Principles of Communication “THE ESTABLISHED LEADER IN EE REVIEW” LEGIT MULTIVECTOR Review and Training Center Ground Floor, Cuevasville Tower F. Cayco corner Earnshaw St Sampaloc, Manila Tel. No. (02) 8731-7423LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ~ The conveyance of information from the information source to a destination through the use of electronic devices ‘communication Input Recovered Transmitter CChannelor Medium Basic Components of an Electronic Communication Systems Information Information ‘Transmitter - a collection of electronic components and circuits designed to convert the electrical signal to a signal suitable for transmission over a given communication medium ~ made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and fiers, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits Ul. Communication Medium or Channel - the medium by which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another = some types of media used in communication systems are wire conductors, fiber-optic cable, and free space Wl, Receiver - a collection of electronic components and circuits that accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back to a form understandable by humans = contains ampiifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier Transceiver = communication equipment incorporate circuits that both send and receive Attenuation ~ also called signal degradation ~ proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver Noise ~ the bane of all electronic communications = its effect is experienced in the receiver part of any communications system ~ the measure of noise is usually expressed in terms of the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR), _ which is the signal power divided by the noise power and can be stated numerically or in terms of decibels (4B) ‘Types of Electronic Communication Based on Signals Used 1. Analog Signals ~ a smoothly and continuously varying voltage or current Digital Signals - in contrast to analog signals, digital signals do not vary continuously, but change in steps or in discrete increments ~ most digital signals use binary or two-state codes Princip of Communication Page|LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION ‘Types of Electronic Communication Based on Mode of Transmission Simplex ~ The simplest way in conducting electronic communication - a unidirectional or one-way communication system where one party can only send (sender) and the other party can only receive (receiver) = common examples are television and radio broadcasting, remote controlled cars, remote controlled drones, etc. I. Duplex ~ a bidirectional or two-way communication system where both parties can send and receive A. Half Duplex = a two-way communication in which only one patty transmits at a time ~ common examples are walkie talkie, citizens band radio, amateur radio communication, ete. B. Full Duplex ~ a two-way communication in which both parties can send and receive simultaneously - common examples are telephone, cellphone, video calling, video conferencing, etc. @—a => Ss . Rx Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex The Electromagnetic Spectrum All electrical and electronic signals that radiate into free space fall into the electromagnetic spectrum. Frequency ~ the number of mes a particular phenomenon occurs in a given period of time Wavelength ~ the distance traveled by a wave during the time of one cycle ~ distance measured between identical points on succeeding cycles of a wave where 2. wavelength in meters (m), feet (ft), or miles (mi) f+ frequency in Hertz (Hz) v-+ velocity of a wave in meters per second (mis), feet per second (f¥s), or miles per second (mis) Velocity of Electromagnetic Waves (es 752 00m/s 3x 10m 984 x LOFft/s ~ speed of lightand radio waves in vacuum or in air 186 000 mi/s Velocity of Sound Waves speed of sound in air Cane 1125 fys| Sound Absorption ~ sound energy is absorbed to some extent, by different media that sound waves encounter along their transmission path from the source to the receiver ~ the preduct of sound absorption coefficient and surface area of a material ~ the common unit is Sabine or Sabin Princip of Communication Page |2LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION The Electromagnetic Spectrum Used in Electronic Communications Name of Frequency Frequency Wavelength | Applications or Occurence Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) 30-300Hz | 10° 10°m | AC paerines requencis in the | Nal range of human speech, Voice Frequency (VF) 300-3 kHz 40°— 10° m_ | most inteligible sounds occurs in ths range : Higher end of human hearing range, Very Low Frequency (VLF) 3-30 kHz 10°— 10m | musical instruments, miitary communications ‘Aeronautical and marine navigation Low Frequency (LF) 30-300 kHz | 10°10? m | eee ee choad internation A acio broadcasting Medium Frequency (MF) 300 kHz—3MHz | 10° 10%m | (635-1605%¢2), marine end amateur radio communication - TA Kinds of einplex and hal duplex High Frequency (HF) 3-30mMHz | 102 10'm_ | We-way radio communication, or Short Waves. aratour rai and C8 FW rach brondeaatng Very High Frequency (VLF) 30-300MHz | 10'— 10°m_| (68,108Mii2), TV channels 2t0 13, marine communication TV channels 14 1 51, celular Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz-3 GHz | 10°- 10-'m | telepnones, radar and navigation Super High Frequency (SHF) 1 492m | calla telephone systems, LAN, or Microwaves 3-30GH2z | 10-10% m | tele communication and radar iene me ‘Sallife communication telephony, remely Frequency 5240 m | computer data, shor-haul celular or Millimeter Waves 30-300 Hz | 10°10" m | rretworks, and some specialized radar Fundamental and Harmonies Fundamental Frequency - the lowest frequency component that can be produced by an instrument ora device Harmonic Frequency — multiple of the fundamental frequency Example: f 100 Hz is the fundamental, the 2” and 3° harmonics are 200 Hz and 300 Hz, respectively Octave ~ the range of frequencies wherein the ratio of the highest to lowest is equal to two Example: If f, = 500 Hz, one octave above is 1000 Hz Bandwidth (BW) ~ the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a signal ~ the frequency range over which a receiver or other electronic circuit operates ~ the difference between the upper and lower frequency limits of the signal or the equipment operation range where: f, >upper frequency limit (Hz), -» lower frequency limit (Hz) Princip of Communication Page |3LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION Modulation ~ the process of imposing information contained in a lower-frequency electronic signal onto a higher- frequency signal ~ the higher-frequency signal is called the carrier, and the lower-frequency signal is called the modulating signal Demodulation ~ also called detection ~ the inverse of modulation, which is the process of retrieving or recovering original information superimposed from a modulated carrier wave Modem (MOdulator-DEModulator) = Adevice that perform modulation and demodulation ~ it translates the data from digital to analog and back again in order to facilitate the transmission of data to network. ‘Types of Modulation |. Amplitude Modulation - the baseband information signal called the modulating signal, varies the amplitude of the higher-frequency cartier signal while the frequency is kept constant Single-Sideband Modulation (SSB) Sis! mocaing wave (ilignce) | - to improve the efficiency of amplitude él — modulation, the carrier is suppressed and one Tine sideband is eliminated Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSSC or DSB) Signal ~ a case of AM with no carrier ~ a DSB signal is the algebraic sum of two sinusoidal sidebands produced when a carrier is modulated by a single-tone sine wave information signal Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSSC or SSB) Signal ~ the remaining sideband, when one of the sidebands is suppressed, in order to convey information Peak Envelop Power PEP Input Power = the maximum power produced on voice = The de input power ofthe transmitter’ final amplitude peaks amplifier stage at the instant of the voice = transmitter output in SSB Modulation envelope peak Wena)? = — Wn PEP = Velo ep = Co a where where PEP + peak envelope power (W) PEP — peak envelope power input power (W) Vas tims or effective voltage (V) Vj amplifier voltage supply (V) R= resistance (A) Ijax — Maximum or peak amplifier current (A) Average Power: PEP _ PER “EO Peee =F Princip of Communication Page |4LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION Instantaneous AM Voltage Equation v0 = Vesin 2a + cos 2(fe + ft where V, carrier voltage amplitude (V) im + modulation index or modulation factor fc = carrier frequency (Hz) fq modulating frequency (Hz) Modulation Index or Modulation Factor (m) peak value of modulating signal By peak value of unmodulated ca modulated max _ modulated min amplitude _~ amplitude ‘TRodulated max , modulated min| amplitude amplitude Infor sentang 160 sat (meavatnn sal Percent Modulation (%M): oom = m x 100 = f\ T ome A Total Power in AM P= e+ Poor = Pe + Piss + Puss m?P, | m?Pe m? pote EE on (148) 4% 100. percent (1) > 100% — overmadulation 00% + ideal modulation < 100% undermadulation| aa 2z where: P, + total transmitted power P, > power content of the carrier Pygr ~ total power content on the sidebands isp > lower sideband power Fuse upper sideband power Total Current in Al Woden where: Ip total current I > carrier current ‘Simultaneous Modulation Bandwidth of AM Transmission mp= mit ner. mg] BW = Zin where where my ~total modulation index/factor fim highest modulating frequency (Hz) Mj,M, .,!M, individual modulation indices ‘AM Broadcast Band : 525 kHz to 1705 kHz with Bandwidth or Spacing of 10 kHz Princip of Communication Page |LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION I Frequency Modulation - the information signal varies the frequency of the carrier, where the carrier amplitude remains constant Advantages of Frequency