A MAJOR PROJECT REPORT

On

SUITABILITY OF STABILIZED COPPER SLAG-

FLY ASH AND RICE HUSK ASH MIX AS ROAD
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
Submitted by
CH. SAI KARTHIK 19J41A01C6
CH. SAI DAS 19J41A01C7
E. RAJKUMAR 19J41A01C9
K. GOUTHAM 19J41A01D7
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree
Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Under the guidance of

MR. K. VAMSHI KRISHNA

Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING MALLA

REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(An UGC Autonomous Institution, Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to
JNTUH, Hyderabad) Maisammaguda, Secunderabad, Telangana, India 500100

APRIL-2023

I
 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Maisammaguda, Secunderabad, Telangana, India 500100

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this major project work entitled “SUITABILITY OF
STABILIZED COPPER SLAG-FLY ASH AND RICE HUSK ASH
MIX AS ROAD CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS”, submitted by CH.
SAI KARTHIK (19J41A01C6), CH. SAI DAS (19J41A01C7), E. RAJ
KUMAR (19J41A01C9), K. GOUTHAM (19J41A01D7) to Malla Reddy
Engineering College affiliated to JNTUH, Hyderabad in partial fulfillment
for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Department of Civil
Engineering is a bonafide record of project work carried out under my/our
supervision during the academic year 2022-2023 and that this work has not
been submitted elsewhere for a degree or diploma.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE
MR. K. VAMSHI KRISHNA DR. J. SELWYN BABU
SUPERVISOR HOD
Assistant professor Department of civil engineering
Department of civil engineering Malla Reddy Engineering College
Malla Reddy Engineering College Secunderabad, 500100
Secunderabad, 500100
Submitted for major project viva-voice examination held on _________

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

II
 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Maisammaguda, Secunderabad, Telangana, India 500100

DECLARATION

I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own

words and where others' ideas or words have been included, I have
adequately cited and referenced the original sources. I also declare that I
have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have
not misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my
submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for
disciplinary action by the Institute and can also evoke penal action from the
sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper
permission has not been taken when needed.

Signature(s)

CH. SAI KARTHIK (19J41A01C6) ____________________

CH. SAI DAS (19J41A01C7) ____________________
E. RAJ KUMAR (19J41A01C9) ____________________
K. GOUTHAM (19J41A01D7) ____________________

Secunderabad - 500100
Date:

III
 MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE
Maisammaguda, Secunderabad, Telangana, India 500100

ACKNOWEDGEMENT

We express our special thanks to the Management Of Malla Reddy Engineering

College, for having provided us with adequate facilities to pursue our project.
We are happy to express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved Principal, Dr. A.
Ramaswami Reddy, for his constant support and encouragement throughout our
course.

We would like to thank Dr. J. Selwyn Babu, Head of the Department of Civil
Engineering, Malla Reddy Engineering College, for having the freedom to use all the
facilities available in the department, for successful completion of project.
We are also grateful to our Project Coordinator, Mr. T. Ram Prasanna Reddy,
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Malla Reddy Engineering
College, for extending his support and assisting us throughout our project work.
We are very much thankful and greatly indebted to our Project Guide Mr. K.
Vamshi Krishna, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering. Malla
Reddy Engineering College, for his extensive his support and assisting us throughout
our project work.
We sincerely thank all the teaching and non-teaching staff, of the department of
Civil Engineering and also family and friends for their timely suggestions, healthy
criticism and motivation during the course of our project work.
Finally, we express our immense gratitude with pleasure to all individuals who
have either directly or indirectly contributed to our need at right time for the
development time and success of our project.

CH. SAI KARTHIK 19J41A01C6

CH. SAI DAS 19J41A01C7
E. RAJ KUMAR 19J41A01C9
K. GOUTHAM 19J41A01D7

IV
 ABSTRACT

Industrial wastes such as copper slag and fly ash are being generated in tons every year

and disposed mainly by land fillings, resulting in wastage of useful land. Copper slag in

itself is a granular cohesionless sand-like material, while fly ash is highly pozzolanic. –

Different trial mixes of copper slag fly ash Rice Husk Ash were tested for obtaining the

optimum mix having maximum dry density. Cylindrical specimens were prepared using

optimum mix with different proportion of cement (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% & 50 %,) and

cured for period of 7, 14 and 28 days in desiccator. Several tests such as proctor test,

unconfined compressive strength test, splitting tensile strength test and soaked CBR test

were carried out. The purpose of this paper is to investigate copper slag and fly ash

mixes with cement as stabilizer for their proper use in road construction. In the present

study, using fly ash obtained from Thermal power plant, Rice Husk Ash& Cooper Slag

for stabilization of soil obtained from Hyderabad is attempted. With various proportions

of this additive i.e. 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% & 50%, expansive soils is stabilized. Owing to

the fact that fly ash possesses no plastic property, plasticity index (P.I.) of clay-fly ash

mixes show a decrease in value with increasing fly ash content. In conclusion, addition

of fly ash results in decrease in plasticity of the expansive soil and increase in

workability by changing its grain size and colloidal reaction. Tested under both soaked

and un-soaked conditions, the CBR values of clay with fly ash mixes were observed.

Analysis of the formerly found result exposes the potential of fly ash as an additive that

could be used for improving the engineering properties of expansive soils.

Keywords: Fly ash, Copper slag, Rice Husk Ash, Flexible pavement, Modified proctor

test, Splitting tensile strength, unconfined compressive strength

V
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT V
LIST OF FIGURES VII
LIST OF TABLES VIII

Chapter Description Page no

1 Introduction 1-27
1.1 General 1
1.2 Origin And Occurrence Of Expansive Soils 4
1.3 Construction On And With Expensive Soil 6
1.4 Soil stabilization 8
1.4.1 Tyes Of Soil Stabilization 9
1.4.1.1 Mechanical Stabilization 9
1.4.1.2 Chemical Stabilization 9
1.4.2 Fly Ash In Soil Stabilization 10
1.4.3 Copper Slag In Soil Stabilization 10
1.4.4 Rice Husk In Soil Stabilization 11
1.5 Scope And Objectives Of Present Study 12
2 Literature Review 14-30
3 Materials And Methods 31-51
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 Materials Used 31
3.2.1 Soil 31
3.2.2 Copper Slag 32
3.2.3 Fly Ash 32
3.2.4 Experimental Program 32
3.2.5 Specific Gravity Test Of Copper Slag 33
3.2.6 Proctor Compaction Test Of Copper Slag 33
3.2.7 Fly Ash 33
3.2.8 Rice Husk Ash 34
3.2.9 Copper Slag 35
3.3 Details Of Test Conducted 40
3.3.1 First Series Of Tests (Influence Of Coarse Fraction) 40

V
 3.3.2 Second Series Of Tests
(Determination Of Optimum Fly Ash) 40
3.3.3 Third Series Of Tests (Influence Of Optimum Lime) 41
3.4 Test Procedures 43
3.4.1 Liquid Limit 43
3.4.2 Plastic Limit 43
3.4.3 Plasticity Limit 44
3.4.4 Shrinkage Limit 44
3.4.5 Standard Proctor Test 45
3.4.6 Free Swell Index 46
3.4.7 Swelling Characteristics
(Swelling Pressure, Swelling Potential) 46
3.4.8 Tri-Axial Shear Test 48
3.4.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength Test 49
3.4.10 Soaked California Bearing Ratio Test 49
3.4.11 pH Test (Determination Of Optimum Limit) 50
4 Results And Conclusion 52-64
4.1 Liquid Limit 52
4.2 Plastic Limit 53
4.3 Plasticity Index 55
4.4 Shrinkage Limit 56
4.5 Atterberg Limits Comparison 58
4.6 Standard Proctor Test 59
4.7 Free Small Index 60
4.8 Tri-Axial Shear Test 61
4.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength Test 61
4.10 CBR Test 63
5 Conclusion 65
6 Reference 66-68

VI
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure no Title Page no

1.1 Sub grade soil stabilization with Fly ash 10
1.2 Soil stabilization with copper slag 11
1.3 Sub grade soil stabilization with Rice Husk ash 12
2.1 Horizontal moisture barrier 15
2.2 Vertical moisture root barrier 15
3.1 Fly ash 34
3.2 Rice Husk Ash 35
3.3 Copper Slag 36
3.4 The Oedometer setup 47
3.5 Graphical representation of Atterberg Limits Vs % of Stabilizer 59

VII
 LIST OF TABLES

Table no Title Page no

3.1 Properties Of The Soil Used 37

3.2 Chemical Composition Of The Fly Ash 37
3.3 Properties of the Fly Ash 38
3.4 Properties of the Copper Slag 38
3.5 Chemical composition of copper slag 39
3.6 Chemical composition of Rice Husk Ash 39
3.7 Properties of the Rice Husk Ash 39
3.8 Details of 1st series of tests conducted 41
3.9 Details of 2nd series of tests conducted 41
3.10 Details of 3rd series of tests conducted.
(To determine Optimum Lime) 42
3.11 Details of 3rd series of tests
(Effect of Copper Slagon Curing) 42
4.1 Liquid Limit Test Results for Samples with
Different Percentages of Copper Slag 52
4.2 Liquid Limit Test Results for Samples with
Different Percentages of Rice Husk Ash 52
4.3 Liquid Limit Test Results for Samples with
Combined Percentages of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash 53
4.4 Plastic Limit Test Results for Samples with Different
Percentages of Copper Slag 53
4.5 Plastic Limit Test Results for Samples with Different
Percentages of Rice Husk Ash 54
4.6 Plastic Limit Test Results for Samples with Combined
Percentages of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash 54
4.7 Plasticity Index Test Results for Samples with Different
Percentages of Copper Slag 55
4.8 Plasticity Index Test Results for Samples with Different
Percentages of Rice Husk Ash 55
4.9 Plasticity Index Test Results for Samples with
Combined Percentages of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash 55

VIII
4.10 Shrinkage Limit Test Results for Samples with Different
Percentages of Copper Slag 56
4.11 Shrinkage Limit Test Results for Samples with Different
Percentages of Rice Husk Ash 56
4.12 Shrinkage Limit Test Results for Samples with Combined
Percentages of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash 56
4.13 Atterberg Limits Comparison 58
4.14 Standard Proctor Test 59
4.15 Free Swell Index 60
4.16 Tri-Axial Shear Test 61
4.17 Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for
Different Mix Proportions of Copper Slag and
Rice Husk Ash (0% Fly Ash) 61
4.18 Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for
Different Mix Proportions of Copper Slag and
Rice Husk Ash (25% Fly Ash) 62
4.19 Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for
Different Mix Proportions of Copper Slag and
Rice Husk Ash (50% Fly Ash) 62
4.20 Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for
Different Mix Proportions of Copper Slag and
Rice Husk Ash (75% Fly Ash) 63
4.21 Dry CBR Test Result 63
4.22 Soaked CBR Test Result 64

IX
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 GENERAL

The use of waste materials in the road construction industry is gradually gaining significance in
India, considering disposal and environmental problems and the gradual depletion of natural
resources. The copper unit located at Dahej, Gujarat, India, produces 1,200 to 1,500 tons of
copper slag per day. The large quantity of accumulated slag is dumped and left for the most part
unused on costly land within the plant premises. Also, 50 to 100 tons of fly ash are produced per
day from the existing captive thermal power plant. The potential use of these materials in road
construction was studied initially by evaluating the materials for their physical and chemical
characteristics. The waste materials were mixed with local soils in the range of 25% to 75%, and
their geotechnical characteristics were investigated. The feasibility of using these mixes in the
base course of road pavement was investigated by adopting stabilization techniques. The
potential of copper slag as a replacement for fine aggregates in bituminous mixes was also
investigated. It was concluded that a mixture of copper slag, fly ash, and soil has the potential for
use in embankment, subbase, base, and wearing courses of road pavement. The results of
laboratory tests and typical technical design specifications indicating the utility of copper slag,
fly ash, and soil in different layers of road pavement are discussed.

