ASSOCIATION CONNECTING

ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIES

IPC-CH-65A

Guidelines for Cleaning of

Printed Boards and Assemblies

ANSI/IPC-CH-65A
August 1999 A standard developed by IPC

Supersedes IPC-CH-65 2215 Sanders Road, Northbrook, IL 60062-6135

December 1990 Tel. 847.509.9700 Fax 847.509.9798
www.ipc.org
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Standardization Standardization as a guiding principle of IPC’s standardization efforts.
Standards Should: Standards Should Not:
• Show relationship to Design for Manufacturability • Inhibit innovation
(DFM) and Design for Engineering (DFE) • Increase time-to-market
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• Focus on end product performance • Contain anything that cannot
• Include a feedback system on use and be defended with data
problems for future improvement

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 ANSI/IPC-CH-65A
ASSOCIATION CONNECTING
ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIES

Guidelines for Cleaning

of Printed Boards
and Assemblies

Developed by the Cleaning Handbook Subcommittee of the Cleaning

and Coating Committee of IPC

APPROVED OCTOBER 5, 1999 BY

AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARDS INSTITUTE

Users of this standard are encouraged to participate in the

development of future revisions.

Contact:

IPC
2215 Sanders Road
Northbrook, Illinois
60062-6135
Tel 847 509.9700
Fax 847 509.9798
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

Acknowledgment
Any Standard involving a complex technology draws material from a vast number of sources. While the principal members
of the Cleaning Handbook Task Group (5-31d) of the IPC Cleaning and Coating Committee are shown below, it is not pos-
sible to include all of those who assisted in the evolution of this standard. To each of them, the members of the IPC extend
their gratitude.

Cleaning and Coating Cleaning Handbook Technical Liaisons of the

Committee Task Group IPC Board of Directors
Chair Chair
Dr. Frank R. Cala Dr. Frank R. Cala Stan Plzak Peter J. Murphy
Church & Dwight Church & Dwight Pensar Corp. Parlex Corp.

A Special Note of Appreciation

The following core group has volun- Peter Marc Carter, Rockwell Collins Jeffry F. Koon, Raytheon Systems
teered much of their time and has Alan S. Cash, Northrop Grumman Company
made significant contributions to Corporation Terry L. Munson, CSL Inc.
this document.
Brian N. Ellis, Protonique S.A. Mahendra K. Sharma, Eastman
Joe R. Felty, Raytheon Systems Chemical Company
Company Dr. John E. Sohn, Lucent
Beth A. Bivins, Petroferm Inc. Dr. William G. Kenyon, Global Technologies Inc.
Dr. Frank R. Cala, Church & Dwight Centre for Process Change

Cleaning Handbook Task Group

David C. Adams, Rockwell Collins Suae-chen Chang, Albemarle Dr. Leslie A. Guth, Lucent
John Sparks, U.S. EPA/OPPT Corporation Technologies Inc.
Edward Masami Aoki, Hewlett Robert Cooley, Stryker Instruments Bill Haines, Trek Industries Inc.
Packard Laboratories Edward C. Couble, Shipley Ronal Robert J. Hall, Calumet Electronics
David L. Arivett, Dynamic Details, Frances B. Crocram, Great Lakes Corp.
Inc. Chemical Corp. Dr. Michael E. Hayes, Petroferm Inc.
Iris Artaki, Lucent Technologies Inc. Duncan Culver, Telcordia Kenneth S. Hill, Raytheon Systems
Thomas R. Barrett, Legend Technical Technologies Company
Services Inc. Brian Deram, Kester Solder Division Saundra L. Hillman, Eastman
Dr. Yehuda Baskin, Superior Flux & Andrew Dobbs, Motorola SSTG Chemical Company
Manufacturing Co. Bernard Ecker, Litton Guidance & J. Sc Horton, Lucent Technologies
Terry Basye, Cincinnati Electronics Control Systems Inc.
Corp. Donald A. Elliott, Elliott Les Hymes, The Complete
Beth A. Bivins, Petroferm Inc. Technologies Inc. Connection
Rex L. Breunsbach, Electronic Brian N. Ellis, Protonique S.A. Martin W. Jawitz, Eimer Company
Controls Design Inc. Michael J. Engler, Hughes Space & Sue A. Jones, Compaq Computer
Dr. Frank R. Cala, Church & Dwight Communications Corporation
Co. Inc. Roger Etherington, Vulcan Chemicals Joseph E. Kane, Lockheed Martin
Thomas A. Carroll, Hughes Space & Corporation
Howard S. Feldmesser, Johns
Communications Co Hopkins University Donald Karp, Trace Laboratories -
Peter Marc Carter, Rockwell Collins Central
Joe R. Felty, Raytheon Systems
Alan S. Cash, Northrop Grumman Company Mario Kasilag, Aerojet Electronic
Corporation Sys.
Constantino J. Gonzalez, ACME, Inc.

ii
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Gerald W. Kenealey, GWK Robin L. O’Connor, Delphi Delco Steve Scherrer, Great Lakes Chemical
Enterprises Inc. Electronics Systems Corp.
Dr. William G. Kenyon, Global R.. Bruce Officer, Sanders, A Mahendra K. Sharma, Eastman
Centre for Process Change Lockheed Martin Co. Chemical Company
Jeffry F. Koon, Raytheon Systems Deepak Pai, General Dynamics Xianyu Shea, Stryker Instruments
Company Information Sys., Inc. Samuel W. Shoemaker, Morton
Vijay Kumar, Lockheed Martin Nitin B. Parekh, Unisys Corporation International
Electronics & Missiles E. Harry Parkinson, Compaq Tim Skidmore, Multicore Solders,
Thomas W. Lecky, Van Waters & Computer Corporation Inc.
Rogers Inc. Douglas O. Pauls, CSL Inc. Joseph T. Slanina, AlliedSignal
James F. Maguire, Boeing Defense & Ron Payne, Primex Aerospace Aerospace
Space Group Company Ronald A. Smith, Eastman Chemical
David Maitland, CYKEM-G Sandra Petty-Weeks, Motorola Inc. Company
Susan S. Mansilla, Robisan Charles M. Pitarys, Kyzen Dr. John E. Sohn, Lucent
Laboratory Inc. Corporation Technologies Inc.
Jim McLenaghan, Alpha Metals Inc. Bill Pozivilko, IBM Corp. John Stemniski, Charles Stark Draper
Evelyn A. Moore, Maryland MPC, Labs
Jim R. Reed, Raytheon Systems
LLC Company Carl J. Tautscher, Tautscher &
James R. Mulligan, E. I. du Pont de Associates
Rick Reynolds, Precision Cleaning
Nemours and Co. for Advanced Technologies Dr. Laura J. Turbini, Georgia Institute
Terry L. Munson, CSL Inc. Magazine of Technology
Michele Nelson, 3M Company Paul J. Roselle, Lockheed Martin Nick Virmani, Naval Research Lab
Beverly Newton, Dionex Corporation Corporation John S. Williamson, U.S. Air Force
Richard D. Nicholas, Enthone-OMI John F. Russo, Separation Lee R. Wilmot, Hadco Corporation
Inc. Technologists Inc. Philip W. Wittmer, Delphi Delco
David Nicol, Lucent Technologies Electronics Systems
Inc.

iii
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

Table of Contents
1 BACKGROUND ........................................................... 1 6.2 Residues: Nature and Scope ............................... 12
1.1 Purpose .................................................................. 1 6.2.1 Incoming Parts .................................................... 12
1.2 Scope ..................................................................... 1 6.2.2 Assembly Process Contaminants........................ 13
1.3 Current and Emerging Cleaning and Related 6.3 Individual Processes, Residues and Cleaning
Issues ..................................................................... 2 Issues ................................................................... 19
1.4 Terms and Definitions........................................... 2 6.3.1 Pre-Soldering (No-Clean) ................................... 19
6.3.2 Post Reflow Cleaning ......................................... 20
2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS ...................................... 2
6.3.3 Post Wave Solder Cleaning ................................ 22
2.1 IPC......................................................................... 3
6.3.4 Mixed Technology Cleaning............................... 23
2.2 Joint Standards ...................................................... 3
6.3.5 Post Manual Soldering Cleaning........................ 24
2.3 Telcordia Technologies (Formerly Bellcore)........ 3
6.3.6 Post Manual Rework/Repair Soldering
2.4 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Cleaning............................................................... 25
(OSHA) ................................................................. 3
6.4 Assembly Cleaning Media and Equipment........ 25
2.5 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)............. 3
6.4.1 Solvent Cleaning ................................................. 25
2.6 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)...... 4
6.4.2 Aqueous Cleaning ............................................... 28
2.7 American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
American Society for Quality Control (ASQC) .. 4 6.4.3 Semiaqueous Cleaning........................................ 32

3 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL .............................. 4 7 LESSONS LEARNED ............................................... 33

3.1 Safety..................................................................... 4 7.1 White Residues ................................................... 33
3.2 Environmental ....................................................... 4 7.2 Tan Residues ....................................................... 33
7.3 Gray Residues ..................................................... 33
4 DESIGN FOR CLEANING COMPATIBILITY .............. 5
7.4 Temporary Solder Mask ..................................... 33
4.1 Spray Processes..................................................... 5
7.5 Solder Mask ........................................................ 33
4.1.1 Batch Equipment................................................... 6
7.5.1 Ultraviolet Cured Solder Mask........................... 33
4.1.2 Conveyor-Type Equipment ................................... 6
7.5.2 Dry Film Solder Mask........................................ 33
4.2 Immersion Equipment........................................... 6
7.6 Surface Roughness.............................................. 33
4.2.1 ‘‘Spray-Under-Surface’’ Machines........................ 6
7.7 Drying.................................................................. 34
4.2.2 Centrifugal Machines............................................ 6
7.8 Copper Surface Cleanliness Testing................... 34
4.2.3 Ultrasonic Machines ............................................. 6
7.9 Water Pressure..................................................... 34
5 BOARD FABRICATION............................................... 7
8 VERIFICATION PROCESS CONTROL .................... 34
5.1 General .................................................................. 7
5.1.1 Flow Paths............................................................. 7 8.1 Introduction ......................................................... 34
5.2 Typical Fabrication Operations............................. 8 8.2 Good Manufacturing Procedures........................ 34
5.2.1 Laminate................................................................ 8 8.2.1 Quality Program.................................................. 34
5.2.2 Shearing/Panelization............................................ 8 8.2.2 Documentation of the Quality System ............... 34
5.2.3 Drilling .................................................................. 9 8.2.3 Control of Procured Material ............................. 34
5.3 Cleaning Processes Specific to Board 8.2.4 Manufacturing Controls ...................................... 35
Fabrication............................................................. 9 8.2.5 Completed Item Inspection................................. 35
5.3.1 Mechanical Cleaning............................................. 9 8.2.6 Control of Nonconforming Materials................. 35
5.3.2 Chemical Cleaning.............................................. 10 8.2.7 Corrective Action Program ................................. 35
5.3.3 Aqueous Based Cleaning .................................... 11 8.2.8 Storage, Handling and Packaging ...................... 35
5.4 Cleanliness Test Methods and Recommended 8.2.9 Periodic Product Qualification............................ 35
Limits................................................................... 11
8.2.10 Quality Information............................................. 35
6 ASSEMBLY ................................................................ 11 8.2.11 Collection and Analysis of Field Performance
6.1 General Issues ..................................................... 11 Data ..................................................................... 35

iv
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

8.2.12 Process Monitoring ............................................. 35 Tables

8.2.13 Data Collection and Reporting ........................... 35 Table 5-1 Common Operations ............................................ 7
8.3 Test and Validation ............................................ 36 Table 5-2 Additional Steps for .............................................. 7
8.3.1 Direct Detection of Contamination .................... 36 Table 5-3 Additional Steps for HDIS (Microvia) Circuits ...... 7
8.3.2 Indirect Detection of Contamination.................. 38 Table 6-1 Common Solvents Used in Cleaning Process... 25
Table 8-1 Elements of a Quality Assurance Program........ 34
Table 8-2 Documentation Hierarchy................................... 35
Figures
Table 8-3 Direct Cleanliness Tests..................................... 36
Figure 6-1 Flow Diagram for Pre-Soldering Cleaning Table 8-4 Examples of Commercial Instruments for
Options............................................................. 20 Solvent Extract Conductivity Tests ..................... 37
Figure 6-2 Flow Diagram for Post Reflow Cleaning ......... 21 Table 8-5 Physical Methods for Surface Analysis.............. 38
Figure 6-3 Flow Diagram for Post Wave Solder Table 8-6 Indirect Cleanliness Tests .................................. 39
Cleaning........................................................... 22
Table 8-7 Examples of Insulation Resistance Testers ....... 39
Figure 6-4 Flow Diagram for Mixed Technology
leaning ............................................................. 24
Figure 8-1 Examples of Insulation Resistance Response
to Humidity and Bias ....................................... 40

v
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

vi
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Guidelines for Cleaning of Printed Boards and Assemblies

1 BACKGROUND modern cleaning technology is up to the task. Much has

This revision of IPC-CH-65 covers cleaning of both bare been learned in recent years regarding assembly and bare
boards and assemblies. It is intended to be a road map to board cleaning. Many papers have been written and/or pub-
cleaning which covers both current and emerging technolo- lished over the past few years regarding the cleaning needs
gies. for devices such as flip chips, BGAs, as well as the clean-
When the IPC-CH-65 guide was first published in Decem- liness requirements and risks associated with the low resi-
ber 1990, the world of electronics was quite different than due, no-clean approach. The ’90s have also witnessed
it is today. At that time, through-hole was king and low important improvements in the efficacy of cleaning equip-
residue flux used with a no-clean process was at a very ment. Waste treatment and close-looping are fairly well
early stage on the learning curve. Nothing much more dif- understood technologies at this point in time.
ficult than 50-mil pitch was normally encountered and this 1.1 Purpose The purpose of IPC-CH-65A is to serve as
pitch could hardly be imagined as being in the form of a an updated, user-friendly road map for both fabrication and
package such as a Ball Grid Array (BGA). Similarly, board assembly cleaning. The key words are ‘‘updated,’’ ‘‘user-
fabrication was a simpler process with fewer options. friendly’’ and ‘‘road map.’’
Cleanliness requirements for both assemblies and board 1.2 Scope This manual is a road map for current and
fabrication were not as demanding in 1990 as they are developing cleaning issues, rather than to function as a
today. Relatively wide line traces on the boards and larger highly detailed document for all areas touched on. In areas
pitches on the components made the removal of trouble- of cleaning where recent detailed IPC manuals already
some residues less demanding and more forgiving. Impor- exist, the relevant sections in IPC-CH-65A will contain
tantly, less than adequate cleaning of bare boards prior to only sufficient information to make the reader reasonably
use by the assembler did not pose a significant problem, knowledgeable. This guideline manual will refer the reader
only because the completed assemblies were normally to appropriate existing IPC documents (where they exist)
washed. for in-depth information on the particular subject. An
The choice of cleaning agents was much more limited example of such a reference IPC manual is IPC-AC-62,
when this manual was first published. Chlorinated solvents Aqueous Cleaning Handbook. It is only where existing IPC
were still used widely and there were few, if any, new documents are not available that IPC-CH-65A will expand
offerings from the cleaning agent vendors. Many of today’s information beyond the basics in order to cover what is
cleaning agent manufacturers had not yet started, or were currently known about the subject. A benefit of this
just beginning, to research on cleaning products designed approach is that the manual does not become unwieldy and
to meet the needs for cleaning electronic assemblies. Semi- tends to foster a user-friendly environment.
aqueous, two step cleaning systems (e.g., solvent wash plus Both bare board fabrication and assembly cleanliness
water rinse) had been introduced relatively recently. Aque- issues are addressed. The fabrication and assembly sections
ous, inorganic based saponifiers were not yet part of the are separated for ease of access. In the original IPC-CH-65,
electronics cleaning picture. Solvents such as hydrofluoro- these sections were very much intertwined. However, it
carbons (HFCs) hydrofluoroethers (HFEs), volatile methyl was recognized that for a subject such as the required
siloxanes (VMSs) and n-propyl bromide (nPB) were devel- cleanliness of finished bare boards, basically redundant
oped relatively recently. teachings are required for both the fabrication and assem-
With the exception of ozone depletion, environmental bly sections.
issues and worker safety were not nearly as fully under- The fabrication section starts off by covering general
stood or regulated as they are today. Volatile organic com- issues, as well as the sources and nature of residues. It then
ponents (VOCs) regulations, for example, were just begin- covers various cleaning steps that occur during fabrication
ning to impact operations and, overall, were not as of printed circuit boards (or more correctly, substrates).
demanding as they are today. An analogous situation Fabrication cleaning takes into consideration the specific
existed for waste disposal and close-looping, with the addi- needs associated with a number of new surface finishes. It
tional complication that treatment processes were in the is important to note that for bare boards destined for
process of being developed for this field. no-clean assembly, the cleanliness requirements for fin-
While the world of assembly and fabrication cleaning ished bare boards have increased dramatically in impor-
needs has become significantly more challenging and com- tance. This is particularly the situation for Hot Air Solder
plex during the decade of the 90s, it can safely be said that Leveling (HASL) processed boards.

1
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

The assembly section also starts off by discussing general do arise in the future, they will likely be because BGAs
issues and the sources and nature of residues. It covers acquire such a large number of I/O balls that washing,
each of the processes for assembling boards, as well as the rinsing or drying becomes significantly more of a chal-
associated cleaning issues. This section includes a discus- lenge. There is also an emerging need for cleaning under
sion of cleaning media and equipment. Obviously, this is flip-chips in order to ensure the adherence of underfill.
an extremely important area, wherein the reader will be Similarly, cleaning is still an important operation for the
made aware of their wide array of options. Importantly, optimum performance of conformal coatings.
post hand soldering and post repair soldering cleaning are
The ability to effectively clean stencils has become signifi-
also included.
cantly more important. Greater demands on stencil printing
While the primary focus of this manual is fabrication and have emerged with the advent of fine and ultrafine parts, as
assembly cleaning, key related subjects are found in other well as ball grid arrays. Clean stencils are a must in deliv-
sections. Modern cleaning cannot be properly discussed ering the proper amount of paste. A partially or fully
without also addressing the issues of worker safety and the obstructed aperture on a stencil is more likely to occur with
environment. today’s finer pitch devices. It has been estimated that
approximately 70% of SMT solder defects are due to sol-
1.3 Current and Emerging Cleaning and Related der paste printing problems.
Issues For a number of reasons, most notably the advent
of low residue (i.e., no-clean) flux/paste, there is a too Environmental and worker safety issues are very much a
common misconception that cleaning is becoming a con- part of the today’s cleaning picture. Fabricators and assem-
cern of the past. Those who truly understand the nature and blers alike must consider factors such as VOCs, BODs,
the demands of today’s technologies, however, do not gen- CODs (Volatile Organic Compounds, Biological Oxygen
erally foster this fallacy. Demand and Chemical Oxygen Demand, respectively),
waste water treatment, heavy metals, close-looping and pH.
The reality is that the overall need for cleaning has not Because of demanding official regulations (federal and/or
diminished. Cleaning needs have either shifted or remained local), it can be one or more of these factors that determine
where they were and, in addition, new needs have devel- the choice of a cleaning system. (See Section 3.)
oped. For example, those who are knowledgeable about
low residue assembly teach that no-clean process does not 1.4 Terms and Definitions Terms and definitions used
mean no cleaning. Cleaning plays a key role in the success- herein are in accordance with IPC-T-50, except as other-
ful implementation of a no-clean process. Low residue wise specified.
assembly has simply shifted cleaning from the assembly Solvent Cleaning* – The removal of organic and inorganic
stage, back to the bare board fabrication and even the com- soils using a blend of polar and nonpolar organic solvents.
ponent manufacturing stages.
Wash or Washing – The primary cleaning operation that
A need has even developed to clean low residue assemblies removes undesirable impurities (contaminants) from sur-
prior to shipment. Contract assemblers performing low faces by chemical and physical effect.
residue soldering have found that some customers demand
cleaned assemblies, regardless of the nature of the flux Rinse or Rinsing – A cleaning operation (usually follow-
used to perform the assembly operation. While some (not ing the wash step) where fresh cleaning medium replaces
all) flux/paste manufacturers state that low residue fluxes/ any residual contamination, leaving surfaces wet with pure
pastes should not be cleaned, the reality is that there are cleaning medium.
assemblers who are cleaning certain ‘‘no-cleans’’ with spe- Dry or Drying – The process of removing any residual
cific cleaning agents. cleaning medium on the surface of the washed and rinsed
For many in the assembly community, the no-clean parts.
approach is often not a viable option. Operations often Assembly – A number of parts of subassemblies or any
cannot adhere to the requirements of a no-clean process or combination thereof joined together.
they simply have assemblies that must be cleaned to meet
performance expectations. Note: Any definition denoted with an asterisk (*) is a
reprint of the definition defined in IPC-T-50.
Continuing developments in the area of surface mount
(SMT) have brought about additional cleaning needs. 2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS
Spaces on electronic assemblies have become increasingly This section contains references to industry standards, fed-
confined. Both cleaning agents and equipment have man- eral regulations, test methods and vehicles that are appli-
aged to meet this challenge. Currently, cleaning under cable to cleaning of printed boards and assemblies. Not all
BGAs does not appear to be a problem because of their of these are cross-referenced in the text. They are listed
relatively high standoff height and ball pitch. If difficulties below for the convenience of the readers.

