, the calcium aluminum garnet species, can be colourless, yellow,
orange, brown or green. The common name for yellow, orange or brown transparent
grossular garnet is ‘hessonite’ or ‘cinnamon stone’ as it is often called. This beautiful
gemstone is found in Canada at the Jeffrey Mine in Quebec and in Sri Lanka.

The ‘Heart of the Ocean’ necklace

from the Titanic
The popularity of tanzanite soared in 1997
when the movie Titanic was released. Actress
Kate Winslet wore the famous ‘Heart of the
Ocean’ necklace, featuring a large, heart-
shaped tanzanite surrounded by diamonds.
This gorgeous necklace was dramatically hurled
into the Atlantic Ocean at the end of the
movie. The necklace centrepiece was originally
supposed to be a blue sapphire, however, movie
producers preferred the look of tanzanite.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 109
5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

Pure grossular garnet is colourless. When both vanadium and chromium are present,
with the V2O3:Cr2O3 ratio greater than 1:1, then a pure, vivid green colour results
(Manson and Stockton, 1982). Light green tsavorite crystals contain 0.1% vanadium,
and dark green tsavorite crystals contain up to 1.5% vanadium (Keller, 1992). It is
reported that some vivid green grossular garnets, for instance those found at the
Jeffrey Mine in Quebec, are coloured mainly by Cr2O3 (Wright and Grice, 1982).

Well crystallized tsavorite crystals are very rare; most gem rough is as shards,
fragments and pieces broken off from the potato-like nodules from which they
formed. Faceted tsavorite crystals of three carats or more are very rare. Spectacular
well formed tsavorite crystals were found, interestingly enough, at the Tanzanite
deposit in the Merelani Hills area. The crystals are described in detail by Kane et al.
(1990).

Physical and chemical characteristics of tsavorite garnet are given in Table 5.2.

Well formed tsavorite crystals fluoresce moderate to dull chalky orange under
longwave ultraviolet light.

Tanzanite
Tanzanite is the popular name given to transparent blue zoisite. Zoisite, an
orthorhombic polymorph of clinozoisite, is a species of the epidote group. Tanzanite
tends to form bladed, edge-shaped crystals (Figure 5.1). Vanadium is responsible for
the violet-blue colour of tanzanite. It substitutes for aluminum in the zoisite crystal
structure. There are minor amounts of chromium present. The physical and chemical
characteristics of tanzanite are given in Table 5.3.

Tanzanite crystals can grow very large. A 2,500-carat rough crystal was found in
the late 1960s (Keller, 1992). Barot and Boehm (1992) note that faceted violet-blue
tanzanite crystals tend to be flawless, because most inclusions that could fracture the
stones during heat treatment are removed during the cutting process.

In its natural form, most ‘mine-run’ tanzanite crystals are greyish brown, greyish
purple, brownish purple, bluish and greenish brown. After heat treatment for two

Table 5.2. Physical and chemical Chemical Ca3Al2 (SiO4) 3

characteristics of tsavorite garnet. formula Member of garnet family – calcium-aluminum silicate
Crystal system Cubic
Habit Well formed crystals are exceedingly rare.
Kane et al. (1990) measured eight different crystallographic forms, including one
unique to the garnet group
Colour Light to deep green
Hardness 7 to 7.5
Fracture Subconchoidal to uneven fracture, no cleavage
Cleavage
Parting
Specific gravity 3.57 to 3.67
Pleochroism None
Fluorescence Well formed crystals fluoresce moderate to dull chalky orange under longwave
ultraviolet light

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 5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

Table 5.3. Physical and chemical Chemical Ca2Al2 (SiO4) 3 (OH)

characteristics of tanzanite. formula Zoisite belongs to the epidote group of minerals
Crystal system Orthorhombic
Habit Crystals are generally well formed.
Bladed, wedge-shaped
Colour Greyish brown, greyish purple, brownish purple/blue
Hardness 6 to 7
Fracture One good cleavage
Cleavage
Parting
Specific gravity 3.35 to 3.55
Pleochroism Very strongly trichroic: blue, purple-red and green-yellow to brown
Fluorescence Inert

hours at 320˚C or higher, the undesirable yellow-green-brown colour is driven off,

leaving a pretty violet-blue colour.

Transparent green zoisite has been discovered recently in the tanzanite mines at
Merelani, Tanzania. Its colour is caused by chromium and minor vanadium. Barot and
Boehm (1992) report that local miners call the stone ‘Combat,’ because it resembles
the green of some military uniforms.

Tanzanite is strongly trichroic. This means that it will show a different colour
depending on which direction it is viewed from. The three colours are sapphire blue,
purple-red to red, and green-yellow to brown.

Figure 5.1. Tanzanite crystals.

Modified from Hurlburt (1969).

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 111
5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF TSAVORITE GARNET AND

TANZANITE
Tsavorite garnet
Tsavorite rarely occurs as well formed crystals but instead forms rounded ‘potato’
nodules which are typically fractured, thereby reducing the amount of facetable
material. In placer concentrate, tsavorite would probably show up as small, rounded
green stones. The colour of green can be very pale to vivid emerald green, grading to
a yellowish green. The green is vivid; it is very distinctive. Many Canadian geologists
are familiar now or have at least seen some samples of chrome diopside; tsavorite is
this shade of green, but is usually lighter in tone and slightly more yellowish. Kane
et al. (1990) report that well formed tsavorite crystals from Tanzania fluoresce
moderate to low dull chalky orange under longwave.

Tanzanite
In its rough form, tanzanite can resemble clear, slightly smoky or greyish quartz or
topaz and shows about the same hardness. The bladed crystal form of tanzanite
might be apparent, as opposed to the hexagonal crystal form of quartz. A piece
of transparent tanzanite rough held up to sunlight and rotated will show a distinct
colour change, depending on which direction the stone is viewed from. This is
because tanzanite is so strongly pleochroic. Transparent quartz held up to the sun
and rotated will not show a colour change.

GEOLOGY OF TSAVORITE GARNET AND TANZANITE DEPOSITS

Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite are found within the Mozambique Orogenic Belt. The
tectonic setting of gemstone mineralization in the Mozambique Orogenic Belt is
described by Malisa and Muhongo (1990). The physical and chemical controls on
tsavorite formation are described by Key and Hill (1989), Suwa et al. (1979) and Key
and Ochieng (1991). Keller (1992) provides a summary of the geology and mining
of East African gem deposits. A firsthand account of the discovery and mining of
tsavorite is given by Bridges (1982). The following descriptions of regional and deposit
geology are taken from these sources.

Tsavorite and tanzanite deposits in East Africa are hosted in the great Proterozoic
Mozambique Orogenic Belt, which trends north-south through Kenya and Tanzania
(Figure 3.4). The Mozambique Orogenic Belt also hosts many other types of gem
deposits, most notably the ruby deposits at Mangari described in Chapter 3. The
portion of the Mozambique Orogenic Belt which hosts the tsavorite and tanzanite
deposits is a unique succession of thick marbles and major graphitic units, which
represent altered marine continental shelf deposits laid down over 800 million years
ago. Subsequent collision-related deformation resulted in folding and thrusting
accompanied by high-grade metamorphism. An additional metamorphic event
proceeded subsequent to upright folding and finally, the last thermal event, the Pan-
African Orogeny took place about 500 million years ago.

112
 5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

Geology and genesis of tsavorite garnet deposits

The most significant tsavorite deposits to date are hosted in the upper portions of
the Durase Group, in the Lualenyi Member of the Mgama-Mindi Formation. The
Durase Group is overlain by a thick monotonous sequence of quartz-feldspar gneiss
interbedded with epidote amphibolites. The Mgama-Mindi Formation consists
of orthogneiss, paragneiss, mica schist, kyanite schist, graphite schist and lesser
quartzite, calc-silicate rock and marble.

Tsavorite garnet deposits are confined to where graphitic schists or gneisses are
interbedded with or immediately adjacent to marble. The marble is dolomitic, coarse-
medium grained, white to grey and commonly forms resistant high ridges on the
flat grasslands. Accessory quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, diopside and grossularite
are present in addition to disseminated graphite. The graphitic schists and gneisses
are less abundant than the marble, and consist of quartz, alkali feldspar, biotite and
graphite with accessory sillimanite, epidote, allanite, sphene, zircon, apatite, hematite
and magnetite. The interbedded graphitic units and the marble have been folded
and overturned. The graphitic gneisses are interlayered with schists and 10-cm to
2-m-thick marble bands. The rocks have undergone two metamorphic events, the
first to the kyanite-almandine-muscovite subfacies of the amphibolite facies, and
the second to the sillimanite-muscovite subfacies of the amphibolite facies. A third
retrograde metamorphic event was of upper greenschist facies.

Bridges (1982) describes the mode of occurrence of tsavorite. Tsavorite is associated

with gypsum in a thrust-fault plane within a graphite-gneiss horizon and overlain,
at a distance of about 15 m, by marble. In other deposits, the marble will be in the
immediate hanging wall of the ‘ore shoot.’ Tsavorite occurs as randomly distributed
nodules, or ‘potatoes,’ averaging 5 cm in diameter. The nodules are commonly
rimmed by a narrow green shell of microcrystalline scapolite, epidote, quartz,
clinopyroxene and spinel. The crests and troughs of folds are the most favourable
sites for tsavorite deposition. Bridges (1982) reports that fragments of green garnet
are sometimes found in the surface dirt or in antheaps. Arid conditions preclude
any placer alluvial deposits; most elluvial crystals are found by hand-jigging and
sorting. The ore shoots are opened by removing the hanging wall or footwall with
picks, shovels, jackhammers, and, rarely, blasting. The green garnet nodules are
extracted using a six inch nail and small chisel and hammer. As they are chipped out,
the valuable green fragments are caught in a spoon.

The graphitic schists and gneisses are enriched in vanadium. Key and Hill (1989)
report that the graphite is derived from bituminous black shales, in which vanadium
preferentially concentrates. They suggest that the great extent of graphitic gneisses
within the Mozambique Orogenic Belt indicates a major phase of organic seabed
activity during the Late Proterozoic. The vanadium content of graphitic gneisses is
shown in Table 5.4.

Vanadium is relatively immobile during high-grade metamorphism (Key and Hill,

1989), so it would have remained in the original host rock to enter new metamorphic
assemblages. Marble provided calcium, gneiss provided aluminum, and silicon came
from feldspar and quartz. As mentioned above, vanadium was supplied by graphite
derived from carbon-rich shales. Keller (1992) reports that upper amphibolite facies
conditions for tsavorite garnet formation were suggested by Pohl and Niedermayr
(1978). More recently, work by Key and Hill (1989) on the role of CO2 in garnet

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 113
5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

Table 5.4. Vanadium, chromium Locality V Cr TiO2

and titanium dioxide contents (ppm) (ppm) (wt %)
of graphitic gneisses from the KENYA
Mozambique Orogenic Belt of Lualenyi 1259 732 0.78
East Africa, from Key and Ochieng Ol Doinyo Ng’iro: low grade 748 284 1.41
(1989). Ol Doinyo Ng’iro: high grade 1697 331 2.02
Taita Hills 1052 985 0.82
TANZANIA
Morogoro 249 91 2.19
Merelani 446 72 1.31
Madini Pit 934 79 1.31
Daluni 680 219 1.10
MALAWI
Katengeza 630 718 2.12
Lumbadzi River 588 1015 1.09
Lobi Pit 1902 701 3.37
ZIMBABWE
Lynx Mine 239 152 0.29

crystallization suggests that granulite facies conditions were necessary for tsavorite
garnet formation, where temperatures exceeded 750 degrees and pressures
exceeded 5 kilobars. They note that geologically suitable areas which show only
upper amphibolite facies metamorphism lack tsavorite deposits.

Geology and genesis of tanzanite deposits

The world’s most significant tanzanite deposit, near Merelani in Tanzania, is situated
in the crest of an anticlinal fold. The host rocks are the same sequence of 2.0 to
1.8-billion-year-old interbedded kyanite-sillimanite-biotite-graphitic gneisses and
marbles that host the tsavorite deposits. Tanzanite crystals are found in the cavities
or at the margins of boudinaged quartz veins which have developed in the fold
hinge. Hydrothermally altered wallrock associated with tanzanite precipitation varies
from 0.5 to 6 m wide and extends at least 9 km in length. The alteration assemblage
consists of bytownite-grossular-diopside-zoisite.

Tanzanite, like tsavorite garnet, occurs in fault zones within interbedded graphitic
gneisses and marbles. Tanzanite crystals have been dated at 585 million years (Naeser
and Saul, 1974), about the time of massive pegmatite intrusion and the Pan-African
event. Although some authors (Naeser and Saul, 1974) suggested that tanzanite
mineralization was related to pegmatite intrusion, Malisa and Muhongo (1990)
suggest that the tanzanite deposit formed after intrusion of the pegmatites during
the final phase of the Pan-African orogenic event. Heated groundwater circulated
through the metamorphosed and folded pile and accumulated vanadium, chromium
and other chromophores. Tanzanite preferentially precipitated from hot hydrothermal
fluids in the fold crests and along fold hinges. The distinctive-looking alteration
zone represents the dissolution of the gneisses and marbles by hot hydrothermal
fluids. The name ‘merelanite’ has been given to the bytownite-grossular-diopside-

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 5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

zoisite assemblage. Tanzanite formed at temperatures less than 500°C and pressures
of less than 2 kilobars.

Other gem minerals including tsavorite, chrome diopside and chrome tourmaline are
associated with tanzanite at Merelani. Tanzanite also occurs as alteration shells on
tsavorite ‘nodules’ in some southern Kenya tsavorite mines (Keller, 1992).

Barot and Boehm (1992) report that at least one portion of the Merelani deposit
appears to be zoned. Miners report finding rare, green transparent zoisite crystals
in the deep parts of the mine. Barot and Boehm (1992) suggest that the chromium-
bearing green zoisite crystals formed under the same geological conditions as the
vanadium-bearing violet-blue variety, but under deeper, hotter conditions. Yellowish
or blue-green transparent zoisite forms in the transition zone.

It is interesting to note that the most well formed tsavorite garnet crystals ever found
were discovered in the eastern block (Karo Pit) of the Merelani tanzanite deposit
(Kane et al., 1990).

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR TSAVORITE AND TANZANITE

DEPOSITS
Like the emerald deposits in Colombia, the tsavorite garnet and tanzanite deposits
in East Africa are unique, to date, in the world. It is difficult to predict how variable
the conditions of formation may be for gemstone deposition when there is only one
deposit to study. Even though high-grade metamorphic conditions are required for
tsavorite garnets to form in East Africa, perhaps in other parts of the world variation
in rock chemistry or some other feature will change the metamorphic grade required.

Controls on tsavorite garnet formation were first listed by Pohl and Neidermayr
(1978) and expanded upon by Key and Hill (1989) and Key and Ochieng (1991). Most
of the controls can also apply to tanzanite formation. The only difference is that
tanzanite precipitated from hydrothermal fluids rather than through regional
metamorphism. The exploration criteria for tsavorite garnet and tanzanite are as
follows:

Host rocks
The target host rock is marble interbedded with graphitic schist or gneiss where the
graphite is derived from bituminous black shales.

Graphitic gneisses are targets for ground and airborne electromagnetic surveys. In
Kenya, enhancement of high-resolution satellite images is used to locate concealed
graphitic gneiss/marble since the marbles have distinct spectral signatures (Key and
Ochieng, 1991).

Metamorphic grade
Tsavorite garnets grew under granulite facies metamorphism conditions at
temperatures of about 750°C and 5 kilobars. Key and Ochieng (1991) suggest that
tsavorite will not grow when the metamorphic conditions are only upper amphibolite
grade.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 115
5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

Tanzanite crystals precipitate from hot, vanadium-rich hydrothermal fluids, therefore

one would suspect that the actual metamorphic grade of the host rocks is not as
critical.

Geochemistry
Graphitic gneisses in East Africa are enriched in vanadium (up to 1697 ppm). Key
and Ochieng (1991) list comparison values of 56 ppm for U.S.A. surficial deposits and
59 ppm vanadium for Canadian shield rocks. Vanadium is the colouring agent for
both tsavorite garnet and tanzanite.

The anomalously high vanadium and chromium content of the graphitic gneisses are
a target for soil/stream sediment geochemical exploration programs.

Structure
Mineralized rock is concentrated in intensely folded and faulted sequences of
interbedded marbles and graphitic gneisses. Tsavorite garnet, tanzanite, and other
vanadium- and chromium-rich gemstones will preferentially form ‘nodules’ and
crystals in the nose and hinges of the fold.

A discussion of specific prospecting methods for tanzanite and tsavorite deposits is

given in the paper by Simonet and Okundi (2003). This is one of the few ‘nuts and
bolts’ papers on how to use various sophisticated geophysical and geochemical
prospecting techniques to explore for coloured gemstone deposits. Besides the
criteria listed above, Simonet and Okundi (2003) point out that graphite gneisses,
when enriched in uranium, may be associated with high radioactivity, and in any
case if they have cohesive graphite content, they may have a relatively low resistivity
and generate self-potential anomalies. Tsavorite deposits tend to be small, with a
width of 0.1 to 2 m extending 10 m to a few 100s m in depth (Table 3.9), so any grid
sampling would have to be done on a very small (metre) scale. Surficial geology is
important, since a thick soil cover can mask a geophysical response. The self-potential
geophysical method has been tested in Kenya to delineate graphite-bearing units,
however, this method was ineffective because the individual graphite flakes within
the gneisses were not always interconnected and there was sensitivity to lateral
variations in the degree of alteration of sulphide minerals.

In summary, a suitable target area for deposits of tsavorite and tanzanite is a

highly deformed sequence of high-grade marbles and graphitic gneisses which is
anomalous in vanadium, and, possibly, chromium.

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 5. Tsavorite garnet and tanzanite

REFERENCES
Barot, N.R. and Boehm, E.W., 1992. Gem quality green zoisite. Gems and Gemology,
vol. 28, no. 1, p. 4–15.

Bridges, C.R., 1982. Gemstones of East Africa. In: Proceedings of the International
Gemological Symposium 1982, D.M. Eash (ed.), p. 263–275.

Gubelin, E.J. and Weibel, M., 1975. Green vanadium grossular garnet from Lualenyi, near
Voi, Kenya. Lapidary Journal, vol. 29, p. 402–414 and 424–426.

Hurlburt, C.S., Jr., 1969. Gem zoisite from Tanzania. American Mineralogist., vol. 54,
p. 702–709.

Kane, R.E., Kampf, A.R. and Krupp, H., 1990. Well formed tsavorite gem crystals from
Tanzania. Gems and Gemology, vol. 26, p. 142–148.

Keller, P.C., 1992. Gemstones of East Africa. Geoscience Press, Phoenix, Arizona, U.S.A.,
144 p.

Key, R.M. and Hill, P.G., 1989. Further evidence for the controls on the growth of vanadium
grossular garnets in Kenya. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 21, no. 7, p. 412–422.

Key, R.M. and Ochieng, J.O., 1991. Ruby and garnet gemstone deposits in southeast
Kenya: their genesis and recommendations for exploration. In: African Mining 91, Harare,
June 10–12, 1991, Elsevier Science Publishers, Barking, Essex, p. 121–127.

Malisa, E. and Muhongo, S., 1990. Tectonic setting of gemstone mineralization in the
Proterozoic metamorphic terrane of the Mozambique Belt in Tanzania. Precambrian
Research, vol. 46, p. 167–176.

Manson, D.V. and Stockton, C.M., 1982. Gem-quality grossular garnets. Gems and
Gemology, vol. 18, no. 4, p. 204–213.

Naeser, C.W. and Saul, J.M., 1974. Fission track dating of Tanzanite. American
Mineralogist, vol. 59, p. 613–614.

Pohl, W. and Niedermayr, G., 1978. Geology of the Mwatate quadrangle (sheet 195/2) and
the vanadium grossularite deposits of the area. Kenya-Austria Mineral Exploration Project
1975–1978. Kenya: Ministry of Natural Resources.

Simonet, C. and Okundi, S., 2003. Prospecting methods for coloured gemstone deposits
in Kenya. African Journal of Science and Technology, Science and Engineering Series,
vol. 4, no. 1, p. 44–55.

Suwa, K., Suzuki, K., Miyakawa, K. and Agata, T., 1979. Vanadian and vanadium
grossulars from the Mozambique metamorphic rocks, Mgama Ridge, Kenya. 4th
Preliminary Report, African Studies, Nagoya University, p. 87–96.

Wright, W., Grice, J.D., 1982. Grossular garnet from the Jeffrey Mine, Asbestos, Quebec,
Canada. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 18, no. 2, p. 126–130.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 117
118
 6. CHRYSOBERYL

INTRODUCTION
Chrysoberyl is a greenish yellow transparent gemstone of great hardness and
durability that is named after the Greek world ‘krisos’ for golden and ‘beryllos’ for
beryl. Chrysoberyl is a beryllium-aluminum oxide mineral that is genetically related
to emerald in many deposits, so the two gems are often found together. Two well
known rare and very expensive varieties of chrysoberyl — alexandrite and cat’s-eye
— display unusual optical effects. ‘Plain’ chrysoberyl, alexandrite and cat’s-eye are all
beautiful gemstones, but the rarity of alexandrite and cat’s-eyes, in particular, make
them among the world’s most sought after gemstones.

The story of alexandrite, the most valuable and rare variety of chrysoberyl, goes
back to the beginning of the 19th century to Imperial Russia. At that time, as
described in Bancroft (1984), the Siberian city of Ekaterinburg, founded in 1723 by
Tzar Peter the Great and named after his amorous wife, Catherine, was the historical
and economic centre of the Ural Mountains. The lapidary factories at Ekaterinburg
were already reknowned for their work in the lapidary arts and stonecutting. Two
events in the early 1800s further promoted the remote city: the discovery of large
amounts of placer gold in the Urals, and the discovery of emeralds in the roots of an
upturned tree, which led to the opening of the first emerald mine in 1831. Shortly
after the emerald mines opened, a wonderful new gemstone that changed colour
from green in daylight to red under artificial light was identified and duly named
‘alexandrite’ after the heir apparent to the Russian Throne at the time, soon to
become Tzar Alexander I. Red and green, the two colours of the new gemstone
were also the colour of the Russian Imperial Guard. The exciting new gem became a
sensation in the Imperial Russian Court. It was decreed by the Tzar that the imperial
lapidary in Ekaterinburg receive nothing but the best gem material to work with,
including quality pieces from the treasure trove of emerald, chrysoberyl, alexandrite,
aquamarine and blue topaz available in the Ekaterinburg area. Sadly, the substance of
the Romanov regime could not keep pace with the splendor, and the end of Imperial
Russian rule came on June 16, 1918 at Ipatiev House in Ekaterinburg, when Tzar
Nicolas Romanov II and his family were murdered by the Bolsheviks.