Expansive soils, popularly known as black cotton soils in India, are one of the major regional
deposits of India covering an area of about one fifth of the country’s land area (about 3 lakhs sq.
km). Expansive soils swell and shrink in a marketed way due to gain or loss in moisture content.
Therefore, during summer when evaporation from the ground and transpiration due to vegetation
exceeds the rainfall, the expansive soil dries up and moisture deficiency develops in the soil,
giving rise to soil shrinkage. During the rains, the soil absorbs moisture and swells. Soils
containing the clay mineral Montmorillonite generally exhibit these properties (Rao and
Triphaty, 2003; Sivapullaiah et al. 1996; Wayne et al. 1984). The mica-like group, which
includes Illites and Vermiculates, can be expansive, but generally does not cause significant
problems.

1
 Because of their susceptibility to high seasonal volumetric changes, extensive damages have
been caused to residential buildings, highways, rail beds and other structures founded on them.
Such soils are not peculiar to this country alone. Expansive soil deposits are found extensively
in England (shrinkable clays), South Africa (pot clays), Australia (bay of bisca clays), United
States of America (expansive clay soils), and Burma (desiccated alkaline soils) also. (Cokca
2001) During the last five decades, damage due to swelling action has been observed clearly in
the form of cracking and breakup of pavements, building foundations, embankments and
irrigation systems. In the United States alone, the expansive soils inflict about $9 billion per year
in damages to buildings, roads, airports, pipe lines and other structures – more than twice the
combined damage from earthquakes, floods, tornados and hurricanes (Jones and Holtz, 1973;
Jones and Jones, 1987).
In general, expansive soils have high plasticity, and are relatively stiff. The expansive nature of
soil is most obvious near the ground surface where the profile is subjected to seasonal and
environmental changes. The pore water pressure is initially negative and the deposit is generally
unsaturated. These soils often have some Montmorillonite clay mineral present. The higher the
amount of monovalent cations adsorbed to the clay mineral (e.g. sodium), the more severe the
expansive soil problem (Fredlund and Rahardjo, 1993).
Industrial wastes such as copper slag and fly ash are being generated in tons every year and
disposed mainly by land fillings, resulting in wastage of useful land. Copper slag in itself is a
granular cohesionless sand like material while fly ash is highly pozzolanic. In the present paper,
copper slag and fly ash mixes with cement as stabilizer are investigated for their proper use in
road construction. Design/methodology/approach – Different trial mixes of copper slag and fly
ash were tested for obtaining the optimum mix having maximum dry density. Cylindrical
specimens were prepared using optimum mix with different proportion of cement (3%, 6% and
9%) and cured for period of 7 days, 14 days and 28 days in desiccator. Several tests such as
proctor test, unconfined compressive strength test, splitting tensile strength test and soaked CBR
test were carried out. Findings – After analyzing the variation of test results with varying cement
content and curing period, maximum compressive strength of 10 MPa and maximum tensile
strength of 1.5 MPa was found for specimen having 9% cement content cured for a period of 28
days. It was concluded that copper slag and fly ash when mixed in optimum proportion and
stabilized with 6% and 9% cement, can be effectively used as granular material in sub base and

2
base layer of road pavement. Originality/value – A typical flexible pavement section was
designed and checked using IITPAVE software which gave desired results. This research may
add a value in the areas of pavement design, waste utilization, et cetera.

Practice of urbanization and industrialization is so rampant these days. Though there is bountiful
supply of soil, the cheapest construction material , it may exhibit some uncovered properties for
intended construction purpose at
.Such as construction on soft soil like clay appears to be difficult and it causes substantial
distress to the overlying structure as it possesses low shear strength , high compressibility. The
‘shrink-swell’ behavior of clayey soil can endanger the construction work causing excessive
settlement at the site. Again soil can be collapsible or liquefiable which are difficult to handle.
In search of the suitable site, interference with natural stability is not recommended. Extirpation
(Destruction) of forest and agrarian land, natural slope results in imbalance in wildlife, natural
calamities like sudden flood (spate), land- slides etc. This is certainly minatorious to mankind
and their survival. This problem needs serious attention.
Alternative solution is to be employed (adopted). Instead of searching a new land, one can go for
the betterment for the soil properties by different means such as compaction, use of piles,
replacement of soil, soil reinforcement etc. It can alsobe done by incorporating different
materials such as fly ash, lime, Rice Husk Ash ash, industrial wastes etc. having least or no
production value. Hence problematic soil like clayey soil must be adequately treated before the
erection of structure. Wide range of soil modification method is available. Selection of
appropriate method should be based on the type of soil and its characteristics, type of the
construction, time available, associated cost. It has been observed that industrial by-products can
cause drastic change in the soil properties in terms of strength characteristics, density, and acidity
and also serves agricultural benefits by increasing crop yield. Moreover utilization of these
products is a better solution to disposal than heaving them up on land.
It is a well established fact that the load coming from the superstructure is ultimately borne by
the soil. Hence when a project encounters, soil feasibility is the first and foremost thing to be
studied. The characteristics of soil vary from one place to another. Often soil at particular site
lacks in desirable properties causing distress to the overlying structures. It may exhibit low
shear strength, higher compressibility etc. such as Sandy soil has propensity to liquefaction

3
whereas expansive soil imbibes lot of water posing threat to small structures, canal- linings,
pavements. Hence when an unsatisfactory condition is met, possible alternative solution can be
either of
 abandon the site
 remove and replace the soil
 redesign the planned structure accordingly
 treat the soil to modify its properties or Ground Improvement
ThelastmethodlistedaboveisknownasGroundImprovementTechniqueorSoilStabilization.The‘Le
aning Tower of Pisa’ is a classical example of such geotechnical Engineering Practice and
Ground Improvement Techniques

1.2 ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF EXPANSIVE SOILS

Expansive Soils are soils that have the ability to shrink and/or swell, and thus change
in volume, in relation to changes in their moisture content. They usually contain some form of
expansive clay mineral, such as smectite or vermiculite, that are able to absorb water and swell,
increasing in volume, when they get wet and shrink when they dry. The more water they absorb
the more their volume increases. For the most expansive soils volume changes of 10% are not
uncommon (Chen 1988; Nelson & Miller, 1992)

Expansive soils are found throughout many regions of the world, particularly in arid and
semiarid regions, as well as where wet conditions occur after prolonged periods of drought. Their
distribution is dependent on geology, climate, hydrology, geomorphology and vegetation.
Countries where expansive soils occur and give rise to major construction costs include Ethiopia,
Ghana, Kenya, Morocco, South Africa and Zimbabwe in Africa; Burma, China, India, Iran,
Israel, Japan and Oman in Asia; Argentina, Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Trinidad, USA and
Venezuela in the Americas; Cyprus, Germany, Greece, Norway, Romania, Spain, Sweden,
Turkey and UK in Europe; and Australia.

In large areas of these countries the evaporation rate is higher than the annual rainfall so there is
usually a moisture deficiency in the soil. When it rains the ground swells and increases the
potential for heave. In semi-arid regions a pattern of short periods of rainfall followed by periods
of drought can develop, resulting in seasonal cycles of swelling and shrinkage; in humid climates

4
problems with expansive soils trend to be limited to those containing higher plasticity clays; and
in arid climates even moderately plastic soils can cause damage to residential property. The
literature is full of studies, from all over the world, concerned with problems associated with
expansive clays (Fredlund & Rahardjo, 1993; Stavridakis, 2006; Hyndman & Hyndman, 2009)

The key element which imparts swelling characteristics to any ordinary non-swelling
soil is a clay mineral. There are several types of clay minerals of which Montmorillonite has the
maximum swelling potential. The origin of such soil is sub aqueous decomposition of blast
rocks, or weathering in situ formation of important clay mineral takes place under alkaline
environments. Due to weathering conditions if there is adequate supply of magnesium or ferric
or ferrous oxides and alkaline environments, along with sufficient silica and alluminium, it will
favour the formation of Montmorillonite. The depth of expansive soil is shallow at the place of
formation with the parent rock underneath. The alluvium deposits can be much deeper in low
lying and flat areas, where these soils transported and deposited.

Expansive soils, which are also called swell-shrink soil, have the tendency to shrink and swell
with variation in moisture content. As a result of this variation in the soil, significant distress
occurs in the soil, which is subsequently followed by damage to the overlying structures. During
periods of greater moisture, like monsoons, these soils imbibe the water, and swell;
subsequently, they become soft and their water holding capacity diminishes. As opposed to this,
in drier seasons, like summers, these soils lose the moisture held in them due to evaporation,
resulting in their becoming harder. Generally found in semi-arid and arid regions of the globe,
these type of soils are regarded as potential natural hazard – if not treated, these can cause
extensive damage to the structures built upon them, as well causing loss in human life. Soils
whose composition includes presence of montmorillonite, in general, display these kind of
properties. Tallied in billions of dollars annually worldwide, these soils have caused extensive
damage to civil engineering structures. Also called as Black Cotton soils or Regur soils,
expansive soils in the Indian subcontinent are mainly found over the Deccan trap (Deccan lava
tract), which includes Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and some
scattered places in Odisha. These soils are also found in the river valley of Narmada, Tapi,
Godavari and Krishna. The depth of black cotton soil is very large in the upper parts of Godavari
and Krishna, and the north-western part of Deccan Plateau. Basically, after the chemical

5
decomposition of rocks such as basalt by various decomposing agents, these are the residual soils
left behind at the place of such an event. Cooling of volcanic eruption (lava) and weathering
another kind of rock – igneous rocks – are also processes of formation of these type of soils.
Rich in lime, alumina, magnesia, and iron, these soils lack in nitrogen, phosphorus and organic
content. 3 Consisting of high percentage of clay sized particles, the colour of this soil varies from
black to chestnut brown. 20% of the total land area, on an average, of this country is roofed by
expansive soils. These soils are suitable for dry farming and for the growth of crops like cotton,
rice, jowar, wheat, cereal, tobacco, sugarcane, oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables; the reason
behind it is owed to the moisture retentive capacity of expansive soils, which is high. In the
semi-arid regions, just in the last couple of decades, damages due to the swellingshrinking action
of expansive soils have been observed prominently in form of cracking and break-up of
roadways, channel and reservoir linings, pavements, building foundations, water lines, irrigation
systems, sewer lines, and slab-on-grade members.