Modulation Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation > Noise Immunity > Excessive Spectrum Space > Capture Effect > Circuit Complexity > Transmitter Efficiency Instantaneous FM Voltage Equation PO = We sinonit + manana where V, > carrier voltage amplitude (V) ‘my > modulation index or modulation factor fe searrier frequency (Hz) fq —» modulating frequency in Hertz (Hz) Modulation Index or Factor of FM Transmission or Deviation Ratio (m,) w_s my == a fl Percent Modulation (%M) Carrier Swing actual deviation (Bacuat) allowed deviation (8snowea) Bandwidth of FM Transmission 6M X 100 percent (%) 1. Approximate Bandwidth (Carson’s Rule) BW = 206 + fa) 2. Exact Bandwidth [EW = 2 f,, x number of significant sideband palrs| FM Broadcast Band: 88 Milz to 108 MHz with Bandwidth or Spacing of 200 kHz Phase Modulation ~ the carrier phase is varied in accordance with the data signal. When the phase is changed, it also affects the frequency, which makes this modulation comes under Frequency Modulation. ‘The Optical Spectrum ~ right above the millimeter wave region is what we call the optical spectrum occupied by light waves Types of Light Waves |. Infrared ~ between the highest radio frequencies (i.e, millimeter waves) and the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and is the basis of all fiber-optic communication ~ wavelength ranges from 700 nm to 0.1 mm = used in astronomy, advanced weaponry, TV remote controller, etc. UL Visible Spectrum ~ above the infrared region is the Visible Spectrum, ordinarily referred to as light ~ wavelength ranges from about 400 nm to about 800 nm usually expressed in Angstrom (A), 1 A= 10m ~ used in all communications that uses laser Princip of Communication Page |SLEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION IL. Ultraviolet (UV) ~ beyond the visible region is the ultraviolet, generated by the sun, mercury vapor lights and other lamps ~ wavelength ranges from 4 to 400 nm - primarily applied for medical uses such as X-rays, gamma rays, cosmic rays Optical Communication Systems ~ use light as the carrier ofthe information to be transmitted ~ the medium used may be free space or a special ight “pipe” or waveguide known as the Fiber Optic Cable Fiber Optic Cable ~ anon-conducting cable consisting of a glass or plastic center cable surrounded by a plastic ‘cladding encased in a plastic outer sheath ~ has a circular cross section with a diameter of only a fraction of an inch ~ operate on the optical principles of otal internal reflection, which uses light rather than electricity to ‘communicate Principles of Fiber Optic Communication oe. onsen 1. The information signal to be transmitted (voice, video, or computer data) is converted to a form compatible with the communication medium, usually by converting continuous analog signals such as voice and video (TV) signals to a series of digital pulses. An Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter is used for this purpose. 2. These digital pulses are then used to flash a powerful light source off and on very rapidly. In simple low-cost systems that transmit over short distances, the light source is usually a light- ‘emitting diode that emits a low-intensity infrared light beam, Infrared beams such as those used in TV remote controls are also used in transmission 3. The light beam pulses are then fed into a fiber-optic cable, which can transmit them over long distances. At the receiving end, a light-sensitive device known as a photocell, or ight detector, is used to detect the light pulses. It converts the light pulses to an electric signal. The electrical pulses are amplified and reshaped back into digital form. They are fed to a decoder, such as a Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converter, where the original voice or video is recovered, ‘Types of Fiber Optic Cables According to Index of Refraction |. Step Index Cable — there is a sharply defined step in the index of refraction betwe« core and the cladding interface Il. Graded Index Cable - the index of refraction of the core is not constant, where it varies smoothly ‘and continuously over the diameter of the core ‘Types of Fiber Optic Cables According to Mode 1. Single Mode — light follows a single path through the core Il. Multimode — light follows multiple paths through the core the fiber Princip of Communication Page |7-LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION ‘Common Configurations of Fiber Optic Cables 1. Multimode Step Index Cable - the most commonly used type of fiber optic cable - widely used for short to medium distances at relatively low pulse frequencies. - least expensive and is large in size that enables it to gather and transmit light efficiently IL. Single Mode Step Index Cable - also called monomode step index fiber cable - eliminates modal dispersion by making the core so small that the total number of modes or paths through the core is minimized - the pulse repetition rate can be high and the maximum amount of information can be carried - preferably used for long distance