Alexandrite is the variety of chrysoberyl which shows a mysterious change of

colour effect. The finest examples of this exotic gem approach emerald green in
daylight and raspberry red in incandescent light. Cat’s-eye, or cymophane (from
Greek meaning ‘wavelike’) as it is also called, is the other well known variety of
chrysoberyl. This unusual gemstone is considered to be the most beautiful of all
gemstones which show a chatoyant ‘cat’s-eye’ effect. Chrysoberyl is an extremely
hard and durable gemstone, so in its cat’s-eye form, it takes an excellent polish. The

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 119
6 . Chrysoberyl

silvery colour of the eye, paired with the honey colour of the stone, is a striking
combination. Cat’s-eye chrysoberyl is popular with Japanese men who like to display
this gem in rings, cuff-links and tie-tacks.

The remote mines in the Urals produced some of the best alexandrite crystals in the
world. Competition arrived in 1986, at least for a short while, with a spectacular strike
of alexandrite in Brazil which produced alexandrite crystals of a quality to rival that
of the best Russian material. Other sources of alexandrite in the world today include
Sri Lanka, Zimbabwe, Burma, Tanzania, Madagascar, India and Brazil. There are four
recorded occurrences of alexandrite in Australia; the one near Dowerin has been
reported on by Downes and Bevan, 2002. In most recent years, much of the world’s
alexandrite has come from Tanzania and Madagascar. Unusual ‘blue’ alexandrites,
where the colour range is more blue-green than green in daylight, has been
described from Brazil, Tunduru, Tanzania and Madagascar.

Alexandrites and cymophane are two of the most expensive gemstones in the
world. A top-quality, one-carat alexandrite from Brazil or Russia can cost from $3,000
to $10,000. The Pala Gem International1 website offers a fine, 1.89-carat Russian
alexandrite, cushion cut, for $18,144. Fine cat’s-eyes will cost between $2,500 and
$5,000 per carat. A splendid transparent greenish yellow chrysoberyl will cost
between $400 and $800 per carat.

Richard Hughes of Pala Gem International provides a good summary of what to

look for when buying alexandrite. The distinct colour change is the most important
characteristic of alexandrite; the purer the red and green colour, without any brown
or grey tones, the more valuable it is. Faceted alexandrites without any flaws are
exceedingly rare in sizes over one carat. Chrysoberyl and its varieties are not usually
subject to treatment like oiling, heat-treating, dying or other enhancement before
entering the global gem market.

The author has noticed, partly due to the stone being featured on home-shopping TV
networks, a profusion of synthetic alexandrite, or synthetic colour-change corundum
Figure 6.1. Chrysoberyl crystal. in jewellery, which is sometimes misrepresented or misinterpreted to be natural
Modifed after Hurlburt and Klein alexandrite. Synthetic colour-change sapphires have been around since the early
(1977). 1900s and are fairly common in antique jewellery or family heirloom jewellery.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Chrysoberyl, an orthorhombic beryllium oxide mineral is normally yellow, greenish
yellow or brownish yellow. The yellow, green and brown varieties owe their colour
to Fe3+. Alexandrite is the chromium-bearing variety of chrysoberyl. It is transparent
green in daylight and red under incandescent light. Cat’s-eye is the chatoyant variety
of chrysoberyl which shows a sharp line on a honey golden-brown background.

The physical and chemical characteristics of chrysoberyl are given in Table 6.1.

Chrysoberyl is only rarely found as single untwinned prismatic crystals. It is usually

found as contact twins, penetration twins or pseudo-hexagonal twins. When found
as a contact twin, it generally forms a V-shape. The most sought after chrysoberyl
crystals are complete pseudo-hexagonal twins, termed ‘trillings’ (Figure 6.1).

1www.palagems.com

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 6. Chrysoberyl

Table 6.1. Physical and chemical Chemical BeAl2O4

characteristics of chrysoberyl. formula Beryllium aluminum silicate
Crystal system Orthorhombic
Habit Forms tabular crystals or short prismatic crystals. Commonly twinned – flattened,
thin V-shaped twins or pseudohexagonal multiple-contact and penetration twins.
Colour Chrysoberyl: yellow to yellow-green to brownish yellow
Variety Alexandrite: In daylight is green to blue-green and in incandescent light is
purple to purplish red.
Hardness 8.5
Fracture Uneven to conchoidal fracture.
Cleavage May show three cleavages: distinct, imperfect and poor.
Parting
Specific gravity 3.71 to 3.75
Pleochroism Alexandrite: strongly trichroic, greenish, reddish and yellowish
Chrysoberyl: colourless, pale yellow, greenish yellow
Fluorescence Usually inert, alexandrite may glow faint red

The remarkable colour-change effect that defines alexandrite is caused by trace

amounts of Cr3+ replacing Al3+ in the chrysoberyl structure. Chromium affects the
absorption and transmission of light through the stone. Daylight is richer in the
blue-green part of the spectrum, whereas artificial light is richer in red. The strong
pleochroism of alexandrite enhances the colour change.

The precise ‘eye’ in the cat’s-eye variety is caused by the reflection of light from very
fine, densely packed fibrous inclusions in a crisp line along the dome top of a stone
when cut into a cabochon.

Chrysoberyl is trichroic, meaning that it shows three pleochroic colours. Yellow

chrysoberyl shows colourless, pale yellow and greenish yellow pleochroic
colour. Alexandrite shows green, yellowish and red.

Common yellow-green chrysoberyl shows little or no reaction under ultraviolet

light. Alexandrite shows a weak red glow under longwave and shortwave light.

FIELD IDENTIFICATION OF CHRYSOBERYL

Chrysoberyl is not the easiest gem to recognize in the field, and it may go
unrecognized, especially in pegmatites. The ‘V-shape’ characteristic of chrysoberyl
twins is diagnostic, as is the ‘trilling’ twin form. In addition, the strong trichroic
pleochroism is very diagnostic, especially for alexandrite. Chrysoberyl which will
show a cat’s-eye has a silky lustre.

Most gem chrysoberyl is generally found as waterworn crystals. It is an extremely

hard and resistant mineral. Cassedanne and Roditi (1993) provide excellent
descriptions of the appearance of chrysoberyl in both primary and alluvial
deposits. They note that in alluvium, chrysoberyl occurs as rounded or subrounded
grains, chips and variably sized fragments, commonly long or wide with right-angled
or sub-square section, or else platy, with longitudinal grooves upon the larger

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 121
6 . Chrysoberyl

faces. As mentioned earlier, twins are common, mostly V-shaped formed by two
prisms or flat crystals.

Cook (1999) and Jacobson (1982) provide good summaries of localities in the United
States, Canada and world-wide that have produced nice specimens of chrysoberyl,
not necessarily gem-grade, but with good crystal form. It should be noted that
unlike corundum or beryl, chrysoberyl has no industrial importance, except as a gem
material and as specimens for mineral collectors.

GEOLOGY OF CHRYSOBERYL DEPOSITS

Chrysoberyl is a rare mineral found in granitic rocks, pegmatites, and mica
schists. Research on physico-chemical controls of chrysoberyl, alexandrite and cat’s-
eye mineralization is scarce. Soman and Nair (1985) and Soman et al. (1986) describe
the genesis of chrysoberyl in the pegmatites of southern India. Franz and Morteani
(1984) presented experimental data supporting their hypothesis that chrysoberyl
formation in certain pegmatites was due to post-intrusion metamorphism. The
role of beryllium and fluorine in gemstone mineralization in Sri Lanka was studied
by Rupasinghe et al. (1984). Descriptions of chrysoberyl, alexandrite and cat’s-eye
deposits in Brazil are provided by Proctor (1988) and Cassedanne and Roditi (1993). A
mention of chrysoberyl-alexandrite from Zimbabwe is given in Brown and Kelly
(1984). Martin-Izard et al. (1995) studied an occurrence of alexandrite, emerald and
phenakite associated with metasomatism at a granitic pegmatite-dunite contact zone
at Franqueira, Spain. Marcos-Pascual and Moreiras (1997) compared the Franqueira
occurrence to an occurrence of alexandrite, emerald and phenakite in the Ural
Mountains, Russia. Chyrsoberyl is discussed in several papers in the Mineralogical
Society of American volume on Beryllium (Grew, 2002; Barton et al., 2002; Černý,
2002).

The genesis of gem chrysoberyl deposits is poorly understood because many

of the world’s great deposits of these gems are in Brazil and Sri Lanka where the
primary chrysoberyl deposits have completely decomposed. In fact, Cassedanne
and Roditi (1993) provide an excellent description of the occurrences and report that
all chrysoberyl production from Brazil is from detrital deposits. The heavy minerals
associated with chrysoberyl, alexandrite and cat’s-eye from detrital deposits in Brazil
are amethyst, aquamarine, garnet, smoky quartz, topaz and tourmaline and lesser
amounts of andalusite, rose quartz, moonstone, rutile, sapphire and zircon.

Chrysoberyl is relatively widespread in pegmatites, but much less so than

beryl. Chrysoberyl tends to form within pegmatites, at a higher temperature than
beryl, but then reacts with K-feldspar to form beryl + muscovite at decreasing
temperature and increasing water, which accounts for its scarcity. After chrysoberyl
forms, either within a pegmatite or by intrusion of beryllium-bearing pegmatites
into ultramafic host rocks, metamorphic or tectonometamorphic events can have an
effect on consolidated pegmatite bodies by promoting the breakdown of beryl into
chrysoberyl-bearing assemblages. Grew (2002) describes the role that metamorphic
processes can play with beryllium-bearing minerals, including chrysoberyl. He points
out that during metamorphism, beryllium can be accommodated in common rock-
forming minerals, so formation of beryl and chrysoberyl is relatively rare. Franz and
Morteani (2002) describe how a metamorphic overprint is important for formation of
chrysoberyl. There is a transition between emerald and chrysoberyl mineralization

122
 6. Chrysoberyl

related to metamorphism as opposed to metasomatism. Most emerald and

alexandrite deposits show the typical appearance of metamorphic pophyryblasts
with a crystal size of less than 2 cm in length, which indicates metamorphic origin. In
addition, pegmatities can be strongly tectonized with original K-feldspar transformed
into albite, which indicates the strong influence of deformation and metasomatism
during emerald formation (Franz and Morteani, 2002).

Deposits of chrysoberyl, alexandrite and cat’s-eye can be divided into three

broad types, however, all three types may be subject to regional metamorphic or
tectonometamorphic events.

1. Chrysoberyl associated with pegmatites intruded into ultramafic rocks.

2. Chrysoberyl associated with pegmatites intruded into aluminum-rich

rocks.

3. Chrysoberyl as a primary mineral of rare-element pegmatites.

CHRYSOBERYL ASSOCIATED WITH PEGMATITES INTRUDED

INTO ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS
Chrysoberyl is associated with other beryllium minerals such as emerald and
phenakite in metasomatic contact zones developed between beryllium-bearing
granitic pegmatites and ultramafic rocks or their metamorphosed equivalents. The
biotite schists associated with this deposit type are important host rocks for
emerald, and details of many of these deposits are described in Chapter 4. The
schematic model for emerald mineralization shown in Figure 4.6 also applies to
chrysoberyl. Černý (2002) discusses the uncertainty in applying the desilicated
pegmatite model to some of the emerald-alexandrite-chrysoberyl deposits in the Ural
Mountains, Russia.

Franqueira emerald-alexandrite-phenakite deposit, Spain

A paper by Martin-Izard et al. (1995) describes geological and geochemical
information on the Franqueira occurrence of chrysoberyl (alexandrite variety),
emerald and phenakite, which is the first documented example of such a deposit
in western Europe. The Franqueira deposit was exposed during road construction
in 1971 when a local school teacher noticed emerald crystals (Calvo and Garcia,
1997). AIexandrite crystals were first noted in 1990. The deposit host rock is dunite
associated with hornblende gabbro which has been intruded and metasomatically
altered by granitic pegmatite. The beryllium content in the pegmatite is 18 ppm
(Martin-Izard et al., 1995; Table 6.2). The dunite is composed mostly of olivine,
some of which is partially serpentinized. Chromite is disseminated through the
dunite. Nickeline, maucherite, pyrrhotite and small quantities of pentlandite,
westerveldite, millerite and chalcopyrite fill cavitites in the dunite. At the contact
between pegmatite and dunite, the dunite has almost completely altered
to phlogopite. Away from the pegmatite contact, the dunite has altered to
tremolite. Immediately surrounding the dunite is a band of orthoamphibole. Simple
zoned pegmatites with aplite borders contain quartz, albite and muscovite with
rare K-feldspar. Apatite, tourmaline and zircon are accessory minerals. Alexandrite,
emerald and phenakite occur in the phlogopite schist marking the metasomatic

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 123
6 . Chrysoberyl

Table 6.2. Representative Altered Marum*

whole-rock compositions, Rocks Pegmatite Phlogopite Tremolite Dunite Dunite Gabbro
Franqueira Suite, from Martin- Wt %
Izard et al. (1995). SiO2 74.8 44.18 56.97 48.22 39.8 47.26
Al2O3 14.48 14.99 4.76 3.07 0.04 21.75
Fe2O3 0.54 9.31 4.86 8.68 7.24 12.57
MgO 0.11 18.28 18.38 30.88 49.93 1.14
CaO 0.33 0.04 10.61 3.61 0.05 12.15
Na2O 5.58 0.28 0.25 1.11 0.00 0.57
K 2O 1.84 10.27 2.03 1.33 0.00 0.52
TiO2 0.01 0.44 0.32 0.12 0.00 0.52
MnO 0.44 0.09 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.24
P2 O 5 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.00 0.21
Cr2O3 0.00 0.21 0.41 0.36 0.42 0.01
Loss on 1.80 1.40 1.10 2.20 2.52 1.90
ignition
ppm
As 5 151 6 1220 No data 10
Ni 10 500 353 1547 2520 12
Cu 2 29 3 4 4 24
Co 5 49 12 69 No data 5
Be 18 9 6 4 No data 20
Li 247 568 173 22 No data 49
Ba 135 1288 161 34 No data 159
Sr 32 41 86 29 0.00 434
La 16 6 19 2 No data 81
Zr 10 21 29 5 No data 396
Y 5 5 5 5 No data 120
Total iron as Fe2O3
*Chemical composition of dunite from the Marum Ophiolite (in Middlemost, 1985) for comparison with
Franqueira altered dunite.

contact zone between the pegmatite and dunite. Accessory minerals are tourmaline,
garnet, apatite and zircon.

The genesis of this deposit, as presented by Martins-Izard et al. (1995), resembles

that of similar emerald-alexandrite deposits in the Urals, Brazil and Zimbabwe. Fluid
inclusion and geochemical data presented by Martin-Izard et al. (1995) suggest that
gemstone formation took place when dunite and hornblende gabbro derived from
obducted ophiolite complexes were intruded by peraluminous heterogeneous
two-mica granites and associated pegmatite bodies. Pegmatite fluids, rich in
beryllium-boron-phosphorus intruded the dunite and flooded the dunite with water,
silicon, aluminum and potassium. In the metasomatic zone closest to the dunite,
orthoamphibole (anthophyllite) and phlogopite crystallized. Tremolite developed
further away from the dunite, incorporating silicon and water introduced from the
pegmatite. The dunite provided the magnesium and chromium necessary to form
anthophyllite, phlogopite and tremolite. Tourmaline, apatite, then the alexandrite
variety of chrysoberyl, and phenakite formed in the metasomatic zone. Emerald,

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 6. Chrysoberyl

the last beryllium mineral to form, partially replaces chrysoberyl and lastly
phenakite. Precipitation of beryllium minerals took place at about 400°C.

Marcos-Pascual and Moreiras (1997) noted the similarity between the Franqueira
alexandrite, emerald and phenakite deposit to similar deposits, such as Tokovaja,
in the Ural Mountains, Russia. Both deposits show the same mineral assemblage of
beryl, chrysoberyl and phenakite and they have similar geology and alteration. The
Tokovaja deposit is much larger and shows more variety of accessory minerals,
whereas the Franqueira deposit is only visible for 15 to 20 m, but may be part of
a larger deposit. Beryllium minerals at both deposits formed in the metasomatic
contact zone between acidic rocks (granites and pegmatites) and ultramafic
rocks such as dunites and gabbros. In both deposits, beryllium, boron and
phosphorus migrated into the more mafic rocks and transformed these rocks into
phlogopite. Gem minerals, including emerald, alexandrite and chrysoberyl, generally
form within the metasomatic contact zone. At the Tokovaja deposit, the metasomatic
contact zone is complex and consists of serpentinite, talc-serpentinite, talc, talc-
chlorite, talc-phlogopite, tremolititic rocks, amphibolites, amphibole-gneisses,
quartzite and others. The mineral assemblage associated with alexandrite at the
Tokovaja deposit consist of phlogopite, phenakite, apatite, tourmaline, beryllium-
margarite, fluorite and some beryl.

Černý (2002) pointed out that there is some ambiguity as to whether the Ural
Mountain emerald-alexandrite deposits are actually derived from regional
metamorphism as opposed to contact metasomatic events.

In Brazil, Cassedanne and Roditi (1993) explain that chrysoberyl and alexandrite from
granitic pegmatites associated with ultramafic rocks are collected as by-product of
emerald mining. In the Serra de Jacobina area which is host to the large Carnaiba
emerald mine, quartz, apatite, biotite, molybdenite, emerald and minor scheelite
and alexandrite are found near the contact of pegmatites intruding a sequence of
quartzite and chromium-rich ultramafic rocks.

CHRYSOBERYL ASSOCIATED WITH PEGMATITES INTRUDING

ALUMINUM-RICH ROCKS
As mentioned earlier, there is uncertainty over to what extent regional
metamorphism, as opposed to metasomatic reations between silica-poor country
rocks and pegmatites, are involved in the formation of chrysoberyl. Franz and
Morteani (1984) suggest that the mineral assemblages in pegmatite samples from
Kolsva, Sweden and Marsikov, Czechoslovakia indicate that chrysoberyl formation is
due to a post-pegmatitic event at high pressure and temperature conditions.

Although gemstones in situ are very rarely found in Sri Lanka, detailed geochemical
surveys have helped determine the character of the source rocks for the many
gemstones found there. Two of the most valuable gemstones, of many, found
in Sri Lanka are corundum and chrysoberyl, including the phenomenal varieties,
alexandrite and cat’s-eye. As mentioned in the corundum chapter, it is believed
that corundum crystals formed during regional granulite-facies metamorphism of
aluminous sedimentary rocks or in the contact zone of aluminum-rich sedimentary
rocks intruded by pegmatites. In Sri Lanka, Rupasinghe et al. (1984) studied the
geochemistry of beryllium and fluorine in the gem fields and determined that

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 125
6 . Chrysoberyl

beryllium-enriched pegmatitic fluids associated with chamockitic magmatism

intruded and reacted with aluminum and silicon in the highly aluminous
metasedimentary country rocks.

The South Kerala area of India is host to a field of chrysoberyl pegmatites derived
from tectonomagmatic activity during early Palaeozoic (Soman and Nair, 1985). The
pegmatites are associated with a niobium anomaly and high thorium and uranium
values. The gem fields of southern India, Madagascar and Sri Lanka may share a
similar provenance, as discussed in the chapter on ruby and sapphire.

At Dowerin, western Australia, emerald, chrysoberyl and rare alexandrite are in

granulite facies gneiss adjacent to the margin of a batholith. The beryllium minerals
are in plagioclase-quartz-biotite-garnet gneiss and cross-cutting tourmaline-
plagioclase veins situated adjacent to lenses of actinolite-cummingtonite-phlogopite
schist. Chrysoberyl formed during granulite-facies metamorphism, where the
beryllium and boron required to form chrysoberyl, beryl and tourmaline may have
been released by metamorphic reactions in host-rock metapelites during prograde
granulite-facies metamorphism (Downes and Bevan, 2003).

CHRYSOBERYL IN RARE-ELEMENT PEGMATITES

Černý (2002) describes the occurrence of beryllium minerals, including chrysoberyl, in
granitic pegmatites. Massive chrysoberyl is present in what he terms ‘run of the mill,’
moderately differentiated, relatively high temperature pegmatites, such as those in
the Black Hills of South Dakota.

Cassedanne and Roditi (1993) provide an excellent review of chrysoberyl in

Brazil contained within pegmatites not obviously associated with any nearby
ultramafic rock. The pegmatites intrude granite, gneiss and mica schists. In
some cases, the chrysoberyls recovered were the rare and highly sought-after
trilling twins. Cassedanne and Roditi (1993) commented on the scarcity of known
chrysoberyl deposits in situ, especially in light of the fact that chrysoberyl is so widely
distributed as a detrital gemstone in Brazil. They confirmed that chrysoberyl does not
coexist with aquamarine in Brazilian pegmatite deposits, but instead is found close to
the base of the aquamarine-bearing pegmatite zones. Chrysoberyl occurs in quartz
veins with feldspar and mica and in thin pegmatite veins. The pegmatite veins, being
characteristically thin, look uninteresting and uneconomic at first glance.

OTHER
The Masters thesis of G.A. Rock2 describes physico-chemical controls on alexandrite
formation where granitic rocks have intruded a metasedimentary sequence. Analyses
of samples collected from the Golden Mountain Granitic Massif indicate that
alexandrite formed at amphibolite facies conditions at temperatures of 450 to
550°C and pressures of 4.1 to 5.4 kilobars. Staurolite, kyanite, garnet and alexandrite
formed in the metasomatic contact zone between granitic magma of the massif and
metasedimentary interbanded felsic and mafic schists. Alexandrite preferentially

2From summary of M.Sc. thesis by Gustavo Adolph Rock, ‘Petrology and Genesis of Alexandrite

Mineralization in the Southern Border of the Saws Golden Granitic Massif (GO),’ University of Brasilia,
Institute of Geosciences, thesis supervisor: Prof. Márcia Abraháo Moura. Translated from University of
Brasilia website, www.unb.br.

126
 6. Chrysoberyl

formed associated with mafic bands of garnet-staurolite-kyanite-biotite-quartz

schist which contained elevated chromium levels. It is suggested that beryl initially
crystallized in the granitic magma but decomposed to chrysoberyl in the later
stages of contact metamorphism. The entire area was subject to a later greenschist
facies orogenic events which caused cracking of the garnet, kyanite, staurolite and
alexandrite crystals.