2
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

2.1 IPC1 2.6.3.1 Moisture and Insulation Resistance Polymeric

Solder Masks and Conformal Coating
IPC-B-24 Surface Insulation Resistance Test Board
2.6.3.3 Surface Insulation Resistance, Fluxes
IPC-B-25 Multipurpose 1 & 2 Sided Test Board
IPC-6012 Qualification and Performance Specification for
Rigid Printed Boards
IPC-B-36 Cleaning Alternatives Test Board
2.2 Joint Standards1
IPC-SC-60 Post Solder Solvent Cleaning Handbook
J-STD-001 Requirements for Soldered Electrical and Elec-
IPC-SA-61 Post Solder Semiaqueous Cleaning Handbook tronic Assemblies

IPC-AC-62A Post Solder Aqueous Cleaning Handbook J-STD-002 Solderability Tests for Component Leads, Ter-
minations, Lugs, Terminals and Wires
IPC-CS-70 Guidelines for Chemical Handling Safety in
Printed Board Manufacture J-STD-003 Solderability Tests for Printed Boards

IPC-PC-90 General Requirements for Implementation of J-STD-004 Requirements for Soldering Fluxes
Statistical Process Control
J-STD-005 Requirements for Soldering Pastes
IPC-FC-231 Flexible Bare Dielectrics for Use in Flexible
J-STD-006 Requirements for Electronic Grade Solder
Printed Wiring
Alloys and Fluxed and Non-Fluxed Solid Solders for Elec-
IPC-FC-232 Specification for Adhesive Coated Dielectric
tronic Soldering Applications
Films for Use as Cover Sheets for Flexible Printed Wiring 2.3 Telcordia Technologies2 (Formerly Bellcore)

IPC-FC-241 Flexible Metal-Clad Dielectrics for Use in GR-78-CORE Issue 1, September 1997
Fabrication of Flexible Printed Wiring
2.4 Occupational Safety and Health Administration
IPC-D-249 Design Standard for Flexible Single and (OSHA)3
Double-Sided Printed Boards
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.1000 Air Contaminants
IPC-TR-580 Cleaning and Cleanliness Test Program Phase
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134 Respiratory Protection
1 Test Results
OSHA 29 CFR 1910.106 Flammable and Combustible Liq-
IPC-A-600 Acceptability of Printed Boards uids
IPC-A-610 Acceptability of Printed Board Assemblies 2.5 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)4

IPC-TM-650 Test Methods Manual EPA 40 CFR 355.30 (b) Emergency Release Notification
2.3.1.1 Chemical Cleaning of Metal Clad Laminate
EPA 40 CFR 370.20 Hazardous Chemical Reporting: Com-
2.3.25 Detection and Measurement of Ionizable Surface munity Right To Know - Applicability
Contaminations
2.3.27 Cleanliness Test – Residual Rosin EPA 40 CFR 370.21 Hazardous Chemical Reporting: Com-
munity Right To Know - MSDS Reporting
2.3.28 Ionic Analysis of Circuit Boards, Ion Chroma-
tography Method EPA 40 CFR 370.25 Hazardous Chemical Reporting: Com-
2.3.38 Surface Organic Contaminant Detection Test munity Right To Know - Inventory Reporting
2.3.39 Surface Organic Contaminant Identification Test
EPA 40 CFR 423 Steam Electric Power Generating Point
(Infrared Analytical Method)
Source Category
2.5.27 Surface Insulation Resistance of Raw Printed
Wiring Board Material EPA 40 CFR 433 Metal Finishing Point Source Category

1. IPC, 2215 Sanders Road, Northbrook, IL 60062

2. Telcordia Technologies, 445 South Street, Morristown, NJ 07960-6438
3. OSHA, Public Affairs Office - Room: 3647, 200 Constitution Avenue, Washington, DC 20210
4. EPA, 401 Main Street SW, Washington, DC 20460-0003

3
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

2.6 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)5 practices, or both, at or below the TLV for eight-hour expo-
sures as published by the American Conference of Govern-
NFPA 35 Standard for the Manufacture of Organic Coat- mental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) and/or the National
ings Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). This
applies where OSHA has not established a PEL or STEL,
2.7 American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
American Society for Quality Control (ASQC)6
OSHA requires that engineering controls (i.e., local venti-
lation) to be the primary method of controlling employee
ANSI/ASQC Z-1.15 Generic Guidelines for Quality Sys- exposure, and requirement to wear personnel protective
tems equipment (PPE) in the form of respirators to be used as a
last resort if engineering controls fail to control exposures.
3 SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL Should wearing of respirators be required to adequately
Although Chapter 3 is specifically concerned with US leg- protect workers from vapors of cleaning solvents, the user
islation and codes of practice, most other nations have is required to have a written respiratory protection plan.
similar regulations in some form or another. They may be (Reference 29 CFR 1910.134)
more or less severe and may be applied differently. The
Health effects in addition to potential inhalation hazards
general theme of this chapter is universally applicable, but
include irritation to, or corrosion of eye and skin tissues.
it should be read with local regulations in mind and an
An evaluation of eye and/or face protection requirement
attention to details.
should be done. Skin irritation or corrosion may be a
For in-depth information on the safety and environmental potential hazard and it can be prevented by wearing appro-
issues involved in the various approaches to cleaning, it is priate protective gloves. Proper equipment should be used
strongly recommended that the reader consult the indi- when dispensing chemicals or cleaning equipment. Recom-
vidual IPC manuals for post solder aqueous (IPC-AC-62), mended protective equipment is listed in the MSDS that
semiaqueous (IPC-SA-61) or solvent cleaning (IPC-SC- suppliers ship with the cleaning agents.
60).
Factory Mutual (FM) and the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) regard liquids with a flash point below
3.1 Safety Cleaning agents are chemicals. As such they
60°C [140°F] to be ‘‘flammable,’’ and liquids whose flash
are subject to the rules and regulations governing the use of
point is above 60°C [140°F] but below 93.3°C [200°F] to
chemicals in the work place. The law requires that any per-
be ‘‘combustible.’’ Flammable liquids pose explosion haz-
sonnel who may work with semiaqueous cleaning agents
ards if their vapors are not properly removed by either
and any other chemicals have access to the Material Safety
local or general ventilation. Users of flammable solvent
Data Sheet (MSDS) for those materials. Users should
cleaners must also recognize that installations where these
always make themselves intimately knowledgeable of all
liquids are to be used must conform to certain construction
the MSDS applicable to the materials in use. Conscientious
standards such as explosion proof wiring, switches, lights,
suppliers provide an abundance of information to users on
motors, etc. (Reference NFPA 35 and OSHA 29 CFR
toxicity testing, health hazards, waste disposal, safe work
1910.106.) Users of flammable liquids should also verify
practices, protective equipment, material reactivity and
with their local fire department concerning the need for
flammability, etc. These documents should be read and
notification and permission of the use of these liquids.
used.
Notification is also required under EPA’s Community Right
The work area should be well ventilated and exposure to to Know regulations 40 CFR 355.30(b), 370.20, 370.21
chemicals should be minimized. It is important for worker and 370.25 to report storage and usage of certain chemicals
safety that vapors of chemical used in the manufacturing to both the local fire department and emergency planning
area be maintained below the maximum threshold limit commission.
value (TLV). It is a legal requirement to maintain worker
For complete safety information, please refer to IPC-CS-70
exposure to solvent vapors at or below the Permissible
‘‘Guidelines for Chemical Handling Safety in Printed
Exposure Limit (PEL) for eight-hour exposures, and at or
Board Manufacture.’’ It should also be noted that when
below the Short Term Exposure Limit (STEL) for shorter
using any chemical, a current MSDS (as supplied by the
time periods (typically 15 minutes) as published by Occu-
chemical manufacturer) must always be reviewed.
pational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the
air contaminants section of 29 CFR 1910.1000.
3.2 Environmental The selection of a solvent cleaner
It is equally important to maintain worker exposures to must incorporate the inherent impact on air emissions,
solvent chemicals through proper local ventilation or work water discharges and waste generation from the facility.

5. NFPA, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02269-9101

6. ANSI, 11 West 42nd Street, New York, NY 10036

4
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Each of these three environmental mediums may require a designer (CAD operator) must be aware of the manufactur-
permit depending on the usage rate and existence of other ing process and its limitations. As a general rule, through-
air emissions, water discharges and waste generation at that hole assemblies offer fewer problems than surface mount
facility. assemblies do and, in particular, those on high-density
interconnection structure (HDIS) substrates.
All contaminants removed from the assemblies, together
with detergents and perhaps rinsing aids will ultimately In some cases, there may be a conflict between the require-
require disposal to some water system. The regulations ments for a good electrical design, a good layout for sol-
controlling limits of what can and cannot be discharged dering and a good layout for cleaning. In these cases, the
from the plant are governed by local authorities. Analysis designer should attempt to find an adequate compromise
of the waste stream for biochemical oxygen demand but the shop floor personnel must be warned that some
(BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), pH, lead and problems may be expected. By altering the equipment
perhaps other heavy metals, total suspended solids (TSS), parameters, it may be possible to overcome or reduce the
or other parameters will be necessary to determine compli- problems engendered by the compromise. The following
ance with local regulations. In some areas the effluent can paragraphs will therefore ignore the requirements of elec-
be discharged to municipal systems without further treat- trical design and soldering.
ment while in other areas the same waste stream would When cleaning of high-density surface mount assemblies is
require extensive treatment. However, the trend over the required, the CAD system should be tuned to ensure that
years has been to become more restrictive in what is per- every opportunity is taken to enhance the ability to clean.
mitted in waste streams. A good starting reference for efflu- This may mean that components should always be oriented
ent guidelines is 40 CFR 423 and 40 CFR 433. in a specific direction and, in order to achieve this, it may
Generally, the discharge of any new wastewater stream, be necessary to have one or more extra signal layers. If this
both by total flow and by chemical makeup, will require a is undesirable for economical reasons, then it may be nec-
permit from the local publicly owned treatment works essary to insert signal conductors in voltage or ground
(POTW) under the Clean Water Act (CWA). In addition, plane layers. In the case of HDIS circuits with microvias,
such a permit may also require co-current state approval it is usual to have the vias in the soldering pads. This
(and in rare cases, regional EPA approval). Hence, it is eliminates the need of component fan-out (‘‘dog bones’’),
imperative that any new or additional wastewater flow permitting much higher component densities, which may
from a solvent cleaning process step be reviewed with local seriously compromise the cleaning process with the present
POTW officials BEFORE commencing the discharge of state of technology. On the other hand, it is unlikely that
wastewater. Such a review may result in the POTW waiv- ‘no-clean’ processes will offer a better solution for high-
ing the need for a permit, or in reducing the monitoring reliability electronics, because the voltage gradients in such
requirements of a required permit. If wastewater discharge assemblies will be sufficiently high that flux residues will
to an on-site septic disposal system is contemplated, any become highly stressed and premature breakdowns may
such groundwater discharges must be reviewed with the occur.
facility’s state groundwater protection bureau on the need It should be pointed out component packages with high pin
for a groundwater discharge permit. Extreme caution must counts will almost inevitably present the greatest difficul-
be exercised in discharging wastewater containing cleaning ties. In particular, cleaning under ball grid arrays (BGAs)
solvents, as contaminated groundwater and possible soils and chip scale packages (CSPs) with pin counts of several
may result, which can be extremely costly to remediate. hundred or even more than one thousand may be almost
The environmental concerns for air pollution or waste impossible, even with the best materials, equipment and
water contamination from cleaning operations are regulated processes. In these cases, the designer should be warned
at the federal level but usually states and local districts that every effort must be made to ensure that cleaning is
have additional requirements of their own. The user should not impeded.
be familiar with who the local authorities are for current The cleaning processes available in the board fabrication
regulations, both for worker exposure and emissions or dis- and assembly shops should influence the design param-
charges from the equipment. eters. Listed below are a sampling of cleaning processes
used by the industry and how board design issues influence
4 DESIGN FOR CLEANING COMPATIBILITY their effectiveness.
For bare boards, the design has little influence on the abil-
4.1 Spray Processes When the cleaning medium, often
ity to clean. On the other hand, unsuitable design and lay-
aqueous, is sprayed on to the assembly, there should be
out of assemblies often cause difficulties in cleaning.
minimal obstruction to the ingress of the spray under the
As for soldering, layout of the assembly should be components. Ideally, where there is a clear path between
designed for ease of manufacture. This means that the the spray nozzles and the component, the best cleaning is

5
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

achieved with high-energy jets and the best rinsing with frequently possible to mitigate the effects by reducing the
fine sprays where the liquid droplet size is smaller than the solvent flow rate in the machine and reducing the conveyor
space between the component and the substrate. This speed.
means that the ideal layout will be different according to
Where possible the components should be oriented to the
the nature of the machine used for cleaning. Where assem-
direction of the conveyor movement according to the same
bly is done in-house, this does not present any great diffi-
rules as are indicated in 4.1.1.
culty because it may be assumed that the same equipment
will be used for all assemblies. Where assembly is con-
4.2 Immersion Equipment Of the three most common
tracted out to third parties, problems may arise because
types of cleaning equipment where the assembly is
different contractors may have different equipment types. It
immersed in the cleaning solvent, none of them necessarily
would therefore be a wise precaution to decide before
offers a ready solution to easy circuit design.
designing an assembly where it will be manufactured.
4.2.1 ‘‘Spray-Under-Surface’’ Machines These are
4.1.1 Batch Equipment As a general rule, most batch
offered for both combustible organic solvents and aqueous
equipment for spraying is designed so that the circuits are
systems. Unfortunately, the agitation to the solvent is very
held with the plane at an acute angle to the direction of
high close to the nozzles but is rapidly amortised within
spray. This is ideal on condition that no component shad-
10-20 cm [3.9-7.9 in] from them. Unless specific measures
ows another component. The design should therefore be
are taken, this may lead to an uneven cleaning quality. The
such that the tallest components should be situated farthest
component orientation should be similar to that mentioned
from the spray nozzles and the smallest components clos-
in 4.1.1 but ideally the most critical components should be
est to the nozzles. This is frequently undesirable from the
placed at or towards the edge of the circuit closest to the
electrical point of view. In some cases, lower components
nozzles and shadowing should be minimized. Where a tall
occupying larger areas may offer a better solution, where it
component impedes liquid flow, sufficient space should be
is possible to use them.
provided behind it to allow the turbulence to reach leading
Passive components in the form of either chips or cylindri- edge of next component. As a rule of thumb, this space
cal through-hole types should be oriented so that their long should be at least the height of the component.
axis is perpendicular to the direction of spray. Dual-inline
and SOIC components should be oriented with their long 4.2.2 Centrifugal Machines In reversing centrifugal
axis along the line of spray. Components with connections machines, the average liquid flow is from the center to the
along all four sides of a square, such as quad flat-packs or outside and component orientation should be similar to that
leadless ceramic chip carriers, should be oriented so that mentioned in 4.1.1 with this in mind. However, shadowing
the leading edge is at 90° to the direction of spray, never at is a problem with this type of equipment and the circuits
45° (in this case, the solder joints would impede further the should always be oriented with the tallest components
ingress of solvent). towards the outside.

4.1.2 Conveyor-Type Equipment In most cases, in-line 4.2.3 Ultrasonic Machines Properly used ultrasonic
and other conveyor-type machines have their spray jets per- cleaning offers the possibility of reasonable and uniform
pendicular, or nearly so, to the assemblies being cleaned. cleaning quality, almost without regard to component ori-
This presents two distinct problems, compared with many entation within the cleaning bath. Cavitation must occur
batch machines, and offers additional constraints to the cir- uniformly at the surface of the circuits for best results.
cuit designer. The first problem is that much of the kinetic
What is not commonly realized is that shadowing is a real
energy imparted to the liquid by the pumps is dissipated
problem at frequencies greater than 20 kHz. The ideal con-
when it strikes the surface of the assembly and before the
figuration is where no shadowing occurs, i.e., where the
cleaning action can take place. This slows down the flow
circuit is exposed individually between two transducers. In
of liquid, leading to puddling; especially if the design of
equipment with a single transducer at the bottom of the
the circuit is such that the flow is further slowed down by
machine, the tallest components should be placed at the
components damming the liquid. In this case, it is essential
farthest point from it. Obviously, the single transducer sys-
that the component placement offers the best evacuation of
tem imposes greater design constraints than a multiple
the liquid. Where puddling occurs, liquid will enter under
transducer configuration.
the component by capillary forces, but there will never be
any further circulation to remove the liquid or to replace it Users should be aware that there are several designs of
with clean solution. It is therefore desirable that the com- transducers and methods of measuring ultrasonic power in
ponents be placed in distinct rows with space between the industry. Until there is agreement on some of these
them for the liquid to drain off the sides of the circuits. issues, there will be some controversy about ultrasonic
Where this is not possible and puddling does occur, it is cleaning.

6
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

5 BOARD FABRICATION Table 5-1 Common Operations

Laminate
5.1 General The interconnection of electronics into
Shear/Panelization
assemblies brings together various types of pre-assembly
materials, e.g., printed wiring boards, flexible circuits, Drill
ceramic substrates, components and attachments. Printed Deburr
wiring boards, flexible and ceramic substrates are platforms Electroless Copper
that support the components and attachments. Clean
Apply Resist
It is to be noted that while the application of flexible cir-
Develop (Photoresist)
cuitry as an alternative to rigid printed wiring substrates is
Etch
developing relatively slowly, cleanliness concerns can be
expected to be virtually identical for both flexible and rigid Strip Resist
platforms. There are a number of IPC documents that dis- Oxide
cuss the utilization of flexible circuitry, e.g., IPC-D-249, Pattern Plate
IPC-FC-231, IPC-FC-232, and IPC-FC-241. Reflow Tin/Lead
Solder Mask/Legend
In order to address the cleanliness concerns, a familiarity
Leveling
with packaging materials, fabrication of electronic devices,
Cut
processing of printed wiring laminates and circuits are
desirable. Contaminant residues can be introduced to the
final electronic assemblies by their initial presence on pre- Table 5-2 Additional Steps for
assembly devices and materials independent of the assem- Conventional Multilayer Circuits
bly process. Refer to 5.4 for Cleanliness Test Methods and Surface Preparation
Recommended Limits. If contaminants are not removed Oxidize
from the components and printed wiring before assembly, Stack
there is no assurance they will be removed in assembly Press
cleaning. In particular, if ‘no-clean’ techniques are used for Desmear/Cutback
assembly, it is essential that the boards and components are
uncontaminated. This is even more important with High
Density Interconnecting Structures (HDIS), as any residual Table 5-3 Additional Steps for HDIS (Microvia) Circuits
contamination would be very highly stressed because of the Method A Method B Method C Method D
small spacing (1998, down to 25 micrometers). Add Copper/ Add Add Photo- Add Copper/
Dielectric Dielectric dielectric dielectric
5.1.1 Flow Paths No two board fabricators manage their
Laser Drill Laser Ablate Expose/ Etch Resist
processes in exactly the same manner. It is therefore impos- Copper Develop
sible to give here a detailed review of all the steps where Laser Ablate Surface Surface Develop
contamination may be introduced. However, there are Preparation Preparation
many common stages in most manufacturing plants and Electroless Add Copper Add Copper Etch
these are summarized below. Copper
Plasma/Laser
Table 5-1 shows most of the operations that are more or Ablate
less common to all types of manufacture, although the Electroless
order may vary according to specific requirements. Table Copper
5-2 shows additional steps for conventional multilayer cir-
cuits and Table 5-3 indicates the additional steps for four
removed by cleaning before the laminate enters the next
different methods of manufacturing HDIS (microvia) cir-
stage. In practice, no-cleaning method is 100% efficient
cuits. The majority of these steps require a cleaning opera-
and all that can be hoped for is to reduce contaminants to
tion after each one.
an acceptable level. In addition, laminate surfaces will
Board fabrication requires sequential performance of a undergo progressive deterioration as unreacted or partially
number of separate operations which include drilling, de- reacted resin constituents are selectively removed. There-
smearing, resist application and removal, electroless cop- fore, it is of great importance that not only are cleaning
per, plating and etching. These operations expose the lami- methods and chemicals compatible with the soils to be
nate to many different chemicals and conditions. The removed, but that solvent exposure in terms of time and
residues require removal to prevent interaction with subse- temperature is kept to the minimum. This applies both to
quent process steps. Ideally, the residues will be completely process chemicals and cleaning agents.

7
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

Each of these steps will be taken in the order of the table. 5.2.1.3 Absorbed Layers Laminate resins are hydropho-
Possible contaminants present after the operation will be bic and repel water. In the presence of laminate, materials
indicated and usual cleaning methods will be discussed. such as long chain surfactants will form monolayers of
surfactant molecules on the laminate surface. Since the
Note: Certain modern circuits have had problems with
hydrophilic ends of the chain face outwards, wetting will
trapped electrostatic charge. Such charges appear to be
be excellent giving the appearance of a clean surface; but
trapped on or within the substrate and the solder mask.
surface insulation resistance will be low under humid con-
Fabricators should be aware of this phenomenon and to
ditions. These surfactants should be avoided for high reli-
take precautions as warranted.
ability products. If a surfactant must be used, its bond
strength to the resin should be weak enough to allow
5.2 Typical Fabrication Operations removal with a water rinse.

5.2.1 Laminate This refers to the incoming laminate in 5.2.1.4 Attack on Coupling Agents To ensure good
sheet format. glass to resin bonding, glass fiber surfaces are normally
treated with proprietary silane based coupling agents.
5.2.1.1 Laminate Type Paper-based laminates are diffi- When glass fibers coated with silane are exposed at resin
cult to clean because of their high absorbency. Therefore, surfaces or in plated-through holes, they are susceptible to
they are typically used in end-use applications that usually hydrolysis accelerated by hydrochloric acid (HCl) based
do not demand stringent cleanliness requirements. Glass reagents. This reaction allows water penetration along glass
reinforced laminates with polyester, epoxy, improved fiber bundles and can lead to defects such as measling and
epoxy, polyamide and PTFE resin systems are easier to conductive metal filament growth. These defects impact on
clean but will probably have to meet stricter requirements the reliability of the circuit board.
in terms of performance.
5.2.1.5 Contaminants on Raw Material Contaminants
5.2.1.2 Incomplete Polymerization A completely poly- such as anti-tarnish agents, smearing or exudation from
merized resin is remarkably resistant to attack by most release films or packing, oils from caul plates and other
cleaning agents. However, complete polymerization is diverse handling soils may be present on the raw material
rarely achieved. surfaces.
The causes of poor polymerization are:
5.2.1.6 Contaminant Prevention As a general rule, most
a) Under cure fabricators do not take any measures at this stage, as the
b) Poor mixing of resin components sheet sizes are too large for convenient handling and for
c) Non-stoichiometric formulation of resin and hardener most cleaning machinery.
constituents in the polymer system
5.2.2 Shearing/Panelization This consists of dividing
Incomplete polymerization results in some areas of the
sheets into conveniently sized working panels, often by, for
polymer being soluble in one or another of the agents to
example, guillotining them into e.g., four or six equal pan-
which it is exposed during processing. By definition, the
els and punching or drilling registration holes.
outer layer of a cross-linked resin system is inevitably
incompletely polymerized where it interfaces with the cop-
5.2.2.1 Contaminants from Raw Material Processing
per or release film, by boundary effect at a molecular level.
Subsequent processing after etching will remove most Shearing and punching may introduce metal and laminate
monomeric materials but the surface may remain slightly debris.
porous. This incomplete cure may lead to the release of
sodium chloride that is a by-product of the epoxy reaction 5.2.2.2 Surface Preparation This is really the first
which is normally safely embedded in the polymer matrix. opportunity to clean the board surface of contaminants.
Subsequent exposure to moisture could result in mobile Mold release agents and other oils used in the lamination
chloride ions being present on the laminate surface. In process may be present on the copper clad panels when
addition, the resin surface may become absorbent and sus- received from vendors. Some suppliers will use anti-tarnish
ceptible to trapping or holding contaminants. Incomplete agents to protect the copper surfaces; these should be
polymerization, which is also characterized by a lower removed before continuing the process.
glass transition temperature (Tg), can also allow further
entrapment of organic contaminants during fabrication and 5.2.2.3 Prevention At this stage, some fabricators do not
assembly. When due to (b) and (c) it cannot be remedied perform a specific cleaning operation, except for simple
during the fabrication process. ‘‘print-n-etch’’ circuits that are drilled after etching.