Expansive soils have been reported from many parts of the world, mainly in the
arid or semi-arid regions of the tropical and temperate zones like Africa, Australia, India, South
America, United States, and some regions in Canada. This never means that expansive soils do
not exist elsewhere, because they can be found almost everywhere. However, in the humid
regions water tables are generally at shallow depth and moisture changes, which are responsible
for volume changes in soils, are minimal excepting under extended drought conditions (Arnold,
1984; Shuai and Fredlund, 1998; Wayne et al. 1984).

1.3 CONSTRUCTION ON AND WITH EXPANSIVE SOILS

Expansive soils undergo significant volume changes due to gain in moisture or loss there
of causing severe distress to structures constructed on and with it. When a structure is
constructed on an expansive soil, it acts as an impermeable surface cover. The moisture contents
in the interior and exterior regions of the building will not be the same as moisture tends to
accumulate in the center of the building due to thermosis. Hence over a period of time the
interior walls may be pushed up due to uplift while shrinkage in the perimeter of the building
will cause the walls to tilt upwards. Some of the following damages were usually observed in
the buildings which are constructed on expansive soils.
i) Diagonal and vertical cracks in the interior and exterior.

6
 ii) Horizontal cracks in the exterior and interior walls.
iii) Longitudinal cracks in the roof slab due to cantilever action.
iv) Separation of roof slab from the exterior walls.
v) Separation of flooring from the exterior walls.
vi) Leaning out of exterior walls.
The amount of industrial wastes such as copper slag and fly ash goes on increasing day-by-day,
and the main problem is their disposal. Thermal power plants are the main source of electricity in
our country, because of which consumption of coal goes on increasing to produce more
electricity, which results in production of more ash. Approximately 80 per cent of the total ash
produced by burning of coal in thermal power plants is fly ash and some part of it gets sinters to
the bottom. Copper slag is produced during extraction of copper metal from its ores. During the
smelting operation, iron is removed in the form of iron silicate, which is commonly known as
copper slag. Haphazard dumping may lead to various health hazards and environmental
pollution. Some major applications, where copper slag and fly ash has already been recognized
worldwide, are cement and concrete manufacturing, filling material, road and river embankment,
ballast material, pavement blocks, road and roofing construction and tiles making. Fly ash has
been widely accepted as embankment and filling material (Mclaren and Digionia, 1987; Martin
et al., 1990). Around 4.87 per cent of fly ash is used in roads and flyover constructions in India
during the first half of the year 2015-2016 according to ENVIS Centre (2017).

Copper slag aggregates have been widely used in base construction, railroad ballast and
engineered fill (Douglas and Mainwaring, 1985). Havanagi et al. (2006) investigated the
behavior of different mixes of copper slag, fly ash and expansive soils in different proportions by
stabilizing with 3, 6 and 9 per cent cement for their suitability in embankment, sub base and base
layer. After investigating the geotechnical properties of copper slag mixed with fly ash,
Havanagi et al. (2007, 2008) concluded that 75 per cent copper slag and 25 per cent fly ash mix
can be used in the sub base layer of road pavements. Because of the rapid growth of
infrastructure in the form of National Highway Development Project (NHDP), Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) and other state programs, natural conventional materials are
declining gradually and increasing the cost of construction tremendously. According to ENVIS
Centre (2017), hosted by CSIR – Central Building Research Institute Roorkee, at present, fly ash
utilization in India is approximately 55 to 60 per cent only, while the fly ash production which

7
was 160 million tons in 2010 is expected to increase tremendously to 600 million tons. As per
Thakkar (2011), in 2008-2009, approximately 160 million tons of fly ash was being generated in
India by thermal power plants and only 80 million tons was used for different purposes.
According to an article published in Times of India (2017), at present, there are approximately
250 lakh metric tons of fly ash in the pond of Badarpur Thermal Power Plant, New Delhi, which
has become a serious matter of concern for the officials and the government, as there is no way
to stop fly ash from being air borne, especially during storms, and this is being considered as a
major factor for air pollution in the city. On the other hand, because of increment in the use of
metals in various fields for economic growth, large quantities of slag are being produced as a by-
product of metallurgical operations, resulting in environmental concerns with disposal and
utilization (ACI Committee 233, 1987). As per scientific estimates, around 2.2 tons of slag is
generated for each ton of copper refining and approximately 24.6 million tons of copper slag is
produced from world copper production (Gorai et al., 2003). According to an article published in

1.4 Soil Stabilization

Soil stabilization is the process of improving its geotechnical properties of soil. Soil stabilization
involves the use of stabilizing agents (binder materials) in weak soils to improve its geotechnical
properties such as compressibility, strength, permeability and durability. The components of
stabilization technology include soils and or soil minerals and stabilizing agent or binders, soil
stabilization aims at improving soil strength and increasing resistance to softening by water
through bonding the soil particles together.

Most of stabilization has to be undertaken in soft soils (silty, clayey peat or organic soils) in
order to achieve desirable engineering properties. According to Sherwood (1993) finegrained
granular materials are the easiest to stabilize due to their large surface area in relation to their
particle diameter. A clay soil compared to others has a large surface area due to flat and
elongated particle shapes. On the other hand, silty materials can be sensitive to small change in
moisture and, therefore, may prove difficult during stabilization (Sherwood, 1993). Peat soils and
organic soils are rich in water content of up to about 2000%, high porosity and high organic
content. The consistency of peat soil can vary from muddy to fibrous, and in most cases, the
deposit is shallow, but in worst cases, it can extend to several meters below the surface (Pousette,
et al 1999; Cortellazzo and Cola, 1999; Åhnberg and Holm, 1999). Organic soils have high

8
exchange capacity; it can hinder the hydration process by retaining the calcium ions liberated
during the hydration of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate in the cement to satisfy the
exchange capacity. In such soils, successful stabilization has to depend on the proper selection of
binder and amount of binder added (Hebib and Farrell, 1999; Lahtinen and Jyrävä, 1999,
Åhnberg et al, 2003).

Soil stabilization is the process of the alteration of the geotechnical properties to satisfy the
engineering requirements. Soil stabilization is basically done on expansive soil swell on
imbibitions of water during monsoon, reduce in density and become sludge. But in dry seasons,
they shrink because of evaporation of water, and become hard due to increase in density. The
alternate swelling and shrinkage causes distress to civil engineering structures built on these soils
are severely damaged. Lime waste (LS) is one of the materials which come from lime industry.
Lime has been found to be the most effective and economical of all additives. It reduces swell
potential and increases workability and strength. Lime stabilization improves the compressibility
characteristics of clayey soil and helps to reduce plasticity index, increase optimum moisture
content and decrease maximum dry density. Copper slag (CS) is one of the waste materials
obtained during the matte smelting and refining of copper. The production of copper slag is 120-
130 lakh ton per annum and copper producing units in India leave thousands of tons of copper
slag as waste every day. Utilization of copper slag in expansive soil results for good soil
stabilizations also copper slag has high angularity and friction angle (up to 520) of aggregates
contribute to the stability and load -bearing capacity

1.4.1 TYPESOFSOILSTABLIZATION
The Types can be achieved in two ways, namely.
1.4.1.1 Mechanical stabilization
1.4.1.2 Chemical stabilization

1.4.1.1 Mechanical stabilization

Under this category, soil stabilization can be achieved through physical process by altering
the physical nature of native soil particles by either induced vibration or compaction or by
incorporating other physical properties such as barrier sand nailing. Mechanical
stabilization is not the main subject.

9
1.4.1.2 Chemical stabilization

Under this category, soil stabilization depends mainly on chemical reactions between
stabilizer (cementations material) and soil minerals (pozzolanic materials) to achieve the
desired effect. A chemical stabilization method is the fundamental of this review and,
therefore, throughout the rest of this report, the term soil stabilization will mean chemical
stabilization.
Through soil stabilization, unbound materials can be stabilized with cementations materials
(cement, lime, flyash , bitumen rice husk ash or combination of these). The stabilized soil
materials have a higher strength, lower permeability and lower compressibility than the
native soil.
1.4.2 Fly Ash in Soil Stabilization:

Soil Stabilization to Improve Soil Strength. Fly ash has been used successfully in many projects
to improve the strength characteristics of soils. Fly ash can be used to stabilize bases or
subgrades, to stabilize backfill to reduce lateral earth pressures and to stabilize embankments to
improve slope stability. Lime and fly ash materials have binding properties, so they are used for
the stabilization of soil. Fly ash is the waste material generated from thermal power plants, so
their use make the soil stabilization cheaper.

Figure 1.1: Sub grade soil stabilization with Fly ash

10
1.4.3 Copper Slag in Soil Stabilization:

The Unconfined Compressive strength of soil with copper slag and lime waste is 59.23kN/m2.
The combination of 90% Clay and 10% of copper slag and lime waste to get good soil
stabilization. The copper slag and lime waste are improved weak soil strength and safe bearing
capacity of soil. Soil stabilization is improved the weak soil strength and bearing capacity of soil.
This paper investigates the improvement in the properties of clayey soils stabilized with copper
slag and lime waste. It is utilizing the waste materials and reduces the quantity of waste material
disposal. Copper slag and lime are used at varying percentages ranging from 25% to 75%. We
are expecting that the strength properties of soils improved with an increase in percentages of
copper slag and lime waste. The maximum strength is obtained at 50% copper slag and 50% lime
at 15% water content for intermediate compressible soil.

Figure 1.2: soil stabilization with copper slag

1.4.4 Rice Husk Ash in Soil Stabilization

Rice Husk Ash (RHA) is a by-product of rice milling. Its use as a soil stabilizer is an alternative
to the final disposition with environmental benefit. Because RHA is not self-cementitious, a
hydraulic binder such a lime must be added to form cements to improve the soil strength.

Disposal of solid waste on the land fill can be minimized if the waste is having desirable
properties such that they can be utilized for various geotechnical application viz. land
reclamation, construction of embankment etc. There are several methods used for improving
geotechnical properties of problematic soils that includes densification (such as shallow

11
compaction, dynamic deep compaction, pre-loading), drainage, inclusions (such as
geosynthetics and stone columns), and stabilizations. Chemical stabilization of the
problematic soils is especially significant in concerning with the treatment of soft fine-grained,
expansive soils, and collapsible loess deposits. Soil stabilization is the process which is used
to improve the engineering properties of the soil and thus making it more stable. Soil
stabilization is required when the soil available for construction is not suitable for the intended
purpose. It includes compaction, reconsolidation, drainage and many other such processes. For
instance, fly ash is solid waste from thermal power plant which is used for various civil
engineering applications like manufacturing of cement and bricks and other geotechnical
construction works. In present investigation the type of solid waste namely RICE HUSK ASH
(RHA) is selected to study the effects of the index and engineering characteristics of problematic
soil. In order to utilize the rice husk ash for the improvement of problematic clay a detailed
program has been formulated and index, compaction, shear strength and CBR tests have
been conducted on problematic clay and alluvial soil with
increasing % of solid wastes.

Figure1.3: Sub grade soil stabilization with Rice Husk ash

1.5 SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT STUDY

The scope and object of the present investigation is to study the feasibility of using
expansive soil as a construction material in projects like airfield and highway pavements, tank
bunds, and earthen embankments with and without addition of admixtures namely fly ash and /or
lime. Wherever soil is used as a construction material; it is customary to stabilize the soils by

12
mechanical means. In nature, expansive soils may present with varying liquid limits and varying
coarse fraction. Both liquid limit and coarse fraction can affect the properties of expansive soils.
Hence one of the objectives of the present investigation is to study the effect of coarse fraction as
well as liquid limit on
1. Compaction characteristics of expansive soil.