The chrysoberyl placer deposits of Brazil

For almost 200 years, tens of thousands of carats of chrysoberyl, alexandrite and
cat’s-eye have been mined from the famous pegmatite districts in Brazil. The
deposits are described by Proctor (1988), and Cassedanne and Roditi (1993). The
chrysoberyl is mined from placer deposits in the Santana and Americana valleys. In
the Americana valley, local cattle ranchers had been throwing the gems away until
they were identified in the early 1900s. The bedrock is granite and granitic gneiss
with innumerable pegmatite intrusions. The chrysoberyl is found in colluvial-
alluvial gem gravels beneath layers of red soil and grey or black clay and/or sands
of various colours. Accessory heavy minerals include black tourmaline, beryl, topaz,
rhodolite garnet, andalusite, quartz and olivine. The pegmatites in the area are very
decomposed, and it is very rare to find chrysoberyl in situ.

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR CHRYSOBERYL

Chrysoberyl is so closely associated with emerald in the biotite-schist type of emerald
deposit that the same exploration criteria defined in Chapter 4 for emerald deposits
hosted in ultramafic rock apply to chrysoberyl.

Chrysoberyl can also be found in rare-element-rich pegmatites. The exploration criteria

outlined in Chapter 7 would apply. It should be noted that chrysoberyl generally forms
in deeper, hotter pegmatites than those which host aquamarine and topaz deposits.

Cassedanne et al. (1992) noted that chrysoberyl does not coexist with aquamarine
in Brazilian primary pegmatite deposits. Chrysoberyl tends to occur in quartz
(with feldspar and mica) veins and in thin pegmatites devoid of aquamarine, easily
missed or dismissed because of their narrow size. Typically, the chrysoberyl-bearing
pegmatites occur close to the base of the aquamarine producing zones.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 127
6 . Chrysoberyl

The discovery of alexandrite crystals at Hematita

There is a certain difficulty in the stones for andalusite. Eventually a riches. Cassedanne and Roditi (1993)
documenting the geology of new gem dealer recognized the pebbles as the describe the area as an almost unsorted
gemstone finds in Brazil because of the best alexandrites, without exception, in kaolinitic gravel in which the alexandrite
army of ‘garimpeiros’ which invade an the world. By this time, one of the boy’s grade is exceptionally high. A few small
area after news of a discovery. According fathers and some others were attempting pieces of alexandrite rough represented
to Brazilian law, a licensed garimpeiro to dig out more of the stones from the a fortune, and there was not enough
may work unprohibited on any state- brooks. Two of the parties involved land, literally, to go around. At times
owned lands where gems and minerals formed companies and after the usual the miners slept standing or sitting
have been found, and on private land bickering and squabbling between the up, like packs of Emperor penguins,
with ‘consent’ of the owner. Over the two groups, they joined up and began shoulder to shoulder since they dared
years, several spectacular staking rushes mining, trying to suppress the news of not leave their pits unguarded. Fights,
for Brazilian gemstones have taken place, their spectacular discovery. The first five gun battles and robberies — carried out
none as savage as the Hematita staking faceted stones, totalling only 11 carats, by the obligatory professional thieves
rush for alexandrite. sold for $40,000 to Japanese buyers in — and the general chaos prompted the
As reported by Proctor (1988), in January, 1987. One month later, several military police to move in and close
1986, two 10-year-old boys collected gem dealers and garimpeiros discovered the area on June 18, 1987 by putting
rough gems from two brooks which the location of the find and by the end a barbed wire fence around the entire
cut through a homestead on a of March, over 3,000 garimpeiro’s had property. The prospectors, without
plantation owned by a Brazilian steel invaded and completely dug up the money or food and with no way now of
company. They sold their latest finds to 200 m x by 150 m small valley and making a living, rebelled and hundreds
a man in the nearest city who mistook brook, hoping to get a share of the of miners each night would go through

128
 6. Chrysoberyl
the fence and mine or battle with the A lively debate broke out in the geochemical studies carried out on the
60 to 100 military police, who, in many gemological community regarding gravels or possible host rocks for these
cases, were sneaking off and mining in the quality of these alexandrites, and fabulous crystals. Some of the crystal
the pits themselves. An American gem whether they were more outstanding faces are very sharp, indicating less than
dealer arrived on August 18 and re- than the historical material from the 100 m of movement downstream. Proctor
opened the mine, allowing 300 of the Ural Mountains. The colour change (1988) reports that geologists who were
800 garimpeiros back inside. Within of alexandrites from both localities, able to study the gem gravels felt that the
two days, another 2,000 garimpeiros Hematita and the Urals is truly alexandrites may have originated from
arrived and one of the most violent outstanding. Under incandescent light decomposed pegmatites, and that the
nights in Minas Gerais mining history the stones are raspberry red, and under alexandrites in this deposit, unlike the
ensued. In August, the military police fluorescent light, the colour changes to usual emerald-alexandrite deposits in the
rerouted one of the creeks and flooded beautiful blue and blue-green. Urals and elsewhere in Brazil, may have
the mining area. Cassedanne and Roditi Given the situation in the area formed within a pegmatite rather than
(1993) report that the detrital reserves (members of the International from interaction between pegmatites and
of this deposit, the richest concentration Gemological Conference in 1987 chromium-rich rocks.
of alexandrite in the world, are nearly were allowed only 45 minutes at the
exhausted. mine), there have been no geological or

REFERENCES
Bancroft, P., 1984. Gem and Crystal Treasures. Western Enterprises, Fallbrook, California,
U.S.A. and The Mineralogical Record, Tucson, Arizona, U.S.A., 488 p.

Barton, M.D. and Young, S., 2002. Non-pegmatitic deposits of beryllium: mineralogy,
geology, phase equilibria and origin. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and
Geochemistry, Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, E.S. Grew (ed.), vol. 50,
Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., p. 591–691.

Brown, G. and Kelly, S.M.B., 1984. Alexandrite-Chrysoberyl from Zimbabwe. Australian

Gemmologist, vol. 15, no. 8, p. 275–278.

Calvo, M. and Garcia, J.R., 1997. Emerald and associated minerals from A Franqueira,
Pontevedra, Spain. Mineralogical Record, vol. 28, p. 497–501

Cassedanne, J. and Roditi, M., 1993. The location, geology, mineralogy and gem deposits
of alexandrlte, cat’s-eye and chrysoberyl in Brazil. Journal of Gemmology, vol. 23, no. 6,
p. 333–354.

Černý, P., 2002. Mineralogy of beryllium in granitic pegmatites. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy,
Petrology and Geochemistry, Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, E.S. Grew
(ed.), vol. 50, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., p. 591–691.

Cook, R.B., 1999. Connoisseur’s choice: Chrysoberyl, Minas Gerais and Bahia, Brazil and
Takovaya, Russia. Rocks and Minerals, vol. 74, no. 5, p. 324–327.

Downes, P.J. and Bevan, A.W.R., 2002. Chrysoberyl, beryl, zincian spinel mineralization in
granulite-facies Archaean rocks at Dowerin, Western Australia. Mineralogical Magazine,
vol. 66, no. 6, p. 985–1002.

Franz, G. and Morteani, G., 1984. The formation of chrysoberyl in metamorphosed

pegmatites. Journal of Petrology, vol. 25, part 1, p. 27–52.

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6 . Chrysoberyl

Franz, G. and Morteani, G., 2002. Be-Minerals: Synthesis, stability, and occurrence in
metamorphic rocks. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry, Reviews
in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, E.S. Grew (ed.), vol. 50, Mineralogical Society of
America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., p. 551–589.

Grew, E.S., 2002. Mineralogy, petrology and geochemistry of Beryllium: An introduction

and list of beryllium minerals. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry,
Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, E.S. Grew (ed.), vol. 50, Mineralogical
Society of America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., p. 1–76.

Hurlbut, C.S., Jr. and Klein, C., 1977. Manual of Mineralogy (10th edition). John Wiley &
Sons, New York, New York, U.S.A., 532 p.

Jacobson, M.L., 1982. A U.S. Review: Chrysoberyl. Rocks and Minerals, vol. 57, no. 2,
p. 49–57.

Marcos-Pascual, C. and Moreiras, D.B., 1997. Characterization of alexandrite, emerald

and phenakite from Franquiera (NW Spain). Journal of Gemmology, vol. 25, no. 5,
p. 340–357.

Martin-Izard, A., Paniagua, A. and Moreiras, D., 1995. Metasomatism at a granitic

pegmatite-dunite contact in Galicia: the Franqueira occurrence of chrysoberyl
(alexandrite), emerald and phenakite. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 33, p. 775–791.

Proctor, K., 1988. Chrysoberyl and alexandrite from the pegmatite districts of Minas
Gerais, Brazil. Gems and Gemology, vol. 24, no.1, p. 16–32.

Rupasinghe, M.S., Banerjee, A., Pense, J. and Dissanayake, C.B., 1984. The geochemistry
of beryllium and fluorine in the gem fields of Sri Lanka. Mineralium Deposita, vol. 19,
p. 86–93.

Soman, K., Nair, N.G.K. and Druzhinin, A.V., 1986. Chrysoberyl pegmatites of South Kerala
and their metallogenic implications. Journal of the Geological Society of India, vol. 27,
no. 5, p. 411–418.

Soman, K. and Nair, N.G.K., 1985. Genesis of chrysoberyl in pegmatites of southern Kerala,
India. Mineralogical Magazine, vol. 49, p. 733–738.

130
 7. GEM-BEARING PEGMATITES

INTRODUCTION
If a person had to choose one rock type in which to prospect for gemstones,
pegmatites would be the obvious choice. More beautiful and valuable gemstones are
associated with pegmatites than with any other rock type. Pegmatites are genetically
linked to almost all of the gemstones discussed in this report. Gem tourmaline of
all colours, aquamarine, chrysoberyl, kunzite, garnet, topaz and many other gems
and rare minerals are found in the fabulous pegmatite districts of many countries,
including Brazil, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Russia,
and the United States (California, Colorado and Maine). In Canada, there has been
production of mineral specimens and some gem crystal from pegmatites in British
Columbia, Northwest Territories, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec, however, none
have matched the splendor of the gigantic, flawless crystals of tourmaline, topaz,
aquamarine and many others recovered from pegmatites in other parts of the world.

Many of the gemstones found in the rich alluvial deposits of Sri Lanka are believed
to be derived from decomposed pegmatites. Most of the world’s emerald deposits
are genetically linked to pegmatite intrusion into ultramafic rock or metamorphosed
ultramafic rock. Ruby and sapphire are sometimes found when silica-poor pegmatites
intrude ultramafic rock.

Gemstones found in pegmatites may form spectacular crystals of gigantic

proportions under the proper pressure-temperature conditions. Proctor (1984) gives
an account of the discovery and extraction of a 110.5 kg (244 lb) doubly terminated,
hexagonal aquamarine crystal which was absolutely flawless; one could read through
it from end to end. The crystal, which measured 48.5 x 38 cm, was discovered in the
gem-rich Brazilian state of Minas Gerais in 1910. A miner digging a colluvial-alluvial
pit in search of gemstones had given up in disgust, and two brothers took over the
abandoned working. Less than one metre below the pit bottom they discovered the
crystal. At that time there was a strong relationship between the beginning Minas
Gerais gem trade and German gem dealers who would ship their purchases to the
gem cutting and lapidary centre at Idar-Oberstein, Germany. The two brothers sold
the crystal to two German gem dealers who happened to be in the area, for the
equivalent of $25,000. It was estimated that the crystal would produce 200,000 carat
of finished gems. It took 20 days to haul the aquamarine crystal to the coast where
it was duly shipped to Germany and offered for sale at $139,000. When no buyer
stepped forward, the crystal was cut up and the only uncut remnant, at 6 kg, ended
up in the American Museum of Natural History in New York. It is estimated that the
current value of this 6 kg remnant of the original crystal is close to $25 million dollars.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 131
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

This chapter provides a summary of pegmatite geology and genesis in addition to

brief descriptions of the three most valuable, of many, gemstones that are commonly
found in gem pegmatites: topaz, tourmaline and aquamarine. In addition to
pegmatites, topaz can also occur in rhyolites and greisens (see Chapter 8). Gem topaz
found associated with rhyolite is discussed in Chapter 8. Pegmatites are also known
for their production of lesser known gemstones such as morganite (pink-peach beryl),
kunzite (lilac-pink spodumene), smoky quartz and charming arrangements of sharply
crystallized rock-forming minerals such as mica and feldspars.

PEGMATITE-RELATED GEMSTONE DEPOSITS

There are two broad types of gemstone deposits associated with pegmatites:

1. Gemstones that crystallize within a pegmatite (tourmaline, aquamarine,

topaz).

2. Gemstones that crystallize in the metasomatic contact zone between

a pegmatite and host rock (ruby, sapphire, emerald, chrysoberyl,
alexandrite).

Metasomatism means ‘change in body or substance.’ For example, when a granitic

body intrudes limestone or marble, calc-silicate minerals form a ‘skarn’ along
the contact zone. When carbonatites or silica-undersaturated magmas intrude
limestones, a ‘fenite’ composed largely of sodic clinopyroxene and amphibole forms
along the contact zone. When the intruding body is a pegmatite magma, rich in
volatiles and rare-elements, rare minerals including gemstones may form in the
contact zone, depending on the host rock composition. If the intruding pegmatite
magma is a rare silica-poor type, and the host rocks are chromium-bearing ultramafic
rocks, then corundum crystals including gem ruby and sapphire may form. If the
pegmatitic magma is the more common granitic type and contains the rare element
beryllium, then beryllium-bearing minerals like emerald and alexandrite may form in
the contact zone with a chromium-bearing ultramafic rock. This type of pegmatite-
related gemstone deposit has been described in previous chapters.

This chapter will focus on the first category gemstones that crystallize within a
pegmatite.

THE RARE-ELEMENT CONNECTION

Although pegmatites are relatively common, only a very small percentage contain
rare elements and, of those, even fewer contain the rare elements required
for gemstone crystallization. Rare elements such as beryllium, boron, lithium,
manganese, phosphorus and fluorine can combine with available silicon, aluminum
and oxygen to form aquamarine, tourmaline, topaz, chrysoberyl, morganite, kunzite
and other gem minerals. For the prospector and exploration geologist, pegmatite
prospecting for gemstones has an added advantage in that certain rare elements
found in the pegmatites are mined for use in industry. Černý (1991a) lists lithium,
rubidium, cesium, beryllium, gallium, scandium, yttrium, rare-earth elements, tin,
niobium, tantalum, uranium, thorium, zirconium and hafnium as examples of rare
elements mined from pegmatites. A brief listing of the uses of rare elements mined
from pegmatites is as follows (from Černý, 1991a):

132
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Lithium: used in storage batteries, ceramic ware and smelting of aluminum ores.

Beryllium: Beryllium alloys are used in aircraft, satellite and space-vehicle frames;
beryllium metal is used in heat shields, rocket motors, aircraft and space-shuttle
brake discs, inertial navigation systems and X-ray windows.

Gallium: Used in light-emitting diodes, photodiodes, laser diodes and solar cells,
fibre optics and computers.

Tantalum: Used in computers, capacitors of solid-state circuits, chemicals and

prosthetic devices.

Gemstone-bearing pegmatites are a subclass of the rare-element group of

pegmatites, and most of the published information on rare-element pegmatites can
be adapted for gemstone prospecting. An excellent review of the petrogenesis and
classification of rare-element granitic pegmatites is given by Černý (1991a,b). A global
review of gem-bearing pegmatites is given by Shigley and Kampf (1984). A review of
exploration criteria for rare-element pegmatites is compiled by Trueman and Černý
(1982). A detailed summary of the mineralogy of the element beryllium in granitic
pegmatites is given by Černý (2002).

DEFINITION OF PEGMATITE
The term pegmatite, first used in the early 1800s, is mainly a textural term used to
describe an extremely coarse-grained igneous rock. The vast majority of pegmatites
are chemically and mineralogically very similar to ordinary granites, and are therefore
referred to as ‘granitic pegmatites.’ A few unusual corundum-bearing pegmatites (see
chapter on ruby and sapphire), which contain mainly alkali feldspar with little or no
quartz, are a rare exception.

Pegmatites commonly form during the final stages of magmatic intrusion and
can crystallize at the same time as the host magma; these are called syngenetic
pegmatites. Syngenetic pegmatites commonly form distinct segregations, lenses or
veins within the granitic host. Epigenetic pegmatites are more common and form
when late-stage volatile-rich pegmatitic fluids are injected into a host rock during the
late stages of granitic magma emplacement. Pegmatites typically occur as swarms
of dykes, veins or flat lenses within or at the margins of batholiths, stocks or other
granitic intrusions.

An essential process in pegmatite formation is ‘fractionation,’ which is the

precipitation of successive crystal fractions from a residual magma. A highly
fractionated or ‘evolved’ pegmatite contains concentrations of boron, lithium,
beryllium, phosphorus, fluorine and water. During the final stages of pegmatite
crystallization, volatile-rich fluids may exsolve and produce primary pockets or vugs
that may be lined with beautiful gem-quality crystals.

The host granite from which rare-element and gemstone-bearing pegmatites are
derived is called ‘fertile’ as opposed to ‘barren.’ Much research has concentrated on
determining characteristics of fertile granites as a starting point for rare-element
pegmatite prospecting.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 133
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

MINERALOGY
The mineralogy of most granitic pegmatites reflects that of granite: quartz, feldspar
(microcline and plagioclase) and mica (muscovite and biotite) along with common
accessory minerals (Table 7.1).

Pegmatites which contain the classic quartz-feldspar-mica mineral assemblage

are often called simple pegmatites and are of little interest for the purpose of this
report. Zoned pegmatites which contain accessory rare-element minerals are far
more interesting in terms of gemstone prospecting (Figure 7.1, Table 7.1). Complex
pegmatites are those which are zoned with metasomatic alteration or replacement
zones surrounding them.
Table 7.1. Chemical and Common Gem-bearing
mineralogical comparison Component/phase Granitea pegmatiteb pegmatitec
of granite and granitic Chemistry percent percent percent
pegmatites. From Shigley and SiO2 72.34 74.2 70.22 a Westerly granite, Westerly,
Kampf (1984). Al2O3 14.34 15.0 17.2 Rhode Island (Tuttle and
Bowen, 1958)
FeO + Fe2O3 1.81 0.6 1.76
b Diamond Mica pegmatite,
TiO2 0.26 – – Keystone, South Dakota
MnO 0.02 – 0.28 (Norton, 1970)
c Gem-bearing pegmatite,
H2 O 0.36 0.6 0.39
Manjaka, Madagascar
MgO 0.37 – trace (Schneiderhohn, 1961)
CaO 1.52 0.3 1.36
Na2O 3.37 4.6 4.45
K 2O 5.47 4.2 2.85
Li2O – – 1.49
P2 O 5 – 0.3 0.7
F – 0.1 0.11
B2 O 3 – – 0.18
BeO – trace trace
Rb2O + Cs2O – – trace
Total 99.86 99.9 100.36

Mineralogy
Major phases Microcline Microcline Microcline
Quartz Quartz Quartz
Plagioclase Albite Albite
Muscovite Muscovite Muscovite
Biotite

Minor phases Beryl Beryl

Tourmaline Tourmaline
Apatite Apatite
Garnet Garnet
Spodumene
Rhodizite
Lepidolite
Hambergite
Danburite

134
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites
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Figure 7.1. Cross section of a
complex pegmatite. �������������������������������������

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Pegmatites can also be classified according to the geological environment in

which they formed. Gem-bearing pegmatites and those with the most potential
for rare-earth elements are those (often called rare element and miarolitic) which
formed at relatively shallow depths beneath the earth’s surface. These pegmatites
contain rare elements which do not fit into the quartz, feldspar or mica mineral
structures. Pegmatites which form at depths of less than 7 km are the best hosts of
gemstone mineralization. These types of pegmatites are clearly igneous in origin,
whereas deeper, simple abyssal or muscovite pegmatites are thought to form
through the partial melting of, or metamorphic recrystallization of, rocks essentially
in place. These deeper pegmatites contain fewer rare-earth elements and more
uranium, thorium and molybdenum.

Shigley and Kampf (1984) describe the relationship between geological environment
and depth of emplacement:

1. Pegmatites formed at great depths are commonly found

in metamorphosed rocks that form the ancient cores of
continents. (Examples: U-REE pegmatites near Bancroft, Ontario)

2. Pegmatites formed at deep to intermediate depths are commonly found

in folded and metamorphosed rocks in mountain belts. (Examples: mica
pegmatites in Soviet Union, beryl-spodumene pegmatites of Black Hills,
South Dakota)

3. Pegmatites formed at shallow depths are generally associated with large,

buried masses of intrusive igneous rocks such as plutons or batholiths
that most commonly underlie mountainous areas. This class of pegmatite,
often called rare-element or miarolitic, is associated with gemstone
crystallization. An important subclass of this group, called LCT (for
lithium, cesium and tantalum) tends to be peraluminous and commonly
contains beryllium, rubidium, tin, gallium and boron. The NYF subtype
of pegmatite stands for niobium, yttrium and fluorine enrichment, and is
characterized by the absence of beryllium phosphates and lower amounts
of boron (Černý, 2002). (Examples: Southern California, Madagascar and
Minas Gerais district in Brazil)

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 135
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

PEGMATITE POCKETS AND CAVITIES

Gemstones in pegmatites are commonly found in ‘pockets’ which are irregular
openings, usually towards the centre of the pegmatite (Figure 7.2). In syngenetic
pegmatites, the pockets occur mainly in the roof zones or apexes of granitic
intrusions. It is estimated (Shigley and Kampf, 1984) that less than 1% of all
pegmatites contain pockets and even fewer have the rare elements necessary to form
gem minerals. They report that even though some pockets several metres across
have been reported, most pockets are less than a few centimetres wide. Pocket
distribution is very irregular and unpredictable. Within a single pegmatite region,
some pegmatites will contain rich gemstone pockets and others nearby will have
no pockets, let alone gem-bearing ones. Even the mineral content from pocket
to pocket may vary. Shigley and Kampf (1984) report that there is no relationship
between the dimensions of a pegmatite and the size, shape and distribution of its
pockets. Pegmatite pockets are commonly filled, or partially filled, with clay minerals
that formed after gemstone precipitation.