8
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

5.2.3 Drilling Metal and laminate debris can be formed bits of silicon carbide embedded in the bristles. As the
during the drilling of holes or the punching of copper clad board moves under the brush, the bristles rotate against it,
panels. In addition, packaging residues and particles from abrading away surface contaminants and some of the sur-
the environment are possible sources of contamination. In face itself. Water flushes serve to lubricate and cool the
particular, laser ablation of microvias may leave residues brushes, as well as wash away the removed contaminants.
around each hole.
The biggest advantage of mechanical brushing is its ease of
5.2.3.1 Drilling Contaminants The contaminants intro- use and its relatively low cost when compared to other
duced by drilling are all particulate. cleaning methods. It is the most efficient and cost effective
way to clean large volumes of panels in the least amount
5.2.3.2 Prevention Incomplete removal of debris will of time. The equipment is compact, self-contained, uses
impact the quality of subsequent stages. It is therefore very little floor space, and does not involve monitoring and
important to prevent their transmission onwards in the pro- disposal of chemicals.
cess. Vacuum or compressed air cleaning is possible, but Despite the convenience and low cost, there are disadvan-
removal in a solvent or aqueous solution is also possible, tages to this cleaning method. It is very easy to remove too
possibly with ultrasonic. If deburring is carried out, it may much metal, especially from the edges of holes where the
be considered preferable to wait until after deburring. brush pressure is the highest. It is possible to stretch inner
layer cores enough to throw the tooling marks out of reg-
5.3 Cleaning Processes Specific to Board Fabrication
ister if extreme care is not taken. Flexible material such as
5.3.1 Mechanical Cleaning This refers to the physical polyimide is frequently damaged or destroyed by wrapping
removal of the outer surface to be cleaned by some around the brushes.
mechanical process, thereby exposing the fresh, clean sur- Bristle brushes should not be used on any soft metal (tin,
face underneath. The methods used to clean in this manner tin/lead, etc.) or on boards with a solder mask because of
are abrasive in nature, with the difference being how the severe effects on the surface. Also, the component side of
abrasion is accomplished. With all abrasive cleaning pro- populated boards cannot be cleaned with bristle brushes
cesses, there is a real risk of implanting abrasive particles due to potential damaging of components (i.e., ink mark-
into the metal surface and the insulating substrate. ings removed, etc.). An additional disadvantage to using
In the metal surface, the main problem engendered is that bristle brushes: when scrubbing boards prior to solder
the solderability may be reduced, with consequent dewet- mask, slivers may break away from the edges of the cir-
ting. This may be mitigated by giving the metal a light sur- cuits. These are extremely small and cannot be seen with-
face etch (e.g., 3 µm removal with a persulfate solution, if out the aid of a 100X microscope. This is typically not a
the metal is copper) followed by a very energetic wash and problem until you are producing a board with less than 0.2
rinse to displace the released abrasive particles. mm [7.9 mil] spacing. Then they cause low resistance and
intermittent shorts.
There are four main methods used on nonsolderable sur-
faces: Another problem is that brush-abrasive cleaning may smear
1. Abrasive brushes dielectric onto the conductors, causing a number of poten-
tial problems in subsequent processes. Brushes used for
2. Pads
etched circuits should not be used for cleaning unetched
3. Impact slurries copper-clad laminate. Finally, if too much brush pressure is
4. Slurries with soft brushes used or if cooling water flow is inadequate, the nylon brush
material can be ‘‘smeared’’ on the board surface, leaving an
Note: Do not use abrasive cleaning on solderable surfaces.
invisible residue that is almost impossible to see or remove.
A surface that is tinned, reflowed, leveled or plated with a
metal, such as gold, is considered a solderable surface and
abrasive residues may impact solderability or surface insu- 5.3.1.2 Pad Brushes (Compressed Pad Brushes) Pad
lation resistance. brushes are porous, felt-like materials with abrasive grits
bonded to the surface. They operate in equipment similar to
These cleaning techniques are applicable to laminate before the bristle brushes, but because the pad contains water in
primary imaging, or circuit patterns before solder mask the porous structure, cooling at the scrubbing surface is less
application. They cannot be used after any components are of a problem.
attached owing to the abrasive nature of the process.
Pad brushes have advantages over other methods because
5.3.1.1 Bristle Brushes Bristle brush cleaners consist of the fibers are closer together, so more abrasives are pre-
long horizontal brushes rotating in contact with the board sented to the work surface. Also, the compressed disks that
surface. The brushes are made of stiff nylon bristles with form the brush allow more pressure to be applied to the

9
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

work surface. Pad brushes tend to give a more uniform fin- 5.3.2 Chemical Cleaning In this section, cleaning pro-
ish than bristle brushes. For this reason they are sometimes cesses will be covered in two groupings:
used for inner layers. • Cleaning and etching boards using harsh chemicals
As for disadvantages, frequent checks for wear on the pad • Cleaning and etching boards using plasma
brushes are required for uniformity and replacement. As
5.3.2.1 Cleaning Bare Boards for Oxide Removal Using
the pad wears, fibers may be deposited in holes that might
Harsh Chemicals This is frequently referred to as surface
be present on the board surface. Consequently, a fairly high
spray pressure (up to 1.4MPa or 200 psig) is necessary to preparation and is an alternative to the mechanical cleaning
remove these fibers from the holes. Like bristle brushes, previously described. It is used very commonly where the
pads may cause distortion of the surface being cleaned and circuit pattern has already been formed and mechanical
they cannot be used to clean any soft metal such as tin, tin/ scrubbing could damage the pattern. Solutions currently
lead, solder mask, or surfaces that are coated with an used are usually hydrogen peroxide/sulfuric acid, cupric
organic coating. chloride or ammonium/potassium persulfate. All of these
solutions work by dissolving copper oxides and/or other
5.3.1.3 Impact Slurries This cleaning process uses copper compounds on the surface, together with a small
slurry of pumice or metal oxides in water that is pumped amount of the underlying copper surface. The resulting sur-
through nozzles to impact on a surface to provide abrasive face is extremely reactive and may be passivated with a
action. The grit size of pumice used is usually 3F or 4F. solution of 3 to 5% citric acid/5% sulfuric acid or some-
This fine grit is hard to rinse and a spray pressure of about thing equivalent to prevent surface oxidation. In other situ-
1.4MPa (200 psig) is required to adequately rinse a board. ations (as for inner layers or before applying a permanent
solder mask), forming a light coating of some copper oxide
Compared to either bristle or pad brushes, the major advan-
(brown, red or black) is desired to provide better adhesion.
tage of impact slurry process is the ease of control. This is
In either case, a final thorough rinsing with water, finish-
because:
ing with deionized water and complete drying is necessary
• No separate water coolant is required to avoid water spotting or stains.
• No chance of nylon smear from brushes
5.3.2.2 Plasma Processing for Cleaning and Etching
• Brush pressure is not critical Surfaces Plasma processing (the use of an ionized gas to
• No pad or brush particles to get caught in a drilled hole interact mechanically or chemically with a surface) is a dry
In addition, the process provides a more uniform surface processing technique applicable for the treatment of sur-
than that obtained from brushes. This is most important faces to modify their surface energy and/or reactivity.
where finer resolution is required (0.10 mm [0.004 in]). Plasma processing, when executed properly, is the one
Further, the impact slurry tends to reduce distortion of the cleaning process which leaves a surface microscopically
board, again an advantage with finer conductor lines and free of organic contaminants (will not be effective on inor-
spaces. ganic contamination or particulates). By using proper
plasma treatment, most polymer surfaces can be modified
However, there are disadvantages to this process. Rinsing to be either hydrophobic or hydrophilic, acidific or basic.
of the boards can be a problem, and high-pressure water Adhesion and/or wettability can also be tailored to meet
sprays (≅ 1.4MPa or 200 psig) are necessary to remove the subsequent requirements. Example of a commonly used
fine particles of pumice and possible embedded particles plasma treatment in the printed circuit industry is an oxy-
from metal surface. Another disadvantage is that impact gen plasma surface treatment of Kapton® to enhance the
slurries cannot be used for very thin material. With pumice, application of a liquid adhesive. This plasma treatment
significant amounts of solid waste are generated. improves the wettability of Kapton® and eliminates sur-
face voids caused by spotty adhesive coverage.
5.3.1.4 Slurries with Brushes This process uses the
same kind of slurry as the impact spray but has soft nylon Plasma processing can also etch (chemically react with)
brushes that oscillate on the board surface to impart abra- polymer surfaces to remove residues left by other process
sive action from the slurry. steps. One example is the removal of polymer smeared
onto the sidewalls of a multilayer board by the through-
This process has the same general advantages as the impact
hole drilling operation. An oxygen plasma reacts with car-
slurry, plus equipment maintenance is less of a problem
bon polymer chain, removing carbon as carbon monoxide
because no high pressure pumping is necessary.
or carbon dioxide. Also, after photoprinting and develop-
Rinsing problem is the disadvantage of this process, such ing, a thin residue may remain over areas which should be
that water sprays alone are not satisfactory. A water rinse free of photoresist. Oxygen plasma can be used to remove
with similar soft brushes for agitation is necessary to the residues and clean the underlying surface. This is a
remove all particles. very successful technique for cleaning surface mount pads.

10
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

When a low-pressure gas is subjected to a high-energy built. However, the assembly community is generally at a
input, typically radio frequency or microwave energy, the loss for not knowing just how clean the incoming parts
gas dissociates and ionizes through collisions with high- have to be for low residue assembly processes.
energy electrons. This mixture of electrons, unreacted gas,
To provide guidance on the desired cleanliness for bare
neutral and ionic atomic and molecular fragments is termed
boards, an IPC task group has been convened with a goal
a plasma. Even though the starting gas may be chemically
of determining satisfactory test methods for measuring bare
inert, the fragments can be highly reactive, allowing a vari-
board contamination and giving guidance with respect to
ety of chemical processes to occur. For example, although
the required level of cleanliness for low residue soldering.
the reaction of molecular oxygen with polymers at room
The group doing this work is the Bare Board Cleanliness
temperature is generally slow; oxygen plasma at room tem-
Assessment Task Group (5-32c). This is a work in progress
perature can ‘‘burn,’’ or remove polymer with a reaction
and the reader should refer to documents that will be pub-
only possible at much higher temperatures for molecular
lished by IPC as they are developed. Additional informa-
oxygen. (See Equation 1.)
tion on cleanliness requirements can be found in the assem-
Equation 1 bly section. (See 6.3.1, Pre-Soldering.)
O2 → 2O*
6 ASSEMBLY
CxHy (polymer) + (2x + y) O* → xCO2 + (y/2) H2O
6.1 General Issues Regardless of whether or not clean-
Note: O* = oxygen ion.
ing is performed at the assembly stage, the finished assem-
Thus, plasma processing is often described as being ‘‘low bly must not contain residues which could result in prema-
temperature,’’ since the reactive fragments themselves gen- ture failure of the assembly in the working environment. If
erally have temperatures of, at most, a few hundred degrees a low residue soldering process is used and cleaning is not
Celsius (and often, quite close to ambient). performed at the assembly stage, this means the incoming
parts must be free of potentially harmful residues. In other
5.3.3 Aqueous Based Cleaning These operations usu- words, the fabricated boards must be properly cleaned. It
ally follow hot air solder leveling or solder reflow opera- also means that contamination must not occur during either
tions. Contamination to be removed is typically a water- hand soldering or repair.
soluble fusing fluid or flux, so a water or water/detergent
solution is used for cleaning. The equipment is an auto- Considerations for cleaning and the ease of defluxing start
mated horizontal belt conveyor that goes through a cycle with the nature of soldering operation and components to
such as wash, rinse, blow-off and dry. Agitation is by liq- be assembled. Normally, a foam-fluxed, through-hole wave
uid sprays on the board but occasionally brushes are used. soldered assembly would be easier to clean than a high
Additional rinses and blow-offs can be added where better density, fine pitch surface mount assembly. However, the
cleanliness is required. relative ease of cleaning could differ if the wave soldered,
through-hole assemblies were held for an extended period
5.4 Cleanliness Test Methods and Recommended Lim- prior to defluxing, whereas the surface mount assemblies
its Final bare board cleanliness (i.e., the cleanliness of the were cleaned immediately after assembly. Similarly, BGA
bare board as it leaves the premises of the fabricator) is a components would be easier to clean than ultra fine pitch
more important issue today than it has ever been in the components. Overheating assemblies could yield a residue
past. The reason for this significant increase in interest has that is much more difficult to be removed. Obviously, the
been the expanded use of low residue or no-clean solder- more aggressive the flux and the tighter the spacing
ing process. The success of no-clean process depends between leads and/or electronic tracings, the greater the
directly on the degree of cleanliness of incoming bare degree of cleanliness required.
boards.
The choice of cleaning media and equipment is determined
Currently, an IPC specification for final bare board cleanli- by a number of factors in addition to the ability to deflux.
ness does not exist. IPC-6012 gives a total ionics specifi- The system must be able to clean but it must also be able
cation for noncoated rigid boards prior to solder resist to meet economic, worker safety and environmental con-
application. That specification does not, and was not siderations. Local VOC emissions could determine the
intended to, address the cleanliness requirements of bare choice of cleaning media and/or equipment. Similarly,
boards to be utilized in low residue soldering process. This wastewater regulations may require the use of a low BOD
is not a good situation given the importance of this subject cleaning media. If an assembler cannot safely store and
in the practice of low residue assembly. It is our under- handle flammable materials, a nonflammable media would
standing that individual corporations have indeed set com- likely be a preferred choice. In addition, the cleaning agent
pany standards for the cleanliness of incoming parts and must be compatible with the assembly materials and the
these standards vary depending on the assembly being washing equipment itself.

11
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

6.2 Residues: Nature and Scope larly, components with plated leads that have not been sol-
der coated may be contaminated with ionic residues from
6.2.1 Incoming Parts plating solutions. In addition, electromechanical devices
such as variable capacitors, switches, and potentiometers
6.2.1.1 Components Nonpolar residues that may be may have been lubricated. If these lubricants escape, they
found on components prior to the assembly operation may may cause poor adhesion of conformal coatings in neigh-
be in the form of particulates, oils, or films. boring areas.
Particulate matter can be of a variety of types depending on
the assembly and storage conditions. Examples of particu- 6.2.1.1.2 Component Degradation Cleaning operations
lates from assembly processes are dust left from blast after soldering should be chosen on the basis of degree of
deflashing after part molding. Common materials used for cleanliness required, type of flux residue to be removed,
deflashing include ground plastics and shells from various and accessibility of this residue to cleaning solvents. Com-
nuts, e.g., walnuts. Particulate matter from storage may ponents must be chosen to match the cleaning process,
come from the surrounding environment or the packing rather than the process modified to suit the components.
that parts are stored in. Environmental contaminants may Certain components, such as open relays, suffer ingress of
include ash, soot, or silica based grit. Packing contamina- contaminant-laden solvent but do not allow its easy
tion will usually be plastic or paper with occasional metal removal. These components must be identified as not
particles. cleanable and only attached after the cleaning operation. It
is unfortunate that no specification exists which allows
Oil contamination may also come from assembly or storage classification of components on the basis of their ability to
of the part. Assembly oils may include metal processing be cleaned.
oils. If handling is counted as an assembly operation, skin
oils and hand creams may be present. Mold release agents 6.2.1.1.3 Other Component Cleaning Considerations
may also take the form of oils on the part. Storage contami- Traps are most likely to occur at the points where leads
nation from oily materials may come from the atmosphere; enter component’s body, especially with molded plastic
e.g., oil mists from a compressor, poorly chosen packing components. For mounted components, it is essential that a
materials, and on hopefully rare occasions, spills. sufficient gap is provided for access of cleaning solvents
Films on the part are usually assembly related. Here film is between component and board. This is not always achiev-
defined as a material that is resistant to removal by a able, especially for surface mounted components. It is
simple cleaning method such as wiping or alcohol soaks. doubtful whether assemblies with large chip components
Films are most often the result of a bleed out of the mold- mounted less than 0.25 mm [9.8 mil] above the substrate
ing material onto the lead frame of the part. This molding can be cleaned effectively. Improved cleaning is attainable
material can be both difficult to detect and remove. using ultrasonics, but it is only permissible if it can be
demonstrated that all the components in the assembly do
Polar residues may be found on incoming parts as a result not suffer damage from the ultrasonic energies involved.
of either assembly or handling. Incomplete cleaning during
assembly may result in plating or flux residues on the parts. 6.2.1.2 Substrate
Handling residues will most likely be polar residues from
skin contact. 6.2.1.2.1 Bare Board Sources of contamination are
Another source of contamination on incoming parts is the given below. The reader is also referred to 5.4 Cleanliness
presence of sulfur either from atmospheric contamination Test Methods and Recommended Limits for Final Bare
or from paper packing materials. The reaction of sulfur Board Cleanliness and 6.3.1 Pre-Soldering (No-Clean) of
with the lead frames can result in solderability problems this manual.
during assembly. • Fabrication
• Etch Chemicals
6.2.1.1.1 Contamination from Components Component
• Tap water
leads and lead frames may be of various metals and alloys,
some of which are difficult to solder. It is common practice • Cascade forward rinsing systems (dirty tap water in first
to apply a solder coating to the leads by hot solder dip or tank)
solder wave using an aggressive flux. This ensures lead • Plating bath salts
solderability prior to assembly. Flux residues should be • HASL flux
properly removed as soon as possible. This cannot, how-
• Fusing fluid (flux)
ever, be guaranteed. Therefore, it is advisable to check
incoming components for ionic contamination, at least until • Under cured solder resist
the reliability of the supplier has been established. Simi- • Routing dust

12
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

• Alkaline scrubbing chemicals deposit is limited. To enhance the fluxing activity of rosin
• Handling fluxes, therefore, various chemical ‘‘activators’’ are com-
monly added to the rosin flux. The activators can be non-
• Packing materials
ionic organic materials that become active only at the
• Legend ink and solvents transferred from the screen elevated temperatures of soldering, or more active ionic
• Ineffective final cleaning materials such as amine halides or organic acids.

6.2.1.2.2 Solder Masks and Conformal Coatings These Rosin flux is often used as the ‘‘solid’’ core in solder wire.
are applied towards the end of fabrication process and This can be incorporated in the wire directly in the extru-
therefore see less exposure to aggressive chemicals than sion process of manufacturing. Rosin is also used exten-
laminates. The possibility of incomplete polymerization sively in liquid fluxes and as activators in solvent systems
exists with effects similar to those described in 5.2.1.2. It (usually alcohol based).
is therefore advisable to test the performance of any spe- As a flux material rosin has a number of important
cific mask or coating in relation to the combination of attributes:
fluxes and cleaning agents to be used. If necessary, changes • It is, by itself, a mild fluxing material.
to one or the other will have to be made.
• Its residues are noncorrosive to metals.
Some UV cured masks that contain photo-initiators may • It is an excellent electrical insulator at ordinary tempera-
react with flux constituents such as polyglycols causing tures. Rosin residues left on circuit boards often result in
partial polymerization. This makes them difficult to higher surface insulation resistance (SIR) levels than
remove. The problem is particularly evident with hot air bare, fully cleaned boards. (See Telcordia Technologies’
solder leveling (HASL) fluxes. (formerly Bellcore’s) GR-78-CORE.)
6.2.2 Assembly Process Contaminants • It is an excellent moisture repelling encapsulant for more
corrosive ionic halides and acids. Encapsulated ions of
6.2.2.1 Fluxes and Pastes Fluxes are classified in these materials are effectively immobilized and not able
J-STD-004 in accordance with their activity, rather than to contribute to surface electrical leakage or corrosion at
their chemical composition. The classifications are: metallic interfaces.
L = Low or no flux/flux residue activity • It is soluble in a wide variety of organic solvents includ-
M = Moderate flux/flux residue activity ing many alcohols, ketones, glycol, ethers, chlorinated,
H = High flux/flux residue activity brominated and fluorinated solvents and hydrocarbons.