2. Strength and Deformation characteristics of an expansive soil.

3. Swelling characteristics of an expansive soil.

The second objective of the present investigation is to study the possibility of using Fly
ash for mechanical stabilization of expansive soil. It is intended to obtain Optimum fly ash from
viewpoint of compaction characteristics, strength and deformation characteristics.
The third objective is to determine optimum copper slag content for fly ash treated
expansive soils and to study the effect of lime & curing period on compaction, strength and
deformation characteristics of fly ash treated expansive soils.

The fourth objective is to determine optimum Rice husk, copper slag content for fly ash treated
expansive soils and to study the effect of lime & curing period on compaction, strength and
deformation characteristics of fly ash treated expansive soils.

In order to meet the objectives of present investigation two different expansive soils having
liquid limits of 54% and 106% were obtained from two different locations namely Paritala, near
Vijayawada (16°311 North Latitude 800 391 East Longitude) and Yedurulanka, near Kakinada
(16°57' North Latitude 82°15' East Longitude). A series of tests were conducted on these soils by
mixing them with varying proportions of coarse fraction, Fly ash and Rice husk, copper slag. The
details of the series of tests conducted are presented in subsequent chapters along with a review
of literature.

13
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

Ground modification techniques have become a major part of civil engineering practice
over the last 30 years (Hausmann, 1990). Improvement of sites with weak or high compressible
or high swelling or any other such problematic soils is commonly done by removing the
problematic soils and replacing them with more competent ones such as compacted gravel,
crushed rock, or lightweight aggregates to increase the load bearing capacity (Kukko, 2000).
Although this is considered a good solution, usually has the drawback of high cost due to the cost
of the replacement materials. The use of admixtures derived from coal combustion by products
(CCPs) such as fly ash is considered a more cost-effective solution which can result in adequate
improved engineering properties of the treated foundation soils.

In India, expansive soils are found in regions where the annual rainfall ranges from
300 to 900 mm. Subba Rao et al, 1985 have emphasized that the Montmorillonite content is the
predominant clay fraction in these soils. The CEC of these soils vary from 80 to 130 m.eq/100
gm and their consistency limits vary from 53% to 100%, 20% to 50% and 7% to 18% for liquid
limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit respectively. The specific gravity varies from 2.7 to 2.9 for
black cotton soils. The clay fraction of black cotton soils is very rich in silica (60%) with only
15% iron and 15% alumina. During monsoon, these soils especially near the surface, imbibe
water, undergo heave, loose density and become slushy when more water is available.
Conversely, during summer, the soil desiccates, shrink, gain density and become very hard. The
decreasing dry density and the loss of strength on monsoon and the gain thereof in summer tend
to decrease with depth (Katti, 1978). During summer, polygonal shrinkage cracks appear at the
surface which may extend to a depth of about 2m to 3.5m, indicating the active zone in which the
volume changes occur.

14
Ensuring Soil Moisture Equilibrium by provision of Impervious Horizontal and Vertical
Barriers:
If the water is prevented from moving into or out of the soil under the / near the
building, post construction swell or shrinkage will be reduced. Moisture barriers or impervious
membranes 2.5m or more in width placed round the perimeter of the building (Figure 2.9) have
effectively reduced variations in water content and reduced differential heave in USA (Johnson
1976). In India asphaltic pavements have been used as moisture barriers. Vertical barriers are
more effective than horizontal barriers. Vertical barriers are placed about 1m from the foundation
and should extend to the depth of active zone (Figure 2.10). The membranes are not effective in
controlling the swell of the soil from capillary rise of water and rise in water table. There will
also be accumulation of water under the barriers due to hydro genesis.

Figure 2.1: Horizontal moisture barrier

15
 Figure 2.2: Vertical moisture root barrier
Soil stabilization:
Chemicals are added to alter the nature of clay minerals. It can be used for pavements as well
as foundation soils, Commonly used admixtures are
(i) Fly ash
(ii) Cooper Slag
(iii) Rice Husk Ash
(iv) Cement.

Soil Replacement:

Swelling can be minimized by replacing expansive soil partially by (a) Granular material,
(b) sand cushion, (c) CNS layer..

(a) Granular Material: Physical mixing of expansive clay with a granular material
obviously leads to reduction in swelling. However, its use can be found mostly in pavements and
embankments.
(b) Sand Cushion: The sand cushion may be laid over the entire area covered by the
building on just under strip or column or footings. The work of laying the sand cushion is carried

16
out in the following order. The ground is excavated to the desired depth, then filled with the
cushion soil and compacted. Compaction may be done with bulldozers, sheep foot rollers,
pneumatic wheeled rollers, reinforced cement concrete rammers etc. Provision of a sand cushion
of some arbitrary thickness is probably based on the assumption that it would absorb the upward
and lateral swelling pressures. But the actual design principle seems to be that during summer
sand under goes bulking which upsets the volume reduction due to the shrinkage in the
foundation black cotton soil, on the other hand the swelling in the foundation soil during
monsoon is offset by the volume reduction in sand. Thus, it calls for extensive model studies
carried over a number of moisture fluctuation cycles to study the effects of fatigue etc., before
the design thickness of sand cushion is arrived at. An inadequately designed sand cushion could
lead to undesirable wetting and might accelerate the process of swelling and softening of the
foundation soil, as it may act as an efficient drain.

(c)CNS Layer: it is known that an expansive clayey soil deposit exhibits no volume
change conditions below self equilibrating depth of about 1.0 to 1.5 m. This is attributed to
development of internal cohesive bonds around expanding clay minerals due to absorbed water
upon saturation of the soil (Katti, 1969).

Katti suggested that if the top 1.0 to 1.5 m expansive soil is replaced with a cohesive but
non – swelling soil (CNS) layer, heave in the expansive soil can be arrested. Katti suggested
some specifications (Refers Table 2.7) for the soil to be considered as CNS material which may
be hard to be met. Besides, the soil in the top layers is rendered soft. So Katti, lately
recommended the use of a mechanically stabilized mix (MSM) to bear the load. Recent research
by Thomas has indicated that the effectiveness of CNS may not last many cycles of wetting and
drying.

SOIL STABILIZATION USING ADMIXTURES:

The technique falling under this category is the chemical stabilization through soil
admixtures. Chemical stabilization refers to the increase in strength due to a chemical reaction
between the soil and the admixture. There are different ways of mixing additives and it will
depend on the application. A common way of preparing a surface to be stabilized is excavating

17
and breaking up the soil, adding the stabilizer and water if necessary. After that, soil and additive
are mixed thoroughly, compacted according specifications and finally cured. For the mixing
stage are available

Some of the Admixtures that are commonly used in practice to alter the nature of clay
minerals are Fly ash, Lime, Cement and Gypsum.

Fly Ash Stabilization:

Large quantities of coal is being burnt in thermal power stations to meet the ever increasing
demand for thermal power. Combustion of coal results in a residue consisting of inorganic
mineral constituents and organic matter which is not fully burned. The inorganic mineral
constituents from ash: About 80% of this ash is fly ash. Environmentally safe disposal of large
quantities of ash is not only tedious but also expensive. To reduce the problems of disposal, great
efforts are being made to utilize fly ash. The use of fly ash as a soil-stabilizing agent is beneficial
for improving the engineering properties of the soil, while at the same time it provides an
opportunity for the utilization of an industrial waste that will otherwise require costly disposal
(Nalbantoğlu and Güçbilmez, 2002; Sivapullaiah et al. 1998).
Fly ash is useful in many construction applications because it is a pozzolan, meaning it is
a siliceous or alimino-siliceous material which in itself possess little or no cementitious value but
will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium
hydroxide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties
(ASTM, 1993).

18
 Two classes of fly ash are defined in ASTM C 618: Class F fly ash, and Class C fly ash.
Class F fly ash is normally produced from burning anthracite or bituminous coal. This class of
fly ash has pozzolanic properties. Class C fly ash is normally produced from burning lignite or
subbituminous coal. This class of fly ash, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has
some self-cementing properties, meaning that it has ability to harden and gain strength in the
presence of water alone. . In pozzolanic point of view, the Indian coal ashes fall in the category
of Class F. In view of their good physical properties, they can be used beneficially in most of the
geotechnical applications (Sridharan et al 2001). In recent years, the engineering community
feels that bulk utilization of fly ash is possible through geotechnical applications (Pandian,
2004). Fly ash is being mainly used as a backfill for retaining walls and as a material for
construction of embankments.
The stabilization of high plasticity soft and/or expansive soil(s) with fly ash causes significant
redution of plasticity and shrink–swell potential (Abduljauwad, 1995).

Gupta and Seehra (1989) studied the effect of lime-GGBS on the strength of soil. They found
that lime- GGBS soil stabilized mixes with and without addition of gypsum or containing
partial replacement of GGBS by fly ash produced high UCS and CBR in comparison to plain
soil. They also concluded that partial replacement of GGBS with fly ash further increased the
UCS.

Akinmusuru (1991) put his effort in finding out the effect of mixing of GGBS on the
consistency, compaction characteristics and strength of lateritic soil. GGBS content varied from
0% -15% by dry soil weight. He observed a decrease in both the liquid and plastic limits and an
increase in plasticity index with increasing GGBS portion. Further, he observed that the
compaction, cohesion and CBR increased with increasing the GGBS content up to 10% and
then sub sequent decreased. The angle of friction was to be decreased with increasing
percentage of GGBS.

Cokca (2001) studied the effect of fly ash for the stabilization of an expansive soil and
concluded that the expansive soil can be stabilized successfully by fly ashes. The unsoaked
unconfined compressive strength of fly ash-soil mixtures decreases as the amount of fly ash
increases. The decrease in strength may be attributed to decrease in maximum dry density and

19
increase in optimum moisture content on addition of fly ash to soils, keeping in mind that fly ash
does not react with soil in the absence of lime.

Nalbantoglu et al. (2001) found that addition of lime or fly ash decreases swelling potential
inexpansive soils. The hydraulic conductivity of treated soils was also found to increase
withincreasing lime or fly ash and with increasing curing time.

Pandian et.al, (2002) The addition of fly ash to BC soil increases the CBR of the mix up to the
first optimum level due to the frictional resistance from fly ash in addition to the cohesion from
BC soil. Further addition of fly ash beyond the optimum level causes a decrease up to 60% and
then up to the second optimum level there is an increase.

Siva pullaiah (2002) the strength of soil improves with fly ash addition. The strength improves
with the curing period but increased addition of fly ash was found to be not favourable.

Zhang,(2002) the amount of fly ash required for stabilizing expansive soil are in the range of
40% to 60% by dry soil weights respectively. Liquid limit and plasticity index decreases with the
increase of fly ash. As the amount of fly ash is increased, there is apparent reduction in
maximum dry density, free swell and swelling capacity under 50 kpa pressure, and a
corresponding increase in the O.M.C and CBR values.

Edil et al. (2002) conducted a field evaluation of construction alternatives for roadways over soft
sub grade soils. Unconfined compression tests showed that using a 10% fly ash admixture (on
the basis of dry weight) was sufficient to provide the necessary strength gain for roadway
construction on the originally soft sub grade.