Largest gem pegmatite pocket

The largest pegmatite gem pocket pocket ever discovered. It was a cave As usual, after the main discovery
ever found, in the Jonas mine in Minas large enough to walk into (3 m x 3 m x there was internal disagreement
Gerais, Brazil, was discovered in 2.5 m) lined with beautiful raspberry-red between the mining partners and the
1978. The remarkable story of this truly tourmaline crystals, snow-white albite mine tunnel was dynamited about
awe-inspiring crystal cavern is related by crystals, transparent quartz and pink 30 m inside. A wheelbarrow full of
Proctor (1985b). A garimpeiro, Ailton lithium-bearing lepidolite. The largest unstable, decomposing dynamite was
Barbosa, wished to mine the same tourmaline crystal was more than 3 feet left outside. The mine was leased to
pegmatite his father, also a garimpeiro, long and weighed more than 135 kg (300 a new set of miners who, through a
did in the early 1940s. Mr. Barbosa lbs). There was no sign of any secondary different access route, came across
teamed up with a gem dealer who put replacement or clay mineral formation, what they thought could be another
up the money and arranged to lease and the crystals were so clean they did spectacular pocket. They were so excited
the mine from the land-owner. After not even need to be washed. that they forgot to wait after lighting
six weeks of fruitless labour involving After only eight days the pocket the dynamite charge that opened the
expensive blasting, Mr. Barbosa, who was cleaned out and the invaluable pocket and rushed in to see what they
had noticed signs of pegmatite pockets cargo taken under guard to the city. In had found. The head miner looked in
(presence of lepidolite, etc.) eventually light of the ubiquitous violence and the pocket and promptly passed out
surrendered title on his Volkswagen to robberies after any major Brazilian from inhaling fumes left over from
raise funds to keep going for one more gemstone discovery, a small army of the explosion. After recovering in the
week. During the critical last days, as he old-time gunfighters was hired to secure hospital he rushed back and discovered
was labouriously cleaning out a pocket the treasures in the warehouse. The another pocket with a single, spectacular
of worthless opaque black tourmaline, specimens were supposedly wired to rubellite crystal hanging upside down
albite, quartz and mica mixed with mud dynamite stacked underneath the crystals embedded in moist sand. This single
and water, he noticed water trickling to emphasize the fact that the miners specimen has been featured in many
down from the roof. He stuck his hand would rather blow the whole thing up mineral and gem collecting books and
up into an opening he had carefully than succumb to robbers or, even worse, was eventually sold to the author of the
made into the area from which the letting Brazilian Internal Revenue agents article (Mr. Proctor).
water was draining and pulled out a view the booty. The precautions worked, Proctor (1985b) reports that the
large, almost flawless gem rubellite (red) and the first crystals were offered for pegmatite which contained these
tourmaline crystal. He shone his light sale, starting at $9 million for the four magnificent gem pockets is 12 m wide
into the opening and saw the largest largest. One of the crystals sold for and 200 m long.
and most valuable pegmatite gem $1.3 million.

136
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Miarolitic pockets may form in pegmatites crystallizing within the parent granite
host rock. The residual pegmatitic magma exsolves an aqueous fluid in which all the
components needed to form rare-element minerals are concentrated. London (1986)
states that the presence or absence of miarolitic pockets is controlled by the timing
and extent of volatile exsolution from silicate melt. The miarolitic cavities are soon
rimmed with the first crystals to precipitate from this highly concentrated fluid.

The gem crystals in pegmatite pockets are commonly etched or corroded, and locally
show some replacement by secondary minerals. Crystals that have broken from
the roof or floor of the pocket may lie scattered or embedded within clay. Some
minerals, for example gem tourmaline, may exhibit a spectacular change in colour,
which reflects compositional zonation within the crystal. Shigley and Kampf (1984)
note that some tourmaline crystals may start as black opaque crystals embedded in
solid pegmatite, and then change to transparent pink, green and blue where they
approach and project into a pocket.

Figure 7.2. Schematic

representation of regional
zoning in a cogenetic granite
and pegmatite group.

K EY
A albite (cleavelandite) �
�
B beryl � �
F feldspar
L lepidolite mica �
LR line rock �
M muscovite mica ������
Q quartz ���
T tourmaline

� �

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Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 137
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Figure 7.3. Schematic

representation of regional
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zoning in a cogenetic granite and
pegmatite group. Modified from
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Černý (1991b).
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REGIONAL ZONING PATTERNS

There is a typical zoning pattern around a parent granite which reflects the increasing
fractionation of the pegmatite fluids away from the granitic host. Trueman and Černý
(1982) stress that this zoning can be irregular and depends on local structure. A
typical zoning pattern is shown in Figure 7.3.

Epigenetic gemstone-bearing pegmatites are typically the furthest away from the
parental granite, reflecting the high degree of fractionation required to concentrate
the rare elements found in gem minerals.

GENESIS OF GEM-BEARING PEGMATITES

Shigley and Kampf (1984) and Keller (1990) summarize the genetic model first
proposed by Fersman (1931) and expanded upon by Jahns and Burnham (1969)
relating to internally zoned, granitic pegmatites which contain gemstones. The
following description of the genesis of gem-bearing pegmatites is a compilation from
Shigley and Kampf (1984), Keller (1990), Černý (1991b), London (1986), Falster et al.
(2002) and Černý (2002).

A silicate magma, rich in volatile constituents such as water, fluorine, boron,

lithium, carbon dioxide and/or potassium, and rare elements such as beryllium,
cesium, niobium, tantalum and tin, is derived from the final stages of granitic-
magma crystallization. This pegmatitic magma crystallizes as segregations within
the host granite (syngenetic pegmatite) or is injected into pre-existing country
rocks (epigenetic pegmatite). Quartz, feldspar and mica crystallize first, when the
temperature drops below l000°C, forming a fine-grained rim bordering the pegmatite
cavity. The fine-grained border zone insulates against heat loss, and as a result, the
remaining magma cools very slowly and forms larger crystals. Crystals of quartz,
potassium feldspar and mica along with beryl and spodumene crystallize next,
along the wall and in the intermediate zone. The remaining magma, by this time, is

138
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

concentrated with all those elements which do not fit into the quartz, feldspar or mica
structures. The water content is also very concentrated with volatile elements. At a
certain point, around 650 to 750°C, an aqueous fluid, rich in volatile elements and rare
elements separates from the remaining pegmatitic magma. This aqueous fluid has a
number of desirable properties, as listed by Shigley and Kampf (1984):

• lower viscosity permits more rapid transport of chemical nutrients to

growing crystals

• greater concentration of volatiles contributes to the partitioning of

elements between magma and fluid

• aqueous liquid rises within pegmatite magma chamber leading to vertical

segregation of minerals

• minerals crystallize from the liquid at lower temperatures than from the
magma

• the aqueous liquid can redissolve earlier-formed minerals with which it

comes in contact

The last bit of magma crystallizes at between 500 and 600°C. The innermost portions
of the pegmatite are filled with large crystals of quartz, feldspar and possibly opaque
spodumene or beryl. The remaining aqueous fluid, very rich in volatile constituents
and rare elements, is trapped in a few isolated pockets between the larger crystals
in the centre of the pegmatite. It is at this point that gemstone crystals start to
crystallize.

When the concentration of volatile constituents and rare elements is high enough,
unusual and rare minerals precipitate and grow towards the centre of the pocket. The
crystals may become more ‘gemmy’ (transparent) or change colours towards the
end, a result of the changing chemical composition of the remaining liquid as more
and more gemstones solidify. At temperatures of 250°C or so, crystallization is
complete. Webber et al. (1999) suggest that at the end stages of crystallization, gem
crystals may form in a matter of days to years, as opposed to thousands of years.

In order to preserve the gem crystals in the pockets, the remaining volatiles must
be released very gradually into the host rock. Instead, what usually happens is that
the pocket ruptures. The sudden and dramatic drop in pressure and temperature
catastrophically cracks the newly formed gem minerals. What were once well formed
crystals are left in shards on the pocket floor or are heavily fractured. The late-
stage volatile fluid responsible for this destruction seeps out into the surrounding
pegmatites and eventually forms replacement minerals.

What causes this all-too-common annihilation of the gem crystals? Shigley and
Kampf (1984) suggest that the fluid pressure in the last bit of aqueous fluid is too
high and exceeds the strength of the pegmatite host. Cooling and contraction of
the pegmatite body, or earth movements near the pegmatite body may also cause
rupturing.

This explains why gemstones in pegmatites, or even pockets in pegmatites are more
common at shallower levels where the pressure of the surrounding rocks is less and
the treasure-laden aqueous liquid is able to exsolve from the parent granitic magma.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 139
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

TOURMALINE-BEARING PEGMATITES
One of the most sought-after pegmatite gemstones is tourmaline. This beautiful
gemstone forms distinctive slender crystals showing vivid colour, sometimes two
or three colours in one stone. Beautiful tourmaline gems are available in nearly all
colours. Tourmaline was once thought of as a scholar’s stone associated with wisdom
and the power of knowledge. Its strange magnetic and electrical properties have
been known for centuries. The tourmaline group of minerals is described in detail in
Dietrich (1985) and Falster et al. (2002).

Tourmaline is found in many different rock types and geological environments. In

addition to pegmatites, which are the most important host-rock for gem tourmaline,
tourmaline is also found in sedimentary rocks, metamorphic rocks, greisen zones
and alteration zones (tourmalinization), however, the largest and most spectacular
tourmaline crystals are found in pegmatites.

The physical and chemical characteristics of tourmaline are listed in Table 7.2.
Tourmaline is a complex borosilicate mineral group consisting of 14 separate and
distinct species: elbaite, schorl, dravite, olenite, buergerite, chromdravite, povondraite,
liddicoatite, uvite, feruvite, rossmanite, foitite, magnesiofoitite and vanadiumdravite.

Tourmaline commonly forms slender, elongated crystals showing striations along

the length of the crystal. Terminations on the ends of the crystals can be complex
but mostly consist of a rounded triangular habit. Crystals may be grouped in fibrous
masses that appear to fan outward from a single crystal. Exceptions to the common
slender, striated form exist. For example, Dietrich (1985) reports that dravite (brown
tourmaline) crystals from Australia were mistakenly identified as garnets.

Tourmalines come in virtually any colour and some gem crystals can show two or
even three vivid colours. The cause of colour is due to several events: interaction
between major elements, trace elements, structural defects and possibly natural

Table 7.2. Physical and chemical Chemical (Na, Ca)(Li, Mg, Al)(Al, Fe, Mn) 6 (BO3) 3 (Si6O18)(OH) 4
characteristics of tourmaline. formula
Note: Tourmaline is a complex Crystal system Cyclosilicate
borosilicate mineral group Habit Typically elongated crystals that are striated with trigonal pyramids at the
ends. Usually acicular, may be single or in radiating groups. Can also get more
consisting of fourteen separate
equant crystals.
species. Falster et al. (2002)
Colour Can be almost any colour
provide an excellent summary of
Hardness 7 to 7.5
the different tourmaline species.
Fracture Subconchoidal to uneven fracture, poor cleavage
The chemical formula provided in
Cleavage
the adjacent table is from Hurlbut
Parting
and Klein (1977).
Specific gravity 2.98 to 3.20 g/cm3
Pleochroism Strongly pleochroic
Fluorescence Mostly non-fluorescent under longwave ultraviolet light, but some species may
show a reaction under shortwave light.

140
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

radiation. Some of the more common colours, and the name given to that particular
colour of gem tourmaline are given below:

Red/pink: This colour of gem tourmaline is sometimes called ‘rubellite.’

Green: The green tourmalines cover a wide range of hues. The most valuable is
called ‘chrome tourmaline,’ which closely resembles tsavorite garnet or emerald.

Brown/yellow: This variety is called ‘dravite.’

Black: Black, opaque tourmaline is often called ‘schorl.’

Blue: Pure blue tourmaline, called ‘indicolite’ is very rare, since most blue
tourmaline has some green in it.

Bi- and tri-coloured tourmaline: The change in colour is a result of a change

in supply of the elements which cause the colour. Green-pink combinations,
either along the length of the crystal or from inside to outside, are common. In
some speciments, the core of the tourmaline is one colour and the outside rim
is a different colour, for instance ‘watermelon tourmaline.’ Spectacular complex
colour-zoned tourmalines called liddicoatite are mined in Madagascar.

Some tourmalines, especially bluish green ones may show a cat’s-eye effect due
to light reflecting from hollow, tube-like inclusions inside the stone. Tourmaline is
strongly pleochroic.

Some tourmaline crystals develop a magnetic charge (‘pyroelectricity’) after the

crystal is heated, or develop an electric charge after the crystal is subjected to
stress (‘piezoelectricity’). In fact, Dietrich (1985) reports that most jewellers do not
display tourmaline jewellery in show-windows that get heated by the sun, because
the resulting electric charge attracts dust. Falster et al. (2002) describe the various

Paraíba tourmaline
In August, 1988, the most sought This area of Brazil, a long 1,500 green, blue and turquoise. As a result of
after and valuable species of ‘electric blue- km away from the gem-rich pegmatite the obligatory legal and political battle
green’ tourmaline was first discovered province of Minas Gerias, was only over control of the mine, the flow of
at Batalha, in the state of Paraíba, known for its industrial columbite- tourmaline trickled, but by 2001, the
northeastern Brazil. Termed ‘paraíba tantalum pegmatite minerals. A local mine was being upgraded and developed
tourmaline,’ the crystals are a stunning mineral and gem dealer discovered further.
vivid, intense blue, violet, emerald-green some tiny, sand-sized grains of coloured Paraíba tourmaline remains a unique
and beautiful turquoise-blue due to the tourmaline in the tailing of a nearby locality, although copper-coloured
unusual presence of copper. The copper tantalum mine, and he and his team tourmaline, not quite as vivid, has also
was probably derived from copper- dug for five and a half years, acquiring been found in Nigeria (see Wilson, 2002
bearing sediments. Good crystals are the name ‘Heitor the Fool’ by the and Falster et al., 2002).
also exceedingly rare, since almost all the bemused locals. After finally striking
good crystals shattered in the pegmatite the first electric blue crystals, the team
pockets or are heavily etched. The best continued digging by candlelight using
quality paraíba tourmaline as a cut gem small hand tools, and found wonderful
can command up to $20,000 per carat. crystals in stunning shades of copper

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 141
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

practical uses of tourmaline, including its ubiquitous use in jet engines as part of a
gauge used to monitor vibration.

Most tourmaline does not fluoresce. Some yellow stones may fluoresce yellow and
some red or pink stones may show faint violet.

Geology and genesis of tourmaline pegmatites

The general geology of gemstone-bearing pegmatites is reviewed above. Almost
all gem tourmaline is derived from pegmatites. An exception is dravite (gem brown)
tourmalines which can be found in metasomatic zones in carbonate rock (Dietrich,
1985).

The gem tourmaline-bearing pegmatites of Brazil are described by Proctor (1984,

1985a,b). Another pegmatite district famous for its gem tourmaline is the Pala district
in San Diego County, California. The Pala pegmatite district, including the Himalaya
mine, the Pala Chief mine and the Tourmaline Queen mine has been producing
wonderful green and red tourmalines since the early 1900s. It is reported (Bancroft,
1984) that over 100 tons of gem and ornamental tourmaline came from just one
of the mines between 1902 and 1910. One of the most prolific consumers of gem
tourmaline at that time was Empress Tzu Hsi of China, who loved carved tourmaline
so much that Sino/San Diego trade pacts flourished until the Chinese government
collapsed in 1911.

London (1986) reviewed the conditions of formation of tourmaline-rich pockets

in miarolitic pegmatites, based on studies of pegmatites in Afghanistan and San
Diego County, California. He determined that the temperature at the time of pocket
formation was 425 to 475°C at pressures of 2400 to 2800 bars. This is similar to
pressure-temperature conditions for massive pegmatites (pegmatites which do
not contain miarolitic cavities), like the Tanco mine in Manitoba. Crystallization of
tourmaline does not occur until the late stages of pegmatite crystallization. Tourma
line crystallization uses up alkali borate in the melt, which results in the deposition
of other alkali aluminosilicate and oxide minerals, and the consequent exsolution
of large amounts of water. The separated aqueous phase, rich in volatile elements,
may enter pockets within the last stages of pegmatite crystallization or may seep out
along fractures to react with previously crystallized pegmatite or host rocks.

London (1986) notes that field observations support a genetic link between gem
tourmaline pocket formation, late-stage boron-rich albitic liquids and adjacent
tourmalinization of wall rocks. Stem et al. (1986) suggests that high fluorine plus
boron contents enhance tourmaline crystallization by depressing the temperature of
crystallization and by affecting the distribution of the alkali constituents.

142
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Gem tourmaline in TOPAZ-BEARING PEGMATITES

Canada Historically, topaz has been one of the more ‘confusing’ gemstones because its name
Gem tourmaline has been has been misused so much. This prevails in today’s jewellery industry where fine
found on the ‘Stargazer’ claim golden citrine quartz is often labelled ‘topaz quartz’ or brown, smoky quartz is sold
on the O’Grady granitic batho- as ‘smoky topaz.’ ‘Imperial’ topaz, which originally identified rare pink topaz in Russia
lith in the Northwest Territories, coveted by the Imperial family during the 19th century, is used for almost any yellow-
close to the Yukon border. Brad orange shade of topaz. The popularity of blue topaz during the late 1980s and early
Wilson has been exploring for 1990s confused consumers even more.
and collecting brownish pink
The mineralogy, geology and occurrence of topaz is described in a wonderful series
gem tourmaline up to about
of articles by Menzies (1995) and others in an issue of the Mineralogical Record
10 cm from miarolitic cavities
Magazine devoted totally to topaz. Abstracts of current research into topaz geology
within lithium-mineralized
are included and full-colour photographs of spectacular topaz crystals complement
pegmatite intruding the granite
the articles. Much of the information in the following section is derived from this
(Wilson, 1997). The pegma-
‘must-have’ issue.
tite was recently recognized as
the first confirmed Canadian Topaz has a wide colour range which includes yellow, orange, brown, pink, red, violet,
occurrence of the elbaite sub- blue and white. In general, intensely coloured reddish orange, red or deep pink topaz
type of rare-element granitic is the most valuable. Deep golden peach and orange colours are next. At the bottom
pegmatite (Ercit et al., 2003). of the scale are the yellow and sherry brown colours and blue colours (irradiated; see
For more information, go to below).
www.alpinegems.com.
Although natural blue topaz crystals have been known for a long time, it was only
when large amounts of ‘sky-blue’ topaz began swarming the gem trade in the mid-
1980s that the public really became aware of the gem. Suppliers began placing large
amounts of natural colourless topaz from Brazil, Sri Lanka or Africa in nuclear reactors
or linear accelerators where they were bombarded with neutrons or electrons to
produce a blue colour. The irradiated stones were heat-treated to stabilize the colour
and then released to the global gem trade, where they have become very popular
low-cost alternatives to aquamarine or the more expensive colours of topaz. For a
time, there was a radioactivity scare associated with some batches of these stones,
but that was only temporary. Besides irradiation, orange topaz containing chromium
as an impurity is often heat-treated in an attempt to produce the more desired
pink colour. Most of the sherry-coloured topaz from rhyolites and pegmatites fades
gradually in sunlight.

The physical and chemical characteristics of topaz are given in Table 7.3. Topaz is an
orthorhombic fluorine hydroxyl silicate mineral. Hydroxyl can substitute up to 30%
for fluorine (F). The more hydroxyl that has substituted for fluorine, the lower the
temperature of formation. Topaz crystals have a characteristic crystal form, some of
which are shown in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4. Topaz crystals.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 143
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Table 7.3. Physical and chemical Chemical formula Al2SiO4 (FOH)2

characteristics of topaz. Crystal system Orthorhombic
Habit Typically prismatic with lozenge-shaped cross section and striations parallel to
cleavage. The termination is characteristically wedge-shaped.
Colour Colourless, sherry-brown, yellow, blue, pink
Hardness 8.0
Fracture Perfect basal cleavage
Cleavage
Parting
Specific Gravity 3.4 to 3.7 g/cm3
Pleochroism Weak to distinct
Fluorescence Colourless: non to pale yellow (longwave)
Red: weak (LW)
Yellow: weak orange-yellow

Topaz crystals can reach enormous size. Menzies (1995) reports on a Brazilian topaz
crystal measuring 3 x 5 x 10 m and weighing 350 tonnes.

Geology and genesis of topaz deposits

In a study of 80 gem topaz deposits, Menzies (1995) determined that about 80%
of the deposits are pegmatite-related, 10% are rhyolite-hosted and the rest are
in greisens and rarely veins and skarns. More than 85% of all gem topaz deposits
fall within ‘rare metals belts’ as shown in Figure 7.5. The belts cover rift zones in
continental crust and/or collisions involving continental plates.
Figure 7.5. Rare metals belts and Topaz is derived from highly evolved granites and rhyolites that are rich in both
major topaz deposits. fluorine and silica. Most topaz is primary, although it can replace feldspars. Topaz

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144
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

deposits occur more frequently in ‘closed systems’ such as pegmatites or rhyolites

where the fluorine-rich fluid is enclosed rather than ‘open systems’ like a greisen or
skarn where the hot fluid or magma seeps unhindered into the host rock (Table 7.4,
Figure 7.6).
Figure 7.6. Deposit types formed Fluorine-rich magmas are generated in long-lived, tectonically active zones. Menzies
from flourine-rich magmas (1995) lists two tectonic regimes that are particularly favourable for topaz
(modified after Burt et al., 1982). mineralization:
Deposit types are ordered by
increasing depth and magma 1. Orogenic. This regime is typical of tectonic collision and crustal
water content. compression such as the Andes, Himalayas or Coast Ranges.