However, from the point of view of their interactions, com- • Since it is composed mostly of organic acids and esters,
position has more influence than reactivity. Thus, they will it can be removed in an aqueous saponification process in
be discussed under the following headings: which it is chemically reacted with alkaline materials to
form water-soluble soaps.
a) Rosin Based Fluxes
Despite these features, it is usually desirable to remove
b) Water Soluble Fluxes
rosin flux residues after soldering to expedite electrical
c) Synthetic Activated (SA) Fluxes testing and coating of the circuit assemblies, to eliminate
d) Low Solids (No-Cleaning Required) Fluxes the unsightly sticky residues, and to remove ionic activa-
tors that may cause electrical degradation.
6.2.2.1.1 Rosin Based Fluxes Rosin is, historically, one
of the oldest fluxing materials used in soldering. It is found A problem often encountered in removing rosin fluxes is
as one of the constituent materials in the sap of pine trees. the formation of white or tan residues. These residues are
As a naturally occurring material, it is a mixture mostly of formed by excessive temperature/time exposure of the
organic resin esters and primary monobasic resin acids rosin in soldering operation. In such cases some portions of
such as abietic, neo-abietic, pimaric and palustric acids. the rosin could be converted at soldering temperatures by
These may be present in various proportions that differ pyrolysis or oxidation to products which are not readily
between methods of preparation and sources, even between soluble in weaker organic solvents. The soluble portions of
individual lots of the same source. the rosin can then be leached out leaving the insoluble por-
tions as visible white residues. This residue, once formed,
In appearance, rosin is an amber-colored glassy material. It is extremely difficult to remove.
is not a true solid since it does not melt as a crystalline
Rosin fluxes normally contain activators to remove oxide
material but rather undergoes continuous softening as tem-
films from metal surfaces that are to be wetted by solder.
perature is increased until it reaches fluid consistency.
These activators are usually amine hydrohalides, organic
Rosin alone has only a mild fluxing activity. Its ability to acids, or mixtures of the two. These materials may react
induce solder wetting of many metals with slight oxide under the heat of soldering to form products that are not

13
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

easily soluble in solvents or aqueous cleaning solutions. These fluxes are mixtures of two or more synthetic organic
This can be one source of ‘‘white residue’’ problems. compounds. They are normally formulated to be active
fluxes and therefore, must be removed completely. The
6.2.2.1.2 Water Soluble Fluxes The term water-soluble
residues of SA fluxes are readily soluble in organic sol-
does not necessarily mean that flux residues will be water-
vents and may or may not be soluble in water. Care must
soluble after heating. Reactions form organometallic com-
be taken in the choice of cleaning agents as acidic flux
pounds or mineral salts. For example, lead salts are poorly
residues may deplete acid acceptors in organic cleaning
soluble in water; but if left on the board, it will decompose
solvents (if present) and lead to an acidic condition in the
slowly in the presence of humidity and atmospheric carbon
equipment.
dioxide. A neutralizer can be used to remove lead salts.
Water-soluble organic fluxes, unlike rosin fluxes, have very
6.2.2.1.4 Low Solids (No-Clean) Fluxes A class of
little commonality with each other. Rosin fluxes, in gen-
fluxes has recently been developed with solids or nonvola-
eral, have rosin as a major component of the nonvolatile
tile content ranges from 2-5 wt. %. The concept is that
portion of the system. Other chemical materials added to
since the flux residues are not detrimental to electrical per-
enhance fluxing activity are usually present only in rela-
formance, pin testability, and/or are barely visible, they
tively minute amounts. The chemistry of the residue, the
may safely be left on the assembly. This is not necessarily
materials and processes necessary to remove the residue is
a valid assumption. In order to ensure sufficient activity,
therefore related to rosin as the primary consideration.
the ratio of activator to rosin may be much higher in some
Water-soluble fluxes, however, are groups of materials that, low residue fluxes in comparison with conventional fluxes.
although lumped together in one category, represent a very Thus, it is mandatory to demonstrate that the residues for a
wide variety of chemical materials. There are considerable specific flux are noncorrosive and remain so after exposure
variations of materials used by different flux manufactur- to service conditions.
ers, as well as in different fluxes supplied by the same ven-
dor. It is therefore not accurate to make general statements Unlike the fluxes discussed in previous sections, low solids
about the nature of residues of water-soluble (WS) organic fluxes are formulated to leave minimal or no post-soldering
fluxes. residue. Because the intent is to avoid cleaning, these low
solids fluxes should preferably meet the L, but no more
As their name indicates, this class of fluxes is water-
than M activity designations as specified in J-STD-004.
soluble. However, the residues after soldering may not
show the same water solubility as exhibited by the flux By maintaining a low solids content and ensuring sufficient
prior to soldering. The soldering processes expose the flux flux activity, often the activator may be the major portion
to very high temperatures (usually around 260°C [500°F]) of flux solids. Because of this unusual ratio, one cannot
of solder wave. At these temperatures, chemical reactions rely on the more inert solids to encapsulate activator resi-
such as oxidation or pyrolytic decomposition may occur. due. In fact, some studies have shown that surface insula-
Such reactions generally give rise to products that are at tion resistance decreases as a function of original quantity
least partially insoluble in water. The degree to which these of flux applied, inferring that excessive post-soldering resi-
reactions can occur is a function of time and exposure tem- due may cause electrical problems. Consequently, it is
perature, as well as the specific chemistry of the flux. important to control the quantity of flux applied. Normally,
These residues may be easily visible without magnification board’s cleanliness is controlled by the efficiency of clean-
but they can also be present on assemblies that appear to be ing material and cleaning process; here, the control is
completely clean under magnification. In this case, their directed at the flux application step since there is no post-
presence can be detected using ionic extract resistivity test- soldering cleaning. A number of different application tech-
ing or measurement of surface insulation resistance (SIR). niques are commercially available, each with its own list of
These techniques are discussed in 8.3 of this manual. advantages and disadvantages. From a flux quantity stand-
6.2.2.1.3 Synthetic Activated (SA) Fluxes These are point, in general, a wave fluxer applies more than a foam
based on synthetic materials which are not chemically fluxer that applies more than a spray fluxer. The amounts
related to rosin. They have been developed to improve on applied can be limited using air knives to blow off excess
the performance of rosin based fluxes. Rosin is a natural amounts of applied flux.
material with inherent variability in composition and prop- Other considerations when selecting an appropriate L flux
erties. SA fluxes give excellent performance in soldering include material interactions, specific gravity controls and
but the residues must be removed. Originally formulated component side residues. Material incompatibilities may
for removal with chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) solvents, they cause excessive solder balls and/or other solder type resi-
can be removed with semiaqueous or other cleaning agents. dues. The specific gravity (s.g.) of these fluxes is extremely
Activators for SA fluxes are similar in nature to those difficult to control with an automatic density controller
found in rosin fluxes. since their s.g. is almost the same as those of the solvent or

14
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

thinner. A way to avoid the problem is to use a flux appli- or webbing which could generate electrical shorts between
cator that holds the flux in a closed reservoir so that the conductors.
solvent cannot evaporate. Another consideration is that
6.2.2.2.2 Solder Balls Tiny, often microscopic, balls of
component side L residues can be more deleterious than
those on the wiring side, possibly because they are not shiny metallic solder could be left on insulating surfaces of
heated to the same extent. For this reason, a SIR test used a circuit board. Typical types and causes of solder balls are:
in the telecommunications industry (see Telcordia Tech- Solder Mask – Solder balls can be deposited on some sol-
nologies’ (formerly Bellcore’s) GR-78-CORE) in which the der mask materials because of their surface forces and the
comb pattern is floated comb-side up for subsequent SIR degree of roughness of the solder mask surface. They are
testing is recommended for evaluating L fluxes. seen on the board side which contacts molten solder
(bottom-side) during wave soldering.
6.2.2.1.5 Solder Pastes According to J-STD-005 solder
Spattering – In some instances, solder balls can be found
pastes are mixtures of solder particles, fluxes and solvents.
on the opposite laminate surface away from solder (board
Solder particles are usually spherical, ranging in size up to
topside). This occurs where there are through-holes. If the
150 microns in diameter. Contamination involved is usu-
flux which had been applied was insufficiently dried in the
ally oxide or carbonate on the surface of solder particles.
pre-heat stage of the soldering process or the board con-
Metal content of solder paste ranges from 30 to 95% by
tained large amounts of water entrapped in the laminate
weight (35 to 50% by volume). Fluxes are normally rosin
and was not adequately baked prior to soldering, the
based with various degrees of activation, the activators
remaining solvent or water vapor will cause spattering
being similar to those in normal rosin fluxes. The function
when it comes in contact with hot solder bath. Such spat-
of solvent is to impart correct rheological properties to the
tering is, in reality, micro-explosions caused by very rapid
mixture, in terms of its method of application. Solvent
expanding vapors of the solvent or moisture. This causes a
compositions are proprietary, but usually include light alco-
percolation of solder up through the holes in the boards,
hols, heavy alcohols (in particular polyglycols, derived
spewing tiny solder balls on the board topside. It is espe-
esters and ethers), and additives. If not removed, residues
cially severe if traces of water were present in the flux and
may reduce surface insulation resistance under humid con-
were not thoroughly evaporated in the preheating process
ditions. In particular, polyglycols, esters, and ethers are
before the board contacts the solder.
difficult to remove with solvents. Additives may also pro-
duce relatively insoluble residues after heating to soldering Prevention of solder balls requires a combination of correct
temperature. drying procedures, use of a paste with minimum surface
oxide contamination, and a flux with sufficient activity to
6.2.2.1.6 Inorganic Acid Fluxes Inorganic acid fluxes remove this contamination. (See J-STD-004 for additional
are mixtures of inorganic acids and highly ionic, inorganic details.)
salts. These fluxes often contain materials such as hydro-
chloric acid, zinc chloride and ammonium chloride. Their 6.2.2.3 Soldering Oils Soldering ‘‘oils’’ are often used in
residues if left on a board can be extremely corrosive, par- the soldering process to help promote wetting of metallic
ticularly in a moist environment. Zinc salts, especially, surfaces while keeping bridging, webbing, and icicle for-
offer particular difficulties in their complete removal by mation of the solder to minimum. These materials are used
aqueous cleaning process since they readily form zinc oxy- in various ways. In their simplest application, they can be
chloride, Zn(OCl2), which is insoluble in water. Subse- floated on a solder pot to limit the contact of the solder
quent reaction of this material with moisture could regen- with air, thereby sharply reducing the amounts of dross
erate the acidic salt resulting in severe corrosion and formed. In some equipment, they are also injected into sol-
electrical leakage problems. der wave where they similarly provide a protective anti-
oxidizing film on the solder wave that contacts the circuit
6.2.2.2 Solder Other types of residue could be derived
board.
from the solder itself, rather than from the chemicals used NOTE: OIL BASED WAVES ARE CONSIDERED AN
in the soldering or cleaning processes. They may be seen OBSOLETE TECHNOLOGY.
as two types:
Heat stability is an important consideration when using oil
as a dross inhibitor or soldering assist fluid. When used as
6.2.2.2.1 Solder Dross This is occasionally seen where
a cover on a solder bath, it degrades with prolonged heat-
a board has inadequate flux solids applied to it before it
ing, resulting in reduced ‘‘life’’ and more difficulty in
contacts the hot solder. Such ‘‘flux starved’’ surfaces might
removing the residue.
skim dross from the surface as it passes over the solder
without having sufficient flux activity present to break it Oil that simply sits on the solder bath will darken with oxi-
up. The oxides deposited would be seen as a dark ‘‘smut’’ dation and polymerization. Over time (two to 12 hours

15
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

depending on the oil) small solder spheres appear in or manual assembly. Contaminants introduced by personnel
under the oil, indicating it is time to change the oil. handling is perhaps the most complex to define. Human
contact with the surface can introduce a wide variety of
Oil that is injected into or onto solder wave may contribute
materials that include:
to a cleaning problem if degraded oil from the solder bath
is used. Flux and oil may not be easily removed after a) Finger oils
extended heating on the solder bath. Care should be taken b) Salts (from perspiration)
to properly maintain the quality of oil. c) Assorted dust and dirt
In an oil-injection process where fresh oil is injected into d) Food particles
or onto the solder wave, the oil residue on circuit board e) Flaking skin
assembly is easier to be removed since it has only been
f) Hand creams and cosmetics
exposed to high temperature for a brief time.
g) Lint or debris from gloves
There are basically two classes of soldering ‘‘oils,’’ water
soluble and solvent soluble (water insoluble). The choice of Such contamination may be water-soluble, solvent soluble,
‘‘oil’’ for a process depends on user’s choice of fluxes and or insoluble in either. For this reason, handling contami-
cleaning processes. A water-soluble material is selected if a nants often presents some of the most difficult cleaning
water-soluble flux with aqueous cleaning is chosen. Like- problems.
wise one would use a water-soluble ‘‘oil’’ if a rosin flux is Fingerprints are a complex and potentially harmful source
used with aqueous saponifier cleaning. If rosin or synthetic of contamination. Fingerprints contain not only oils, salts
activated (SA) fluxes are used with hot vapor or cold sol- and acidic body products, but also residues from soaps,
vent cleaning, then solvent-soluble oil would be selected. hand lotions and previously handled objects. Since they are
so complex, it is impossible to ensure complete removal by
6.2.2.3.1 Water Soluble Oils These materials are usually any specific cleaning process. Personnel should be trained
polyglycols or high temperature surfactants such as ethoxy- to handle boards as little as possible and only by the edges.
lated derivatives of octyl and nonyl phenol. They are Potential damage depends on the location of the finger-
entirely water-soluble and can be removed with hot water prints. On bare copper and on laminate surfaces between
spray cleaning after the soldering process. copper traces, they reduce insulation resistance. Finger-
prints on component bodies may do no damage, but any
A problem which may occur with water soluble oils is the
accumulation of fingerprints will give higher ionic con-
deleterious effect of some of these materials on the electri-
tamination readings in the solvent extract resistivity test.
cal surface insulation resistance (SIR). While it is not the
(See IPC-TM-650, Method 2.3.25, Detection and Measure-
universal case for all water-soluble oil materials, some oils
ment of Ionizable Surface Contamination.)
may react with and bond to the polymeric surface and be
retained through even a severe water washing process. The use of gloves will protect against fingerprints, but
These materials may also have the capacity to absorb mois- gloves can also act as a source of contaminants. Plasticiz-
ture from humid air (hygroscopicity) which can result in a ers, talcum powder, dust and lubricants can be transferred
lowering of SIR by several orders of magnitude. from rubber gloves. Woven fabric gloves may contribute
fibers. All gloves could have been previously contami-
6.2.2.3.2 Solvent Soluble Oils These are natural oils nated, if used for other purposes.
with inhibitors added to reduce oxidation or degradation at Food, drink, and tobacco products should be prohibited in
high temperatures. With respect to SIR, this type of oil all process, storage and inspection areas.
would be safer to use since the oil residue is water resis-
6.2.2.4.2 Marking The marking of faults found during
tant in the end-use environment.
inspection should be done with suitable removable adhe-
sive stickers. Pencil marks or felt tip pens leave undesirable
6.2.2.4 Other Residue
residues.
6.2.2.4.1 Handling Soils Ideally, printed boards and 6.2.2.4.3 Work Place and Ambient Storage Conditions
components should not be handled at all during the manu- Ideally, components, laminates, and work-in-process
facturing process. However, in practice this is impossible. should be stored in an atmosphere free from contaminants
The best that can be done is to minimize the accumulation with controlled temperature and humidity. Unfortunately,
of people-related contaminants, by reducing handling to a this is usually not the case and materials will accumulate
minimum and ensuring that various cleaning steps are various forms of airborne pollution. Where possible, com-
capable of removing the contamination before it can do any ponents should be kept in their original containers, pro-
harm. Handling occurs during shipping and receiving, vided that the containers are not, themselves, sources of
transferring of boards through process steps, inspection and contamination.

16
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Storage in open bins should be avoided. If humidity is not or latex based tape. For adhesive tape, adhesive residues
controlled, closed containers should be provided with suit- may remain when the tape is removed after soldering. Sili-
able desiccants to prevent condensation inside. Floors cone polymer latex based tape should not be used for elec-
should be kept clean and sealed with a suitable coating tronic circuits since their residues are difficult to remove.
such as epoxy paint. Plastic fittings, shelves, etc., are best Ammonia based latex could be used but when peeled off,
avoided if possible. This applies especially to the use of the ammonia-based compounds leave ionic contamination
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) storage containers. that requires water wash for removal. Residues from peel-
able resist materials leave increased levels of chloride and
6.2.2.4.4 Component Packaging as a Source of Con- sulfate that can be a source of electrical leakage and corro-
tamination The use of automatic component placement sion problems.
equipment requires the components to be supplied in taped
reels, trays or tubes. It is important to determine whether These residues can be examined by using ion chromatog-
the components in packaging are clean and whether the raphy and by Environmental Stress Screening (ESS) tests
adhesive residues from any tape will cause cleaning prob- which expose the area to increased humidity under a nomi-
lems. Testing samples removed from the reel can solve the nal working bias voltage. A typical amount of the material
first problem. Since components cannot be effectively is placed across the comb patterns of the IPC-B-24 test
cleaned on the reel, their cleanliness is the responsibility of board. The material is then cured; wave soldered and
the supplier. The second concern can only be determined removed. The remaining residue (invisible) covering the
through experience. If residues from the tape do cause comb patterns can be used in SIR investigation.
cleaning problems, the adhesive system on the tape must be For either category of resist, the assembler should verify
changed. Caution must be exercised to prevent ESD prob- that the material is adequately removed for the application.
lems. Subsequent solderability, conformal coating adhesion or
performance of the assembly may be degraded if removal
6.2.2.4.5 Temporary Solder Stops/Masks/Resists/ is inadequate.
Tapes Solder stopping materials, also called ‘‘solder
stops’’ are used to keep PTHs from filling with solder. It is 6.2.2.4.6 Lubricants and Greases Product may be con-
useful for insertion of components that cannot be water taminated by contact with lubricants from assembly
washed and have to be assembled by a secondary opera- machines. These can pose cleaning challenges since they
tion. There are several ‘‘solder stops’’ on the market today. may be difficult to remove. The best defense against this
In some cases, the assembler will be faced with a situation problem is good housekeeping practices to avoid contami-
where it is desirable to shield metallization from the solder- nation by these materials.
ing process. Many temporary solder resists, masks, and Lubricating oils are normally mineral oils that are hydro-
tapes are commercially available to accomplish this task. phobic and tend to form tenacious films on surfaces which
These materials can be categorized as either washable or are difficult to be removed completely. They are soluble in
peelable. nonpolar solvents by emulsification or by saponification,
The washable varieties can be water or solvent soluble. The but not in aqueous media without detergents. Sources
water or aqueous soluble types are composed of different include dirty compressed air, drips from machinery, han-
mixtures of gums, higher alcohols, thickeners, and poly- dling, and pre-lubricated components. In the early stages of
mers. Comparable solvent soluble materials are available board fabrication, oil contamination will inhibit plating,
based on waxes. The use of water or solvent soluble masks etching, and similar water-based processes. Residues
will require increased monitoring and maintenance of remaining after assembly cause poor adhesion of conformal
cleaning equipment due to the accumulation of mask resi- coatings. Silicone-based products are particularly tenacious
due. Water soluble masks and spacers may require changes and difficult to remove and therefore should be avoided.
in the cleaning cycle such as longer pre-rinse times to Thermal grease has similar properties and create similar
avoid carrying the mask materials into the wash solution. problems as those of lubricating oil.
The principal advantage is that the post-solder cleaning
Wax poses similar problems to lubricants and greases.
process can be utilized to remove the resist. The resist sup-
They can be most difficult to remove in aqueous media
plier’s recommendations for the removal process should be
without detergents. Some solvents can be relatively effec-
followed.
tive in wax removal.
The peelable type of resist is usually applied as either a
tape or a liquid (that subsequently cures) and is designed to 6.2.2.4.7 Adhesives In assembly, marker tapes are fre-
be removed manually after processing. Tape removal may quently used to indicate defects for subsequent repair. One
generate unacceptable static charge. In such cases, ESD- must consider the removal of the markers and the fact that
safe resist should be used. Tape used can be either adhesive some residual adhesive from the marker may remain.

17
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

Component attachment adhesives bleed out or voids can water free, water-soluble fluxes. The major problem is that
trap flux and other contaminants. the hot fluids tend to decompose with formation of carbon
and poorly soluble polymers. The fluid should be disposed
All adhesives should be verified for electrical performance
before degradation causes a cleaning problem.
and effects on active circuitry. All bleed out and direct con-
tact residues can be assessed by using SIR test (IPC-TM- 6.2.2.5.3 Vapor Phase Reflow Vapor phase reflow pro-
650, 2.6.3.3). This will help to gauge how much cleaning cesses can be operated with either one or two fluids. The
is necessary in these areas. process was developed using the two fluid approach in
batch equipment; but modern in-line systems are normally
6.2.2.5 Soldering Method-Process Variables The basic operated with only one fluid. Whichever system is used,
process variables that affect cleaning are temperature, time, the maximum temperature reached by assemblies in vapor
and the interaction of process chemicals with materials and phase (VP) reflow depends on the primary fluid. Primary
fluxes of the assembly being soldered. These will, to a fluids are available for temperatures ranging from 218 -
large extent, determine the nature of the contaminants 319°C [424.4 - 606.2°F] (for some development stage
which must be removed, the state of the surfaces on which products).
they reside, and hence the cleaning process chosen. While all primary fluids can be classed as perfluorocar-
bons, the basic structure (amine, cyclic or ether) will deter-
6.2.2.5.1 Wave Soldering The primary consideration in mine key properties such as in-use stability, solder paste
material selection is whether the flux chosen will promote chemicals solubility and overall process economics. The
formation of adequate, defect-free solder joints on assem- choice of fluid is normally based on the melting point of
blies being soldered. solder alloy to be reflowed.
Secondary considerations are whether an appropriate clean- For the range cited, the lower temperatures are suitable for
ing process can remove the flux residues or whether they typical tin-lead or tin-lead-silver alloys used for standard
are noncorrosive and do not need to be removed. A flux attachment processes. The upper end of the range permits
does not provide optimum performance unless it is applied reflow of high lead alloys, which are used to attach pins to
and dried correctly, and unless it is compatible with other pin grid array (PGA) packages. Users faced with reflow of
process materials such as wave oils. If foam fluxing is a specialty alloy have been successful in mixing two pri-
used, it is important to prevent contamination from oil and mary fluids to tailor a VP system for a specific stable boil-
water in the compressed air supply. Water as a contaminant ing point. Higher temperatures permit shorter times, which
in an alcohol based rosin flux can partially hydrolyze the may be advantageous with some solder pastes.
rosin, making its removal difficult. Therefore, the air sys-
tem used in foaming must be dry, i.e., less than 5ppm water The primary vapor should be inert and not introduce con-
vapor. After application, the flux must be dried by preheat- taminants that must be removed later. Paste chemicals dis-
ing. The preheat conditions should be adjusted to ensure solved in the fluid are entrained in the high boiling vapor,
proper soldering without making the residues difficult to then deposited on the surface of PWAs. Such residues tend
remove. to be difficult to remove. Thus minimal solubility of solder
paste chemicals (typically rosin) in primary fluid is desir-
Soldered assemblies should be cleaned as soon as possible able. It will maximize life span of fluid, prevent boiling
after soldering, especially with the more active fluxes. Sub- point elevation and simplify cleaning.
jecting a fluxed assembly to two passes through the wave,
The secondary vapor blanket was originally CFC-113, a
as in the solder-cut-solder process, can cause additional
lower boiling fluorinated material, which formed a low cost
degradation of the first flux. It is a better practice to clean
sacrificial ‘‘lid’’ over the more costly primary fluid. Con-
after the first pass and then reflux.
stant exposure to the high boiling primary fluid at the inter-
Note: The use of oil in wave can introduce contaminants face of the two fluids could cause the secondary fluid to
derived from reactions with the flux, components, and sub- undergo thermal decomposition at the interface, generating
strates. Some of these are polymers that are not easy to HCl (hydrochloric) and HF (hydrofluoric) acid vapors.
remove. It is obvious that if aqueous cleaning is to be used, These corrosive vapors often attacked soldering equipment
the oil should be of the water-soluble type. The oils tend to over time. While in theory the vapors could be absorbed in
undergo chemical reaction with heat and become less flux residues and cause problems for high reliability prod-
soluble. They can also promote foaming in the cleaner. ucts, this was rare in comparison to the attack on equip-
ment. With the phase out of CFC-113, a low boiling per-
6.2.2.5.2 Immersion Reflow This has been applied to fluorocarbon was introduced to replace it. This second
assemblies such as backplanes with solder preforms added generation blanket fluid was more stable than CFC-113 for
to the pins. Various fluids have been used, such as peanut prolonged exposure to the high boiling primary vapor
oil and stabilized triethylene glycol, in conjunction with phase fluids.