transmission and maximum information content Il, Multimode Graded Index Cable ~ have several modes or paths of transmission through the cable, but they are more orderly and predictable - very high pulse rates, and therefore a considerable amount of information can be carried - wider in diameter that makes it easier to splice and interconnect, cheaper, and less intense light sources can be used Attenuation of Fiber Optic Cable ~ refers to the loss of ight energy as the light pulse travels from one end of the cable to the other ~ expressed in decibels (dB) per unit of length (the standard is decibels per kilometer, dB/km) where: Pag 100g =| las Pyye - Output power Pq > input power Local Area Network (LAN) Hardware |. Cables - carry data from one computer to another via baseband transmission ‘A. Coaxial Cable ~ consists of a thin center conductor surrounded by an insulating material that 's, in turn, completely encircled by a shield. The shield can be crisscrossed wire braid or solid metal foil, Surrounding the shield is an outer sheath, usually made of PVG. Its wide bandwidth permits very high-speed bit rates. B. Twisted Pair Cable — is the most widely used network cable. Composed of two insulated copper wires twisted together loosely to form a cable, Two basic types used in LANs are (a) unshielded or UTP and shielded or STP. ©. Fiber Optic Cable ll. Connectors ~ provide a fast and easy way to connect and disconnect the equipment from the cabling and maintain the characteristics of the cable through the connection, IIL. Network Interface Controller (NIC) — provides the I/O interface between each node on a network and the network wiring an electronic circuit that takes a partially degraded signal, boosts its level, shapes it up, and sends it on its way. Over long transmission distances, several repeaters may be required. Repeaters are small, nexpensive devices that can be inserted into a line with appropriate connectors or built into other LAN equipment. V. Hub is a LAN accessory that facilitates the interconnections of the cables to the nodes VI. Bridge — is a network device that is connected as a node on the network and performs bidirectional ‘communication between two LANs VII. Switch — a hub-like device used to connect individual PC nodes to the network wiring VIILRouter — basic function is to expedite traffic flow on both networks and maintain maximum, performance 1X. Gateway — is another inteetwork device that acts as an interface between two LANs or between a LAN and a larger computer system X. Modems ~ are interfaces between PCs and communications systems, such as the telephone or cable TV networks. WV. Repeaters — Princip of Communication Page |LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION Satellite Communication Systems and Radar Sensors Orbiting Satellite Systems — functions as relay stations with wide area coverage of the Earth's surface Satellite Transponders — The path of each channel — from the point of reception by the antenna, transfer through the repeater, and final retransmission through the antenna Antenna - itis a metallic conductor system capable of radiating and capturing electromagnetic energy Satellite Antenna System — designed to produce beams tailored to match the areas served by the satelite. Antenna arrays are particularty suitable for this purpose Types of Antenna According to Direction 1. Directional — have a narrow ‘beam’ that allows highly directional propagation 2. Semi-directional antennas that propagates in a constricted fashion, defined by a specific angle 3. Omni-directional — antennas that propagates equally well in all directions RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) — an electromagnetic sensor that illuminates @ region of ‘space and then measures the echoes due to reflecting objects Signal Waveform - the collective features of the energy transmitted by a radar Unambiguous Range (R,) ~ the maximum target range that can measure unambiguously. It ‘corresponds to the maximum range that a target can have such that its echo is received before the transmission of the next pulse where {7 interpulse frequency (Hz) T,,~ interpulse period (s) €'= 3 10" m/s + speedoflight Princip of Communication Page |LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 1. Which of the following characteristics of a sine wave can be modulated? A. amplitude B. angular phase —C. angularvelocity —_D. all of these 2. The following are advantages of modulation except A. allow the use of practical-size antenna B. separate differing transmission C. circuit simplicity D. overcomes difficulty in transmission at low frequencies REE — Sept. 2019 3. Amplitude modulation generated at a very low voltage or power amplifier is, ‘modulation A. minimum B. collector ©. high-level D. low-level 4. In AM, carrier amplitude variation depends on modulating signals A. amplitude C. amplitude and frequency B, frequency D. none of these 5. A 400 watts carrier is modulated to a depth of 75 percent. Calculate the total power in the modulated wave. A. 512.5W B. 500 W c.530W D.515.5W 6. If the receive signal is 600 kHz in an AM broadcast, what is the local oscillator frequency? A. 600 kHz B. 145 kHz C. 1055 kHz D. 455 kHz 7. The instantaneous voltage of modulated FM carrier is given by v= 10 sin (750x10° t + 10 sin 10001). The carrier frequency is A, 750 MHz B. 1000 MHz ©. 