2. Anorogenic. This regime involves rifting and faulting during crustal

K EY expansion and deformation above hot spots. Examples would be the
1. Topaz rhyolites and volcanic tin western U.S. and Mongolia.
deposits
2. Pyroclastic (explosive volcanic) The source rock is typically a highly evolved, fluorine-rich leucocratic biotite ±
beryllium deposits hornblende or muscovite granite intruded to shallow depths at the latest stage in any
3. Skarns magmatic episode.
4. High-temperature veins Gem topaz crystallizes from water-rich residual melts remaining in the final stages
5. Breccia pipes of magma crystallization. Topaz-bearing pegmatites are typically the shallow,
6. Porphyry greisen rare element class, as described by Černý (1991a) and can be further divided into
7. Greisen syngenetic pegmatites (NYF: niobium-yttrium-fluorine) as described by Černý (1991a)
8. Miarolitic cavities in granite and epigenetic pegmatites (LCT: lithium-cesium-tantalum) pegmatites.
9. Pegmatites

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Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 145
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites
Table 7.4. Topaz deposit types (modified from Menzies (1995).
Formation Percentage
Geologic temperature Fluid activity/ fluorine in
environment Deposit type (°C) replacement rock Typical associated species Example localities Comments
Volcanic Gas cavities in 850–600 Deposition <1 Red beryl, garnet, quartz, Thomas Range, Utah Fine crystals and
rhyolite from gas hematite, Mn-beryl Central Mexico groups
phase
Magmatic Ongonite 1000–600 Quenched <3.5 Albite, quartz Young, Arizona Rare rock type.
magmas Transbaikalia, Siberia Equivalent of
rhyolite
Topazite Ca. 600 Phase <6.5 Quartz Eastern Australia Rare rock type.
separation? May also be
hydrothermal
LATE to POST-MAGMATIC
Pegmatites Syngenetic: 750–450 Localized, <1 Quartz, albite, microcline Sawtooth Range, Idaho Commonly
NYF type Pegmatites in slight Higher (including amazonite), Pikes Peak, Colorado excellent crystals,
granite (simple zinnwaldite, fluorite, iron many of gem
cavities, zoning species. Uncommonly Mourne Mts., N. Ireland quality
uncommon) beryl, phenakite. Rarely Volhynia, Ukraine
spessartine, tourmaline Klein Spitzkopje,
Namibia
LCT type Epigenetic Extensive in Lower High to Quartz, microcline, albite, San Diego Co., California Topaz uncommon.
Pegmatites, lower zones very high lepidolite/muscovite, Minas Gerais, Brazil Fine crystals,
intruded into tourmaline, fluorite, commonly large,
columbite-tantalite. Other Pakistan/Afghanistan many of gem
country rocks
(complex zoned) lithium and rare-element quality, in cavities
species, rarely beryl
Hydrothermal: Greisen 550–300 Intensive to High to Quartz, micas, fluorite, Erzgebirge District, Smaller crystals
(Higher (in or associated extensive very high cassiterite. Tungsten species Germany/Czech in cavities.
temperature) with granite) in some deposits. Less Republic Topaz typically
commonly beryl, tourmaline Transbaikalia, Siberia intergrown.
Significant portion
of host granite
may be converted
to topaz.
Skarns (in >500 to 400 Extensive Low Calcium silicates, micas, Lost River, Alaska Rare occurrence
carbonate rocks) tourmaline, fluorite, Trumbull, Connecticut for topaz
magnetite, cassiterite,
sulphide minerals Tasmania, Australia
Laacher See, Germany
Quartz >400-<300 Intensive Low Quartz, feldspars, muscovite, Eastern Australia Good crystals in
(–feldspar veins) beryl, cassiterite cavities, especially
in nearer-surface
deposits
Hydrothermal: Quartz-feldspar 400-<200 Intensive Low Quartz, cassiterite, also Eastern Australia Fine crystals, some
(Lower veins euclase, hematite, rutile Ouro Preto, Minas of gem quality
temperature) (Brazil) Gerais, Brazil
Sulphide Extensive Low Quartz, sulphide minerals, Cornwall, England Rare occurrence
mineral veins fluorite for topaz
Carbonate veins Ca. 200 Extensive Low Calcite, quartz Brumado, Brazil Very rare
and alpine clefts along fractures Mardan, Pakistan occurrence for
topaz
Untersalzhachtal,
Salzburg, Austria
Val Lugnex, Grisons,
Switzerland
High-grade High Extensive High Quartz, sillimanite, kyanite Tanzania Massive material
metamorphic Colorado
sedimentary
South Caroline
Eluvial Decomposition Durable minerals of original Minas Gerais, Brazil Fine crystals
of deposit deposit
Alluvial Transported Durable minerals of original Minas Gerais, Brazil Typically water-
by water deposit Eastern Australia worn crystals
Sri Lanka

146
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Gem topaz in syngenetic pegmatites

Syngenetic pegmatites crystallize as compact, pegmatitic coarse-grained
segregations within the parent granitic host rock. The host rock is usually an
anorogenic (intruded during episodes of crustal extension) granite emplaced at
shallow depths to 5 km (Menzies, 1995). Menzies (1995) reports that the parent
magmas are leucocratic and calcium-poor. They are typically associated with volcanic
rocks and breccia pipes. Topaz crystals form after bubbles of fluorine-rich aqueous
fluid separate from the magma and form miarolitic cavities. A good example of
an area hosting syngenetic topaz-bearing pegmatites is the 45-million-year-old
Sawtooth granitic batholith in Idaho which was emplaced as a result of crustal
extension. Topaz typically occurs in 10-cm to 50-cm-wide cavities along with smoky
quartz, microcline, mica and rarer fluorite and hematite. This area is also known for its
aquamarine crystals.

Topaz crystals are typically found on quartz or feldspar crystals in syngenetic

pegmatites. Larger cavity size and changes in iron content can result in different
minerals forming with topaz in the miarolitic cavities. Smoky quartz, feldspars,
zinnwaldite mica (lithium-bearing), fluorite may be present along with less common
beryl and phenakite, and rarely spessartine and tourmaline.

Gem topaz in epigenetic pegmatites

Gem topaz is also found in epigenetic pegmatites which form after residual fluids left
over from granitic intrusion are injected into host rocks. Menzies (1995) reports that
the pegmatites may intrude as far as several kilometres into the surrounding host
rock. Typically, gem topaz crystallizes with lepidolite and albite pegmatites, which
are commonly the last to form furthest away from the parent granite. The pegmatites
correspond to Černý’s LCT type, which have received great attention as major hosts
for commercial rare-metal deposits.

The gem minerals in epigenetic pegmatites are typically more iron-rich, as opposed
to lithium-rich in syngenetic pegmatites. Topaz is associated with quartz, feldspar,
lepidolite and muscovite micas, elbaite (green) or schorl (black) tourmaline, fluorite,
columbite-tantalite and less commonly beryl.

AQUAMARINE-BEARING PEGMATITES
Aquamarine, the beautiful transparent green-blue variety of the mineral
beryl, is named after the Latin term for ‘colour of the sea.’ This gemstone was
particularly favoured not only by the ancient Greeks, but also in present history by
Queen Elizabeth II.

The colouring agent of aquamarine is iron. The deeper blue varieties of aquamarine
are the most valuable; in fact, most aquamarine is heat-treated to drive off the green
component. Aquamarine crystals are typically slender, six-sided prisms with a flat
termination. The physical and chemical characteristics of aquamarine are given in
Table 7.5. Detailed information on the mineralogy and geology of aquamarine is
given in Sinkankas (1981).

Aquamarine is typically found in pegmatites which contain iron-rich minerals such as

black tourmaline and pyrite. The aquamarine crystals generally occur in the feldspar-

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 147
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites
Table 7.5. Physical and
Chemical formula Be3Al2 (SiO3) 6 (beryllium aluminum silicate)
chemical characteristics of
aquamarine. Note: Aquamarine, Crystal system Hexagonal crystal system: dihexagonal-dipyramidal crystal class. Beryl is a
cyclosilicate mineral and has hollow channels through vertically stacked (Si6O18)
like emerald, is a variety of the rings. The structure consists of six-membered rings of Si tetrahedral lying in
mineral beryl. parallel planes. The rings are linked together both laterally and vertically by Be
tetrahedral and Al octahedral forming a three-dimensional framework that is a
tectosilicate. Elements such as lithium, potassium, sodium, rubidium and cesium
and even whole water molecules can fit into these spaces, generating open
structural channels called corrosion tubes.
Habit As single crystals with hexagonal six-sided prisms that can be short and stubby
and long and slender with flat termination.
Colour Pale blue, light blue-green, pale green, rare deep blue
Hardness 7.5 to 8
Fracture Indistinct basal cleavage
Cleavage
Parting
Specific gravity 2.67 to 2.84 g/cm3
Pleochroism Aquamarine: strong

quartz wall zone and project into the white quartz core. Proctor (1984) gives an
excellent description of the aquamarine-bearing pegmatites of Minas Gerais.

Aquamarine is also found in miarolitic cavities found in A-type granites (anorogenic

granites) described earlier in the section on topaz. Jacobson (1993) provides a good
overview of aquamarine localities in the United States. Aquamarine also occurs in
hydrothermal veins and in related scheelite-tin-molybdenite greisens.

Association between topaz and aquamarine

Menzies (1995) discusses the association between gem topaz and
aquamarine. Curiously, topaz and aquamarine rarely occur together in
pegmatite pockets, especially those in syngenetic pegmatites or those formed in
greisens. Proctor (1984) also notes that topaz and aquamarine in Brazil commonly
occur in the same pegmatite deposit, but never the same pocket. Epigenetic
pegmatites in, most notably, the Gilgit area in Pakistan and pegmatite deposits
in the Urals are notable exceptions; at Gilgit, spectacular groupings of topaz and
aquamarine are mined from pegmatite cavities. In areas of syngenetic pegmatites,
such as the Sawtooth Range in Idaho mentioned above, Menzies (1995) notes that
cavities containing topaz occur within metres of those containing aquamarine,
but the two never occur together. The same situation exists at another famous
aquamarine locality, Mt. Antero, Colorado. Menzies (1995) suggests that the
association of beryl with topaz requires a very restricted range of fluorine content,
influenced heavily by fluid loss.

148
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

EXPLORATION CRITERIA FOR GEM-BEARING PEGMATITES

Perhaps the most basic exploration guideline for the Yukon prospector is to observe
when simple quartz-feldspar-mica pegmatites become more ‘complex.’ Increasing
complexity is marked by changes in the mineralogy — perhaps black tourmaline
crystals are visible in addition to the basic mineral assemblage, or the internal texture
of the pegmatite changes; perhaps the pegmatite is starting to show an internal zoning
pattern, and the minerals start forming layers surrounding a central quartz core.

Use of simple zoning patterns may help identify gemstone-bearing pegmatites. A

prospector might notice some opaque green beryl in pegmatites near a granitic
intrusion. Closer to the intrusion are simple quartz-feldspar-mica pegmatites. Figure 7.3
shows that a good place to look for gemstones (and rare elements) is obviously farther
away from the parent granite — the pegmatites furthest from the parent granite (may
be several kilometres away) have the best potential.

It is easier to delineate large granitic bodies on geology maps and on the ground
than it is to spot smaller pegmatite segregations or veins. To evaluate the potential
a particular granite host rock might have for yielding gemstone and rare-element-
bearing pegmatites, Trueman and Černý (1982) provide a detailed listing of guidelines
for the exploration geologist to help determine the potential of a pegmatite field. The
guidelines are based on studies of rare-element pegmatites in shield areas. Some of
the relevant guidelines are summarized below.

Geochemistry
Stream sediment sampling is recommended as an initial approach. Trueman and
Černý (1982) note that cassiterite and niobium-tantalum minerals will be retained
as heavy mineral fractions. When concentrating the stream-sediment sample to the
heavy mineral fraction, by panning for example, the lighter but resistive minerals like
tourmaline, beryl or spodumene may be present. The rejected fraction should be
examined for these pegmatite minerals.

Geology and structural control of parental granites

The most favourable parental granites for rare-element pegmatites have the
following features:

• generally small to moderate in size (5 to 150 km2 in outcrop)

• late or post tectonic

• associated with deep, regional faults or lithologic boundaries

• in shield areas, parental granites and their pegmatites may intrude the
contact between pre-existing batholiths and their host rocks.

Composition and texture of parental granites

• leucocratic

• carry biotite, or ‘two-micas,’ rarely hornblende and biotite together

• may have cordierite, andalusite and/or Mn-enriched garnet in

peraluminous types late, anhedral K-feldspar

• inhomogeneous

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 149
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Geochemistry of parental granites

• widely variable K/Ba ratios

Zoning of pegmatite swarms

Trueman and Černý (1982) suggest noting the accessory minerals present in a
pegmatite, the complexity of internal minerals and the metasomatic mineral
assemblage at the pegmatite/host rock contact zone. They also note that other types
of veins, genetically related to granitic intrusion may extend outside the area of the
pegmatite swarm. These might include quartz veins with beryl, wolframite, cassiterite,
scheelite, gold, molybdenite and/or other sulphide minerals.

Quest for the dark blue aquamarines

The highest quality, most valuable fragments in the Marambaia Valley area as a specific type of aquamarine. True
aquamarines are those rare crystals of Brazil; the colour was said to have the North Gems calls this variety ‘True Blue
that are a natural dark blue colour. The colour of fine blue tourmaline. When the aquamarine.’ Analysis has shown that
beautiful gem of the sea, aquamarine, fragments were put together, it measured the True Blue beryl is high in iron and
is typically a pale bluish green when 68.5 x 10.9 cm and weighed 22 kg. In sodium; in fact, the iron content is one of
mined, and then a light blue after heat- addition, it was entirely ‘clean.’ Four the highest reported for any type of gem
treating. The element iron is responsible of the crystal fragments were sold to beryl. The deep blue colour is attributed
for the sublime colour, although there is the first dealer on site for $45,000; an to channel Fe2+. The crystals show
some discrepancy, as described by Černý enormous amount for the garimpeiro the same type of reverse pleochroism
(2002) as to the exact mechanism. Some who discovered the aquamarine. seen in Maxixe-type aquamarines
researchers have attributed the yellow Another beautiful aquamarine with described above, however, the chemical
tones to Fe3+ and blue tones to Fe2+ ions rich blue natural colour was deemed composition is distinctly different from
hosted in the channels; while others the ‘Marta Rocha’ crystal. This crystal Maxixe aquamarines.
attribute the blue, green and yellow tones weighed a staggering 34.7 kg with superb The crystals were first noted as a
to varying Fe2+ and Fe3+. colour which ultimately yielded 57,200 curiousity in 1976, and then investigated
In 1917, beautiful dark blue beryls, carats of beautiful cut aquamarines further by True North Gems in
the likes of which had never been seen (Proctor, 1984). 2003. The crystals are embedded within
before, were discovered at the Maxixe Of course, Madagascar, so rich in quartz-carbonate-tourmaline veinlets
mine, in the Minas Gerais region gems and fine mineral crystals, has also that cut a 320-million-year-old fluorite-
of Brazil. Unfortunately the colour produced deep blue gem beryl crystals bearing syenite stock associated with
faded in these gems when exposed to from the Ambositra pegmatite (Pezzotta, rare-earth elements. The site is east of
sunlight. The Maxixe beryls have another 2001). The host rock is a beryl-columbite the Regal Ridge emerald occurrence in
unusual feature. Most aquamarines pegmatite. the Finlayson Lake area, Yukon. To date,
are strongly dichroic, that is they show In October, 2003, True North blue beryl has been mapped in a zone
their best colour when one is looking Gems Inc., a Canadian junior mining measuring 600 x 100 m over 100 m in
perpendicular to the length of the rough company, announced the discovery of elevation, and there is much additional
crystal. Maxixe beryls show their best a unique dark blue beryl in the Yukon prospecting to do to delineate this
colour looking parallel to the length and proclaimed the discovery as a new interesting discovery.
of the crystal. The deep blue colour of gemstone for Canada1. Their fact sheet
Maxixe beryls is thought to be due to on the gemstone explained that the
natural radiation (Nassau et al., 1976). crystals are the aquamarine variety of the
Proctor (1984) describes a 1964 mineral beryl, however, they go further
1www.truenorthgems.com
find of eluvial dark blue aquamarine in stating that it should be described

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 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Mineral zoning
PLAGIOCLASE
• becomes more sodic and albitization increases away from the parental
granite

ROSE QUARTZ
• rose quartz patches are found in quartz cores of barren, tourmaline-
bearing and beryllium-, niobium-tantalum-mineralized pegmatites
including those with lithium, iron and manganese-phosphates

• not found in spodumene-rich, rare-element or lithium, fluorine-bearing

pegmatites

• Brazilian pegmatites with beautiful miarolitic rose quartz is the exception

MUSCOVITE
• Barren pegmatites typically contain brownish and dirty green muscovite

• Coarse-flaked yellow-green and silvery muscovite is typical of beryllium-,

(niobium, tantalum)-bearing and spodumene pegmatites

BLACK TOURMALINE
• boron is not closely related to the rare metals

• found in barren and simple beryllium (niobium, tantalum)-bearing

pegmatites

• becomes blue and green tourmaline with tin, niobium and tantalum
mineralization in albitized pegmatites

• green, pink and colourless tourmaline indicate increased lithium, rubidium

and cesium

BERYL
• appears as a primary coarse, columnar mineral of greenish, yellow or
brownish colour in simple pegmatite

• blocky pegmatites with negligible albitization

• away from parental granites, the fluid is enriched in alkalis so the beryl
becomes pale coloured to white, associated with albitization and
lepidolite replacement assemblage

• white to pink, stubby or tabular beryl is typical of rare-element

pegmatites and of the lithium-enriched type with tantalum, lithium,
rubidium, cesium mineralized rock

COLUMBITE-TANTALITE
• is the main niobium-tantalum mineral in moderately fractionated
pegmatites

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 151
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

SPODUMENE
• green spodumene indicates spodumene pegmatites with low niobium-
tantalum and beryllium potential, but high lithium content

• white spodumene adjacent to quartz core is characteristic of rare-element

pegmatites with diverse mineralization

Minerals in metasomatic contact zones

BIOTITE- PHLOGOPITE
Trueman and Černý (1982) note that biotite-phlogopite is a common reaction
product, usually in thin seams, along pegmatite contacts with amphibolites and
similar basic wall rocks. Large quantities of biotite-phlogopite occur when there has
been internal albitization.

TOURMALINE
Tourmaline along contact zones does not indicate any particular pegmatite
type. Dravite (brown tourmaline) occurs typically in marbles and serpentinites.

Trace element chemistry

Trueman and Černý (1982) note that where zoning is difficult to determine, the K/Rb
ratios in K-feldspars or alternatively K/Rb, K/Cs or Mg/Li in pegmatites can be used to
show progressive fractionation.

When it comes to determining the potential of a pegmatite body, Trueman and

Černý (1982) list several types of geochemical indicators, commonly trace element
amounts or ratios in the individual pegmatite body, that can be used to help indicate
the rare-element potential of a pegmatite. These indicators are used to help assess
rare element pegmatites before expensive drill programs are carried out, but are not
immediately useful to prospectors working in the field. This type of analysis may help
if a gemstone pegmatite field is discovered.

Geophysical methods
Trueman and Černý (1982) recommended that gravity anomalies can be used to
delineate the relative densities of different pegmatite zones; for example, a simple
quartz-feldspar-mica pegmatite can generate a gravity low, while a spodumene dyke
may generate a high. Magnetic and EM methods are best used to delineate host rock
structures and stratigraphy.

Cook (2002) provides an excellent summary of results to date in using geophysics

to explore not just for diamonds but for coloured gemstones in pegmatite pockets,
in particular, advances in the application of ‘micro-scale’ techniques such as high
frequency ground-penetrating radar and ultra high frequency seismology. Until
recently, the resolution of geophysical techniques has not been sufficient to delineate
potential gem-bearing cavities of less than 1 m in pegmatites. Application of ground-
penetrating radar in the search for pegmatite cavities has been tried in the past,
however more recent tests have been successful. In particular, ground-penetrating
radar was successful at locating a gem-bearing pocket in California that had

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 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

previously been missed; several gorgeous gem tourmaline crystals were found inside
and more than 25 additional cavities were found and excavated over a seven week
period. This survey was successful in identifying cavities smaller than 10 cm.

Indicators of pegmatite pockets

Shigley and Kampf (1984) list features in the solid pegmatite that are used as signs by
miners that a pocket may be close by:

• black, opaque tourmaline embedded within the wall changes colour or

increases in amount, presence of lepidolite (purple lithium-bearing mica),
increased transparency of quartz
Pegmatites in the • manganese-oxide staining
Canadian Cordillera
Groat et al. (1995) list • extensive rock alteration
characteristics of fertile
• presence of clays
pegmatites in the Canadian
Cordillera as follows: Proctor (1984) lists some indicators of gemstone pockets in Minas Gerais, Brazil, where
• late to post-tectonic the pegmatites are decomposed. Prospectors generally try to find softened areas
• emplaced at moderate to where pocket-filling clay minerals are exposed or look for the mineral residue of a
shallow crustal levels gem pocket.
• texturally inhomogeneous,
White kaolin forms after chemical alteration of pegmatite feldspars into clay
megacrystic pods highly
minerals. The more resistant gemstone minerals such as tourmaline, quartz, beryl and
silicic, leucocratic a nd
topaz remain intact in the decomposed pocket.
meta to para-aluminous
(cordierite, andalusite or Prospectors will take a stick and try to poke it in the rock. If it sinks down, the
garnet-bearing) prospector may have found the soft white kaolin clay. They also look for fine
• typically mica-bearing, muscovite flakes in the soil and clear or smoky quartz crystals with sharp faces.
especially two-mica granites,
more rarely biotite granites Dietrich (1985) compiled a number of characteristics regarding gem tourmaline-
and biotite-hornblende bearing pegmatites:
granites • green tourmaline (elbaite) and liddicoatite (colour-zoned tourmaline) is
• S-type granite geochemical found in pockets in the central zones of complex, Li-bearing pegmatites.
signature
• initial 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotopic • tourmaline, especially shorl (black, opaque tourmaline), is typically
ratios are high found in aplites that are spatially and genetically related to pegmatites;
• K/Rb, K/Cs and K/Li ratios green and pink tourmaline-bearing pegmatites tend to be farther from
are low their parent granites than black tourmaline-bearing pegmatites; the
There have been detailed uranium-content of tourmalines is greater in albitized than non-albitized
studies on two areas of pegmatites and rubidium and cesium, as well as lithium, are apparently
rare-element pegmatites in sequentially enriched in later generations.
the Cordillera: the O’Grady • Lithium-bearing tourmalines appear to be most common in core borders,
batholith (Ercit et al., 2003) whereas black tourmaline is more common in wall and intermediate
in Northwest Territories near zones.
the Yukon border and the
Little Nahanni rare-element At the Little Three pegmatite gemstone mine in the Ramona pegmatite district of
pegmatite field, also in the San Diego County, California, roots and organic material are particularly concentrated
western part of the Northwest near pegmatite pockets, due to increased fracturing allowing in surficial waters and
Territories (Groat et al., 2003). organic material. Underground, numerous live, intertwining roots were removed from
the clay contents of one of the pockets.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 153
7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

Muscovite is typically green in the nonpocket pegmatite portion of the dyke and
is commonly colourless or very light pink in the pocket zone. Muscovite is more
abundant near the pockets. Black tourmaline crystals get larger near the pockets,
and orange-brown to reddish brown idiomorphic spessartine crystals increase in
abundance as well.