18
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

As surface mount technology grew, most users converted more of a problem than others, the standard total ionic
to the higher throughput in-line machines, which used the conductivity analysis is of limited value in quantifying
single fluid approach. Defluxing after vapor phase reflow baseline contamination levels. Specific ion conductivity
should be done with formulations that ensure removal of and SIR measurements are much more appropriate tools to
all solder paste residues. These formulations could be bipo- use in determining the levels of individual potentially most
lar solvent systems or solvent systems with aqueous clean- harmful residues, particularly with respect to low residue
ing formulations. The choice of defluxing system depends (i.e., no-clean) processes. Once satisfactory levels of these
on composition of solder paste, compatibility with other residues have been confirmed for a given, in-control fabri-
processes, and layout/spacing of components. cation process, then it may be possible to use a much less
complicated and less expensive analytical tool (e.g., total
6.2.2.5.4 Convection and Infra-Red Reflow Forced con- ion conductivity) for daily process qualification.
vection reflow is the most common method of reflow used
in the surface mount industry today. Forced convection 6.3.1.1 Typical Residues
results in a more uniform heating than thermal radiation.
Shadowing and nonuniform thermal mass distribution 6.3.1.1.1 Components The subject of typical residues
effects are reduced. Because heating is more uniform, less on components is discussed in 6.2, Residues: Nature and
time is necessary to achieve proper thermal conditions Scope, and specifically in 6.2.1.1, Components, of this
making lengthy thermal profiles and long reflow ovens no manual.
longer necessary for successful reflow. Reducing the time
at elevated temperature usually results in residues that are 6.3.1.1.2 Boards The subject of typical residues on bare
easier to clean (less degradation and polymerization of resi- boards is discussed in 6.2, Residues: Nature and Scope, and
dues). specifically in 6.2.1.2.1, Bare Boards, of this manual.

6.2.2.5.5 Hot Air Reflow Repair During repair opera- 6.3.1.2 Cleaning Issues Maximum acceptable bare
tions, care should be taken that excessive heat and flux are board contamination levels do not presently appear in any
not applied. Excessive heat can result in charred flux mak- nationally accepted specifications or standards. An IPC task
ing residues difficult to remove. Liquid fluxes must be fully group has been convened with the goal of first determining
activated and volatilized on the surface during rework to satisfactory test methods and then giving guidance with
ensure good product performance. respect to the required level of cleanliness for bare boards.
The work of this group, the Bare Board Cleanliness
6.2.2.6 Airborne Contaminants These are always
Assessment Task Group, 5-32c, is currently in progress.
present in areas used for human activities. They should be The reader should refer to documents that will be issued by
reduced as much as possible in storage areas by enclosure, this group for state of the art guidance on this issue. In the
filtration, proper airflow management, and periodic clean- interim (i.e., prior to the completion of the work of the
ing of shelves, floors, etc. Bare Board Assessment Task Group) the following can
help to guide those seeking to implement a low residue
6.3 Individual Processes, Residues and Cleaning Issues
process. Additional information on cleanliness require-
ments is to be found in the relevant fabrication section (i.e.,
6.3.1 Pre-Soldering (No-Clean) This section explores
5.2) of this manual.
the cleanliness requirements of parts (i.e., bare boards,
components) coming into an assembly operation. The focus The corrosive contaminants are primarily the following in
of this section is on low residue or no-clean processes. varying degrees: Chloride, Bromide, and Sulfates, Methane
(Figure 6-1 shows the flow diagram.) In a classical low Sulfonic Acid (MSA) (plating bath salt).
residue operation, there is no further cleaning after the
Chloride is one of the more detrimental materials found on
assembly process. Therefore, the successful implementa-
printed circuit assemblies. Chlorides come from a variety
tion of this operation depends on the cleanliness of incom-
of sources, but is most often attributable to flux residues.
ing parts. In an assembly process utilizing finished assem-
Chlorides will initiate and propagate electrochemical fail-
bly cleaning, this issue is significantly less important.
ure mechanisms, such as metal migration and electrolytic
There is currently much discussion regarding the best tools corrosion, when combined with water and electrical poten-
to use in order to quantify the level of contamination on tial. The amount of chloride that can be tolerated on an
finished bare boards (i.e., those received as incoming mate- assembly depends on the flux chemistry being used.
rials by the assembler). As discussed below, this issue is Assemblies processed with high-solids rosin fluxes (RA,
under investigation by the IPC Bare Board Cleanliness RMA) can tolerate higher levels of chloride due to the
Assessment Task Group, 5-32c. Because it is generally rec- encapsulating nature of rosin. Water-soluble fluxes and
ognized that certain ionic residues (e.g., chloride ions) are no-clean fluxes are generally based on resins or very low

19
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

Component Bare Board

Fabrication Fabrication

Clean Clean

Ship to Ship to
Assembly Assembly

Low Residue CLEAN Non Low Residue

Assembly Assembly

Finished Assembly

65a-6-1

Figure 6-1 Flow Diagram for Pre-Soldering Cleaning Options

levels of rosin, and do not have this encapsulating protec- 6.3.2.1 Typical Residues Oxidized or polymerized flux
tion. Therefore they tolerate lower levels of chloride on residues occur due to excessive heating of assemblies dur-
final assemblies. ing reflow. This can easily occur when an assembler uses
The amount of allowable chloride on a bare board is diffi- the same reflow profile for assemblies of significantly dif-
cult to assess. If the boards go into an assembly process ferent sizes. In an attempt not to slow the production down,
that incorporates cleaning, then a higher level of chloride the profile will often be set for the larger assemblies to
can be tolerated. If the bare board is intended for a ensure sufficient heat for proper reflow, and then not reset
no-clean assembly process, then a lower chloride level is for smaller assemblies. This same profile results in smaller
required. boards experiencing excessive heat because of their smaller
mass. This tends to degrade residual flux and make it sig-
Bromide is generally attributable to bromide fire retardant nificantly more difficult to remove. It can be a source of the
added to epoxy-glass laminates to give fire resistance. Bro- troublesome ‘‘white residues.’’ Water-soluble fluxes are
mide can also come from solder masks, marking inks, or particularly prone to being degraded by excessive heat.
fluxes which have bromide activators. Bromide, when from
the fire retardant, is not a material considered to degrade The nature of solder paste is much more complex than the
long term reliability of electronic assemblies. If bromide is individual flux and solder which are used in typical wave
from a flux residue, then it can be as corrosive as other solder operations. Ingredients are added to control viscos-
halides. The level of bromide varies depending on the ity, stability, shelf life, tack time, adhesion, etc. These addi-
porosity of laminate or mask, the degree of over/under cure tives might stay on the assembly after reflow and add to the
of laminate or mask, or the exposure to reflow tempera- number and type of residues possible.
tures. Although not often thought of as a residue, a long-term
Sulfates when present in sufficient quantity, can be harmful concern with the use of solder pastes has been the forma-
materials for electronic assemblies. Sulfates come from a tion of solder balls. Obviously, solder balls are much less
variety of sources, such as contact with sulfur-bearing of a concern when cleaning follows reflow, than when a
papers or plastics, acid processes in fabrication, and tap no-clean approach is followed.
water rinsing/cleaning. 6.3.2.2 Cleaning Issues
Methane sulfonic acid (MSA) is a harsh chemical used in
6.3.2.2.1 SMT Assemblies An ever-increasing concern
many plating operations. It is very electroactive and corro-
in the assembly of surface mount components is the tighter
sive if not fully neutralized and removed.
spacing. Standoff heights, lead pitches and the distance
6.3.2 Post Reflow Cleaning Figure 6-2 shows the flow between line traces have been decreasing in size. Addition-
diagram of post reflow cleaning. ally, components are being placed closer to one another.

20
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Components + Bare Board

Low Residue Flux Rosin Paste Water Soluble Flux

Reflow Reflow Reflow

CLEAN CLEAN
Aqueous Saponification Water Only
Semi-Aqueous or
Solvent Aqueous Saponifier

Finished Assembly

65a-6-2

Figure 6-2 Flow Diagram for Post Reflow Cleaning

Even with these increasing challenges to cleaning, modern Fine and ultra fine pitch parts, together with other advanced
cleaning equipment and agents continue to demonstrate packages, have brought new demands on stencil cleaning.
their ability to keep up with the pace of technology. How- Paste volume is a critical issue for fine, ultra fine and BGA
ever, in order to ensure the ability to satisfactorily clean components. Insufficient solder is a primary cause of
these tighter spacings, it is important to monitor the clean- defects due to stencil printing. Clean stencils are a key fac-
ing equipment on a regular basis. tor in delivering the proper amount of paste. It has been
The advent of Ball Grid Array (BGA) components has estimated that approximately 70% of surface mount tech-
been helpful not only in the area of interconnection, but nology defects are due to solder paste printing problems.
also in cleaning. Both their relatively high standoff height Modern stencil cleaning agents must be effective, safe for
and their large pitch between adjacent solder ball connec- workers and safe for the environment. 2-propanol (IPA) is
tions favor the cleaning of standard BGAs. Any difficulties historically used for stencil cleaning, but there are both
which may arise with respect to cleaning, rinsing or drying environmental (VOC) and safety (i.e., fire hazard) con-
will likely be due to challenges poised by having to effec- cerns. Today, there is a much wider array of cleaning
tively penetrate a large bank of adjacent solder balls with agents for stencil cleaning.
the media in question. Drying could present more of a
problem than cleaning. The traditional approach of hand wiping stencils should be
The question often arises regarding the ability to remove discouraged. Health issues, modern speed and efficacy
no-clean paste residues after assembly. There are customers requirements, as well as the risk of damage to thin stencils
who do not want any residues to be visible on their assem- have moved assemblers to automated stencil cleaning
blies, regardless of the paste used. There are contract equipment.
manufacturers who clean assemblies that have gone
The residue encountered on stencils is generally the solder
through low residue process. Success in this area depends
paste itself (i.e., which has not been reflowed), which may
very much on the specific paste and agent used.
be in a fairly dried form. However, there is often also a
6.3.2.2.2 Stencil Cleaning Stencil cleaning has taken an need to remove uncured adhesives that are utilized for the
increasingly important role in surface mount technology. bottom side mounting of SMTs.

21
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

6.3.3 Post Wave Solder Cleaning Figure 6-3 shows the If the immersion depth in the wave is not reset between
flow diagram of post wave solder cleaning. multilayer and double or single sided PWAs, thinner boards
will experience more than optimal thermal exposure. These
Note: Saponification is only suitable for rosin flux resi-
actions further degrade residual flux and make it signifi-
dues. SA flux residues may be removed with either semi-
cantly more difficult to remove. It can be a source of the
aqueous processes, including emulsion semiaqueous or by
troublesome ‘‘white residues.’’ Rosin and water-soluble
solvent processes that do not include acid acceptance stabi-
fluxes are particularly prone to degradation by excessive
lizer packages. The very active SA flux residues rapidly
heat, while SA fluxes tend to be much more tolerant to
deplete such stabilizer packages.
thermal over-exposure.
6.3.3.1 Typical Residues Flux residue is a catchall term The complexity of wave solder fluxes has increased over
that covers the mixture of reacted flux, unreacted flux and the years, as demands for defect free soldering have
condensed flux volatiles. Oxidized or ‘‘polymerized’’ flux increased. In addition, sophisticated chemistry is often used
residues occur due to excessive heating of assemblies dur- to ensure compliance with industry flux standards. Thus,
ing preheating and soldering. This can easily occur when the nature of what were called RMA fluxes is much more
an assembler uses the same heating profile for assemblies complex than RA fluxes, often resulting in more complex
of significantly varying size, density or PWB type, in an residues which are more difficult to remove. SA fluxes con-
attempt not to slow the production down by having to tain materials in place of rosin that are readily solvent
re-set the soldering parameters. Often the parameters will soluble, while the activators are long chain versions of
be set for densely populated multilayer assemblies to insure typical rosin flux activators. SA flux base and activators
sufficient heat for proper soldering, but such parameters were selected for maximum activity and ease of solvent
result in smaller boards experiencing excessive heat solubility. In addition, these residues do not degrade ther-
because of their smaller mass. mally until very high temperatures are reached, thus do not
leave ‘‘white residues.’’

Components + Bare Board

Synthetic
Rosin Flux Low Residue Activated Water Soluble Flux
Flux Flux

Wave Solder Wave Solder Wave Solder Wave Solder

CLEAN CLEAN
Aqueous Saponification Semi-Aqueous Water Only
Semi-Aqueous Solvent or
Solvent Aqueous Saponifier

Finished Assembly

IPC-65a-6-3

Figure 6-3 Flow Diagram for Post Wave Solder Cleaning

22
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Rosin fluxes can be tested using a thermal analysis method being placed closer to one another. More tenacious residues
to determine if white residue precursors are present. Not may result from modern manufacturing procedures. An
using a flux with such precursors can eliminate the white example is the technique of using a wave solder process to
residue problem before it happens. Some suppliers pre-treat solder components on both sides of the board. Components
their rosin to remove these precursors, thus ensuring that are glued on, boards are run through the wave with com-
the final rosin flux will meet all appropriate procurement ponent side down; second sides are populated using adhe-
specifications, without causing white residue. sive, and boards are run through the wave a second time in
the inverted position. For best results, it is important to
While quite visible at very low levels at inspection, ‘‘white
clean within 15 minutes of wave soldering. If the PWA is
residues’’ are difficult to identify. Most analytical methods
to be conformally coated, it is often polish cleaned just
require a significant volume of residue for testing which is
prior to coating to remove any soils from the intervening
difficult to obtain given the minute levels present.
inspection, testing and possible rework or repair steps. The
Besides the base material (rosin or synthetic), activators, choice of cleaning agent should be consistent with attach-
some surfactant and anti-oxidant, fluxes also contain vola- ment material chemistry. In order to ensure the ability to
tile diluent mixtures. Depending on the method of flux satisfactorily clean these tighter spacings, it is important to
application (wave, foam or spray) the flux formulation may monitor the cleaning equipment on a regular basis.
need to include foaming agents. Thus the user must deter-
6.3.3.2.2 No-Clean Assembly Question often arises
mine what is the best application method that will leave a
minimal amount of simplest residue on the PWA after wave regarding the ability to remove no-clean flux residues after
soldering. Then a cleaning agent must be selected to treat assembly. There are customers who do not want any resi-
that residue. dues to be visible on their assemblies, regardless of the flux
used. There are contract manufacturers who do clean
Although not often thought of as a residue, a long-term assemblies which have gone through low residue process.
concern with the use of solder fluxes has been the forma- Success in this area depends very much on careful match-
tion of solder balls. Obviously, solder balls are much less ing of the specific flux and cleaning agent used. Discus-
of a concern when cleaning follows soldering, than when a sions between the assembler, flux supplier(s) and cleaning
no-clean process is used. agent supplier(s) can be beneficial in finding the best pro-
While once a very popular approach to reduce soldering cess.
defects, the mixing of oil into solder wave has almost dis- Users should be aware of the subtle distinctions between
appeared. These oil-intermix soldering processes compli- ‘‘water soluble’’ no-clean flux residues and ‘‘water rins-
cate the residues found after wave soldering. However, the able’’ no-clean residues, with the latter usually implying
presence of oil does prevent residues from crystallizing and that only part of the residue can be removed by an aqueous
hardening, thus making them easier for cleaning agents to rinse.
attack and remove.
6.3.4 Mixed Technology Cleaning Figure 6-4 shows the
The typical post wave solder residue will thus consist of flow diagram of mixed technology cleaning.
nonionic, ionic and particulate components. The nonionic
part consists of reacted base material (rosin or synthetic, 6.3.4.1 Typical Residues In this case the assembler has
which includes both water-soluble and SA formulations), to deal with several residues from three quite different
oils, greases, residual HASL or fusing fluids and poorly attachment techniques. These are reflow soldering, adhe-
dissociated materials. The ionic part consists of flux activa- sives, and wave soldering. Optimum cleaning results are
tor, residual plating or etching salts and handling soils. The achieved when the chemistry of reflow solder paste and
particulate part consists of solder balls or dross, handling wave solder flux are as identical as possible.
soils, drilling or routing dust and airborne particulate. The residues from solder paste are more complex due to
The post-wave solder cleaning agent must be chosen to the incorporation of various thixotropic control and tack
remove all the components of this complex residue from a time increasing ingredients. The wave solder equipment
variety of surfaces: laminate or substrate, metals and vari- used for mixed technology generally includes two solder
ous plastics. waves, instead of one found in traditional assembly. A
‘‘rough’’ or ‘‘chip’’ wave is designed to do a partial attach-
6.3.3.2 Cleaning Issues ment of solder side components, and a volatilization of
most of the flux residues. Defect-free soldering is then
6.3.3.2.1 Traditional Assembly An ever increasing con-
completed by passage through the ‘‘smooth’’ or ‘‘finish’’
cern in the assembly of both plated-through hole and sur-
wave.
face mount components is the tighter spacing. Standoff
heights, lead pitches and the distance between line traces Provided no more than 15 minutes elapse between the time
have been decreasing in size. Additionally, components are of reflow soldering and wave soldering, a single cleaning

23
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

Top Side Reflow Finished Assembly

(via Clean or No-Clean Process)

Bottom Side Placement

Insert Through Hole Components
of Surface Mount Components

Low Residue Flux Rosin Paste Water Soluble Flux

Wave Solder Wave Solder Wave Solder

CLEAN CLEAN - Water Only

Finished Assembly
IPC-65a-6-4

Figure 6-4 Flow Diagram for Mixed Technology Cleaning

process at the end of the production line will suffice. In Such combination processes are probably best used for
cases of low production volumes or many part numbers, Class 1 and possibly Class 2 products. In some cases spot
resulting in a longer delay time between the first soldering cleaning may be needed to simplify electrical and func-
step and cleaning, an intermediate cleaning immediately tional testing. Such cleaning can be accomplished by dis-
after reflow will minimize residue problems. solving the residues with an aggressive solvent (such as a
Solder paste residue undergoes two high temperature ther- high boiling alcohol or ester) and rinsing using a volatile
mal cycles, once during the reflow step and again during material such as 2-propanol. This two-step process will
the wave solder process. The use of topside preheaters fur- ensure a clean, dry surface for testing or coating.
ther overheats solder paste residues.
6.3.5 Post Manual Soldering Cleaning
In addition to soldering materials (solder paste and wave
solder flux), adhesive is also a typical residue in mixed
6.3.5.1 Typical Residues Primary residues resulting
technology processes. Excess adhesive misapplied may
from manual soldering operation are associated with flux
migrate onto test points or attachment points (pads or
materials added during the generation of solder intercon-
plated-through holes).
nection. Excess flux added during the soldering operation
6.3.4.2 Cleaning Issues The same types of residues will result in rosin and flux activators being present after
from reflow and wave soldering processes are found on soldering. Flux and possibly polymerized (burned) flux will
mixed technology PWAs, exacerbated by two thermal be left behind if the soldering temperature is maintained in
cycles. Careful selection of cleaning process will optimize the joint area for an extended period of time. Such residues
residue removal from the completed assemblies. are more difficult to remove since polymerization produces
a residue of higher molecular weight and makes the con-
Processes may involve different kinds of fluxes, e.g., (1)
taminant more difficult to be dissolved in the cleaning
no-clean solder paste in combination with no-clean wave
agent.
solder flux; (2) no-clean solder paste in combination with
traditional wave solder flux; or (3) traditional solder paste Low residue or low rosin/resin fluxes typically leave
in combination with no-clean wave solder flux. In the first behind a lower concentration of post-solder residues. It is
case, any attempt to clean the completed PWAs will most usually recommended that different types of low residue
likely only make matters worse from a cosmetic stand- fluxes not be intermingled in subsequent soldering opera-
point. The same outcome is also likely from the second and tions (mass soldering, manual soldering, rework/repair sol-
third cases. dering). If intermingling occurs, adequate testing would