A costa et al. (2003) there are three primary mechanisms contributing the stabilization. The first
one is that strength of the soil increases as a result of the Cementation produced from hydration
of tricalcium aluminates present in the fly ash. Other mechanism is that free lime (CaO) in the fly
ash reacts with the clay minerals, causing compression of the absorbed layer and reduction in
plasticity. Finally, the free lime that does not react with the clay minerals is available for
additional cementation process through pozzolanic reaction with silica and alumina compounds.
The hydraulic conductivity of expansive soils mixed with fly ash decreases with an increase in

20
fly ash content, due to the increase in maximum dry unit weight with an increase in fly ash
content.

Phani kumar and Sharma, (2004) that an increase in fly ash content reduces plasticity
characteristics and the FSI was reduced by about 50% by the addition of 20% fly ash. When the
fly ash content increases there is a decrease in the optimum moisture content and the maximum
dry unit weight increases.

White (2005), the initial cementitious reaction is due to the hydration of tricalcium aluminates.
He also explains that the strength gain that occurs during curing time periods over 28 days can be
attributed to the pozzolanic reactions between calcium oxide and the aluminous and siliceous
materials in the fly ash. Mackiewicz et al. (2005) explain that the strength reduction is the result
of the rupture of the cementitious bond that occurs during compaction and reduced number of
intergranular contacts. These authors suggest avoiding any time delays in the field while
compacting fly ash treated soils.

Misra et al. (2005) studied the physico-mechanical behavior of self cementing class C fly ash
clay mixtures. The study evaluated the short and long term strength and stiffness developed by
the mixtures in terms of gain in compressive strength, failure strain and swelling potential.
Results from this study show that samples rapidly gained compressive strength and stiffness
within 7 days curing period. After 28 days of curing, the samples became very brittle. Results
also show reduced swelling potential with increasing amounts of class C fly ash. The strength
gain due to stabilization depends mainly upon three factors; ash content, molding water content
and compaction delay (Senol et al 2006).

Phani Kumar(2009) that if clay-fly ash blends, the liquid limit decreased and plastic limit
increased, resulting in a reduced plasticity index with the increasing additive content. FSI also
decreased when fly ash content were increased. MDD increased and OMC decreased with the
increasing fly ash content. swell potential and swelling pressure decreased significantly with the
increasing fly ash contents.

The above studies are some of the most relevant publications found related to the subject
of soil improvement using fly ash as a chemical admixture. These studies provide important
evidence supporting the use of fly ash for ground stabilization projects.

21
The stabilization of soils has been recognized be for the Christian era began and performed for
millennia. Many ancient cultures including the Chinese, Romans and In case utilized various
techniques to improve soil suitability some of which were so effective that many of the
buildings and roadways they constructed still exist today and some are still in use.

Jump forward a few years to the war in Vietnam, the US military were looking for methods for
rapid stabilization of weak soils for support of its missions worldwide. Over the past 60 years
they had used cement and lime and these being the most effective stabilizers for road and air
field applications. But efforts were being made to find a stabilizer that could be used quickly
without having to carry out extensive site tests that would increase the strength of the prevalent
soft clay type local soils rapidly to support the landing and take-off of aircraft traffic on their
temporary air fields.

Erdal Cokca, Veysel Yazici and Vehbi Ozaydin (2009) reported about an experimental study
on the stabilization of expansive clays using granulated blast furnace slag (GBFS)and granulated
blast furnaces lag-cement (GBFSC). These were added to soil in proportions of 5–25% by
weight. The effects of these stabilizers on grain size distribution, Atterberg limits, swelling
percentage and rate of swell of soil samples were determined. Addition of GBFS and GBFSC
altered the grain size distribution of expansive soil sample by decreasing clay fraction sand
increasing silt fractions. Plasticity index was decreased specific gravity was increased for all
GBFS and GBFSC additions. GBFS and GBFSC additions decreased the swell percentage and
thet50valuesof specimens. 75% sample + 25% GBFSC gave 6% swell, which also almost
satisfied the irrigation water standards. The addition of 20% GBFS and 15% GBFSC to the
expansive soil after 7 days of curing, reduced the swell percentfrom29.4to 10.9%and 3.1%,
respectively.
A. Sreerama Rao, G. Sridevi and M. Rama Rao (2009) reported about heave studies on
expansive clays with stabilized granulated blast furnaces lag cushion. This study is conducted to
find an alternative method to CNS layer technique which is used for stabilization of black cotton
soils. Cement-stabilized blast furnace slag in the form of a cushion has been placed over black
cotton soil layer and there suiting heave was measured. Experiments were all so conducted to
study the effect of the cement content as well as the cushion thickness on the heave of the black
22
cotton soil bed. The study also aimed at comparing the performances of Granulated Blast
Furnace Slag (GBFS) and the ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) and to study the
effect of cushion thickness on the swelling behavior of black cotton soil. It was reported that
both the slag cushions, stabilized with cement, are effective in minimizing the swell of black
cotton soils. For GGBFS, there is assign if i can reduction of heave at low cement contents itself
but for GBFS, as the cement content is increased, the swell potential decreased steeply. 6% to
8% cement content has been found to be optimum. No such optimum was observed in
GGBFS.As the thickness of the cushion increased, there was a corresponding decrease in the
swell potential.

Zore T. D and S. S. Valunjkar (2010) had reported about the utilization of fly ash and steel
slag in road construction. In their study, it was aimed to replace natural aggregates inroad
construction, either for blanket courses, bases or subbases using these waste by-products. It was
concluded that steel industry waste by-product is suitable and economical for use in the road
construction. Steel slag is easily available and as higher CBR value than fly ash hence saving is
excess than fly ash use. The optimum mix was reported as15% steel slag mix in sub grade and
in subbase for road construction.

Mehmoud Reza Abdi (2010, 2011) reported about the efforts to extend the use of Basic Oxygen
Steel (BOS) slag to soil stabilization by determining possible beneficial effects it may have on
compressive strength and durability. Unconfined compression test and durability test were
conducted. Tests determined strength development of compacted cylinders, moist cured in a
humid environment at 35° C and durability by freezing and thawing method. Kaolinite treated
with a particular percentage of lime and various amounts of BOS slag showed slight increase in
MDD and reduction in OMC. Results of the investigation showed that using lime and BOS slag
either singularly or concurrently for stabilizing kaolinite improves soil properties in terms of
increased UCS and durability by resistance to freezing and thawing. The improvements are
shown to be dependent on the lime and the BOS slag contents as well as the curing period.

R C Gupta, Blessen Skariah Thomas, Prachi Gupta, Lintu Rajan and Dayanand Thagriya
(2012) reported about an experimental study of clayey soil stabilized by copper slag. In this
study, index properties, compaction and shear characteristics of the soil mixed with copper slag

23
were evaluated. The addition of copper slag increased the maximum dry density and decreased
the optimum moisture content. Maximum dry density was obtained with 50% soil + 50% copper
slag combination. Tri-axial tests were conducted, and it was reported that as the percentage of
copper slag increases, the angle of shearing resistance increases up to certain limit (48°) at 40%
of combination and further it tends to decrease. The combination of 70% Clay with 30% Copper
slag to 30% clay with 70% copper slag was most satisfactory combination to get good soil
stabilizations.

K.V. Manjunath, Himanshu Shekhar, Manish Kumar, Prem Kumar and Rakesh Kumar
(2012) reported about the stabilization of black cotton soil using ground granulated blast furnace
slag. A series of compaction and unconfined compression tests were carried out on virgin as well
as blended samples prepared. It was observed that with increase of slag, more stability of soil is
achieved as compared to using lime alone. UCC strength of ordinary black cotton soil which was
found out to be 188.5 kN/m2, increased to 3429.37 kPa. The study recommended that for the
proportion of (BC soil + 30% slag) + 4% lime @ OMC on 28th day with proper curing, UCC
strength increased up to 18 times that of ordinary black cotton soil and the use of slag as an
admixture was recommended for improving engineering properties of the soils as an economical
solution to use the locally available poor soil.

N Laxmikant Yadu and R.K. Tripathi (2013) reported an investigative approach in soft soil
stabilization with the help of granulated blast furnace slag. Different amounts of granulated blast
furnace slag (3,6,9,12%) were used to stabilize the soft soil and the performance was evaluated
using physical and strength performance tests like plasticity index, specific gravity, free swelling
index, compaction, swelling pressure, California bearing ratio, and unconfined compressive
strength. Liquid limit and plastic limit decreased with increasing percentage of slag. Maximum
dry density increased and optimum moisture content decreased with increasing percentage of
slag. Blended mix of 9% granulated blast furnace slag reduced the free swelling index and
swelling pressure at about 67% and 21% respectively from its unsterilized state. It was also
reported that there was a sharp increase in the unconfined compressive strength values with the
addition of slag which was attributed to the formation of cementations compounds between the
CaOH present in the soil and the pozzolana present in the slag. In case of CBR values, an

24
increase was reported with addition of slag up to a certain point, and after that it started
decreasing

Gyanen Takhelmayum, Savitha.A.L and Krishna Gudi (2013) reported their investigation on
soil stabilization using fine and coarse ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS). Here
compaction and unconfined compressive strength characteristics of black cotton soil blended
with fine and coarse ground granulated blast furnace slag were evaluated. The black cotton soil
with varying proportion of ground granulated blast furnace slag mixtures were prepared at the
respective optimum moisture content and the characteristic compaction and unconfined
compressive strength values were determined for different curing. In both of the cases it was
found that the maximum dry density increased with increase in GGBS content but increase is
more pronounced in case of soil-fine GGBS mixture. The increase in dry density was reported to
be due to enhanced C-S-H formation compared to using Soil alone. The increase in the
maximum dry unit weight with the increase of the percentage of GGBS mixture was attributed to
high specific gravity and immediate formation of cemented products by hydration which
increases the density of soil.

Laxmikant Yadu and Dr. R K Tripathy (2013) studied the effect of Granulated blast furnace
slag and fly-ash stabilization on soft soil. The soil was classified as CI-MI asper Indian Standard
Classification System. Different amount of GBS (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%) and fly ash (3%, 6%,
9%,12%) was mixed to the parent soil and both UCS and CBR are carried out. They found that
there was an increase in maximum dry density but decrease in Optimum Moisture Content with
increasing GBS content. Addition of GBS increased the UCS value and this increase was
maximum up to 9% and then it started falling. In case of both soaked and unsoaked CBR
samples, addition of GBS caused sharp increase in CBR value and it is maximum up to 6%.
Hence they found out3%flyash+6%GBSmixto be optimum.

Noorina Tarannum and R.K. Yada (2013) have reported on their study on the effect of blast
furnace slag on the consistency limits of the black cotton soil. The samples used in the study
were prepared by blending black cotton soil with different percentage of blast furnace slag, using
lime as stabilizer. The tests showed a decrease in the liquid limit with increase in quantity of
blast furnace slag while shrinkage limit showed a decrease. The plasticity index was gradually

25
decreased. It is recommended that for proper results the blending of black cotton soil and blast
furnace should be done in presence of water to attain homogeneity.