REFERENCES
Černý, P., 1991a. Rare-element pegmatites. Part I: Anatomy and internal evolution of
pegmatite deposits. Geoscience Canada, vol. 18, no.2, p. 49–67.

Černý, P., 1991b. Rare-element pegmatites. Part ll: Relation to global environments and
petrogenesis. Geoscience Canada, vol. 18, no.2, p. 68–81.

Černý, P., 2002. Mineralogy of beryllium in granitic pegmatites. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy,
Petrology and Geochemistry, Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, E.S. Grew
(ed.), vol. 50, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., p. 591–691.

Cook, F.A., 2002. Geophysical Methods used in exploration for gemstones. Canadian
Society for Exploration Geophysicists Recorder, November, p. 26–36.

Dietrich, R.V., 1985. The Tourmaline Group. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York,
New York, U.S.A., 300 p.

Ercit, T.S., Groat, L.A. and Gault, R.A., 2003. Granitic pegmatites of the O’Grady batholith,
NWT, Canada: A case study of the evolution of the elbaite subtype of rare-element granitic
pegmatite. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 41, p. 117–137.

Falster, A.U., Jarnot, M.D., Neumeirer, G.A., Simmons, W.B. and Staebler, G.A., 2002.
Tourmaline. ExtraLapis English No. 3, Christian Weise Verlag, Munich, Germany, 106 p.

Fersman, A.E., 1931. Les Pegmatites, leur Importance Scientifique et Practique. Akademiya
Nauk SSSR, Leningrad.

Fritsch, E., Shigley, J.E., Rossman, G.R., Mercer, M.E., Muhlmeister, S.M. and Moon, M.,
1990. Gem-quality cuprian-elbaite tourmalines from São José da Batalha, Paraíba, Brazil.
Gems and Gemology, vol. 26, no. 3, p. 189–205.

Groat, L.A., Ercit, T.C., Mortensen, J.K. and Mauthner, M.H.F., 1995. Granitic pegmatites
in the Canadian Cordillera: Yukon and Northwest Territories. Exploration and Geological
Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, Open File
1995–14(G), 40 p.

Groat, L.A., Mulja, T., Mauthner, M., Ercit, T.S., Raudsepp, M., Gault, R.A. and Rollo, H.A.,
2003. Geology and mineralogy of the Little Nahanni rare-element granitic pegmatites,
Northwest Territories. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 41, p. 139–160.

Jacobson, M.I., 1993. Aquamarine in the United States. Rocks and Minerals, vol. 68,
p. 306–319.

Jahns, R.H. and Burnham, C.W., 1969. Experimental studies of pegmatite genesis: I. A
model for the derivation and crystallization of granitic pegmatites. Economic Geology,
vol. 64, p. 843–864.

154
 7. Gem-bearing pegmatites

London, D., 1986. Formation of tourmaline-rich gem pockets in miarolitic pegmatites.

American Mineralogist, vol. 71, p. 396–405.

Menzies, M.A., 1995. The mineralogy, geology and occurrence of topaz. Mineralogical
Record, vol. 26, no. 1, p. 5–56.

Nassau, K., Prescott, B.E. and Wood., D.L. (1976). The deep blue maxixe-type color center
in beryl. American Mineralogist, vol. 61, p. 100–107.

Pezzotta, F., 2001. Madagascar: A Mineral and Gemstone Paradise. ExtraLapis English
No. 1, Lapis International, LLC, East Hampton, Connecticut, U.S.A., 97 p.

Proctor, K., 1984. Gem pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: exploration, occurrence, and
aquamarine deposits. Gems and Gemology, vol. 20, no.4, p. 78–100.

Proctor, K., 1985a. Gem pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: the tourmalines of the Araçuaì
Districts. Gems and Gemology, vol. 21, no.1, p. 3–19.

Proctor, K., 1985b. Gem pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: the tourmalines of the
Governador Valadares District. Gems and Gemology, vol. 21, no. 2, p. 86–104.

Shigley, J.E. and Kampf, A.R., 1984. Gem-bearing pegmatites: a review. Gems and
Gemology, vol. 20, no.2, p. 64–77.

Stern, L.A., Brown, G.E., Jr., Bird, D.K, Jahns, R.H., Foord, E.E., Shigley, J.E. and
Spaulding, L.B., Jr., 1986. Mineralogy and geochemical evolution of the Little Three
pegmatite-aplite layered intrusive, Ramona, California. American Mineralogist, vol. 71,
p. 406–427.

Trueman, D.L and Černý, P., 1982. Exploration for rare-element granitic pegmatites.
In: Granitic Pegmatites in Science and Industry, Mineralogical Association of Canada,
P. Černý (ed.), Short Course Handbook, vol. 8, p. 463–493.

Webber, K.L., Simmons, W.B., Falster, A.U. and Foord, E.E., 1999. Cooling rates and
crystallization dynamics of shallow level pegmatite-aplite dykes, San Diego County,
California. American Mineralogist, vol. 84, p. 708–717.

Wilson, B., 1997. Canadian tourmaline: A new discovery. Canadian Gemologist, vol. 18,
no. 4, p. 107.

Wilson, W., 2002. Cuprian elbaite from the Batalha Mine, Paraíba, Brazil. Mineralogical
Record, vol. 33, p. 127–137.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 155
156
 8. GEM TOPAZ AND RED BERYL ASSOCIATED
WITH RHYOLITES AND GREISENS

INTRODUCTION
There has been more research published on topaz rhyolites than on any other type
of gemstone deposit discussed in this report. The reason for all the interest is not the
subtle beauty of the sherry-brown topaz crystals which are found in the rhyolites, but
instead, the close spatial and genetic association of topaz rhyolite with volcanogenic
beryllium, tin, uranium and fluorine mineral deposits. Topaz rhyolites may also serve
as subsurface indicators of silver, fluorite, molybdenum (subvolcanic Climax-type
porphyry deposits), tin and tungsten (greisen-type or skarn-type deposits) or deeper
rare-element pegmatites (Burt, 1995).

Entire books and special volumes have been published on the genesis and
exploration for topaz rhyolites. Comprehensive overviews include:

The Geology and Geochemistry of Cenozoic Topaz Rhyolites from the Western United
States, Geological Society of America Special Paper 205, Christiansen et al. (1986).

Topaz Rhyolites: Distribution, Origin and Significance for Exploration, Burt et al.
(1982).

Topaz, Special issue of the Mineralogical Record focusing solely on gem topaz
(Menzies, 1995).

The chapter by Barton and Young (2002) in Beryllium Volume produced by the
Mineralogical Society of American has information on topaz rhyolites in relation
to associated beryllium deposits.

DEFINITION OF TOPAZ RHYOLITE

Topaz rhyolites are fluorine-rich alkaline silicic lavas and shallow intrusions that are
characterized by the presence of topaz.

DISTRIBUTION AND AGE OF TOPAZ RHYOLITE

The greatest concentration of topaz rhyolites occur in a ‘rare-metals’ belt which
extends from Alaska, through the Yukon, B.C, western United States and Mexico
(Figure 7.5). Topaz in rhyolite was first identified within this belt in 1884 in Colorado
(Burt et al., 1982). Similar rocks have been identified in Mongolia and the Soviet
Union, where they are called ‘ongonites.’

Topaz rhyolites in the western United States have been dated at between 0.5 and
50 million years.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 157
8. Gem topaz and red beryl associated with rhyolites and greisens

FIELD RECOGNITION
The defining feature of this deposit type is, of course, the presence of topaz. Burt
et al. (1982) report that the host rhyolite resembles other silicic magmas. It ranges
from typically grey or chalky, phenocryst-rich, massive and miarolitic to pinkish grey
to tan, phenocryst-poor, flow-banded, lithophysal types. A distinctive honeycomb-
like weathering pattern may be visible. Most topaz rhyolites are strongly flow-
banded. Topaz may not be present in all the gas cavities or in all portions of the
topaz rhyolite lava flow or dome, but when it is present, Burt et al. (1982) suggest
that 15 to 30 minutes of searching with a hand lens will reveal it. Transparent topaz
crystals in freshly exposed cavities are generally yellowish to pinkish brown; these
colours gradually fade on exposure to sunlight. Topaz may be confused with quartz
when both crystals are present in a cavity. The quartz generally forms small stubby
crystals coating the walls whereas topaz forms large single crystals growing into the
cavity centre. Other minerals which may occur in the cavities include red to black
manganese-iron garnet, black cubes of bixbyite, black acicular pseudobrookite and
black platy specular hematite, colourless crusts of sanidine, tabular to prismatic, pink
to red hexagons of beryl, colourless to purple fluorite and ruby red, stubby to platy
cassiterite and opal.

GEOCHEMISTRY
All topaz rhyolites contain high SiO2 with elevated fluorine, sodium, potassium, iron/
magnesium and low titanium, magnesium, calcium and phosphorus. They are also
enriched in incompatible lithophile elements (rubidium, uranium, thorium, tantalum,
niobium, yttrium, beryllium, lithium and cesium). Elements compatible with feldspars
(strontium, europium, barium), ferromagnesian minerals (titanium, cobalt, nickel,
chromium) and zircon (zirconium, hafnium) are depleted (Christiansen et al., 1986).

GENESIS OF TOPAZ RHYOLITES

Topaz crystallizes at temperatures between 600 to 850°C within cavities formed by
the release of fluorine-rich gas directly from volcanic magmas extruded as lava domes
and other features on the earth’s surface.

OCCURRENCE OF RED BERYL

A very rare variety of red beryl is found in typical 22 to 23 million-year-old topaz-
bearing rhyolites in the Thomas Range, Utah (Shigley and Foord, 1985) and the
Wah Wah Mountains, Utah (Keith et al., 1994; Christiansen et al., 1997). The red beryls
are coloured by trace amounts of manganese. Their genesis is the same as that of the
topaz, except that the vapor phase released from the rhyolitic magma was enriched
in beryllium as opposed to fluorine.

GREISENS
Gem topaz crystals may form in greisen deposits. Typically, topaz greisens form when
very hot, acidic silica-rich and fluorine-rich fluids react with aluminum leached out of
feldspars when the hot fluid invades a granitic rock. When the original minerals are
removed during the early stages of greisenization, there is room for topaz and other

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 8. Gem topaz and red beryl associated with rhyolites and greisens

minerals to grow, particularly when there have been explosions (explosion breccia)
leaving lots of open cavities in which topaz and other minerals can crystallize. Tin-
tungsten- and topaz-bearing granites formed in Europe during the continental
collision involving North Africa, western Europe and Britain in Devonian to late
Permian time.

SKARNS
Skarns form where a hot fluid intrudes a carbonate host. Gem topaz is rare in these
deposits because most of the fluorine present combines with calcium and forms
fluorite. Associated minerals are magnetite and fluorite.

VEINS
Hydrothermal vein deposits very rarely produce gem topaz crystals, however, one of
the most outstanding topaz deposits in the world, the Ouro Preto deposit in Minas
Gerais, Brazil consists of highly weathered kaolinite-quartz-K-feldspar veins. The veins
are contained within a narrow fracture zone in granite-intruded phyllites. Menzies
(1995) reports that the exact genesis of this deposit is uncertain.

EXPLORATION CRITERIA
The parent granites of topaz-bearing rhyolites belong to the same group of granites
related to economic deposits of rare metals including pegmatite-hosted lithium,
beryllium, tin, tantalum, niobium, molybdenum and tungsten high-temperature
veins. Tin, tungsten and, more rarely, beryllium can occur in greisens associated with
intrusion of granitic magma and hot fluids.

There is a strong link between tin and rhyolite-derived topaz. Menzies (1995) reports
that cassiterite and topaz crystals are frequently found together in tin placer deposits.

Any district showing signs of greisen mineralization is a good target, especially tin
and tungsten deposits which correspond to known topaz mineralization. Accessory
minerals to tin and tungsten may include lesser molybdenum, bismuth and sulphide
minerals.

REFERENCES
Baker, J.M., Keith, J.D., Christiansen, Eric H. and Dorais, M.J., 2000. Topaz rhyolite-hosted
red beryl of Starvation Canyon, Thomas Range, Utah: contrasts and comparisons with
other red beryl occurrences (Abstract). Geological Society of America, Rocky Mountain
Division, Session No. 20, Gemstone and Seimiprecious Minerals and Host Rocks in the
Western United States, 54th Annual Meeting, May 7 to 9, 2002.

Barton, M.D. and Young, S., 2002. Non-pegmatitic deposits of beryllium: mineralogy,
geology, phase equilibria and origin. In: Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and
Geochemistry, Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, E.S. Grew (ed.), vol. 50,
Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., p. 591–691.

Burt, D.M., 1995. Topaz rhyolites in Arizona and the Southwest. Mineralogical Record,
vol. 26, no. 1, p. 67.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 159
8. Gem topaz and red beryl associated with rhyolites and greisens

Burt, D.M., Sheridan, M.F., Bikun, J.V. and Christiansen, E.H., 1982. Topaz rhyolites
– distribution, origin, and significance for exploration. Economic Geology, vol. 77,
p. 1818–1836.

Christensen, E.H., Keith, J.D. and Thompson, T.J., 1997. Origin of gem red beryl in Utah’s
Wah Wah Mountains. Mineral Engineering, vol. 49, p. 37–41.

Christiansen, E.H., Sheridan, M.F. and Burt, D.M., 1986. The geology and geochemistry of
Cenozoic topaz rhyolites from the western United States. Geological Society of America
Special Paper 205, 82 p.

Keith, J.D., Christiansen, E.H. and Tingey, D.G., 1994. Geological and chemical conditions
of formation of red beryl, Wah Wah Mountains, Utah. Utah Geological Association
Publication, vol. 23, p. 155–170.

Menzies, M.A., 1995. The mineralogy, geology and occurrence of topaz. Mineralogical
Record, vol. 26, no. 1, p. 5–56.

Shigley, J.E. and Foord, E.E., 1985. Gem-quality red beryl from the Wah Wah Mountains,
Utah. Gems and Gemology, vol. 20, no. 4, p. 208–221.

Thompson, T.J., Keith, J.D., Christiansen, E.H. and Tingey, D.G., 2000. Topaz rhyolite
hosted red beryl in the Wah Wah Mountains, Utah: A genetic model and mine update
(Abstract). Geological Society of America, Rocky Mountain Division, Session No. 20,
Gemstone and Seimiprecious Minerals and Host Rocks in the Western United States,
54th Annual Meeting, May 7 to 9, 2000.

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 9. APPLICATION TO YUKON GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
The single best resource for generating coloured gemstone targets in the Yukon is the
website for the Yukon Geological Survey (www.geology.gov.yk.ca). The site contains
information on Yukon geology, but also includes links for mineral claim maps,
assessment reports, library holdings, and databases such as Yukon MINFILE (Deklerk,
2003). The site has many downloadable digital files, including those for the posters
mentioned in the emerald section below.

The following references are also recommended.

British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles (see Appendix A)

1. Alkali basalt and lamprophyre-hosted sapphire and ruby (Simandl and

Paradis, 1999a)

2. Ultramafic-related corundum (Simandl and Paradis, 1999b)

3. Corundum in alumina-rich metasedimentary rocks (Simandl and Paradis,

1999c)

4. Colombia-type emeralds (Simandl et al., 1999d)

5. Schist-hosted emeralds (Simandl et al., 1999e)

Industrial Minerals, Gems and Minor Metals in the Yukon

by G. White (2003), ISBN 1–55362–126–3, www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Mining/YRMDP

Public mining company websites and securities commission filings

(look at technical reports and annual information forms), www.sedar.com

RUBY AND SAPPHIRES ASSOCIATED WITH ALKALI BASALT AND

OTHER VOLCANIC ROCKS
Most of the world’s rubies and sapphires are derived from deposits associated with
alkali olivine basalt. The information and suggestions provided in the 1996 Open File
(Walton) are still valid and summarized below, along with some new information.

Alkali olivine basalt is the primary rock type, especially those containing ultramafic
mantle xenoliths such as spinel-lherzolite nodules. The geographical expression of
the alkali basalt may be small hills, volcanic plugs, crater lakes and cinder cones. Two
papers by Francis and Ludden (1995), and Carignan et al. (1994) discuss mid-Tertiary
to recent alkaline volcanic complexes in the northern Cordillera. More recent

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 161
9. Application to Yukon geology

research by D. Francis1 and others is focusing on more detailed examination of the

chemistry and origin of the xenoliths and the recent alkaline magmas in the Canadian
Cordillera. There is information on alkali olivine basalt volcanic complexes on the
Geological Survey of Canada website2 and a detailed mineral deposit profile is in
Simandl and Paradis (1999a).

Alkaline basalt occurrences in the Yukon include, but are not limited to the following:

1. Alligator Lake (Eiche et al., 1987; Francis, 1987)

2. Watson Lake area

3. Fort Selkirk region (Francis and Ludden; 1990)

4. Southwest Dawson map sheet near the head of Moose Creek (Mortensen,
1988)

Spinel-lherzolite nodules have been documented at several localities including

Alligator Lake and Fort Selkirk. Megacrysts of clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene, olivine
and spinel occur at Alligator lake (Eiche et al., 1987). The Alligator Lake locality
contains the highest concentration of ultramafic nodules (D. Francis, pers. comm.,
1996). Results of chemical analysis on the alkali basalt indicate that the chemical
composition of the lavas is of the nepheline hawaiite, basanite and nephelinite
groups, cited by Barr and MacDonald (1978) as possibly having a relationship to
gem corundum. The volcanic complex at Fort Selkirk contains a large concentration
of spinel-lherzolite nodules and is chemically similar to gem-bearing corundum in
Thailand and Australia. The lavas at Fort Selkirk are very young, in fact the latest
eruption was within the last 100 years. In addition there are some alkali olivine
basalt occurrences near the Yukon, on the Alaska side of the border. Flynn (2003)
mapped the boundary area in Alaska near the border with the Yukon, and reports
basanite float rock about 0.5 km north of the customs area on the Top of the World
highway. There are other alkali basalt occurrences in Alaska and northern British
Columbia, including Prindle Mountain, a young alkali olivine basalt cinder cone south
of the Boundary area (Foster et al., 1966; Roughley et al., 2000).

Although one can directly prospect the alkali basalt occurrences in the Yukon, the
chances of finding a ruby or sapphire gem megacryst in bedrock are extremely
remote. A better method is to pan the streams draining the alkali basalts, in the
hopes that there has been some concentration of heavy minerals, especially in
unglaciated areas like the Klondike and Yukon/Alaska border region.

An exploration strategy for exploring for ruby and sapphire associated with alkali
basalt in the Yukon may be:

1. Examine published data on basalt occurrences and concentrate on those

basalts which are truly alkalic as opposed to tholeiitic, especially those
which are very undersaturated (nephelinites, etc.) Those which contain
spinel-lherzolite nodules should be given highest priority.

1http://www.eps.mcgill.ca/~donf/index.html
2http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/gsc/pacific/vancouver/volcanoes/volcanoes_e.html

162
 9. Application to Yukon geology

2. If a suitable target is discovered, then heavy mineral stream sediment

sampling from streams draining the basalt field should be done using a
cone sieve and looking for corundum or pathfinder minerals. Indicator
heavy minerals include black spinel, magnetite, clinopyroxene, ilmenite,
garnet and olivine. Special attention should be given to a search for zircon
crystals, which are often closely associated with gem corundum in alluvial
deposits overlying alkali basalt fields. For example, if one stream contains
gem zircon, a different stream 10 km away may contain gem yellow and
green sapphire. Use standard techniques for finding placer gold to find
concentrations of gem corundum in the gravel.

Lamprophyre dykes
The occurrence of sapphires in dykes of lamproitic affinity from Montana and
Scotland obviously illustrates that gem corundum can be brought up by igneous
rocks other than alkali basalts. Although there are no areas of abundant ultrapotassic
intrusions in the Yukon, locally, single lamprophyric dykes are present. These dykes
should be examined for sapphire content directly or by examining concentrate from
creeks draining them.

Porphyry deposits
Corundum is known to be associated with porphyry copper deposits. The streams
draining porphyry deposits should be examined for signs of gem corundum (Simandl
et al., 1977a,b; Simandl and Hancock, 1997).

RUBY AND SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH

ULTRAMAFIC ROCKS/FELDSPAR PEGMATITES
Ultramafic rocks associated with ruby deposits in Kenya are anomalous in chromium,
nickel and cobalt. Key and Ochieng (1991a,b) note that a successful exploration
program for rubies in Kenya utilized sieved and panned stream sediments. Wet-
sieving the 0.2 to 2.0 mm fraction is recommended since the red ruby colour is more
obvious. One of the authors notes that the ultramafic rocks have distinctive spectral
signatures and are easily recognized on high resolution satellite images. Simonet
and Okundi (2003) offer several prospecting suggestions for exploring for coloured
gemstone prospects, however, most are more suitable for a tropical climate.

Any feldspar-rich pegmatites intruding ultramafic or basic rock would be a good

target. Other gemstone exploration targets are aluminum-rich metasedimentary
rocks, perhaps originally derived from a bauxite deposit (Simandl, 1999), that have
been intruded by feldspar pegmatites. Ruby or sapphire crystals may be found in
the unit as a product of regional high-grade metamorphism, or at the contact zone
between pegmatites or granitic rocks and the metaluminous unit. Grey, opaque star
sapphire associated with alkali pegmatites cutting syenite-monzonite gneiss has been
noted in Alaska (Richter, 1970).

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 163
9. Application to Yukon geology

MARBLES AND HIGH-GRADE METAMORPHIC TERRAINS

The ‘best-quality’ rubies and sapphires are commonly found with marbles in high-
grade metamorphic rocks. Marble and high-grade metamorphic terrains are host
to several important gem deposits including ruby, sapphire, tsavorite garnet and
tanzanite. Obviously, there are very few similarities between Yukon geology and
the geology of the high-grade Highland Group rocks in Sri Lanka or rocks in the
Mozambique Orogenic Belt in East Africa; for example, the Sri Lankan rocks have been
subject to over a billion years of metamorphic and deformational effects. In general,
the metamorphic grade in the Yukon does not reach the levels that are needed for
ruby, sapphire and tsavorite garnet formation during regional metamorphism. With
this in mind, the Yukon-Tanana Terrane specifically does show some potential for
containing metamorphic rocks of sufficient temperature and pressure to form
gem corundum and other minerals. Marble beds, lenses or intercalations are good
targets for ruby and sapphire crystals, especially if they are within high-grade
metamorphic sequences or associated with ultramafic rocks. Abundant marble beds
and lenses containing tremolite-actinolite lenses occur in the Ashihik Lake area. The
metamorphic grade in this area reached upper amphibolite (S. Johnston, pers. comm.,
1996). Aplite dykes and pegmatites, also a good target, are located at the margins of
the Ashihik Batholith.