119.37 MHz D. 1000 Hz REE - May 2009 8. The amount of frequency deviation from the carrier center of frequency in an FM transmitter is proportional to the A. shape B. amplitude G. frequency D. phase REE — Sept. 2003 9. What is the common unit of the sound absorption coefficient? A watt B. erg . sabine D. decibel 10. The input is 0.1 W and the network gain is 13 dB, the output is A.20W B.25W c.15W D1e8W 11. Tendenoy of sound energy to spread A. Reflection B. Diffraction ©. Rarefaction D. Refraction 12. One octave above 600 Hz is A. 601 Hz, B. 800 Hz C. 1400 Hz D. 1200 Hz 13. A technique that enables more than one data source to share the use of a common facility A. companding 8. multiplexing ©. sharing D. all of these REE ~ April 2003 14, Which of the following carries the most number of channels? A, 50 multiplexer B. 100 pairs of cables C. 100 chips D.1 fiber optic Princip of Communication Page | 10LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION REE — April 2005 15. What is the optical source for the transmitting end of an optic fiber cable? A. Halogen. . Injection Laser Diode B, LED D. Photocell REE — Sept. 2004 16, What is the most commonly used fiber optic cable? A. single mode step index C. Multi mode step index B. single mode graded index D. Multi mode graded index 17. Which type of fiber optic cable is best for very high speed data? A. Single mode step index C. Single mode graded index B. Multimode graded index D. Multimode step index REE - Sept. 2005 18. What replaces coaxial cable for terrestrial transmission? A, copper cable C. aluminum cable B. point to point wireless transmission D. fiber optics 19. The core of a fiber optic cable is made of A Air B. Glass . Diamond D. Quartz REE - April 2004 20. A type of communication that uses light rather than electricity to communicate is called A, Laser carrier B. Microwave C. Powerline carrier D. Fiber optic REE - Sept. 2017 21. Which of the following principle will the operation of fiber-optic cable is based? A. dispersion B. refraction C. reflection D. absorption REE - Sept. 2019 22. A transponder with a bandwidth of 400 MHz uses polarization diversity. If the wavelength allocated to transmit a single telephone channel is 4 kHz, how many telephone channels can be carried by the transponder? A. 300,000 B. 400,000 c. 100,000 D. 200,000 REE - April 2016 28. The master control center for a cellular telephone system is the A. cell site C. central office B, mobile telephone switching office D. branch office REE - Sept. 2007 24. What contains in each cell site of cellular telephone system? A, repeater . directlink to branch B. touch tone processor D. control computer REE — May 2009/ Sept. 2017 25. What is the maximum output power of a cellular transmitter? A. 60 watts B. 3 watts C.6 watts D. 30 watts Princip of Communication age | 11LEGIT MULTIVECTOR REVIEW AND TRAINING CENTER PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION 26. As a cellphone user passes from one cell to another: A.A “handoff process occurs . both cells will handle the cell B. A “sectoring” process occurs D. nothing occurs REE - Sept. 2017 / April 2019 27. In which type of electronic communications does the information travel in two directions? A. half duplex B. full duplex C. multiplex D. bicomm REE - April 2018 / Sept. 2018 28. A type of electronics communication in which only one party transmits at a time. A, Full duplex B. Half duplex C. Bicom D. Simplex 28. A ‘repeater’ is used to: A. send a message multiple times over a channel B, send a message over muttiple channels at the same time . extend the range of a radio communications system D. cancel the effects of fading REE - Sept. 2017 / April 2019 30. Single-Side Band signal produces a peak to peak voltage of 720 V on voice peaks across a 75-ohm antenna. What is the peak envelope power? A865 W B. 856 W c.835 W D853 W REE — Sept. 2003 31. In 1885, who invented antenna for long distance transmission of electromagnetic waves? A, Benjamin Franklin C. Isaac Newton B. Guglielmo Marconi D. Carl Siemen REE — April 2004 32. An antenna that transmits and receives equally well in all direction is said to be A. Omnidirectional B. Bidirectonal C. Unidirectional —_D. Quasidirectional 33. Radiated power unit area A. Air density B. Sound density C. Power density _. Signal density REE - April 2004 34, Itrefers to a device that merely boosts a signal and passes it on A. amplifier B. booster C. op-amp D. repeater REE - Sept. 2009 35.A collision avoidance radar is designed to detect the presence of vehicles up to a range of 0.50 km. What is the maximum pulse repetition frequency, PRF? A. 600 KHz B. 300 MHz C. 300 KHz D.600 MHz Princip of Communication Page | 12