Rice Husk Ash Stabilization:

Brooks (2009) made a trial to upgrade expansive soil as a construction material using rice
husk ash and fly ash, which are waste materials. Remolded expansive clay was blended with
RHA and fly ash and strength tests were conducted. The potential of RHA-fly ash blend as a
swell reduction layer between the footing of a foundation and subgrade was studied. To
examine the importance of the study, a cost comparison was made for the preparation of the
sub-base of a highway project with and without the admixture stabilizations. Stress-strain
behavior of unconfined compressive strength showed that failure stress and strains increased
by 106% and 50%respectively when the fly ash content was increased from 0 to 25%. When
the RHA content was increased from0 to 12%, unconfined compressive stress increased by
97% while CBR improved by 47%. Therefore, an RHA content of 12% and a fly ash content
of 25% were recommended for strengthening the expansive sub grade soil. A fly ash content
of 15% was recommended for blending into RHA for forming a swell reduction layer
because of its satis factory performance in the laboratory tests.

Koteswara et al. (2011) used rice husk ash, lime and gypsum as additives to the expansive
soil which resulted in considerable improvement in the strength characteristics of the
expansive soil. It was found that rice husk ash can potentially stabilize the expansive soil
solely (or) mixed with lime and gypsum. The utilization of industrial wastes like RHA, lime
and gypsum is an alternative to reduce the construction cost of roads particularly in the rural
areas. It was observed that the liquid limit of the expansive soil has been decreased by 22%
with the addition of 20% RHA+5% lime. It was noticed that the free swell index of the
expansive soil has been reducedby 88% with the addition of 20% RHA + 5% lime.

Mtallib and Bankole (2011) carried out experimental study on lime stabilized lateritic soils
using rice husk ash as admixture. The index property tests classified the soils as (A-7-6)
under the AASHTO soil classification scheme. Index and geotechnical properties tests
conducted on the soil containing lime and rice husk ash combinations showed significant
improvement in properties. The Atterberg limits were significantly altered with lime and

26
rice husk ash combination; the plasticity of the soils were significantly reduced from 18.10 to
6.70for sample A and 26.6 to 5.92 for sample B at 6 % lime and 12.5% RHA combination. In
terms of compaction characteristics, addition of lime and rice husk ash decreased the
maximum dry density and increased the optimum moisture content. At
8%limeand12.5%RHA, the values of MDD for samples A and B were 1.27 and 1.22 Mg/m3
respectively. The California bearing ratio values peaked at 50% unsoaked values for 8% lime
and 10% RHA combinations for sample A while that of sample B was 30% at 6% lime and
12.5% RHA combinations. This paper presents the results of experimental study carried out
on three different soils improved with different percents of rice husk ash.

Yadu et al. (2011) presented the laboratory study of black cotton soil stabilized with fly ash
(FA) and rice husk ash (RHA). The samples of these soils were collected from a rural road
located in Raipur of Chhattisgarh state. The soil was stabilized with different percentages of
FA (i.e., 5, 8, 10, 12, and 15%) and RHA (i.e., 3, 6, 9 11,13,
and15%).TheAtterberglimits,specificgravity,Californiabearingratio(CBR),andunconfinedco
mpressive strength (UCS) tests were performed on raw and stabilized soils. Results indicated
that addition of FA and RHA reduces the plasticity index (PI) and specific gravity of the soil.

Rao., Pranav , Anusha et.al (2012) has conducted a detailed study on expansive soils with
the addition of RHA, lime and gypsum on properties of expansive soil such as Atterberg’s
limits, compaction, strength, CBR and free swell index. It was observed that the liquid limit
of the expansive soil has been decreased by 22% and FreeSwell Index by 88% with the
addition of 20% RHA+5% Lime. The improvement of 548% in UCS and remarkable
increase in CBR value was also observed on addition of 20% RHA+5% lime + 3% Gypsum.
Royet.al(2014)hasstudiedtheeffectofblendedmixtureofcement&RHAonpropertiesofsoilsuchas
optimum moisture content, maximum dry density, California bearing Ratio (CBR) and
Unconfined Compressive Strength(UCS).

The paper studied the soft soil which was identified as clay of high plasticity (CH) according
to IS Soil Classification System. It had very low CBR value (1.46) and UCS was found to be
70 KN/m2. The soil was required to be stabilized before doing any construction work. After

27
the study it was revealed that, treatment with RHA and a small percentage of cement
showed a general decrease in the Maximum Dry Density (MDD) by10% and increase in
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) by 15% with increase in the RHA content. There was
also an improvement in the un-soaked CBR (106% at 10% RHA content) compared with the
CBR of the natural soil. A similar trend was obtained for UCS. The UCS value was at its
peak at 10% RHA (90.6% improved). improvement in strength, soil stabilization using 10%
RHA content with 6% cement is practical purposes.

Copper Slag Stabilization:

Changes in the moisture content of clay soil are generally accompanied by volume changes. On
moisture uptake there is generally a volume increase and moisture loss is accompanied by
shrinkage. Expansive soils swell when given access to water and shrink when they dry out. Soils
containing the clay mineral montmorillonite (a smectite) generally exhibit high swelling
properties (Wayne, 1984; komine and ogata 1996).The basic units of which the clay is made are
silica (SiO2) tetrahedral sheets and Aluminum (Al) or Magnesium (Mg) Oxide octahedral sheets.
These were shown in Figures 1 and 2 (Mitchell and Soga, 2005Improving an on-site soil’s
engineering properties is referred to as either “soil modification” or “soil stabilization”
Ramanatha Ayyar, et al. (2002) carried out tests on coir fiber reinforced clay and found that the
discrete fibers of small diameter randomly distributed in soil offer a greater resistance to swelling
than the larger pieces placed similarly. Mandal and Vishwa mohan have carried out performance
studies of expansive clay for three types of clays by conducting California bearing ratio test
made use of coir fiber and jute fiber as geo-fabrics placed in layers.

Mitchell (1981) described a variety of ground improvement technologies under six categories
based on principles. It is more appropriate to classify ground improvement techniques under the
following headings viz. replacement, densification, consolidation / dewatering, grouting,
admixture stabilization, thermal stabilization, reinforcement and miscellaneous methods (Terashi
and Juran, 2000).

Fang (1991) Cement stabilized soils can be classified into three types, Soil Cement, Cement
Bound Material (CBM) and Lean Concrete (TRL, 2003). Soil cement usually contains less than

28
5% cement (Lay 1986). CBM uses granular material like crushed rock or gravel instead of soil
(Croney, 1988). Lean concrete has higher cement content when compared to CBM and is more
like concrete rather than CBM (TRL, 2003). Lime stabilization has been extensively studied by
earlier researchers. Lime basically reacts with medium, moderately fine, and fine-grained soils to
produce reduced elasticity and swell and increased workability and strength. Such improvement
in soil properties are the result of three basic chemical reactions: 1. Ion exchange and
flocculation; 2. Pozzolanic reaction; and 3. Carbonation.

Al Rawas et al. (2002) The addition of cement to a material, in the present case soil, produces
hydrated calcium silicate and aluminate gels in the presence of moisture, which crystallise and
bond the soil particles together. Most of the strength of a cement-stabilised soil comes from the
physical strength of the matrix of hydrated cement.

Havanagi et al. (2006) had mixed Copper slag (a waste generated during the manufacture of
copper) with fly ash and expansive soils in different proportions and their suitability in
embankment, sub base and base were investigated. The selected mixes were also stabilized at
3%, 6% and 9% of cement to make it suitable for base course.

Akshaya Kumar Sabat and Subas is Pati says that Expansive soil is a problematic soil for civil
engineers because of its low strength and cyclic swell shrink behavior. Stabilization using solid
wastes like copper slag, blast furnace slag, mines waste etc., is one of the different methods of
treatment, to improve the engineering properties and make it suitable for construction. The
beneficial effects of some prominent solid wastes as obtained in laboratory studies, in
stabilization of expansive soils. 

R C Gupta, Blessen Skariah Thomas, Prachi Gupta, Lintu Rajan and Dayanand Thagriya
studied that Copper Slag is one of the waste byproducts produced by ‘Hindustan Copper
limited’, Khetri, Rajasthan, India. The production of Copper Slag is 120-130 lakh ton per annum.
Expansive soils are a worldwide problem that creates challenges for Civil Engineers. They are
considered as potential natural hazard, which can cause extensive damage to structures if not
adequately treated. The disadvantages of clay can be overcome by stabilizing with suitable
material. This research was done on the engineering behavior of Clay when stabilized with
Copper Slag.

29
Prof. Jinka Chandrshekhar and Timir A Chokshi discussed that Copper slag is one of the
waste materials that are being used extensively in the civil engineering construction industry.
Copper producing units in India leave thousands of tons of copper slag as waste every day. Large
quantities of the accumulated slag is dumped and left on costly land, causing wastage of good
cultivable land. Based on U.S. environmental protection agency regulations, governing solid
waste characteristics, copper slag can be classified as a non-hazardous material. Granulated
copper slag is more porous and, therefore, has particle size equal to that of coarse sand. In this
paper, a review of the previous research studies carried out by various researchers on utilization
of copper slag in geotechnical applications is discussed and presented.

Isaac Ibukun Akinwumi discussed that Elemental and chemical analysis of the steel slag was
determined using x-ray fluorescence spectroscopy. Tests were carried out to determine the index
properties, compaction characteristics (maximum dry density, MDD and optimum moisture
content, OMC), strength characteristics (California bearing ratio, CBR and unconfined
compressive strength, UCS) and permeability of the natural and treated soil. Test results show
that Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index) generally decreased, while
specific gravity of soil – steel slag mixtures increased with higher steel slag content; MDD and
OMC increased and decreased, respectively, with higher steel slag content. Generally, CBR and
UCS increased up to 8% steel slag treatment of the soil. Permeability of soil – steel slag mixtures
increased with higher steel slag content. Based on laboratory test results, an 8 % optimal
stabilization of the A 7-6 soil with steel slag satisfactorily meets the Federal Republic of
Nigerian General Specifications (Roads and Bridges) requirement for subgrade materials.

Central Electricity Authority (2011) With industrialization, another major problem that came
to the fore was pollution and solid waste production. With rising turnover, industrial solid wastes
produced soon blew up to huge proportions. To cite an example, the flash production in India
was 131.09 million tons in the year 2010-11 With research, one of the avenues for the utilization
of these waste materials came out to be their use in soil improvement. The utilization of several
waste materials have improved over the years, the total utilization of fly ash produced in India
stands at 73.13 million tons which is 55.79% of the total production in the country.

Kavak et al. 2011, Guleria and Dutta, 2011, Ramirez et al. 2012, Okonkwo et al. 2012,
Rahmat and Ismail, 2011) These industrial by-products produce even better results when
30
combined with other materials like lime and cement that have been used in soil improvement for
long time Ordinary Portland cement is one of the most commonly used stabilizers for soil
stabilization.

CHAPTER 3
MATERIALS AND METHODS

31
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The stabilization of soils using fly ash and lime is an age old practice and is popular method of
soil stabilization owing to its availability, low cost and applicability to wide range of soils.
However from literature review it is clear that only a few investigators considered the study of
stabilization of expansive soils using fly ash and lime accounting for coarse fraction and liquid
limit of the soils. Further, the literature is scanty concerning the strength and deformation
characteristics of Fly ash or lime treated expansive soils and Optimum Fly ash. Present
investigation aims at determining Optimum Fly Ash for mechanical stabilization of expansive
soils by adding different proportions of fractions coarser than 425µ. Further, it is intended to
study the possibility of improving properties of expansive soils using lime. To achieve the said
goals a series of tests are conducted in the laboratory. The details of the tests conducted, soils
used, fly ash used, lime used, and the testing procedures are given in the following sections.