Rb/Sr isotopic ratios have been used in Sri Lanka as an exploration tool, however,
since the Rb/Sr ratio is a function of granulite facies metamorphism in Sri Lanka, it
would be of little value in the northern Canadian Cordillera.

Other places in Canada have better potential for high-quality ruby and sapphire
deposits. Two areas in particular are particularly promising for gem-quality ruby
and sapphire production: the Slocan Valley in British Columbia and Baffin Island in
Nunavut.

The Slocan Valley area in British Columbia

The gemstone occurrences in the Slocan Valley are described in detail in a technical
report filed by Anglo-Swiss Resource3. The Blu Starr property is located within high-
grade metamorphic rocks making up a portion of the Valhalla Metamorphic Core
Complex, a belt of high-grade metamorphic rocks of the garnet-amphibolite sub-
facies. Sapphires were first discovered in 1991 by prospector Rod Luchansky in a rock
cut exposed along an old Canadian Pacific railway grade. The sapphires are mainly
black and bronze, but good quality blue, grey, yellow, green and mixed colours are
present. At a different showing the gems are in a foliated leucocratic biotite syenite
gneiss intruded by feldspar-amphibole pegmatite sills and dykes, with a notable
absence of quartz. The syenite gneiss is tightly folded into a series of recumbent
isoclinal folds with an amplitude of 5 to 10 m. Small low-angle thrust faults were
developed during the folding episode and host a series of narrow pegmatitic sills. The
best blue gem sapphires occur on the hinge of a recumbent fold, directly above a
pegmatite sill and within the sill’s metasomatic halo. The sapphires occur sporadically
in the syenite gneiss for at least 50 m in length and are from 1 to 10 carats in size.

The company took a 150 tonne bulk sample of hand-sorted high-grade material and
recovered an estimated 20,000 carats of rough sapphire.

3See www.sedar.com.

164
 9. Application to Yukon geology

It is interesting to note that flake crystalline graphite in grey amphibole gneiss

associated with numerous felsic sills and white marble was noted on the
property. Depending on the metamorphic grade and other factors, it may have
potential for tanzanite and tsavorite garnet.

On a more regional scale, the British Columbia Geological Survey discovered a

sapphire occurrence in similar high-grade metamorphic rocks in the Revelstoke area,
and Anglo-Swiss Resources investigated the gem potential of land a few kilometres
away from the discovery.

Baffin Island, Nunavut

Nunavut is highly prospective for high-quality ruby and sapphire associated with
marble and high-grade metamorphic rock. The Paleoproterozoic Lake Harbour
Marble unit in southern Baffin Island in Nunavut shows particular promise as a gem-
producing locality. Lapis lazuli (Cade et al., 2003), spinel, gem hornblende (Wight,
1986) and other minerals associated with calc-silicate lenses in marble have been
reported from within this unit, and True North Gems Inc. optioned property on Baffin
Island with confirmed sapphire mineralization. Two cut sapphires of 0.20 carats and
0.68 carats show gorgeous deep blue colour.

HIGH-GRADE GRAPHITIC METAMORPHIC ROCKS AND MARBLE

One of the criteria for tsavorite garnet formation is graphitic high-grade metamorphic
rocks interbedded with marble. Although graphitic schists and gneisses are found in
the Yukon (Nasina Schist in the Klondike area), the metamorphic grades in the Yukon,
in general, do not reach anywhere near the required granulite facies for tsavorite
garnet formation. Although the area around the Aishihik Batholith shows evidence
of upper amphibolite to granulite facies metamorphism, and there are marble units,
there is little or no graphite (S. Johnston, per. comm., 1996).

Target areas using regional stream geochemical data might include vanadium
anomalies which correspond with graphitic schists or marbles in a highly
metamorphosed sequence of rocks. In general, the highest vanadium values in
the Yukon are concentrated along the Yukon/NWT border. Tanzanite and tsavorite
exploration could be carried out in conjunction with ruby and sapphire exploration
in high-grade marble terrains, particularly in areas that are known to have a high
graphite content. There may be potential for tsavorite garnet at certain asbestos
localities; for example, B. Wilson of Alpine Gems sells small, zoned, faceted tsavorite
garnet from the Jeffrey Mine (asbestos mine) in Quebec. Any asbestos locality
has potential for not only tsavorite garnet, but also a rare chromium garnet called
uvarovite.

ORGANIC BLACK SHALE SEQUENCES

Chapter 4 in this report describes the relationship between emeralds and organic
black shale sequences. Although there are thick sedimentary shale sequences in the
Yukon, none of the packages have associated interbedded evaporite sequences. Also,
most of the Yukon shale basins formed in deeper water than a lagoonal or
restricted basin setting. More suitable environments for emerald deposition may
be located in sedimentary sequences in western NWT, northern British Columbia

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 165
9. Application to Yukon geology

or northern Alberta. Nelson et al. (2002) examined the timing of mineralization,

isotopic characterization and tectonic setting of Mississippi Valley-type deposits
in the northern Canadian Rocky Mountains. The general model for Mississippi
Valley-type deposits, and in particular the Pine Point deposit in NWT is mentioned
several times (Giuliani et al., 1995; Ottaway, 1991) as comparable to the Colombian
emerald model. Comparison of the characteristics for northern Canadian Mississippi
Valley-type deposits to features noted in Colombian emerald deposits may lead to
identification of prospective areas for emerald mineralization. Evaporite sequences
interbedded with black shales would be of particular interest. Within the Western
Canada Sedimentary Basin, the Lower to Middle Devonian Elk Point Group is a thick
evaporitic sequence. It would not appear, on a regional scale, that this group has
undergone the same deformation and tectonic compression as in Colombia, but there
may be other similarities. It should be noted that black shale sequences in Canada are
more exposed than in the heavily forested jungle terrain of Colombia. Areas where
the black shales appear ‘bleached’ to a light grey colour should be investigated. These
areas may be spotted by air, noted on air photos or on satellite photos. Weathering
of the large amounts of pyrite associated with Colombian-type emerald deposits may
produce a traditional reddish orange gossan.

A different approach might be to examine the total metal content of black shale
sequences. The Lened emerald occurrence is genetically associated with vanadium-
rich black shales. Although the black shale basins of the Yukon may not be
prospective for Colombian-type emerald mineralization, they may have potential for
localized emerald occurrences based on late stage intrusive fluids interacting with
metalliferous black shales. The exploration target would be, on a regional scale or
a local scale, rare-element parental granites and pegmatites intruding metalliferous
black shales enriched in chromium or vanadium. The Yukon Geological Survey has
compiled geochemical stream sediment data onto maps showing areas in the Yukon
of regional enrichment in vanadium and chromium (Murphy et al., 2002). The “Roll
out the Beryl” poster (Lewis et al., 2003, see Appendix B) shows anomalous uranium,
tin, tungsten and molybdenum stream geochemistry (Héon, 2003).

PEGMATITES
Pegmatites are intrinsic to the formation of many types of gemstone deposits. In
particular, granites that may have potential to spawn rare-element pegmatites should
be targeted for examination, using some of the same information sources given in the
above section.

White (2003) published Industrial Minerals, Gems and Minor Metals in the Yukon. The
publication is full of useful information for gemstone exploration and is available
on-line4 at the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Yukon Government
website or at the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources library. The detailed
sections and location maps of rare elements and minerals that are typically
contained in gemstone pegmatites are of particular interest to the gemstone
permatite prospector. This includes cassiterite, fluorite, topaz (in the section on
gemstones), mica, minor metals (beryllium, cesium, niobium, gallium, germanium,
lithium, tantalum, thorium, tungsten and yttrium), nepheline syenites and rare-earth
elements. It should be noted that the new blue beryl occurrence discovered by True

4http://www.emr.gov.yk.ca/Mining/YRMDP/

166
 9. Application to Yukon geology

North Gems in 2003 is near two documented rare-earth element occurrences (Guano,
Yukon MINFILE 105F 081 and Nokluit, Yukon MINFILE 105F 080, Deklerk, 2003). In
addition, White offers sections pertaining to chromite and vanadium, two elements of
interest in emerald formation.

Rare-element pegmatites in the Yukon and closeby in neighbouring Northwest

Territories have been documented and studied by Groat et al. (1995), Ercit et al.
(2003) and Groat et al. (2003). In their paper describing results of research on
granitic pegmatites in the Yukon, Groat et al. (1995) note that considerable research
has been done on granitic pegmatite suites in the Canadian shield, for instance in
NWT and Manitoba, however, very little has been done on the economic potential
(rare-element or gemstone) of pegmatites in the Canadian Cordillera. By using the
following criteria, Groat et al. (1995) identified pegmatites or granites in the Yukon and
NWT of potential interest for rare-element content or rare-mineral species.

Groat et al. (1995) list the following characteristics used to identify granites which may
have formed gem-bearing or rare-element pegmatites in the Canadian Cordillera:

• Parent granite stocks are commonly isolated and typically small (less than
30 km2)

• These are S-type granites (derived from supracrustal source material)

• Commonly of mid-Cretaceous age

• Peraluminous (ASI index 1–2), commonly megacrystic and leucocratic

• Show initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios greater than 0.7100 (mostly 0.7200 to 0.7400)

• They commonly have a peraluminous accessory mineralogy (two-mica

granite, garnet or andalusite-bearing) or rare-element bearing accessory
mineralization (lepidolite = lithium)

The areas in the Yukon which were targeted by Groat et al. (1995) using the above
criteria are listed below:

• McQuesten River Region, central Yukon

• Clea Pluton, Selwyn Plutonic Suite, Yukon

• Ice Lakes area, Cassiar Batholith, southern Yukon

• Little Nahanni Pegmatite Group (on the NWT border) and O’Grady
Batholith (near the NWT border)

• Seagull Batholith, southern Yukon

• Thirtymile Pluton and Ark Stock, southern Yukon

• Mount Mye Batholith, Anvil Plutonic Suite, central Yukon

• Sekwi Mountain area, northern Yukon

• Macmillan Pass, eastern Yukon

• Whitehorse area, mid-Cretaceous suite, southern Yukon

• Emerald Lake, east-central Yukon

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 167
9. Application to Yukon geology

The most interesting areas, the Little Nahanni area (Groat et al., 2003) and O’Grady
Batholith (Ercit et al., 2003) are not in the Yukon, but are situated just across the
border in the NWT. Gem-quality tourmaline of cutting grade was noted at the
O’Grady Batholith locality in pegmatites at topographically high levels of the
batholith. The gem tourmaline5 is associated with lithium in the form of lepidolite
mica. The presence of lithium-enriched pegmatites was unexpected and further
geochemical studies of the batholith are being carried out.

Most of the other promising areas correspond to granitic intrusions related to

molybdenum, tungsten and tin deposits. The nature and distribution of granite-
related molybdenum, tungsten and tin deposits in the northern Canadian Cordillera
and related references are given in the posters produced by the Yukon Geological
Survey that are described in the next section. The association between tin, tungsten
and molybdenum deposits, pegmatites and gemstone deposits is a very strong
one. This association holds not just for gemstones crystallizing with pegmatites
but for those gemstones, especially emerald and chrysoberyl, which form in the
metasomatic contact zone between rare-element pegmatites and ultramafic host
rock. The “Roll out the Beryl” poster (Lewis et al., 2003) shows anomalous uranium,
tin, tungsten and molybdenum from the compilation of regional geochemical
datasets (Héon, 2003).

The granites in the tin-tungsten district in the Mayo region should be evaluated and
examined for pegmatites, especially in the margins of the intrusions. Groat et al.
(1995) did just this by examining the granitic plutons in the McQuesten River region of
central Yukon and found tourmaline-bearing segregations in the margins of the Two-
Sisters batholith, but no sign of actual pegmatites or rare-element enrichment. The
extent of this district is quite large (D. Murphy, pers. comm., 1996) and there are
numberous other granitic intrusions (Emond, 1992; Emond and Lynch, 1992)

EMERALD EXPLORATION IN GENERAL

Three specific posters produced by the Yukon Geological Survey (see Appendix B
or the Yukon Geological Survey’s website) provide essential information on emerald
exploration in the Yukon.

“WHAT ABOUT THOSE EMERALDS, EH?” (Murphy et al., 20036)

This poster presents information on the emerald occurrence at Regal Ridge, the
geology of the host rocks and prospective areas to explore for emeralds in the
Finlayson Lake area. Nearly all the areas outlined as prospective targets were staked
and then explored for emeralds in the summer of 2003. Also on the poster is a series
of maps showing geochemical data for the Yukon that is pertinent for emerald
exploration, including Yukon maps showing:

• Chromium reservoirs (occurrences of ultramafic rocks, volcanic rocks and

Earn group (metalliferous black shales) rocks in the Yukon

5www.alpinegems.net
6Murphy, D.C., Lipovsky, P.S., Stuart, A., Groat, L., Fonseca, A. and Piercey, S.J., 2002. “What about those

Emeralds, Eh?” Exploration and Geological Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian and Northern Affairs
Canada, poster.

168
 9. Application to Yukon geology

• Beryllium reservoirs: Occurrences of mid-Cretaceous intrusions and

plutonic rocks

• Where both types of reservoirs occur together.

Regional stream sediment value plots for cobalt, chromium, nickel and vanadium are
also given (Héon, 2003).

“ROLL OUT THE BERYL” (Lewis et al., 20037)

This poster presents an excellent ‘state of the art’ compilation of beryl mineralization,
occurrences and exploration criteria for gem beryl in the Yukon.

“YUKON ’S TUNGSTEN ADVANTAGE” (Hart and Lewis, 20028)

Tungsten is an element associated with many emerald deposits, including Regal
Ridge, Yukon, where scheelite precipitated during the waning stages of vein
precipitation and wallrock alteration. This poster presents an excellent review of
tungsten mineralization in the Yukon, including hardrock and placer tungsten.

From studies of the Regal Ridge emerald occurrence, the following exploration
criteria (from a field perspective) can be used while prospecting to explore for
potential ‘Regal Ridge’-style emerald occurrences.

• Devonian Fire Lake Unit chlorite schist (contains up to 5 ppm chromium)

• Cretaceous two-mica granite

• Black tourmaline along foliations in the chlorite schist

• Black tourmaline-quartz veins

• ‘Golden’-coloured schist

• Late-stage scheelite

• Fluorite

On a regional or detailed scale, soil geochemistry for beryllium, tungsten, chromium

± tin, copper and fluorine are effective up to a depth of 2 m.

ELEMENTAL THRESHOLD VALUES (IN PPM)

Rohtert and Montgomery (2001) report the following elemental threshold values for
soil geochemistry at the Regal Ridge area.
Note: The beryllium and tungsten values
in this chart are based on partial digestion Element Weak Moderate Strong Peak value (ppm)
process. Talus fines and soil samples Copper 50 100 200 1605
were sieved at -80 mesh, digested with
standard aqua regia leach and analysed
Beryllium 1 2 4 28.5
for 32 elements by Induced Coupled Tungsten 15 30 60 790
Plasma technique (ICP) at Chemex Labs
Ltd. in Vancouver, B.C.
7Lewis, L., Hart, C. and Murphy, D, 2003. Roll Out the Beryl. Yukon Geological Survey, Energy, Mines and
Resources, Yukon Government, poster.
8Hart, C.J.R. and Lewis, L., 2002. Yukon’s Tungsten Advantage. Exploration and Geological Services Division,

Yukon Region, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, poster.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 169
9. Application to Yukon geology

Unattractive, opaque pale green beryl has been noted in many places in the Cassiar
Batholith. Groat et al. (1995) report on its presence in a zoned pegmatite field south
of Ice Lakes on the Wolf Lake map sheet, southern Yukon; it is also present at the
Logtung deposit and discussed in Hart and Lewis (2002). Groat et al. (1995) suggest
that although the beryl pegmatites in the interior of the intrusion are uneconomic,
exploration should be carried out on known marginal to exterior pegmatites at the
eastern contact of the batholith, where more distal phases of the pegmatites might
be exposed. Most of the localities are associated with the Seagull Batholith or Cassiar
Batholith. Several excellent exploration targets for beryl are presented on the Hart
and Lewis (2002) poster.

Gem-quality topaz in miarolitic cavities has been found in the Cassiar Mountains area
east of Seagull Creek. This locality is described by Grice and Gault (1985). Sherry-
coloured topaz associated with alluvial cassiterite is reported from the Klondike area
from Germaine Creek and in the Selwyn Basin in skarn at the TEE claim (White, 2003).

EARTHQUAKES AND LANDSLIDES

A number of significant gemstone deposits have been discovered after landslides
and earthquakes exposed previously covered gem-bearing terrain. For example, it
was reported that the Kashmir sapphire deposit was exposed after a landslide in a
mountain cirque in 1881. Walthan (1999) notes that landslides exposed sapphires
in the Mogok area. A historical record on the ruby mines of Afghanistan reports
that the ruby and spinel deposits were not exposed until “after a sudden shock of
an earthquake, in Badaskshan, had rent asunder a mountain in that country, which
exhibited to the astonished spectators a number of sparking pink gems the size
of eggs.” The funny part is that women of that time valued lapis lazuli, which they
crushed and used to colour ultramarine pigment. When they found they could not
crush the pink-red gems (ruby) into powder, they threw them away (Hughes, 1997).

THE BE AND CR (OR V) OR WHATEVER…………CONNECTION

In the 1996 edition of this open file, geological and geochemical exploration for
coincident sources or anomalies of beryllium and chromium were emphasized. A
primary gemstone exploration target would be those areas where rare-element
pegmatites intrude or are close to any type of chromium-bearing rock or vanadium-
bearing rock. The chromium-bearing rock can be relatively fresh, for example,
peridotite, or be tectonically deformed and altered (talc-dolomite melange) or
metamorphic (biotite schist, serpentinite). The higher the amount of chromium,
the better the chance of emerald and/or chrysoberyl mineralization. In Africa,
stream sediment surveys are used in conjunction with airborne magnetic surveys
to delineate zones of anomalous beryllium and chromium. In areas covered with
overburden, the airborne surveys help define ultramafic rock formations under the
surface. This would include beryllium anomalies in areas showing geochemical
chromium anomalies, areas of ultramafic rock or aeromagnetic anomalies which
could represent buried ultramafic host rocks.

All of the above is still valid, but it has become undeniable that the criteria for
emerald deposits, at least, is less strict than it was ten years ago. One should not
only be aware of the beryllium and chromium/vanadium connection, but also the

170
 9. Application to Yukon geology

chemical composition of the host rocks, intrusions, structures and nearby mineral
occurrences.

Gemstone deposits of any type are extremely rare compared with the more familiar
and common precious metal, base metal and even diamond deposits. There is no
doubt that Canada will become a producer of quality coloured gemstones one day. It
is hoped that this report will generate interest in the exploration and identification of
these valuable gemstone deposits.

REFERENCES
Barr, S.M. and MacDonald, A.S., 1978. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of late Cenozoic
alkaline basalts of Thailand. Geological Society of Malaysia Bulletin, no. 10, p. 21–48.

Cade, A.M., Flemming, R.L. and Fleet, M.E. Lazurite from southern Baffin Island, Nunavut,
Canada. Gem Materials and Mineralogy, Special Session, Geological Association of
Canada (abstracts), May 26 to 28, 2003, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.

Carignan, J., Ludden, J. and Francis, D., 1994. Isotopic characteristics of mantle sources
for Quaternary continental alkaline magmas in the northern Canadian Cordillera. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters, vol. 128, p. 271–286.

Deklerk, R. (compiler), 2003. Yukon MINFILE 2003 – A database of mineral occurrences.

Yukon Geological Survey, CD-ROM.

Eiche, G.E., Francis, D.M. and Ludden, J.N., 1987. Primary alkaline magmas associated
with the Quaternary Alligator Lake volcanic complex, Yukon Territory, Canada.
Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, vol. 95, p. 191–201.

Emond, D.S., 1992. Petrology and geochemistry of tin and tungsten mineralized plutons,
McQuesten River region, central Yukon. Yukon Geology, Volume 3, Exploration and
Geological Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada,
p. 167–195.

Emond, D.S. and Lynch, T., 1992. Geology, mineralogy and geochemistry of tin and
tungsten veins, breccias and skarns, McQuesten River region (115P (North) and 105 M/13),
Yukon. Yukon Geology, Volume 3, Exploration and Geological Services Division, Yukon
Region, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, p. 133–159.

Ercit, T.S., Groat, L.A. and Gault, R.A., 2003. Granitic pegmatites of the O’Grady batholith,
NWT, Canada: A case study of the evolution of the elbaite subtype of rare-element granitic
pegmatite. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 41, p. 117–137.

Flynn, R.L., 2003. Geology of the Boundary area, Eagle A-1 and Tanacross D-1
quadrangles, east-central Alaska. Unpublished M.S. thesis, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, Alaska, U.S.A., 185 p.

Foster, H.L., Forbes, R.B. and Ragan, D.L., 1966. Granulite and peridotite inclusions
from Prindle Volcano, Yukon-Tanana Upland, Alaska. United States Geological Survey,
Professional Paper 550-B, B115-119.

Francis, D., 1987. Mantle-melt interactions recorded in spinel lherzolite xenoliths from the
Alligator Lake volcanic complex, Yukon, Canada. Journal of Petrology, vol. 28, p. 569–
597.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 171
9. Application to Yukon geology

Francis, D. and Ludden, J.N., 1986. Fe-rich olivine nephelinite primary magmas from Fort
Selkirk, Yukon, Canada. EOS, vol. 67, p. 390.

Francis, D. and Ludden, J., 1990. The mantle source for olivine nephelinite, basanite,
and alkaline olivine basalt at Fort Selkirk, Yukon, Canada. Journal of Petrology, vol. 31,
p. 371–400.

Francis, D. and Ludden, J., 1995. The signature of amphibole in mafic alkaline lavas,
a study in the northern Canadian Cordillera. Journal of Petrology, vol. 36, no.5,
p. 1171–1191.

Giuliani, G., Cheilletz, A., Arboleda, C., Carrillo, V., Rueda, F. and Baker, J.H., 1995. An
evaporitic origin of the parent brines of Colombian emeralds: fluid inclusion and sulphur
isotope evidence. European Journal of Mineralogy, vol. 7, p. 151–165.