24
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

first be conducted to show that such uses are compatible 6.4 Assembly Cleaning Media and Equipment
and will not result in flux residues that either present
esthetic or removal problems. Overheating or extended 6.4.1 Solvent Cleaning The purpose of this section is to
heating during the soldering operation can also produce give a basic understanding of the cleaning media and
residues that are difficult to remove. In no-clean soldering equipment used in the solvent based cleaning of electronic
processes, the removal of such residues is not an issue. assemblies. The subject of solvent based cleaning is fully
detailed in the IPC manual IPC-SC-60, ‘‘Post Solder Sol-
6.3.5.2 Cleaning Cleaning of manually soldered connec-
vent Cleaning Handbook.’’ The reader is referred to IPC-
tions typically involves processes used in mass soldering SC-60 for a more in-depth and complete discussion of this
operations. Cleaning of completed assemblies may involve method of defluxing.
localized removal of contaminants from just the manually
6.4.1.1 Media Several types of organic solvents are used
soldered joint with cleaning solvent and manual brushing.
in the cleaning of printing wiring boards (PWBs), printing
This may be all the cleaning that is required. If higher
wiring assemblies (PWAs), surface mount assemblies
cleanliness levels are required or subsequent operations
(SMAs), and hybrids. The most widely used solvents were
such as conformal coating are required, the assembly may
chlorinated and fluorinated compounds. The chlorinated
be subjected to additional cleaning such as batch or in-line
(1,1,1-trichloroethane) and chlorofluorinated (CFCs) sol-
equipment cleaning operations.
vents are ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs) and are
Manually soldered connections may be subjected directly banned from production in developed countries by global
to batch or in-line conveyorized equipment cleaning after treaty (Montreal Protocol). Several hydro-chlorinated,
the soldering operation if the time between soldering and hydro-brominated and hydro-fluorinated solvents are in
cleaning is minimized. In cases where extended periods of use, at present, in cleaning applications. Currently, the most
time may occur between manual soldering and cleaning, a common of the solvents are certain HCFCs deemed as
quick manual clean may be preferred to avoid building up acceptable substitutes for CFCs by regulation, HFCs,
of tenacious residual and to ensure that final cleaning will HFEs, n-PB (see Table 6-1) and various combinations
be capable of meeting cleanliness requirements. based on alcohols (both short and long chain) or esters. The
cleaning formulations are prepared by mixing appropriate
6.3.6 Post Manual Rework/Repair Soldering Cleaning solvents for specific applications. To be effective, a cleaner
should have the proper spreading and wetting characteris-
6.3.6.1 Typical Residues The flux residues typical to tics as well as solvency.
manual rework/repair soldering operations are similar to Table 6-1 Common Solvents Used in Cleaning Process
those previously discussed in 6.3.5.1. Acronym Solvent Name
However, if the rework or repair operation takes place on a HCFC* Hydrochlorofluorocarbon
conformally coated assembly, removal of the coating prior HFC Hydrofluorocarbon
to soldering may present an additional contaminant. HFE Hydrofluoroether
Residual conformal coating could interfere with the forma- nPB N-propyl bromide
tion of joint. It could also represent foreign material if *Only certain HCFCs are deemed as acceptable for CFCs by regulation.
allowed to contaminate the solder connection.
Additionally, solvent formulations used are generally azeo-
tropes, which is a solvent mixture that has a sharply
6.3.6.2 Cleaning Cleaning of manual rework/repair sol-
defined boiling point or very narrow boiling range, so it
dered connections typically involves processes used in
behaves like a pure material in vapor defluxer. (The tech-
mass soldering operations as previously described in
nical definition requires that the composition of the vapor
6.3.5.2. Again, if the assembly is conformally coated the
and the liquid phases are identical at the boiling point.)
initial operation involves selecting a solvent, chemical or
Thus an azeotrope can be as easily used for cleaning and
mechanical method for adequately removing the conformal
recycling just like a pure cleaning agent. Nonazeotropic
coating. Complete removal of coating, including residual
blends fall into two categories: homogeneous – where boil-
particulates, in the area of the solder joint to be reworked
ing point of the blend varies with composition of the mix-
or repaired, must be achieved to prevent possible contami-
ture; and heterogeneous – where boiling point of the mix-
nation during the rework/repair process.
ture is set by the lowest boiling component of the mixture.
After the soldering operation, cleaning is again similar to
that described in 6.3.5.2. However, the final post solder 6.4.1.2 Equipment Solvent cleaning equipment falls into
cleaning of the reworked/repaired area needs to be suffi- two general classes. The two classes are defined as batch –
cient to assure adhesion and quality in the subsequent reap- where the PWAs to be cleaned are moved from stage to
plication of conformal coating. stage in baskets; and in-line – where the PWAs to be

25
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

cleaned are moved from stage to stage on a continuous The point where cleaning performance falls off can be
belt. Batch solvent cleaners usually have one to four tanks, established by simultaneously tracking the NVR and ionic
with two or three being the most common. The workbas- contamination levels on the PWAs.
kets can be moved manually from tank to tank by an opera-
tor or by a hoist, which can be programmed or operator 6.4.1.2.2 Optimizing the Vapor Defluxing Process To
actuated. minimize solvent losses to the workplace atmosphere and
6.4.1.2.1 Vapor Defluxing Process For simplicity, the optimize economics, minimal disturbance of the vapor
vapor defluxing process will be described using a three- blanket is required. To achieve this result, the workbaskets
tank batch cleaner; bearing in mind that the principles must be restricted to less than 3 meters/minute vertical or
remain the same if tanks are added or subtracted from the horizontal movement, entering or leaving an immersion
design. The cleaner will have three tanks or sumps: boil, sump; or moving between sumps. If the basket is abruptly
rinse and condensate rinse; arranged in order from left to lowered into the sumps, significant solvent loss will take
right. place via the ‘‘piston effect’’ and loss of the vapor blanket.
The cross-sectional area of the workbasket should only be
The workbaskets can only be immersed in the boil and
about 75% of the cross-sectional area above the sump. The
rinse sumps, since the condensate tank is shielded to main-
buffer zone around the basket enables the vapor blanket to
tain the solvent at the highest purity level. Solvent is boiled
in the first or boil sump. Vapors rise until they condense on adjust to the entrance of the work. If the workbasket
the condensing coils mounted on the tank walls. Multiple exceeds the stated area and the basket is thrust into the
loops of coil are generally used, with the heat input bal- sump, the vapor blanket is pushed aside, flows up the inner
anced for optimum condensation, which is generally on the sides of the tank, displaces the air above the vapor blanket,
middle loop of the coils. As solvent vapors come into equi- and finally flows over the lip of the cleaner, where it is lost
librium by condensing on the coils, a vapor blanket thus into workplace atmosphere. The basket must move within
forms over the sumps, displacing air over the sumps. Sol- the vapor blanket during the transition between sumps.
vent regenerated by condensation on the coils drops into a Finally, the workbasket must remain in the vapor blanket
trough that surrounds the interior of the cleaner just below over the rinse sump for a sufficient time for the basket and
the coils. The condensed solvent runs to the right, where it work to reach thermal equilibrium with the solvent vapor.
runs through a device to remove water (either a water sepa- If all these steps are carried out correctly, the work and
rator or a desiccant dryer, depending on the formulation), basket will emerge from the cleaner with only a thin coat-
and finally collects in the condensate rinse sump. ing of vapor.
When enough solvent is condensed to fill the condensate
rinse sump, it overflows in a countercurrent manner into 6.4.1.2.3 Batch Equipment The simplest batch cleaner
the rinse sump, which in turn overflows into the boil sump. for electronics cleaning will have three distinct tanks or
Thus the solvent constantly follows a circular path from sumps. The first is the wash sump, where the PWAs are
boil sump to vapor to condensed solvent to condensate immersed in the boiling solvent. The second is the rinse
rinse sump to rinse sump and finally back to boil sump. sump, where the PWAs are immersed in warm solvent.
The solvent flow is from right to left while the work flow While often called the cold sump, this is a misnomer, since
is from left to right (counter-current). Soils washed or the solvent is a nominal 3-5° below the boiling point. The
rinsed off PWAs will concentrate in the boil sump. Eventu- third sump is the condensate rinse sump, which collects
ally soil level in the boil sump will be high enough that and holds the solvent vapors that have just been condensed
cleaning performance drops off. The boil sump solvent is on the chilled coils above the vapor zone. After condensa-
then removed and reclaimed in a still. After the boil sump tion, the solvent passes through either a water separator or
is filled with fresh solvent, cleaning can commence. a desiccant dryer, which removes any water condensed
from the air. Each batch cleaner should be fitted with the
Many users pipe the boil sump to a remote still to facilitate
following design features:
continuous distillation and reclamation of solvent, thus
keeping the soil level in boil sump low and constant. Alter- • Immersion heaters matched to the cooling capacity of the
natively, some equipment designs feature a second, offset condensation coils. Immersion heaters use hot water or
boil sump for continuous distillation of solvent for re-use. steam instead of electrical heaters
In this case, the offset boil sump is shielded to prevent • Boil-up rate designed to have condensation occur on the
immersion of workbaskets. If a continuous still or offset middle loop of the cooling coils (typically running at
boil sump is not used, solvent is typically replaced in the 4-10°C [39-50°F]).
boil sump when the soil level reaches 5-7%. • Coils chilled by either a refrigeration system or closed
Simple nonvolatile residue (NVR) monitoring methods are loop external chiller (relying on cold water does not per-
available to allow operator to check solvent soil loading. mit the needed process control)

26
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

• A secondary set of coils (typically running at 1.5°C followed by vapor drying are not as effective as immersion
[34.7°F]) above the primary set to dehumidify the air over cleaning for PWAs. While vapor cleaning can be effective
the vapor blanket for large metal parts with high heat capacity (such parts
• A trough below the secondary coils to remove condensed condense large amounts of solvent which flow down over
water the part to wash and rinse it), it is not effective for plastic
PWAs with their inherently low heat capacity.
• A sliding or rolling cover that moves parallel to the floor
instead of a hinged cover (raising such a cover disturbs 6.4.1.2.4 In-Line Equipment The same principles that
the vapor blanket) were described above for batch cleaning designs will also
• Optional cooling coils in the boil and rinse sumps to hold for in-line or conveyorized cleaners. The conveyor
maintain the solvent at a lower than ambient temperature path is not horizontal, but descends at an angle into the
during idle periods body of the cleaner, then horizontally during the cleaning
The outer shell of the defluxer must be high enough to pro- and rinsing steps, prior to ascending at an angle to the exit
vide sufficient ‘‘freeboard,’’ which is defined as the ratio of area where the clean dry PWAs are transferred to the next
the distance from the top of the cleaner to the top of the step in manufacturing process. The key to efficient cleaning
vapor blanket: the width of the cleaner. While the older with minimal solvent usage is minimizing the vapor-air
chlorinated and fluorinated solvent equipment were gener- interface. Thus the system should be designed so this inter-
ally designed with 50% and 75% minimum freeboards, face is just large enough to get the work in and out of the
respectively; modern equipment normally uses a 150% cleaner.
minimum freeboard. The work passes through the air on the entrance part of the
A number of options to enhance cleaning performance may cleaner, descends through the vapor-air interface without
also be fitted, including rinse sump ultrasonics and/or a disturbing it, passes horizontally through a spray wash
spray wand. For solvents, 40 kHz or higher frequencies are zone, through one or more spray rinse zones and then
typical. To prevent harmonics, modern ultrasonics gener- through the vapor blanket for drying; prior to exiting the
ally does not work at a single fixed frequency, but sweeps machine. The spray zones are normally fitted with multiple
back and forth over a narrow range at or above 40 kHz. spray nozzles on multiple spray bars for the wash, rinse
This prevents harmonics that could potentially cause prob- and condensate rinse zones. Pressures in the upper banks of
lems with wire bonds, allowing delicate PWAs to be nozzles are set slightly higher than the nozzles below the
cleaned safely and efficiently. Spray wands, a significant conveyor belt to ensure the PWAs stay as placed on the
source of solvent loss, either should be used correctly or belt. Wash, rinse and condensate sumps that feed the corre-
not at all. Spray wands are typically set up to draw solvent sponding banks of spray nozzles are beneath the conveyor
from the condensate spray chamber upon demand, usually belt.
by a foot-operated pedal. Keen operators will note that
when spraying is carried out as directed, which is below Each sump is fitted with pumps to feed the spray mani-
the vapor blanket, the blanket collapses, then rebuilds. Dur- folds, with filters in the piping before the pumps. Sets of
ing the re-establishment of vapor blanket, any solvent that coils to condense the vapor are located in the entrance and
has diffused into the air above the vapor blanket is pushed exit sections of the cleaner. The horizontal section of the
up and out of the machine, thus increasing overall losses. belt chamber is depressed so it completely fills with vapor
This happens because solvent forms tiny cold droplets that during operation, which ensures that all the spraying and
act as additional condensing surface. This can be avoided drying takes place in pure solvent vapor. The speed of the
by re-wiring the foot pedal to turn off the spray pump when conveyor belt is normally set slightly faster than the reflow
it is actuated. Then the spray wand can be left in the rinse or wave solder conveyors, which ensures that the PWAs are
sump with fresh warm solvent constantly passing through only one layer deep on the cleaning belt. Various studies
it. When needed, the pedal is pressed, the spray turns off, have shown that cleaning can be best maximized by
the operator aligns the spray nozzle where needed below increasing both the spray nozzle flow rate and pressure,
the vapor blanket and turns the spray back on. since ultrasonics cannot be used in a spray/vapor configu-
ration as there is no immersion.
The typical cleaning cycle in a batch defluxer is: boil sump,
2-3 minutes; rinse sump, 1-2 minutes; vapor zone (drying), 6.4.1.2.5 Retrofitting Solvent Equipment Older clean-
0.5-2 minutes. The cycle time can be optimized based on ing equipment can often be retrofitted to allow efficient,
visual observation and ionic cleanliness data. Extending the environmentally responsible use of newer cleaning agents.
time in boil sump can be counter productive, as after a cer- Retrofit kits can be obtained from original manufacturers or
tain period redeposition of soil onto the PWAs will start to retrofit specialists. The kit may include extended freeboard
occur. Attempts to clean by suspending the PWAs in the with a secondary bank of condensing coils, sliding or roll-
vapor zone over the boil sump, then over the rinse tank, ing cover, piping changes to eliminate liquid or vapor

27
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

losses, hoods, enclosed basket transport mechanisms, rolling cover retrofit package described in 6.4.1.2.5 for
remote still, and automation of cleaning cycle. maximum effectiveness and lowest solvent usage.
The extended freeboard, secondary coils and sliding cover The low level, vapor-up, temperature/flow and high vapor
are the most critical items to include. Batch cleaners are safety sensors may need to be readjusted in retrofitted
much easier to retrofit than in-line cleaners, due to the equipment originally built for a different solvent.
enclosed conveyor belt tunnel design. It is usually better to
replace an outdated in-line cleaner with a modern design 6.4.1.2.8 Solvent Vapor-In-Air Monitoring Numerous
that incorporates all the above solvent conservation fea- methods are available to facilitate solvent vapor in work-
tures. place air monitoring. Profiling the cleaner when it is under
full cleaning load will give the best information on compli-
In case of PWA designs with high solvent entrapment
ance with standards.
potential, hot vapor recycle (HVR) can be very useful to
facilitate drying and minimize solvent loss. HVR systems Whatever method is used, it is best to crosscheck it with an
draw off part of the solvent vapor, superheat it so that the established method such as gas chromatography. Samples
vapor temperature is above the normal boiling point of the should be taken at the entrance and exit of the cleaner, as
solvent, then apply it to the surface of the PWA using a well as in the area where the operator could inhale any
vapor knife. The superheated vapor flash evaporates any vapors coming out of the machine. Elimination of drafts,
residual liquid solvent, which is then condensed by the air currents and fans that could blow over the top of the
coils and returned to the system, allowing PWAs to exit the cleaner is critical for minimizing solvent in air levels.
cleaner taking out only a small amount of vapor. Such
HVR systems do require a thermally stable solvent to oper- 6.4.2 Aqueous Cleaning The purpose of this section is
ate properly. to give a basic understanding of the cleaning media and
equipment used in the aqueous based cleaning of electronic
6.4.1.2.6 Solvent Distillation Equipment Many users assemblies. The subject of water based cleaning is fully
want to maximize solvent conservation and economics detailed in the IPC manual IPC-AC-62, Aqueous Post Sol-
while maintaining minimum investment in solvents. The der Cleaning Handbook. The reader is referred to IPC-
use of a reclamation still fills both needs. Typically, when AC-62 for a more in-depth and complete discussion of this
the boil sump solvent contains 5-7% of soil (NVR), it is method of defluxing.
removed from the machine for recycling. Losses take place Aqueous cleaning is an extremely effective and well-
in draining and refilling the sump if this is not done cor- understood technique for defluxing electronic assemblies.
rectly. Astute users pipe one or more cleaners to a still to Importantly, waste treatment and water conservation prin-
facilitate solvent recycling. After distillation, filtration, dry- ciples are equally well known and readily accessed.
ing and adjustment of the stabilizer package or other com- Defluxing with water permits removal of the more aggres-
ponents as required, the solvent is piped back to the point sive water-soluble fluxes, which are often favored because
of use. The NVR levels in a still, when operated properly, of their effectiveness.
can reach 80%, thus only a small amount of solvent is sent
for disposal. Disposal by incineration at a cement kiln is The media involved in aqueous based cleaning is quite
the preferred process. simply either water alone or water plus an additive. Adher-
ence to water purity standards is important for the success
6.4.1.2.7 Retrofitting Solvent Equipment for the of this technology. Rinse water is often close-looped for the
Co-Solvent Process Modern co-solvent cleaning uses a purposes of economics and water conservation. New types
homogeneous mixture of hydrofluorocarbon, usually a of aqueous based cleaning agents have been made available
hydrofluoroether, in combination with a high boiling sol- in the last few years. They are more effective and have
vating agent. Adjusting the ratios of solvents in the boil worker safety and/or environmental advantages over the
sump can simulate boiling points ranging from that of older monoethanol/glycol ether type of aqueous additive.
1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) to trichloroethylene to per-
Modern aqueous cleaning equipment is technically very
chloroethylene. The rinse sump is filled with pure hydrof-
sophisticated, yet easy to use. Wash equipment is either of
luoroether.
the in-line conveyorized, high volume type or batch in
The process is run like a standard vapor defluxing process, nature. Features on in-line conveyorized equipment, such
first immersion in the boil sump, then immersion in the as the efficient drag-out zones, maximize cleaning efficacy,
rinse sump and finally drying in the hydrofluoroether vapor ease and economics of water treatment. Batch cleaning
blanket. While the process can be substituted for CFC-113, equipment is highly automated, but the operating param-
TCA or HCFC-141b in any modern vapor defluxer suitable eters can easily be varied. Water based cleaning has a sig-
for these solvents, it is best to operate with the extended nificant advantage over other nonaqueous wash media in
(150%) freeboard, secondary condenser coils and sliding or permitting the use of plastic equipment. Other cleaning

28
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

media generally require the use of the more expensive removed. The greater portion of this category is comprised
stainless steel equipment. In addition, flammability protec- of two broad classes of materials, namely surfactants and
tion is not a concern with aqueous based equipment. solvents. In aqueous defluxing formulations, these materi-
als can be used with each other or with reactive type addi-
6.4.2.1 Wash and Rinse Media In aqueous post solder tives. It is likely that all aqueous cleaning formulations
cleaning, the wash media is either solely water or water contain some nonreactive type additives.
plus an additive. By IPC definition, when an additive is
The term surfactant covers a wide range of functional
employed in aqueous cleaning, at least 50% of the wash
materials, from emulsifying agents to defoamers. The basic
system is water. The use of water as the primary ingredient
commonality is that all surfactant molecules contain both a
in defluxing takes advantage of the ready solubility of ionic
hydrophilic or water loving portion and a hydrophobic or
species in water. Ionic residues are the most detrimental
water hating portion. The functional role that surfactants
contaminants for electronic parts.
play depends upon the structure of the hydrophilic and
Water without additives will not permit the removal of hydrophobic groups and upon the weight ratio of these
rosin based flux residues. While water alone is often satis- groups to each other.
factory for removing water-soluble fluxes, additives may
These materials are broadly classified according to the
be required when white residues, oily soils or tight spacing
charge on the hydrophilic portion. They are thus identified
are encountered. Excessive foam is a fairly common prob-
as being anionic (negative charge), nonionic (no charge),
lem when using water-soluble fluxes. This situation can
cationic (positive charge) and zwitterionic (can carry either
often be controlled with the addition of a foam control
a positive or a negative charge depending on the circum-
agent.
stances). It is the nonionic type that finds the widest use in
Unlike wash media, water without additives should nor- the cleaning of electronics.
mally be used for rinsing electronic circuit boards. How-
A distinct advantage of surfactants is their ability to func-
ever, addition of a small percentage of light alcohol to the
tion effectively at low concentrations. They are very effec-
final rinse water does often enhance performance. The role
tive in solubilizing or emulsifying oily and other types of
of rinse water is to remove residues without leaving a resi-
residues.
due of its own. Any additives in the rinse water would
work against the purpose. Similarly, any hardness ions (i.e., Surfactants serve a key function by improving the ability of
calcium and magnesium) or naturally occurring impurities water to wet surfaces. Water has a relatively high surface
in the rinse water would likely be left on the boards after tension. Water molecules are strongly attracted to one
drying. Thus, good quality deionized water is the preferred another and thus tend not to spread on surfaces. Surfactants
rinse medium. function as wetting agents by reducing the surface tension.
This then permits the water to wet or spread on surfaces
6.4.2.1.1 Water Without Additives Water without addi- and helps water get into tight spaces.
tives is used for the removal of residues resulting from
Foam control is another area well served by surfactants.
water soluble fluxes. These fluxes have been designed for
The ability of a surfactant to defoam is often very tempera-
cleaning with water alone. However, it is extremely impor-
ture dependent. The defoaming action may only occur
tant that all residues are completely removed. Because of
above a certain temperature for a given surfactant. Surfac-
the aggressive nature of most of these fluxes, incomplete
tants used to control foam are either used by themselves or
removal may result in corrosion in just a short period of
as part of defluxing formulation. It should be noted that
time. Every effort must be made to ensure that residues are
there is a special class of defoaming agents known as sili-
removed from areas with close spaces, such as under com-
cones, which should not be used with circuit boards. Sili-
ponents. The relatively high surface tension of water can
cone residues are virtually impossible to remove and result
make flux removal challenging for parts with tight spacing.
in adhesion difficulties and soldering problems.
For many operations, the use of water without additives The other major class of nonreactive materials is the sol-
yields parts with the required level of cleanliness. Success vent group. Their primarily organic nature helps them pen-
depends on the nature of the part itself, effectiveness of etrate and dissolve organic residues. These materials also
equipment and minimization of the period between solder- fall into the category of volatile organic compounds
ing and cleaning. Wash temperatures are generally in the (VOCs). The actual VOC contribution depends on the sub-
50°C to 65°C [122°F to 149°F] range. It is important to use stance itself and the amount that is added to the wash bath.
good quality deionized water to aid in effective rinsing.
Organic solvents can be divided into those which are com-
6.4.2.1.2 Surfactants and Other Nonreactive Type Addi- pletely water insoluble and those with structure permitting
tives Nonreactive type additives are defined as those that varying degrees of water solubility. Except for organic sol-
do not react chemically with process residues being vent emulsions, it is the water-soluble type of solvents that