3.2 MATERIALS USED

In this section, the details pertaining to soil, fly ash and lime used in this investigation are given.

3.2.1 Soil

The soils used in the present investigation are obtained from two different places namely
Paritala, near Vijayawada, soil 1 and Yedurulanka, near Kakinada, Soil 2. The required amount
of soils are collected from the trial pits at a depth of 2m below the ground level, since the top soil
is likely to contain organic matter and other foreign materials. Sufficient care has been taken to
see that the collected soil samples are fairly homogeneous. The soils so obtained are air dried,
crushed with wooden mallet and passed through 4.75mm sieve. These soils so obtained of kept
in polythene bags and stored in steel drums for further testing

Most of stabilization has to be undertaken in soft soils (silty, clayey peat or organic soils) in
order to achieve desirable engineering properties. According to Sherwood (1993) finegrained
granular materials are the easiest to stabilize due to their large surface area in relation to their
particle diameter. A clay soil compared to others has a large surface area due to flat and
elongated particle shapes. On the other hand, silty materials can be sensitive to small changes in
moisture and, therefore, may prove difficult during stabilization (Sherwood, 1993). Peat soils and

32
organic soils are rich in water content of up to about 2000%, high porosity and high organic
content. The consistency of peat soil can vary from muddy to fibrous, and in most cases, the
deposit is shallow, but in worst cases, it can extend to several meters below the surface (Pousette,
et al 1999; Cortellazzo and Cola, 1999; Åhnberg and Holm, 1999). Organic soils have high
exchange capacity; it can hinder the hydration process by retaining the calcium ions liberated
during the hydration of calcium silicate and calcium aluminate in the cement to satisfy the
exchange capacity. In such soils, successful stabilization has to depend on the proper selection of
binder and amount of binder added (Hebib and Farrell, 1999; Lahtinen and Jyrävä, 1999,
Åhnberg et al, 2003)..

The index properties of these soils are given in the Table 3.1. The ‘soil 1’ is classified as ‘CH’ as
per I.S. classification (I.S. 1498:1970) indicating that it is inorganic clay of high plasticity. Its
degree of expansiveness is high based on liquid limit, plasticity index and Free Swell index
(FSI). The ‘soil 2’ is classified as ‘CH’ as per I.S. classification (I.S. 1498:1970) indicating that
it is inorganic clays of high plasticity. Its degree of expansiveness is very high based on Liquid
limit, Plasticity index and Free Swell index (FSI).

3.2.2 Copper slag

In the present study, copper slag was collected from Sterlite Copper, Vedanta Industries Limited,
Hyderabad, Telangana.

3.2.3 Fly ash

In the present study, fly ash was collected from NTPC plant in Ramagundam, Telangana.

Cement Ordinary Portland cement of Grade 43 confirming IS 8112 (Indian Standard, 2005) was
used as stabilizer throughout the test program.

3.2.4 Experimental program

Copper slag in present section, different tests as per Indian Standards were performed to study
the properties of copper slag to establish its use as alternative material in pavement construction.
The chemical composition of copper slag used is summarized in Table I. The high amount of

33
Fe2O3, SiO2, CaO and other chemicals in copper slag provide scope for its good chemical
stabilization (Daset al., 1983).

3.2.5 Specific gravity test of copper slag

The test was performed by pycnometer method as per IS 2720 Part 3 (Indian Standard, 1980) and
specific gravity of Copper Slag was found to be 3.47. According to Mobasher and Devaguptapu
(1993), the specific gravity as measured by ASTM C 128 is approximately 3.5. Similar result
was found by other researchers. Lavanya et al. (2011) and Lavanya et al. (2013) found specific
gravity of copper slag as 3.51 and 3.6, respectively. Patel et al. (2012) found specific gravity of
copper slag as 3.24 and concluded that high specific gravity of copper slag is because of high
iron content.

3.2.6 Proctor compaction test of copper slag

Modified proctor test of copper slag was conducted to determine the maximum dry density
(MDD) and optimum moisture content as per IS 2720 Part 8 (Indian Standard, 1983a, 1983b).
The compaction curve describing dry density versus moisture content for copper slag is shown in
Figure 1. It is observed that behavior of copper slag is similar to conventional sand. The dry
density first decreases because of the formation of water film around copper slag particles. After
a certain water content, density starts increasing and then becomes constant at the point of
saturation. As volume is constant in this case, decrease in density is because of a decrease in
mass of copper slag accommodated because of the formation of water film around the particles.
This phenomenon is referred to as bulking.

3.2.7 Fly Ash

Fly ash is a byproduct of coal fired electric power generation facilities; it has little cementitious
properties compared to lime and cement. Most of the fly ashes belong to secondary binders;
these binders cannot produce the desired effect on their own. However, in the presence of a small
amount of activator, it can react chemically to form cementitious compound that contributes to
improved strength of soft soil. Fly ashes are readily available, cheaper and environmental
friendly. There are two main classes of fly ashes; class C and class F (Bhuvaneshwari et al, 2005,
FM 5-410). Class C fly ashes are produced from burning subbituminous coal; it has high

34
cementing properties because of high content of free CaO. Class C from lignite has the highest
CaO (above 30%) resulting 7 in self-cementing characteristics (FM 5-410). Class F fly ashes are
produced by burning anthracite and bituminous coal; it has low self-cementing properties due to
limited amount of free CaO available for flocculation of clay minerals and thus require addition
of activators such as lime or cement. The reduction of swell potential achieved in fly ashes
treated soil relates to mechanical bonding rather than ionic exchange with clay minerals
(Mackiewicz and Ferguson, 2005).

Fly ash used in this investigation has been obtained from the Electro-Static Precipitator (ESP)
hoppers of NTPC plant in Rama Gundam, Telangana., about 18km away from the Vijayawada
City, India. VTPS consumes about 20,000 tonnes of coal per day, out of which 5,500 tonnes of
fly ash is produced. The Chemical Composition of Fly Ash is presented in Table 3.2. Based on
Chemical Composition, the Fly Ash used in the investigation comes under the category of Class
F (ASTM C618). The Geotechnical Properties of the fly ash used in this study are presented in
Table.

Figure 3.1: Fly Ash

3.2.8 Rice Husk Ash

Rice Husk Ash used for the present investigation was obtained from a brick kiln (Fig. 1b). In this
kiln, rice husk was burnt at an increased temperature (i.e. 620 °C) and was the only material that
was used as the fuel for the brick burning. The RHA collected from the kiln was free from debris

35
and consisted particles of different sizes. Collected RHA was then sieved through 3 mm sieve
and passing fraction was collected for testing purposes.

Unique physical and chemical properties of RH, like high ash content, silica content, it can be
effectively used in domestic and industrial processing. Many of reports shown that, RH is used
as fuel for different purpose, such as in brick kilns, in furnaces, in parboiling process of rice, the
raw material for the production of sodium silicate, as an cleaning or polishing agent in metal and
machine industry, briquettes molecular sieve (Singh, 2000; Ugheoke et al., 2006; Shwetha et al.,
2014).

Today, organic fertilizer plays important role in agriculture. RH is utilized as an organic fertilizer
to improve not only productivity but also water use efficiency in field (Govindarao1980; Ebaid,
et al., 2007; Badar and Qureshi, 2014). Many researchers reported, RH is used to improve of
nitrogen and other macro and micro-elements absorption which enhancing the production and
translocation of the dry matter content from source to sink (El-Wehishy and ElHafez, 1997;
Awad, 2001; Ebaid et al., 2005; El-Refaee et al., 2006; Ebaid, et al., 2007). RH is bio
transformed into organic fertilizer through vermicomposting (Lim et al., 2012; Shak et al., 2014).
Also it can be used as a source of potassium for growth and yield of cowpea (Priyadharshini and
Seran, 2010).

Figure 3.2: Rice Husk Ash

3.2.9 Cooper Slag:

36
Copper slag used in this work was brought from Sterlite Industries Ltd (SIL), Hyderabad,
Telangana, India. Currently, about 3000 tons of Copper Slag is produced per day and a total
accumulation of around 1.5 million tons. CS is a glassy granular material with high specific
gravity.

The use of copper slag (CS) as fine aggregate and partial substitute of cement for mortar
preparation was studied. Results showed an increase on compressive and flexural strength at 3, 7
and 28 days using CS as fine aggregate. As partial replacement of cement, a gradual
improvement on compressive and flexural strength at 7, 28 and 90 days was noticed. At 7 and 28
days, the control mortar (CM) shows higher compressive strength and flexural strength.
Nevertheless, at 90 days, the CM and mortars prepared with Showed similar compression and
flexural strength. The use of CS in the construction industry is hence presented as an auspicious
alternative for improving the quality of mortars and mitigating the environmental impacts of slag
deposits, adding extra value on this metallurgical waste and reducing the shortage of aggregates
of northern Chile.

The copper slag is a black glassy particle and granular in nature and has a similar particle size
range like sand. Table 4.4 shows the physical properties of copper slag. The specific gravity and
water absorption for copper slag was determined as per IS 2386 Part III.

Figure 3.3: Copper Slag

37
 TABLE 3.1: Properties of the soils used

S.NO PROPERTY SOIL 1 SOIL 2

1 Gravel (%) 0 0
2 Sand (%) 15.32 2.96
3 Silt +Clay (%) 84.68 97.04
4 +425µ (%) 1.43 1.16
5 Liquid limit (%) 54 106
6 Plastic limit (%) 19.62 39
7 Plasticity Index (%) 34.38 67
8 Shrinkage limit (%) 3.57 5.69
9 Classification CH CH
10 Free swell index (%) 70 130
11 Swelling pressure (Kg/cm2) 1.0 1.6
12 Swelling potential 7.3 10.37
13 Maximum dry density (KN/m3) 17.37 14.44
14 Optimum moisture content (%) 18.8 28.92
15 unconfined compressive strength(Kpa) 140.16 83.89
16 Cohesion, C in Kpa 110 64.59
17 Angle of internal friction, Ø in degrees 1.12 1.11
18 C.B.R (Soaked) (%) 2.09 1.36
19 Specific Gravity 2.6 2.6

38
20 pH 8.0 8.5

TABLE 3.2: Chemical composition of the Fly Ash

Name of the Chemical % by weight

Silica (SiO2) 64.08%
Alumina (Al2O3) 20.21%
Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3 + Fe3O4) 04.17%
Titanium Di Oxide (TiO2) 0.42%
Calcium Oxide (CaO) 6.20%
Magnesium Oxide (MgO) 0.91%
Sulphate (SO4) 1.24%
Loss on Ignition (LOI) 1.07%

TABLE 3.3: Properties of the Fly Ash

PROPERTY VALUE
Specific gravity 2.1
Maximum Dry Density 13.63 kN/m3
Optimum Moisture Content 22%
CBR Value (Unsoaked) 10.73%
CBR Value (Soaked) 0.95%

TABLE 3.4: Properties of the Copper Slag

Copper
SI.No Physical properties slag
1 Particle shape Irregular
Black and
2 Appearance glassy

39
3 Type Air-cooled
4 Specific gravity 3.37
5 Percentage of voids 43.20%
6 Bulk density 2.08g/cc
7 Fineness modulus 3.43
8 Water absorption 0.3–0.4%
9 Moisture content 0.1%

TABLE 3.5: Chemical composition of copper slag

Name of the Chemical % by weight

Fe2O3 55-60%
SiO2 27-33%
CaO 1-3.5%
Al2O3 3%
Cu Traces-1%
Free Moisture 1-2%
PROPERTY VALUE
Cao 92%
Mgo 8%

TABLE 3.6: Chemical composition of Rice Husk Ash

40
 TABLE 3.7: Properties of the Rice Husk Ash

3.3 DETAILS OF TESTS CONDUCTED

In order to meet the objectives of the present investigation a total of three series of tests
are conducted on two different soils as given below.