Grice, J.D. and Gault, R.A., 1985. Jade, gold and topaz. Rocks and Minerals, vol. 60, no.1,
pp. 9–13.

Groat, L.A., Ercit, T.S., Marshall, D.D., Gault, R.A., Wise, M.A., Wengzynowski, W. and
Eaton, D.W., 2000. Newsletter, Mineralogical Association of Canada, no. 63 and also
(2001), Canadian Gemmologist, vol. 22, no. 3, p. 92–95.

Groat, L.A., Mulja, T., Mauthner, M., Ercit, T.S., Raudsepp, M., Gault, R.A. and Rollo, H.A.,
2003. Geology and mineralogy of the Little Nahanni rare-element granitic pegmatites,
Northwest Territories. Canadian Mineralogist, vol. 41, p. 139–160.

Héon, D. (compiler), 2003, Yukon Regional Geochemical Database 2003 – Stream

sediment analyses. Exploration and Geological Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian
and Northern Affairs Canada, CD-ROM.

Hudon, P., Simandl, G.J. and Martingnole, J., 1996. Corundum from the Empress Deposit,
British Columbia, Canada. Abstract. GAC/MAC Annual Meeting, Ottawa, Abstract
Volume, p. A-70.

Hughes, R.W., 1997. Ruby and Sapphire. RWH Publishing, Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A.,
512 p.

Key, R.M. and Ochieng, J.O., 1991a. The growth of rubies in south-east Kenya. Journal of
Gemmology, vol. 22, no. 8, p. 484–496.

Key, R.M. and Ochieng, J.O., 1991b. Ruby and garnet gemstone deposits in southeast
Kenya: the genesis and recommendations for exploration. In: African Mining 91, Elsevier
Science Publishers, Barking, Essex, p. 121–127.

Marshall, D.D., Groat, L.A., Falck, H. and Giuliani, G., 2003. Mineralogy and geochemistry
of the Lened emerald showing, southwestern Northwest Territories. Abstract, Geological
Association of Canada Meeting, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, May 26–28,
2003.

Mortensen, J.K, 1988. Geology of southwestern Dawson map area, Yukon Territory.
Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 88–1E, pp. 73–78.

Nelson, J., Paradis, S., Christensen, J. and Gabites, J., 2002. Canadian cordilleran
Mississippi valley-type deposits: A case for Devonian-Mississippian back-arc hydrothermal
origin. Economic Geology, vol. 97, p. 1013–1036.

172
 9. Application to Yukon geology

Ottaway, T.L., 1991. The geochemistry of the Muzo emerald deposit, Colombia. M.Sc.
thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 205 p.

Richter, D.A., 1970. A corundum occurrence in the eastern Alaska Range, Alaska. United
States Geological Survey Professional Paper 700-C, p. C98-C102.

Rohtert, W.R. and Montgomery, J.H., 2002. Qualifying Report – 2001 report on field
activities for the Regal Ridge emerald project, Yukon Territory, Canada. Prepared for True
North Gems Inc., www.sedar.com, 71 p.

Roughley, C.E., Edwards, B.R. and Russell, J.K., 2000. Crustal-derived xenoliths from
Prindle volcano, Alaska: Implications for the lithospheric stratigraphy of the central Yukon-
Tanana terrane (Abstract). Canadian Society of Exploration Geophysicists, June 1–2,
2000, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.

Simandl, G.J., Jones, P., Osborne, J.W., Payie, G. and McLeod, J., 1997a. Use of heavy
minerals in exploration for sapphires, Empress Cu-Au-Mo Deposit, British Columbia. British
Columbia Geological Survey, Geological Fieldwork 1997, Paper 1998–1, p. 26–1 to
26–12.

Simandl, G.J. and Hancock, K.D., 1997b. Sapphires/Rubies, Emeralds, and Precious Opal
Deposit Models – Possible Applications to British Columbia, Canada. 99th Annual General
meeting of CIM, Abstract, CIM Bulletin, vol. 90, p. 98.

Simandl, G.J., Hancock, K.D., Lambert, E., Hudon, P., Martignole, J. and Osborne, W.W.,
1997c. The Empress Cu-Au-Mo deposit – Gemstone and Industrial Mineral potential in
Geological Fieldwork, 1996. D. Lefebure, W.J. McMillan and J.G. McArthur, (eds.), British
Columbia Ministry of Employment and Investment, Paper 1997, p. 339–346.

Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S., 1999a. Alkali Basalt and Lamprophyre-hosted Sapphire
and Ruby. In: Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial
Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, (eds.), British Columbia Ministry of
Energy and Mines, Open File 1999–10.

Simandl, G.J. and Paradis, S., 1999b. Ultramafic-related Corundum (Contact

Metamorphic/Metasomatic). In: Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles,
Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, (eds.), British
Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999–10.

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Birkett, T., 1999c. Corundum in alumina-rich

metasediments. In: Selected British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3,
Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl, Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, (eds.), British Columbia
Ministry of Energy and Mines, Open File 1999–10.

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Birkett, T., 1999d. Colombia-type Emeralds. In: Selected
British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl,
Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, (eds.), British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines,
Open File 1999–10.

Simandl, G.J., Paradis, S. and Birkett, T., 1999e. Schist-hosted Emeralds. In: Selected
British Columbia Mineral Deposit Profiles, Volume 3, Industrial Minerals, G.J. Simandl,
Z.D. Hora and D.V. Lefebure, (eds.), British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines,
Open File 1999–10.

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 173
9. Application to Yukon geology

Simonet, C. and Okundi, S., 2003. Prospecting methods for coloured gemstone deposits
in Kenya. African Journal of Science and Technology, vol. 4, no. 1, p. 44–55.

Walthan, T., 1999. The Ruby Mines of Mogok. Geology Today, July-August, 1999,
p. 143–149.

Walton, L., 1996. Exploration Criteria for Gemstone Deposits and Their Application to
Yukon Geology. Exploration and Geological Services Division, Yukon Region, Indian
and Northern Affairs Canada, Open File 1996-2(G), 130 p.

White, G., 2003. Industrial minerals, gems and minor metals in the Yukon. Published by
Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Government of Yukon, Regional Mineral
Development Program, 244 p.

Wight, W., 1986. Gem hornblende from Baffin Island, NWT, Canada. Journal of
Gemmology, vol. 20, no. 2, p. 100–107.

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 APPENDICES

A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of emerald

deposits and exploration guides

B. Coloured posters available for downloading at

www.geology.gov.yk.ca/metallogeny/index.html

Exploration criteria for coloured gemstone deposits in the Yukon, by L. Walton, Tigerstar Geoscience 175
176
 APPENDIX A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of emerald deposits and exploration guides
Published with the permission of the British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
_________________________________________________________________________

ALKALI BASALT AND LAMPROPHYRE- HOSTED

SAPPHIRE and RUBY Q10

by G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

IDENTIFICATION

SYNONYMS: Alkali basalt-hosted, lamprophyre-hosted or volcaniclastic-hosted gem corundum deposits.

COMMODITIES (BYPRODUCT): Sapphire and ruby (zircon).

EXAMPLES (British Columbia (MINFILE #) - Canada/International): Mark diatreme (082N089); Yogo
Gulch (Montana, USA) Braemar, Stratmore and Kings Plains Creek (New South Wales, Australia),
Changle (China).

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

CAPSULE DESCRIPTION: Sapphires and rubies are found as xenocrysts in some hypabyssal or eruptive
alkalic rocks. The residual soil or regolith overlying these rocks can be enriched in sapphires and
rubies due to intense weathering which liberates the megacrysts from the matrix.
TECTONIC SETTINGS: Host rocks occur in continental and pericontinental settings related to rifts, deep
faults and/or hot-spots. In some cases they are interpreted to be subduction zone-related.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT / GEOLOGICAL SETTING: Corundum gems are brought to the
surface by alkali basalt eruptions. The highest grades are associated with diatreme and base surge
lithologies that erode quickly unless capped by weathering-resistant rocks, such as lava flows.
Significant corundum can also be present in lava flows and hypobysal equivalents of these
corundum-rich volcanic pulses.
AGE OF MINERALIZATION: Post-dates tectonic and metamorphic events. Typically hosted by Cenozoic
or younger rocks. Oligocene and Miocene in New South Wales, Australia.
HOST/ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES: Lava flows, hypabyssal intrusions and volcaniclastic rocks of alkali
basalt, lamprophyre, nephelinite, basanite or phonolite composition. Highly altered and/or
weathered volcaniclastic rocks, including reworked lahar flows and base surge and ash-fall deposits
commonly have the highest gem corundum content. Mantle and crustal rock xenoliths, including
lherzolites, peridotites and in some cases corundum-bearing gneiss, occur in the above lithologies.
There are little or no restrictions as to the lithology of the wallrock.
DEPOSIT FORM: With the exception of diatremes and volcanic necks, host igneous rocks are generally
tabular bodies (dykes, lava flows, pyroclastic flows). The flows and their erosional remnants vary
from less than a metre to several metres in thickness and extend from hundreds of metres to more
than several kilometres. Extensive, thin, heavy minerals-enriched layers can carry higher grades.
They form volcaniclastic aprons around diatremes and are possibly produced by base surges. High
grade zones may also form thin blankets associated with unconformities or recent erosional
surfaces. The lamprophyre dykes, such as Yogo, may consist of several en echelon segments from
less than a metre to several metres thick and hundreds of metres in length.

1
British Columbia geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada

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 APPENDIX A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of emerald deposits and exploration guides
_________________________________________________________________________
Published with the permission of the British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines

COLOMBIA-TYPE EMERALDS Q06

G.J. Simandl1, S. Paradis2 and T. Birkett3

IDENTIFICATION

SYNONYMS: Emerald veins, Muzo and Chivor-type emerald deposits.

COMMODITIES (BYPRODUCTS): Emeralds (pale-green and colorless beryl gemstones).

EXAMPLES (British Columbia - Canada/International): No Colombia-type emerald deposits are known in

British Columbia. Chivor, La Mina Glorieta, Las Cruces, El Diamante, El Toro, La Vega de San
Juan, Coscuez and Muzo (Colombia).

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

CAPSULE DESCRIPTION: Colombia-type emerald deposits consist mainly of carbonate-pyrite-albite

quartz veins forming “en échellon” or conjugate arrays and cementing breccias. So called
“stratiform tectonic breccias” may also contain emeralds. Emeralds are disseminated in the veins as
clusters, single crystals or crystal fragments; however, the best gemstones are found in cavities.
Country rocks are black carbonaceous and calcareous shales.

TECTONIC SETTING: Probably back arc basins (shales deposited in epicontinental marine anoxic
environments spatially related to evaporites) subjected to a compressional tectonic environment.

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT / GEOLOGICAL SETTING: The deposits are controlled by deep,

regional decollements, reverse or thrust faults; hydraulic fracture zones, intersections of faults and
by permeable arenite beds interbedded with impermeable black shales.
AGE OF MINERALIZATION: Colombian deposits are hosted by Cretaceous shales. Ar/Ar laser
microprobe studies of Cr-V-K-rich mica, believed to be penecontemporaneous with the emerald
mineralization, indicate 32 to 38 Ma for Muzo area and 65 Ma for Chivor district. It is not
recommended to use these age criteria to constrain the exploration programs outside of Columbia.

HOST/ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES: Emerald-bearing veins and breccias are hosted mainly by black
pyritiferous shale, black carbonaceous shale and slate. Claystone, siltstone, sandstone, limestone,
dolomite, conglomerate and evaporites are also associated. Two special lithologies described in
close association with the deposits are albitite (metasomatized black shale horizons) and tectonic
breccias (“cenicero”). The latter consist of black shale and albitite fragments in a matrix of albite,
pyrite and crushed black shale.

DEPOSIT FORM: The metasomatically altered tectonic blocks may be up to 300 metres in width and 50 km
in length (Beus, 1979), while individual productive zones are from 1 to 30 metres in thickness.
Emeralds are found in en échelon and conjugate veins that are commonly less than 10 centimetres
thick, in hydraulic breccia zones and in some cases in cenicero.

TEXTURE/STRUCTURE: Emeralds are found disseminated in veins as clusters, single crystals or crystal
fragments, however, the best gemstones are found in cavities. Quartz is cryptocrystalline or forms
well developed hexagonal prisms, while calcite is fibrous or rhombohedral. In some cases, emerald
may be found in black shale adjacent to the veinlets or cenicero.

ORE MINERALOGY [Principal and subordinate]: Emerald; beryl specimens and common beryl.

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C, Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
SOQUEM, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
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 APPENDIX A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of emerald deposits and exploration guides
Published with the permission of the British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
_________________________________________________________________________

CORUNDUM IN ALUMINA-RICH METASEDIMENTS P06

by G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

IDENTIFICATION

SYNONYMS: Corundum-bearing schists and paragneisses; corundum in metapelites and metabauxites are
covered by this model.
COMMODITIES (BYPRODUCTS): Industrial-grade corundum (gem corundum) and emery.
EXAMPLES (British Columbia - Canada/International): Blu Starr (082FNW259); Elk Creek, Bozeman
and Bear Trap deposits (Montana, USA), Gangoda and Tannahena occurrences (Sri Lanka),

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

CAPSULE DESCRIPTION: Corundum occurs as porphyroblasts or idiomorphic, xenomorphic or skeletal

crystals within high grade, regionally metamorphosed belts. It is confined to specific metamorphic
layers and concordant lenses of alumina-rich gneisses and schists. It is rarely of gem quality. Emery
is a fine-grained, black, granular rock composed of intergrowths of corundum, magnetite, hercinite
or hematite that commonly forms in medium to high grade metamorphic environments.
TECTONIC SETTINGS: Corundum in gneisses occurs mostly in fold belts or deep cratonic (catazonal)
environments exhumed in thrust belts or by erosion. Emery and related meta-bauxites may be found
in wide variety of tectonic environments.

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT / GEOLOGICAL SETTING: Most of these deposits form in

high-grade, mainly granulite facies, dynamothermal metamorphic (catazonal) environments.
Metasedimentary belts containing aluminous strata or lenses, in some cases intruded by igneous
rocks, are particularly favourable. Emery deposits are also known to occur in similar and lower
grade metamorphic environments.
AGE OF MINERALIZATION: Corundum is considered syn-metamorphic. The protolith may be
Precambrian or younger. Rocks that were exposed at the surface during periods of extreme chemical
weathering are particularly favourable
HOST/ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES: Corundum-bearing gneisses and schists are associated with
sillimanite-garnet-biotite gneisses, kyanite-mica schists, quartzites, clinopyroxenites, pegmatites,
syenites or alkaline intrusions, anorthosites, charnockites, migmatites, granitic and intermediate
intrusive rocks, quartz-mica schists, granulites, aplites, marbles, cordierite-bearing gneisses,
amphibolites and wollastonite-scapolite rocks. The lithologies hosting metasedimentary emery
lenses are commonly lower metamorphic grade equivalents of above listed rocks.
DEPOSIT FORM: Corundum-bearing, stratabound and discontinuous layers and lenses in gneisses are from
20 centimetres to a few metres in thickness and may be traced for tens to hundreds of metres along
strike. These layers are commonly strongly deformed, with coarse-grained “sweat outs” which may
cut across the gneissic texture. Emery may form lenses from 5 to more than 50 metres thick and
more than 100 metres in length.

1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada

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 APPENDIX A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of emerald deposits and exploration guides
Published with the permission of the British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
_________________________________________________________________________

SCHIST-HOSTED EMERALDS Q07

G.J. Simandl1, S. Paradis2 and T.Birkett3

IDENTIFICATION

SYNONYMS: Emerald deposits commonly described as “suture zone-related”, “pegmatite-related

schist-hosted” or “exometamorphic”, “exometasomatic”, “biotite schist-type”, “desilicated
pegmatite related” and “glimerite-hosted” are covered by this model.
COMMODITIES (BYPRODUCTS): Emerald (industrial grade beryl, other gemstones, such as aquamarine,
chrysoberyl, phenakite, tourmaline).
EXAMPLES (British Columbia - Canada/International): Socoto and Carnaiba deposits (Brazil), Habachtal
(Austria), Perwomaisky, Mariinsky, Aulsky, Krupsky, Chitny and Tsheremshansky deposits (Russia),
Franqueira (Spain), Gravelotte mine (South Africa), Mingora Mines (Pakistan).

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

CAPSULE DESCRIPTION: Emerald deposits principally related to mafic and ultramafic schists or
unmetamorphosed ultramafic rocks in contact with felsic rocks, either pegmatoid dykes, granitic
rocks, paragneisses or orthogneisses. Such contacts may be either intrusive or tectonic.
TECTONIC SETTINGS: Found in cratonic areas as well as in mobile belts. In many cases related to major
Phanerozoic or Proterozoic suture zones that may involve island arc-continent or
continent-continent collision zones. The lithological assemblages related to suture zones commonly
form a “tectonic mélange” and in some areas are described as “ophiolitic melange”.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT / GEOLOGICAL SETTING: Mainly in greenstone belts, but also in
other areas where Cr-bearing rocks may be adjacent to pegmatites, aplites, granites and other felsic
rocks rich in beryllium. Metamorphic grade is variable; however, it typically reaches green schist to
amphibolite facies.
AGE OF MINERALIZATION: The deposits are hosted by Archean age rocks or younger. The age of
mineralization is typically linked to either a period of tectonic activity or a time of pegmatoid
emplacement.
HOST/ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES: Biotite schists (“biotites”, “phlogopitites” and “glimerites”) are a
particularly favourable host. Other favourable hosts are metamorphosed mafic volcanic rocks, such
as epidote-chlorite-actinolite-bearing rock, chlorite and chlorite-talc schists, talc and talc-carbonate
schists, white mica schists, mafic schists and gneisses and amphibolites. Less commonly emeralds
occur in unmetamorphosed mafic or ultramafic rocks and possibly listwaenites. Pegmatites or quartz
veins in the contact zone between granitic rocks and mafic rocks may in some cases host emeralds.
A wide variety of rocks can be associated with schist-hosted emerald deposits, including granite,
syenite, tonalite, granodiorite, a variety of orthogneisses, marbles, black phyllites, white mica
schists, mylonites, cataclasites and other metasedimentary rocks.
DEPOSIT FORM: Most of the mineralization is hosted by tabular or lenticular mafic schists or “blackwall
zones”. Favourable zones are a few metres to tens of metres wide and follow the contacts between
felsic and mafic/ultramafic lithologies for distances of tens to hundreds of metres, but economically
minable portions are typically much smaller. For example, minable bodies in the Urals average 1
metre in thickness and 25 to 50 metres in length. Pegmatoids, where present, may form horizontal to
steeply dipping pods, lens-shaped or tabular bodies or anastomosing dykes which may be zoned.
1
British Columbia Geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada
3
SOQUEM, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada

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 APPENDIX A. Summaries of shale-hosted and schist-hosted types of emerald deposits and exploration guides
Published with the permission of the British Columbia Ministry of Energy and Mines
_________________________________________________________________________

ULTRAMAFIC-RELATED CORUNDUM Q09

(CONTACT METAMORPHIC/METASOMATIC)
by G.J. Simandl1 and S. Paradis2

IDENTIFICATION

SYNONYMS: Plumasite and marundite deposits, contact-metamorphic corundum and emery,

“desilication” or metasomatic sapphire.
COMMODITIES (BYPRODUCTS): Rubies, sapphires, industrial grade corundum and emery.
EXAMPLES (British Columbia - Canada/International): Corundum Hill (North Carolina, USA),
Emery Hill (New York, USA), Natal and Birdcage camp (South Africa), Umba (Tanzania),
Kinyiki Hill and Penny Lane ruby mine (Kenya).

GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS

CAPSULE DESCRIPTION: Sapphire, ruby and industrial grade corundum occur within, or
adjacent to, aplite, pegmatite, albitite, plumasite or marundite dykes, sills and rarely plugs
cutting mafic and ultramafic rocks and their metamorphosed equivalents. Industrial grade
corundum is also found commonly along contacts of mafic/ultramafic intrusions with
metapelites or other felsic country rocks. It may occur both within country rock and the
intrusion.
TECTONIC SETTINGS: These deposits occur in orogenic belts where felsic rocks are thrust
against silica-undersaturated rocks and within the stable cratons.
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT / GEOLOGICAL SETTING: Corundum is commonly found
in quartz-free reaction zones located along contacts of silica-deficient rocks, such as
ultramafic and mafic rocks, with pegmatite, paragneiss, syenite gneiss or other felsic rocks.
Country rocks are typically affected by medium to high grade regional metamorphism.
AGE OF MINERALIZATION: Archean or younger. Abrasive-grade corundum deposits are
commonly contemporaneous with contact metamorphism, while gem-quality corundum
may post-date metamorphism and the peak of the tectonic activity.
HOST/ASSOCIATED ROCK TYPES: Common host rocks are vermiculite ± chlorite
±asbestos-bearing rocks, plumasite (coarsegrained rock consisting of anhedral corundum crystals in
an oligoclase matrix), syenite, pegmatite, aplite or hornfels. Associated rocks are ultramafics, a
variety of mafic lithologies including gabbro, amphibolite, anorthosite, serpentinite, anthophyllite-
chlorite-talc schist, peridotite and dunite and peraluminous orthogneisses or paragneisses.
DEPOSIT FORM: Most of the dyke-associated or fracture-controlled deposits that crosscut ultramafic and
mafic rocks are planar or lens-shaped; rarely forming vertical plugs. They are less than a metre to 10
metres in thickness and may extend from few metres to several tens of metres along strike. These
deposits exhibit several types of mineralogical zoning from the center of the deposit outwards:
a) Corundum-chlorite > spinel - chlorite > enstatite > talcose rock > friable dunite > dunite;
b) plumasite > biotitite > pegmatite > serpentinite;
c) aplite> plumasite>spinel-magnetite rock > vermiculite and/or chlorite > actinolite >
talc>serpentinite;
d) barren pegmatite> marundite > talc-chlorite zone>amphibolite (pegmatite may not be
present).
1
British Columbia geological Survey, Victoria, B.C., Canada
2
Geological Survey of Canada, Sidney, B.C., Canada

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APPENDIX B. Coloured posters available for downloading at www.geology.gov.yk.ca/metallogeny/index.html
 APPENDIX B. Coloured posters available for downloading at www.geology.gov.yk.ca/metallogeny/index.html

183 183
184
APPENDIX B. Coloured posters available for downloading at www.geology.gov.yk.ca/metallogeny/index.html