29
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

are used in aqueous post solder cleaning. With the possible Deionized water is preferred for wash water make-up with
exception of the emulsion approach, organic solvents need all types of saponifiers, but good quality softened water
to be used at relatively high concentrations. When solvent will often suffice. Calcium and magnesium ions (i.e., hard-
levels are sufficiently high, both solubilization and surface ness ions) can potentially result in the formation of
tension reduction can occur. insoluble flux residues.
There are various water soluble type organic solvents that It should be noted that saponifier type cleaning formula-
are used in aqueous washing. These solvents include gly- tions can be used with nonrosin and pastes, such as water
col ethers and higher molecular weight alcohols, such as soluble fluxes and at times, with no-clean water washable
tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol. Organic solvents are generally fluxes.
used in conjunction with a reactive material that supplies
alkalinity. For example, the above mentioned glycol ether 6.4.2.1.4 Organic Solvent Emulsions in Water This
and alcohol solvents in combination with the reactive cleaning technology uses relatively small amounts of non-
monoethanolamine have often been used in aqueous miscible organic solvent (2 to 10%, nominal 5%) in the
defluxing. form of an emulsion in water. This hybrid approach pro-
vides effective bipolar cleaning. As proven by IPC/EPA/
Corrosion inhibitors and/or agents who help retain solder
DoD testing, solvent emulsions are capable of removing
joint brightness, are often also used in aqueous cleaning
rosin and other nonpolar materials, while the aqueous por-
formulations. With metals that are particularly sensitive to
tion dissolves water-soluble residues.
alkaline media, such as black anodized or conversion-
coated aluminum, proper choice of inhibitor is very impor- In this process, controlled amounts of organic solvent are
tant. These materials are either organic or inorganic in mixed with water in the wash chamber. An ‘‘emulsion’’ of
nature and can be very effective. fine dispersed solvent droplets in water is formed in the
wash reservoir and sprayed onto parts to be cleaned. Dur-
6.4.2.1.3 Saponifiers In the electronics industry, the ing the wash cycle, the sprayed solvent/water mixture that
term saponification refers to the use of alkaline materials to drains back into the wash reservoir is continuously emulsi-
convert water insoluble rosin flux residues into water- fied.
soluble soaps. The alkaline material reacts with rosin’s car-
boxylic acid group, forming a soap that can then be After completion of the wash cycle, the emulsion is broken
removed with water. It should be noted, however, that and the organic solvent portion that contains the residues
saponifier materials are always formulated with other separates from the water carrier. The collected organic sol-
ingredients, such as surfactants and/or organic solvents. vent waste floats at the top of the wash tank and is easily
removed. Routine rinsing with deionized water then fol-
The saponifier agents are either organic or inorganic in lows the wash.
nature. The organic type is often composed of alkaline
amines and the most commonly used is monoethanolamine Overall, this process concept yields benefits from organic
(MEA). As received, (i.e., the concentrate) formulations solvent cleaning and water cleaning. The relatively higher
which utilize MEA generally have pH of 12 to 13 and a boiling points and lower vapor pressures of the organic
bath pH of 11.5 to 12.0. Alkaline amines also fall into the solvents used minimize VOC emissions. The small
VOC category. amounts of organic solvents in an aqueous medium also do
not normally present a fire or explosion hazard.
The defluxing organic saponifiers generally use higher lev-
els of organic solvents. MEA based defluxing agents, for 6.4.2.1.5 Rinse Water Parameters Good quality deion-
example, are usually formulated with glycol ethers. High ized water is the preferred rinse medium. However, this is
molecular weight alcohol has also been used with MEA not meant to suggest that ultra pure, 18.2 megohm-cm
and can be thought of as an alcohol based saponifier. water is necessary. This grade of deionized water is expen-
The inorganic type saponifier is a more recent develop- sive, extremely difficult to maintain and can be corrosive to
ment. Basically, an inorganic buffer salt is formulated with metal surfaces. Water in the 1 to 5 megohm-cm region will
low levels of surfactants. Solvents (e.g., glycol ethers or be satisfactory for most operations. Usually the most eco-
alcohols) are not used. This type of saponifier does not nomical way to achieve this quality water is by a closed
have VOCs. This lack of VOCs has the additional benefit loop rinse system. The temperature of the rinse water
of extending bath life because the basic ingredients do not should be as high as possible, but compatible with parts
volatilize at elevated bath temperatures. The inorganic and process.
buffer yields both as received and bath pH of approxi-
mately 11. Because of low organic loading, this type of 6.4.2.2 Equipment The aqueous post solder cleaning
saponifier also has a relatively low BOD (biological oxy- process consists of three basic stages:
gen demand) and COD (chemical oxygen demand). • The wash stage (removal of bulk of residues)

30
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

• The rinse stage (removal of wash solution) square inch]. Positioning of nozzles should be offset from
• The drying stage (removal of surface water and absorbed each other on opposing sides to prevent the jets from inter-
water) fering with each other. The action is very similar to the
Jacuzzi® jets used in whirlpool and hot tubs. For surface
The wash stage may use one or more sub-stages, such as a contaminants, high ‘‘stand-offs,’’ and easy to remove
prewash which removes the bulk of water soluble residues fluxes, the turbulence caused by jets is often sufficient for
and water soluble temporary solder mask with a plain acceptable cleaning. When low ‘‘stand-offs’’ are present, or
water wash. The pre-wash may use lower purity water from the flux has been caramelized due to exposure to very high
another wash stage for conservation. temperatures, the turbulence alone may not provide
The rinse may also employ several sub-stages, such as a adequate agitation for cleaning to occur. Direct impinge-
pre-rinse that may use water from the final rinse. The final ment from the spray jets may become necessary to remove
rinse typically uses deionized water. This rinse water may the tenacious contaminants. Orientation and positioning of
be re-used in other rinses. the boards in relation to the nozzles becomes critical.

For in-line equipment, air knives between various process Spray under immersion is used in both batch and in-line
stations, i.e., removal of surface liquid from the parts by equipment but is applied by different methods. Pump size
means of forced air, is a recommended practice to avoid pressures and fluid volumes may be significantly different.
dragging wash and rinse solutions from the previous pro- The open tank design of some of the batch equipment does
cess station into the next one. not permit use of high-pressure sprays. Part orientation on
the conveyor belt allows for a far more direct spray
6.4.2.2.1 Spray in Air Both wash and rinse application impingement than the batch process.
by spraying the parts in closed chambers with wash media Spray under immersion is a useful technique when pump-
and subsequently with rinse water, is a very common ing combustible or foaming solutions. However, flammable
approach used by both in-line and batch cleaning tech- mists may be created when spraying combustible solutions.
niques. Spray energy (pressure and volume) used influ-
ences efficiency in residue removal. Higher spray pressures 6.4.2.2.3 Centrifugal This method of application utilizes
impart more mechanical velocity into the sprayed droplets. centrifugal energy, produced by rotation of the product
The resulting impact on targeted surfaces will dislodge while immersed in a bath or subjected to a spray for wash-
deposits more easily than a low-pressure spray of the same ing, then subjected to a spray for rinsing.
volume. Surfaces that are shielded from the spray, how-
ever, will not benefit from high impact spray, as droplets The rotating parts transfer centrifugal and coriolis accelera-
bounce back. A so-called ‘‘soft spray’’ with a mist of low- tions to the mass of liquid cleaning agent, which results in
pressure spray will cause flooding of surfaces and allow sufficient force to propel the liquid into spaces containing
solubilization of residues. Capillary action draws the wash flux residues and other contaminants. This application pro-
or rinse into crevices. Hence some equipment types use vides effective penetration because the cleaning agent
both a hard spray (impact principle) plus a soft spray flows parallel to board surface and under closely spaced
(flooding principle) to combine both advantages. Spray components. Reversing the product’s direction of rotation
washing and rinsing has limitations in effectiveness, when every few seconds disrupts the developing laminar flow
narrow component standoff heights are encountered. For pattern of liquid and produces momentary random flow as
this reason, many machines use high velocity solid jets for liquid is propelled into the opposite direction of rotation.
washing and fine fan-sprays for rinsing. Repetition of laminar-random liquid flow pattern produces
thorough washing and rinsing actions from all directions,
6.4.2.2.2 Spray Under Immersion Agitation is crucial
which overcomes any shadowing effects. The mechanism
for successful cleaning to occur. There must be some of cleaning which provides benefits to the manufacturer, is
mechanical agitation to force the fluid onto parts to be the penetration of wash and rinse media into tight spaces,
cleaned and to replenish the chemistry at fluid/part inter- tapped holes, blind vias, cavities, crevices, and all other
face, as it becomes saturated with contaminants. locations where flux and other contaminants are entrapped.

Spray under immersion uses jets located under the surface 6.4.2.2.4 Ultrasound Ultrasound is all sound above the
of cleaning solution to provide the mechanical agitation human audible level. Ultrasonic cleaning operates from 18
necessary to remove contaminants and replenish cleaning to 300 kHz, with most precision cleaning currently being in
media at the surface of parts being cleaned. For batch the range of 40 kHz. An ultrasonic system consists of a
equipment, nozzles are often conical or fan shaped. Typi- generator, which acts as an electrical converter/amplifier,
cal nozzle flow rates are 0.7 to 2.0 liter per minute (0.18 to and transducers, which convert electrical energy from the
0.53 gallons per minutes), with pressures at 4.0 to 5.5 kilo- generator to mechanical energy in the form of vibrations
grams per square centimeter [56.9 to 78.2 pounds per (similar to a loud speaker in stereo system). The transducer

31
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

bonded to a process tank produces sound waves in the form usually determined by the temperature sensitivity of parts
of positive and negative pressure zones in the cleaning being dried or material of construction of dryer, i.e., metal
solution. vs. plastic polymer.
Actual cleaning is accomplished by cavitation; which is the
6.4.2.3.2 Radiation Drying Radiant heat drying or con-
rapid formation and violent collapse of minute bubbles in
duction drying can also be used to dry parts. Conduction
the cleaning liquid. Energy released from a single cavita-
air-drying is the least efficient since the transfer of heat
tion is very small, but millions of these bubbles implode
energy to parts is controlled by the low conductivity of air.
every second, resulting in intense scrubbing action that is
As a result, barrier layers of moist air often develop at the
the characteristic of ultrasonic cleaning. High temperatures
surface of wet parts thereby inhibiting thermal transfer to
and pressures of the implosions also improve the effective-
parts. The effectiveness of radiant heat drying utilizing
ness of cleaning chemistry. Because of the minute size of
focused and unfocused infrared (IR) energy varies depend-
cavitations (1 to 50 microns at 40 kHz), ultrasonic is nor-
ing on the composition of hardware being dried. Some
mally not geometry sensitive and is able to penetrate areas
materials are efficient IR energy adsorbers and heat up rap-
(e.g., under low standoff surface mounted components) that
idly, thereby vaporizing liquid water and absorbed/
are difficult for other methods of agitation.
adsorbed water. Those materials that are less effective in
There are several factors that are important to ultrasonic absorbing IR energy will take longer to heat up and dry.
cleaning. The temperature of liquid can change the charac-
teristics of individual cavitations, and cavitation is most 6.4.2.3.3 Vacuum Drying Vacuum drying is a viable
effective between 43° and 82°C [109.4° and 179.6°F]. It is option for rapid drying of temperature sensitive hardware.
important that ultrasonic and/or heating under vacuum of The vacuum level typically employed is in the range of 200
the solution drive out all dissolved gases in the tank before to 735 of vacuum gauge.
cleaning is attempted. If these gases are not removed, much
of the ultrasonic energy will be used in compressing these 6.4.2.3.4 Organic Solvent Drying Agents Organic sol-
gas bubbles and will not be available for cleaning. An vent drying agents are another option for water removal.
ultrasonic tank must be as calm as possible for good propa- There are two types of systems in use: displacement drying
gation of sound waves. Filtration is necessary in cleaning and absorption drying. Both systems accomplished drying
operations, but recirculation should not be run at rates at relatively low temperatures in an oxygen free environ-
higher than 20% of the tank volume per minute. ment. The key difference is that displacement drying uses a
water insoluble drying agent to remove water while absorp-
Ultrasonic is used in rinsing as well as in washing. Agita- tion drying uses a water soluble organic material for this
tion in the rinse is often overlooked, but just as it is purpose.
required in the washing bath, it is also imperative in the
rinse stations to ensure complete removal of residual con- 6.4.3 Semiaqueous Cleaning The purpose of this sec-
taminants and chemistries introduced during washing. tion is to give a basic understanding of cleaning media and
equipment used in semiaqueous based cleaning of elec-
6.4.2.3 Drying The term ‘‘drying’’ in the context of tronic assemblies. The subject of semiaqueous based clean-
aqueous cleaning most often refers to the post aqueous ing is fully detailed in the IPC manual IPC-SA-61, Post
cleaning removal of residual water from the surface being Solder Semiaqueous Cleaning Handbook. The reader is
cleaned. There are several levels of ‘‘drying’’ to remove referred to IPC-SA-61 for more information.
water commonly encountered in electronics part cleaning.
6.4.3.1 Media In a semiaqueous process, completed
assemblies are cleaned in an organic solvent (100%, undi-
6.4.2.3.1 Air-Knife and Forced Air Drying The use of
luted) and rinsed with water. The most common semi-
high volume air knives to blow liquid water from surfaces
aqueous cleaning agents are based on terpenes, high
before drying greatly improves drying efficiency. Air-knife
molecular weight alcohols, aliphatic hydrocarbons, esters,
drying consists of blasting air at high velocities. The action
or combinations of these. Semiaqueous solvents may be
of air-knife drying is to blast off gross water from the parts.
soluble or insoluble in water.
Little evaporation takes place. Forced air (forced convec-
tion) drying involves blowing heated, dry air across the All semiaqueous cleaning agents share several characteris-
surfaces of parts to be dried. Forced air drying is very effi- tics. First, they are not ozone depleting chemicals. Second,
cient since the barrier layer of air at the surface of the sub- they were formulated to clean a broad range of fluxes and
strates being dried is continually disturbed and replaced pastes after wave or reflow soldering. Third, they are com-
with fresh, hot dry air. Typically the temperature of heated patible with PWB and component materials of construc-
air impinging surfaces to be dried is in the range of 93 tion. Fourth, semiaqueous cleaners clean effectively even
[199.4°F] to 121°C [249.8°F]. This temperature range is when they contain a high concentration of flux residue.

32
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

6.4.3.2 Equipment Semiaqueous cleaning agents are phenomenon was reversible. The residues were found to
used in either batch or in-line equipment in which parts are originate when the PWA surface was subjected to an acidic
washed in the semiaqueous organic cleaning solvents, condition, e.g., from halogenated solvent that had gone
rinsed in a series of aqueous rinses, and then dried. acid. Naturally, any other source of acid could cause the
same problem. These residues could be removed by spray-
7 LESSONS LEARNED ing them with a rosin formulation, curing for one hour to
The following lessons learned are contributions from bind the residue to the rosin formulation; and then spray
industry experts. cleaning with a stabilized halogenated solvent containing
35% wt. alcohol.
7.1 White Residues7 There are myriad causes for white
residues, depending on the flux used. Rosin, being a natu- 7.4 Temporary Solder Mask7 Temporary solder mask
ral product, is a complex mixture of isomers. Certain of comes in soluble and insoluble forms. A temporary solvent
these are white residue precursors. Thermal analysis can or water soluble solder mask can be used to block holes or
detect the presence of such precursors in a flux upon deliv- pads used for testing or for later attachment of sensitive or
ery, prior to its use in production. Even better is the missing components. Insoluble (also called latex or peel-
removal of such precursors by pre-treatment prior to blend- able) solder masks require manual removal after soldering,
ing the flux. Pre-treated fluxes are almost completely adding to the cost of overall process. Often the removal
immune to high temperatures during pre-heating and sol- process can cause damage to delicate component leads as
dering, even with thick multilayer PWAs. well.
Water-soluble fluxes can also yield white residues, often
resulting from thermal cross-linking of flux constituents 7.5 Solder Mask 7 Solder mask problems generally
during soldering. Cures for white residue, once it is involve two mask types; ultraviolet cured or dry film. Less
present, include coating the PWA with flux, passing it back than optimal processing of either type can result in residues
through the soldering process pre-heating step, and then and/or solder balls.
re-cleaning it. The goal is to take up and suspend the white
residue in the fresh flux coating, which can be readily solu-
blized in a second cleaning step. 7.5.1 Ultraviolet Cured Solder Mask7 Ultraviolet lamps,
unlike incandescent lamps, start to degrade as soon as they
Liquid solder masks can also result in white residues. are turned on. Thus ultraviolet cure cycles should be moni-
These formulations often include a fine, white particulate tored on a regular basis, so the production line speed can
filler, designed to add body to liquid mask and minimize be adjusted for the fall-off in lamp intensity. Failure to do
runniness. If the mask is not cured completely, part of the so will result in mask that appears cured to visual inspec-
organic polymer will be stripped away, exposing the filler, tion, but which will react with and bind to dross in the sol-
which appears to be a residue. If the residue does not dis- dering operation(s). Such residues can be removed using
solve in acetonitrile, 2-propanol or water, then it should be the same technique described in 7.3.
heated with a heat gun. If the residue vanishes, then the
problem is the curing step. (Upon gentle heating, the green
organic part of the mask softens, allowing the filler to sink 7.5.2 Dry Film Solder Mask7 The very smooth dry film
below the surface and disappear.) solder mask presents an excellent surface for adhesion of
extremely thin films of contaminant; often white residues.
7.2 Tan Residues7 Tan residues are a variant of white
In addition, it will also bind solder balls to it with flux
residues; found with RMA rosin fluxes on PWAs soldered residues. Synthetic Activated (SA) fluxes appear to mini-
at two feet per minute or less and cleaned in CFC-113/ mize such interactions. Matte finish solder masks have
methanol azeotrope. Extensive work identified the contami- been implemented to solve such problems, since the rough
nant as a rosin-metal material. Cleaning in the higher boil- surface presents only a fraction of the attachment or bind-
ing 1,1,1-trichloroethane removed the residue. ing sites compared to the dry film.

7.3 Gray Residues7 Gray residues were the first example 7.6 Surface Roughness8 The most important prerequi-
of ionic contamination. Extensive analytical work deter- site to achieve a superior adhesion of subsequent coatings
mined the residue to be lead oxide, which was bound to the (e.g., solder masks) to bare PCBs, especially copper sur-
PWA surface. Functionally, the PWAs exhibited SIR failure faces, is sufficient surface roughness. An adequate cleaning
under elevated temperature and humidity conditions. The process provides a surface roughness of 1-2 µm minimum.

7. W.G. Kenyon, Global Centre for Process Change

8. Thomas Ries, Lackwerke Peters GmbH + Co KG, Germany

33
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

7.7 Drying8 If the cleaning equipment is installed in an 8.2 Good Manufacturing Procedures
in-line process, it is of utmost importance to monitor the 8.2.1 Quality Program Inspection and control of cleanli-
final drying of PCBs after cleaning and rinsing. PCBs that ness should be part of an overall quality plan for manufac-
are insufficiently dried cannot perform perfectly in regards turing. Examples of elements of a quality plan relating to
to solder mask adhesion. cleanliness are listed in Table 8-1, derived from the Ameri-
7.8 Copper Surface Cleanliness Testing8 The water can National Standard Z1.15, prepared by the American
break test is a method of determining the quality of any Society for Quality Control. Each of these elements are
copper surface cleaning process. Test principle is based on expanded in more detail as follows.
the wettability of water on solid surfaces. The more Table 8-1 Elements of a Quality Assurance Program
smooth, compact or oxidized the substrate (copper), the Paragraph Element
faster the water dewets. The longer the water film remains 8.2.2 Documentation
stable on the substrate, the better the adhesion of subse-
8.2.3 Control of Procured Material
quent coatings like dry or liquid photoresist, solder mask,
8.2.4 Manufacturing Controls
etc.
8.2.5 Completed Item Inspection
7.9 Water Pressure9 While water pressure is good for 8.2.6 Control of Nonconforming Materials
cleaning, too much water pressure is not necessarily better. 8.2.7 Corrective Action Program
Too much water pressure decreases the ability of chemistry
8.2.8 Storage, Handling and Packaging
to interact with residue, causing the solution to bounce off
8.2.9 Periodic Product Qualification
the part rather than clean away the soil. When optimizing a
cleaning process, water pressures should be increased 8.2.10 Quality Information
gradually while measuring the impact on cleaning efficacy. 8.2.11 Field Performance Data
Once there is no increase in cleaning efficacy, optimal 8.2.12 Process Monitoring
cleaning pressure has been achieved. 8.2.13 Data Collection and Reporting

8 VERIFICATION PROCESS CONTROL

8.2.2 Documentation of the Quality System Documen-
8.1 Introduction Quality of product, in terms of perfor- tation of the entire manufacturing process and quality sys-
mance and reliability, is affected by cleanliness. Contami- tem is critical. It should cover all manufacturing processes
nations cause problems such as nonadherence of solder and quality/reliability-related activities, not only those per-
masks, delamination in multilayer boards, poor solderabil- formed by the Quality Organization.
ity, electrical leakage between conductors and high resis- A typical hierarchy of documentation is shown in Table
tance in connectors. 8-2, ranging from policy statements of company commit-
Quality assurance involves periodic inspection or process ment to quality, to detailed shop floor instructions. A major-
checks. Testing for cleanliness can either be direct detec- ity of this information may be available electronically.
tion of contaminants, or simulation of potential reliability IPC test methods are available on the IPC website at
problems by accelerated testing on test coupons or actual www.ipc.org.
product. 8.2.3 Control of Procured Material Ordering informa-
A comprehensive quality program would also include tion for materials, whether included as special instructions
ongoing process monitoring, qualification and inspection of on a purchase order, a contractual agreement, notes on a
materials used in manufacture, such as soldering fluxes. drawing, or preferably in a procurement specification,
should contain requirements pertaining to cleanliness. This
The extent of the quality assurance program, frequency of could be a direct cleanliness requirement for materials used
inspection, and end-point requirements is related to product in assembly, such as printed boards and components, or
application and expected performance, i.e., class of service. specific properties of process chemicals, such as boiling
Quality data should be collected in a form suitable to track point of a cleaning agent.
process trends, and to make rapid corrective action if nec- Vendors of material should be qualified initially to a speci-
essary. It should be recorded to inform suppliers of incom- fication, and periodically re-qualified based on analysis of
ing material and customers of product. quality data.
This section covers these aspects of quality assurance: ele- On-going quality of procured material shall be determined
ments of a quality program, description of test methods, by one or more of the following: vendor quality data (see
requirements for classes of service, data collection and 8.2.13), inspection at the source, or by incoming inspec-
reporting. tion.

9. Bruce Moloznik, Alpha Metals, Inc.

34
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Table 8-2 Documentation Hierarchy 8.2.8 Storage, Handling and Packaging Storage condi-
Document Function Content tions should be clean, and preferably humidity controlled.
Quality Manual Administrative -Company policy Handling procedures should avoid contamination with fin-
and Procedural -Organization and gerprints, using gloves or mechanical pick-up where appro-
responsibilities priate. Paper packing materials should be sulfur-free.
-Activities related to
Table 8-1 Printed boards with a temporary organic protective coating
Procurement Material -Drawings over bare copper are storage sensitive and should be used
Specifications Control -Purchase orders
on a first-in-first-out basis.
-Incoming inspection
-Qualification procedure
8.2.9 Periodic Product Qualification Product qualifica-
Process Manufacturing -Control points
Specifications Control in-process tion testing assesses the ability to meet all design require-
-Sampling procedure ments. These tests are more extensive than those regularly
-Test/inspection methods performed in process or with final testing. They include
-Accept/reject criteria
-Workmanship standards environmental stress such as high temperature/high humid-
-Shop floor aids ity exposure for printed boards to accelerate effects from
residual contamination.
An approved vendor list should be maintained by the engi-
neering organization. Parts and materials should only be 8.2.10 Quality Information Quality records should be
purchased from vendors on this list. kept for all inspections performed, to aid the quality per-
sonnel to identify deficiencies, and to demonstrate effective
8.2.4 Manufacturing Controls Inspection standards and operation of the quality system. Data may be handled elec-
process limits should be established for each step in manu- tronically, and it should be summarized periodically (say
facturing. A flow chart of the process will be helpful in weekly) in report form for presentation to management.
determining these steps. Sampling and data summarization Reports should use control and/or trend charts for
should be statistically based. (See IPC-PC-90 for informa- variables/attributes data. (See 8.2.13.)
tion on statistical process control (SPC).) Test coupons,
either boards from the production or separate boards pro- 8.2.11 Collection and Analysis of Field Performance
cessed in parallel with production boards, may be appropri- Data Where possible there should be feedback of infor-
ate for tests such as insulation resistance. mation from users of the product on in-service problems.
Cleanliness problems at the board level can affect yield at
A maintenance procedure for equipment, including periodic assembly. The assembler would notify the board vendor in
calibration, and schedule for changing process chemicals this case. An original equipment manufacturer of electronic
such as plating baths, solder fluxes and cleaning agents, assemblies should analyze customer defect rates for their
should assure the process operation within the established dominant cause, which could be due to improper cleaning.
limits.
8.2.12 Process Monitoring In addition to inspection and
8.2.5 Completed Item Inspection Finished product, tests on materials, boards, and components, the cleaning
whether printed boards or assemblies, should be inspected process itself should be monitored for temperature and con-
to assure that products are not shipped unless all quality tamination levels. The supplier of cleaning equipment
and performance requirements are met. should be consulted for necessary control parameters.
Final test should simulate customer use of the product. The In a flowing aqueous cleaning system, a conductivity meter
quality organization should run a separate audit on final similar to that used for solvent extract conductivity mea-
test to provide independent estimates of outgoing quality. surement, may conveniently monitor input/output resistiv-
ity. In a batch system a conductivity meter may conve-
8.2.6 Control of Nonconforming Materials Noncon- niently monitor final rinse water quality.
forming material, determined at incoming inspection,
in-process or final test, should be clearly marked and seg- In a solvent cleaning system, the level of acid acceptors
regated from conforming materials and products. should be checked periodically, if applicable. Simple test
kits are available for this measurement. In systems contain-
8.2.7 Corrective Action Program Corrective action is ing alcohol the alcohol concentration should be monitored
the response to nonconforming material or a quality defi- as well. The nonvolatile residue (NVR) should be moni-
ciency. For example, components with poor solderability tored in the boil sump frequently, and in the final rinse
due to contamination could be subjected to pre-cleaning, or sump occasionally.
would be rejected and returned to the vendor.
8.2.13 Data Collection and Reporting Effective data
Corrective action in process could be part of an SPC plan. analysis is a keystone to efficient, economic control of

35
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

quality. There are a wide range of statistical methods avail- be compared to a current or field proven process. Within
able, which fall into two broad categories: attributes and this DOE standard, ROSE testing could be done to under-
variables. stand the baseline level of the ion chromatography data
with a gross percentage of contamination as process indi-
8.3 Test and Validation It is important to understand the cator. However, this process indicator may not change even
type, level and effect of residues in order to predict and if the contamination and corrosivity risks increase greatly.
ensure reliability performance of product. The absolute The recommended monitoring program is to use the Modi-
value of test results or measurements might not be always fied ROSE testing protocol that uses the same extraction
meaningful; for example, Resistance of Solvent Extract solution as the ion chromatography and measures the total
(ROSE) testing ( IPC-TM-650, 2.3.25) is not able to iden- conductivity of the ion chromatography extraction solution.
tify the difference between clean or dirty (corrosive or non- For all the above-mentioned tests, a critical element is
corrosive) residues. However, applying good judgement, identifying the amounts of visible residues before and after
these tests will be helpful in process monitoring and qual- ESS conditioning.
ity assurance.
8.3.1 Direct Detection of Contamination Cleanliness
Today’s fabrication and process residues are very different tests which detect actual contamination directly are gener-
from the traditional rosin based fluxes and solvent cleaning ally made on product rather than on test coupons. These
residues used over the last 25 to 30 years. Since there is a tests may qualitatively indicate the presence of a type of
wide range of materials and processing techniques, a dif- contaminant, or quantitatively determine the amount. A
ferent assessment approach is needed to understand the summary of so-called ‘‘direct’’ tests is made in Table 8-3.
residues type, level, electrical effect and their impact on An outline of the principle of each test is given as follows.
reliability. For further practical details see the given IPC reference
There are two types of measurement techniques: direct and method or an equivalent method.
indirect. Process and materials qualification/validation can
8.3.1.1 Visual Process residues that can be seen include
be achieved by using a mix of direct and indirect testing.
embedded abrasive particles from a mechanical cleaning
Materials assessment can be done using SIR testing (IPC- process, salts and corrosion products from wet chemical
TM-650, 2.6.3.3) with the standard IPC test coupons (e.g., processes such as plating, flux and solder spatter from a
IPC-B-24, IPC-B-36) or custom test coupons. Process wave soldering process or solder balls from a reflow pro-
assessment can be done using actual product and a mix of cess, and ‘‘white residues.’’ Handling and storage can fur-
technology in either high humidity/temperature (85/85) or ther contribute stains from fingerprints, airborne dust and
temperature cycling conditions appropriate for the product films.
type. Functional testing should be performed after environ-
The resolution of visual testing may be improved by use of
mental stress screening (ESS). Prior to these ESS tests the
special lighting, such as shadowless fluorescent ring illumi-
cleanliness levels should be analyzed for ionic and organic
nation. Organic materials may respond to ultraviolet black
levels using Ion Chromatography (IPC-TM-650, 2.3.28) at
light. Magnification is useful up to 30X. Particularly for
the major steps of the assembly process to understand the
higher magnification (10X), a video system will reduce
sources of corrosive and insulative residues. For Depart-
operator fatigue.
ment of Environment (DOE) standard, the areas of analy-
sis would be the contamination levels of incoming bare Accept/reject criteria for visual tests are necessarily subjec-
board, cleaned samples after assembly of components, tive, but operator judgment can be somewhat normalized
reflow/wave soldering, repair/rework. The results will then by clear visual aids, preferably photographs of product.

Table 8-3 Direct Cleanliness Tests

Qualitative or
Paragraph Test Measures Quantitative IPC Reference
8.3.1.1 Visual Particles and Residues QL IPC-A-610
8.3.1.2 Ion Chromatography Ionic Contamination QT IPC-TM-650, 2.3.28
8.3.1.3 Solvent Extract Conductivity Ionic Contamination QL IPC-TM-650, 2.3.25
QT
8.3.1.4 Surface Organic Contamination Nonionic Contamination QL IPC-TM-650, 2.3.38, and
QT 2.3.39
8.3.1.5 Flux Removal Rosin Residues QT IPC-TM-650, 2.3.27
8.3.1.6 Surface Analysis Trace Contaminants QT —

36
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Visual cleanliness tests are the easiest to perform and they WOA no-clean activators are succinic acid, gultaric, malic,
should be used throughout the manufacturing process, at and other similar weak acids. Typical cation are sodium,
least until the process is fully characterized and controlled potassium, ammonia, calcium and magnesium.
by other means.
Data Analysis is the most important element in the proper
8.3.1.2 Ionic Conductivity Testing (Ion Chromatogra- identification of type and level of extractable residues, so
phy) This test is based on the principle that the corrosive as to know their impact on reliability. The analysis is based
and insulative residues can be removed using a liquid on the understanding between known controls and the
media, and ionic analysis will separate, identify and quan- unknown sample being analyzed. Knowledge of chemicals
tify the residues from this liquid media. This separation is involved in all stages of fabrication, assembly and cleaning
done through a specific balance between resin charging and processes, for example etchants, rinse water, flux activators
liquid mobile phase washing of the resin before passing and wash additives, is important in determining the identity
through a sensitive conductivity cell. The analytical output of sample peaks. Better separation due to different elution
is a measure of contamination per unit area (e.g.,micro- time by using different columns or mobile phases will also
grams per square inch of a given species, such as bromide). help in identification of species. Besides identification, the
quantity of each residue and their combined effects, consid-
The Ion Chromatography (IC) testing is not suggested as a ering their hydrophilic or hydroscopic nature, should also
daily process monitor but rather as a process map showing be determined in order to understand their corrosive or
the effects of different process steps or as a cleanliness insulative behavior and their impact on the reliability of
snapshot of a process. On the other hand, it is used as a product.
failure analysis tool to determine the root cause of corro-
sive contamination. IC testing on indirect test coupons can 8.3.1.3 Solvent Extract Conductivity This test is based
show similarities or differences of the coupons and func- on the principle that the electrical conductivity (the recip-
tional electronic hardware; it is important to ensure that the rocal of resistivity) of a dilute aqueous solution is directly
test is done on a representative coupon. IC testing can also proportional to the concentration of dissolved ions. The
be used as a prediction tool for field performance if past proportionality constant will depend on the ionic species.
performance of the product is well archived and under- For practical measurements, sodium chloride (NaCl) is
stood. used to calibrate the test, and results are expressed in terms
IC analysis (per IPC-TM-650, 2.3.28) has four primary of contamination per unit area, e.g., micrograms per square
areas: inch of sodium chloride equivalent.

Extraction – Solvent/water system (75% 2-propanol, 25% Circuit boards or assemblies are washed in a mixture of
deionized water) extraction at 80°C (± 0.5°C) [176°F (± water and 2-propanol (ranging from 40% to 75%
0.9°C)] for 1 hour (± 1.0 min) in a static KAPAK™ bag 2-propanol depending on test procedure), to ensure release
suspended inside a water bath. The bag shall fulfill clean- of ions from organic residues such as flux.
liness requirements specified and withstand typical sharp- Washing may be done by spraying or immersion with a
ness of leads at 80°C (± 0.5°C) [176°F (± 0.9°C)]. Surface known volume of solution, typically 10 to 20 ml per square
area of the test specimen will be measured and recorded, inch of surface; or in a commercial recirculating instru-
along with the volume of 2-propanol/water solution used. ment. (See IPC-TM-650, 2.3.25.)
Analysis by a Dionex or equivalent system. 3 to 5 ml of For both methods pass/fail criteria are best determined by
extract solution is injected into the Ion Chromatograph that calibration against a standard NaCl solution, giving an
will separate the ionic and organic elements based on amount of NaCl similar to the test specimen. Commercial
molecular weight and valence charge strength. This is done testers are generally equipped with a microprocessor that
by washing the ionic like groups off a resin column system gives a direct reading in g/in2 NaCI equivalent. Examples
using a liquid mobile phase at 1-2 ml per min, 1000 to of instruments are listed in Table 8-4.
2400 psi. Conductance was measured (in nanoseimens) as
the liquid phase flows pass a very sensitive conductivity Table 8-4 Examples of Commercial Instruments for
Solvent Extract Conductivity Tests
cell. The conductance changes are plotted over time. Typi-
Instrument Name Supplier
cal sample runs range anywhere from 5 to 30 minutes.
Ionograph Alpha Metals Inc.
Species Identification is done using known standards Omega Meter Alpha Metals Inc.
(NIST traceable) to identify the specific elution time for
Contaminometer Protonique SA
each species. Typical species identified on an anion column
Ionex 2000 Kester Solder
are fluoride, chloride, methane sulfonic acid, bromide,
Zero Ion Lonco
nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, formate, acetate, abeitic acid
(rosin), sulfate, and weak organic acids (WOA). Typical Icom 4000 Westek

37
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

8.3.1.4 Surface Organic Contamination This test is 8.3.1.6 Surface Analysis Although hardly suitable for
based on the ability of acetonitrile (HPLC grade) to dis- routine quality assurance, there are a number of powerful
solve a wide range of organic materials. The solvent is physical methods for analyzing surface contamination.
dripped onto printed board assemblies, and the residue is Their use is appropriate for trouble-shooting processes with
collected and slowly dried on a glass microscope slide. elusive problems, or in failure analysis of boards and
Washing and drying are carried out with sequential vol- assemblies from either field returns or qualification testing.
umes of around 0.25 to 0.50 ml to an overall total of 2 ml
Physical methods use electromagnetic radiation: X-rays,
of fluid per square inch of washed surface area (including
electrons or infrared, to excite atoms and molecules on the
components). Qualitative presence of organic contamina-
surface, then analyze the resultant spectra. They generally
tion above 10 micrograms per cm2, is confirmed by visual
require a small sample which is examined in a vacuum.
examination of the slide. (See IPC-TM-650, 2.3.38.)
The results require skillful interpretation. A summary of
Organic contamination may subsequently be transferred methods is given in Table 8.5.
from the slide, with a further acetonitrile wash, onto a mul-
tiple internal reflectance plate. The material may then be 8.3.2 Indirect Detection of Contamination In addition
identified by infrared spectrophotometric analysis. An to direct tests, there are tests which monitor the effects of
instrument such as a Perkin Elmer Model 283 Infrared contamination (usually electrically), and tests which other-
Spectrophotomer or equivalent is suitable. (See IPC-TM- wise relate to cleanliness. These indirect tests measure
650, 2.3.39.) simulated effects on test coupons and dummy components
using the same assembly and cleaning materials. They
However, these procedures should only be performed by
include test for corrosiveness of flux; if it is found ‘‘non-
qualified personnel in a fume hood.
corrosive’’ cleaning may not be required functionally,
An alternative method is to use 2-propanol as the solvent though assemblies may be cleaned for cosmetic reasons.
and ultraviolet spectrometry as the inspection method. (See Flux activity is associated with solderability. Poor solder-
IPC-TR-580.) ability may warrant tightening specification requirements
for solderability, use of a more active flux, or pre-cleaning
8.3.1.5 Flux Removal If rosin base flux is the main parts. Cleanliness related or ‘‘indirect’’ tests are listed in
organic contaminant of concern, as in determining the Table 8-6. A summary of indirect tests follows.
effectiveness of a cleaning process in removing flux from
beneath surface mount components, a simpler method may 8.3.2.1 Visual One of the main visible effects of con-
be used. (See IPC-TM-650, 2.3.27.) Reagent grade anhy- tamination in printed boards is adhesion failure. Between
drous 2-propanol is applied to the area by a dropper or multilayers, this appears as delamination. Surface coating
immersion in a shallow tray. The wash solution is evapo- such as solder mask or conformal coatings, particularly
rated to dryness in a small beaker (25 or 50 ml), or alter- when exposed to humidity, may show ‘‘mealing’’ under the
natively dripped onto the center of a circle of filter paper. coating or actual lifting. This is due to contamination
attracting moisture and creating high osmotic pressure.
To the beaker, add 20 drops (1 ml) of acetic anhydride, fol-
lowed by one drop of concentrated sulfuric acid. A color
8.3.2.2 Corrosiveness of Flux Although, by definition,
change indicates the presence of rosin, with a sensitivity as
all soldering fluxes are chemically active at soldering tem-
little as 75 micrograms.
peratures, the residues may show negligible activity when
For the filter paper version of the test apply one drop of cooled to room temperature. ‘‘Noncorrosive’’ residue need
sucrose syrup (30g in 100 ml water), then one drop of sul- not necessarily be removed, even for high reliability appli-
furic acid. A pink or red color will briefly show around the cations.
carbonized paper if rosin was present.
Table 8-5 Physical Methods for Surface Analysis
Instrument Detects Comments
SEM (scanning electron microscope) Small particles Size and shape only
SEM with x-ray analysis Atomic elements >Li Can show compositional map of surface
ESCA (electron spectroscopy for Chemical binding states Can infer presence of H, large area of
chemical analysis) monolayers
Auger Spectroscopy Atomic elements >He Only outer few atomic layers
SIMS (secondary ion mass spectroscopy) All elements Sensitivity to ppb in outer monolayers
FT-IR (Fourier transform infra-red Vibration of elements lighter than Cl Needs 1 µm of material, or many passes
spectroscopy on thinner layers

38
September 1999 IPC-CH-65A

Table 8-6 Indirect Cleanliness Tests

Qualitative or
Paragraph Test Measures Quantitative IPC Reference
8.3.2.1 Visual Delamination in layers, QL IPC-A-600
mealing under coatings
8.3.2.2 Corrosiveness of flux Flux activity QT ANSI/J-STD-004
8.3.2.3 Insulation resistance (SIR) Electrical leakage between QT IPC-TM-650, 2.5.27 and
conductors 2.6.3.3
8.3.2.4 Electrochemical Migration Conductive filament growth QT IPC-TM-650, 2.5.27 and
2.6.14.1
8.3.2.5 Contact resistance Films on connectors QT IPC-TM-650, 3.1
8.3.2.6 Solderability Inorganic/organic QL J-STD-003
contamination QT

Conversely, the process for removing ‘‘corrosive’’ residues migration. The difference in test conditions is that a small
from assemblies intended for high reliability applications DC bias (typically 10V) is applied to the test pattern dur-
should be continuously monitored by tests such as solvent ing temperature/humidity conditioning. (See IPC-TM-650,
extract conductivity. (See 8.3.1.3.) 2.5.27 and 2.6.14.1.)
Specifications, such as Telcordia Technologies’ GR-78- Examples of different behavior are shown in Figure 8-1.
CORE Generic Physical Design Requirements for Tele- Small amounts of ionic contamination will be ‘‘cleaned-
communications Products and Equipment, or J-STD-004 up’’ by polarization under bias, but larger amounts may
General Requirements for Electronic Soldering Fluxes, cat- encourage growth of metallic filaments between conduc-
egorize ‘‘noncorrosive’’ or type L (no or low activity for tors.
residues) fluxes respectively. Classification is based on
To prevent burn-out of filaments that are formed, bias cur-
results from tests such as corrosion of copper mirror, halide
rent should be limited with a high value resistor (e.g., 1
content, and surface insulation resistance.
megohm) in series with each test pattern. Also, bias volt-
Liquid based fluxes should be tested in the as-used condi- ages should not produce unrealistic potential gradients in
tion. Solid fluxes used in cored solder or the nonmetal con- the insulating board material causing, for example, corona
stituents of solder paste should either be obtained from the effects and mobility of ionophores in epoxy.
supplier, or extracted with 2-propanol from the cored wire
which has been cut into short lengths. 8.3.2.5 Contact Resistance Factory contamination has
been shown to be a major cause of reliability problems in
8.3.2.3 Surface Insulation Resistance (SIR) Surface electrical connectors. Gold plated contact fingers on printed
insulation resistance is normally measured using an inter- boards are particularly susceptible. Possible effects of con-
digitated comb or parallel track test pattern, which is either tamination may be indicated by a four-wire contact resis-
incorporated into a production panel, or is processed as a tance measurement. To avoid puncturing any films present,
separate board in parallel with production boards. test currents should be limited to less than 20 A, and open-
circuit test voltages to less than 50 mV (i.e., ‘‘dry circuit’’
The test involves exposing the test pattern to controlled conditions). (See IPC-TM-650, 3.1.)
conditions of temperature and humidity, either constant or
cycling, and measuring the surface insulation resistance. 8.3.2.6 Solderability Solderability testing should be per-
Examples of suitable measuring instruments are given in formed on printed boards (see J-STD-003) and components
Table 8-7. Examples of suitable test patterns are IPC-B-25 (see J-STD-002) at two stages in production: as an incom-
and IPC-B-36. (See IPC-TM-650, 2.5.27 and 2.6.3.3.) ing inspection test, and immediately prior to assembly. The
incoming test should use a nonactivated flux. The pre-
8.3.2.4 Electrochemical Migration The same test pat- production test should use the actual flux used in manufac-
terns and procedures that are used for insulation resistance ture, or simply run a test board through the soldering pro-
testing may be used to assess tendency for electrochemical cess.

Table 8-7 Examples of Insulation Resistance Testers

Supplier Model Features
General Radio 1864 Megohmmeter Manual
Alpha Metals Sirometer Automatic 24 channels standard
Protonique SA Insulohmeter, IRMA-1 Automatic 20 channels standard

39
IPC-CH-65A September 1999

a) Ideal,
▼
no contamination

IR An order of

}
magnitude
increase on
recovery to
ambient
conditions

▼
b) Minor
▼
ionic contamination

IR

▼
c) Migration,
▼
dendritic growth

IR
▼

IPC-65a-8-1

Figure 8-1 Examples of Insulation Resistance Response to Humidity and Bias

40
 ANSI/IPC-T-50 Terms and Definitions for
ASSOCIATION CONNECTING
Interconnecting and Packaging Electronic Circuits
ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIES
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Education and Training

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technologies. National conferences have covered Ball Grid Array and Flip Chip/Chip Scale Packaging. Some
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IPC Printed Circuits Expo

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April 4-6, 2000 April 3-5, 2001 March 26-28, 2002

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Application Site
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ELECTRONICS INDUSTRIES

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Standard Improvement Form IPC-CH-65A

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