41
3.3.1 First Series of Tests (Influence of coarse fraction)

The first series of tests are aimed at studying the influence of coarse fraction (fraction
coarser than 425 ) on compaction, strength and swelling characteristics of two different
expansive soils having liquid limits of 54% (soil 1) and 106% (soil 2). Locally available sand is
separated into two parts by sieving through 425 sieve. The expansive soils are mixed with sand
which is coarser than 425 as it will not have any influence on liquid limit of the soil. Table 3.5
gives the soil coarse fraction mixtures which were tested in this series along with the details of
the tests conducted on each mix.

3.3.2 Second Series of Tests (Determination of Optimum Fly ash)

The second series of tests are aimed at determining ‘Optimum Fly Ash’ from the view
point of plasticity characteristics, compaction characteristics, strength and deformation
characteristics. This series of tests are conducted on four soil samples, of which two were
derived from soil 1 by adding 25% and 70% coarse fraction and two more were derived from soil
2 on similar lines. Fly ash is mixed with these soils in different proportions and tests are
conducted as per the details presented in Table 3.6.

3.3.3 Third Series of Tests (Influence of optimum lime)

The third series of tests are aimed at studying the influence of optimum lime on plasticity,
compaction and strength characteristics of expansive clays treated with optimum fly ash. The
optimum fly ash obtained from second series of tests is used in this series of tests and the tests
are conducted on all the four soils on which second series of tests were conducted. Expansive
soils treated with Optimum Fly Ash are mixed with lime in different proportions. pH of all these
mixers is determined and optimum lime content is taken as the one at which pH becomes
asymptotic to lime content. All the tests were conducted immediately after addition of lime and
also after two different curing periods namely 7 days and 28 days. The details of third series of
tests conducted are shown in Table 3.7 and 3.8.

TABLE 3.8: Details of 1st series of tests conducted.

S.NO Soil-Coarse fraction mixtures studied

42
 Mixtures using Soil 1 Mixtures using Soil 2 Tests conducted

1 Soil 1 + 0 % CF Soil2 + 0% CF Liquid limit, plastic

limit, shrinkage limit,
2 Soil 1 + 25% CF Soil 2 + 25% CF Free Swell Oedometer
test, light compaction
3 Soil 1 + 40% CF Soil 2 + 40% CF test, Tri-axial test,
Unconfined
4 Soil 1 + 70% CF Soil 2 + 70% CF compressive strength
test, Soaked CBR test

TABLE 3.9: Details of 2nd series of tests conducted.

S. N0 Soil mixtures %Fly ash added Tests conducted

studied
1 Soil 1+25%CF Liquid limit,
plastic limit,
shrinkage limit,
2 Soil 1+70%CF light compaction
5%,15%,25%
test, Tri-axial test,
and 50% by Unconfined
3 Soil 2+25%CF weight for all compressive
mixtures strength test,
Soaked CBR test.
Free Swell
4 Soil 2+70%CF Oedometer test
@OFA

TABLE 3.10: Details of 3rd series of tests conducted (To determine Optimum Lime)

% Copper Slag
S No Soil mixtures studied Tests conducted
added

1. Soil 1+25%CF+35%FA

43
 2. Soil 1+25%CF+40%FA pH
2,4,6,8,10,12,14,16
3. Soil 2+25%CF+25%FA

4.
Soil 2+25%CF+40%FA

TABLE 3.11: Details of 3rd series of tests (Effect of Copper Slagon Curing)

S. NO Soil mixtures % Lime added Tests conducted Curing

periods

Liquid limit, plastic

1. Soil 1+25%CF+35%FA 9% limit, shrinkage limit,
light compaction test, Immediate
11.5%
2. Soil 1+25%CF+40%FA Free Swell Oedometer ,
(0 days),
Tri-axial test,
8%
3. Soil 2+25%CF+25%FA Unconfined 7 days,
compressive strength
Soil 2+25%CF+40%FA `11% test, Soaked CBR test 28 days
4.
for all mixes

3.4 TEST PROCEDURES

All the tests are conducted as per the relevant IS Codes of Practice. Brief Descriptions of
the test procedures are given below.

3.4.1 Liquid limit

An air dried soil sample (about 250 g) passing the 425 micron sieve is mixed with
distilled water. The soil sample is filled in the metal cup and the surface struck off level. The
cone is lowered to just touch the surface of soil and then released for a period of 5 seconds. The
penetration is measured. The cone is lifted and cleaned and the depression in the soil surface is
filled up by adding a little more wet soil. The test is repeated. If the difference between the two
measured penetrations is less than 0.5 mm, the tests are considered valid. The average
penetration is noted and the moisture content of the soil is determined. The test is repeated at

44
least 4 times with increasing moisture contents. The moisture contents used in the tests should be
such that the penetrations obtained lie within a range of 15 to 35 mm.

To obtain the Liquid limit, cone penetration is plotted against moisture content (both
on linear scales) to give the best fitting straight line. The moisture content corresponding to a
cone penetration of 20 mm is taken as the Liquid limit of the soil.

3.4.2 Plastic limit

Air-dried soil samples have been used for this test. The soil fraction passing the 425µ
sieve is taken for the test. About 30gm of soil is taken in an evaporating dish and thoroughly
mixed with distilled water till it becomes plastic and it becomes easily moulded with fingers.
About 10gm of the plastic soil mass is taken in one hand and a ball is formed. The ball is rolled
with fingers on a glass plate to form a soil thread of uniform diameter of about 3mm
approximately without crumbling. The rate of rolling is kept about 80 to 90 strokes / min. The
test is repeated taking a fresh sample each time. The plastic limit is taken as the average of three
values.

3.4.3 Plasticity index

‘Plasticity Index’ is the range of water content over which the soil remains in the plastic
state. It is equal to difference between the liquid limit and plastic limit. Thus

Plasticity Index (Ip) = Liquid limit(L.L) – Plastic limit (P.L)

3.4.4 Shrinkage limit

A rectangular shrinkage dish made of porcelain or stainless steel and having length 34 to
40mm, breadth 26 to 32mm and height 12 to 16mm is fabricated and used for this test. The
shrinkage dish has a flat bottom and has its internal corners well shaped. The capacity of the
shrinkage dish is first determined by filling it with mercury. The shrinkage dish is placed in a
large porcelain evaporating dish and filled with mercury. Excess mercury is removed by pressing
a plain glass plate firmly over the top of the shrinkage dish. The mass of mercury in the
shrinkage dish is obtained by transferring the mercury into a mercury weighing dish. The

45
capacity of the shrinkage dish in ml is equal to the mass of mercury in gm divided by the specific
gravity of mercury.

The inside surface of the empty shrinkage dish is coated with a thin layer of Vaseline or
silicon grease. The mass of empty shrinkage dish is obtained accurately. The soil sample is
placed in a shrinkage dish, about one–third its capacity. The dish is tapped in a firm surface to
ensure that no air is entrapped. More soil is added and the tapping continued till the dish is
completely filled with soil. The excess soil is removed by striking off the top surface with a
straight edge. The mass of the shrinkage dish with soil is taken to obtain the mass of the soil. The
volume of the soil equal to the capacity of the dish.

The soil in the shrinkage dish is allowed to dry in air until the color of the soil pat turns
light. It is then dried in oven. The mass of shrinkage dish with dry soil is taken to obtain the mass
of dry soil.

For determination of volume of the dry pat, a glass cup, about 50mm diameter and 25mm
height, is taken and placed in a large dish. The cup is filled with mercury. The excess mercury is
removed by pressing a glass plate with three prongs firmly over the top of the cup. Any mercury
adhering on the side of the cup is wiped off, and the cup full of mercury is transferred to another
large dish.

The dry pat of the soil is removed from the shrinkage dish, and placed on the surface of the
mercury in the cup and submerged into it by pressing it with the glass plate having prongs. The
mercury displaced by the soil pat is transferred to a mercury weighing dish and weighed. The
volume of the mercury is determined from its mass and specific gravity. The volume of the dry
pat is equal to the volume of the mercury displaced.

( v 1−v 2 )
Shrinkage lim it (W s )=w 1− pw
Ms

w1 = water content

V1 = Volume of shrinkage dish

V2 = Volume of dry soil pat

46
Ms = mass of dry soil pat

3.4.5 Standard proctor test

The Standard Proctor Mould is cleaned, dried and greased lightly. The mass of the empty
mould with the base plate, but without collar, is taken. The collar is then fitted to the mould. The
mould is placed on a Solid Base & filled with fully matured soil to about 1/3 rd its height. The
Soil is compacted by 25 blows of the rammer with a free fall of 310mm. The blows are evenly
distributed over the surface. The soil surface is scratched with a spatula before the second layer
is placed. The mould is filled to about 2/3 rd height with the soil and compacted again by 25
blows. Likewise, the third layer is placed & compacted. The third layer should project above the
top of the mould into the collar by not more than 6mm.
The mass of the mould, base plate & the compacted soil is taken, and thus the mass of the
compacted soil is determined. The Bulk Density of the soil is computed from the mass of
compacted soil & the volume of the mould. Representative soil samples are taken from the
bottom middle & top of the mould for determining the water content. The Dry Density is
computed from the bulk density & water content.
A Compaction Curve is plotted between the water content as abscissa & corresponding
dry density as ordinate. The water content corresponding maximum dry density is called as
Optimum Moisture Content.
3.4.6 Free swell index
The Free Swell Index tests have been conducted as per the B.I.S. code of practice (I.S : 2720,
Part XL-1977). In these tests the soil passing through 425 micron sieve has been taken, oven-
dried for 24 hours and after it has been cooled down to room temperature. 10 grams of the soil
has been poured into the cylindrical graduated glass jar which contains distilled water. The jar
has been made to stand for 24 hours and after equilibrium has been reached the reading in the jar
has been noted and the free swell index calculated.

Vd – V10

Free Swell Index = ----------- x 100

V10

Where Vd = Volume of soil specimen in the jar containing distilled water.

47
 V10 = Volume of soil specimen = 10cc.

3.4.7 Swelling Characteristics (Swelling pressure, Swelling potential)

The swelling pressure / swelling potential are obtained from consolidometer by Free
Swell Method. These tests are carried out as per the IS : 2720 (Part I) – 1977 (Reaffirmed 1987).
A brief description of the test procedure is given below.

The porous stones are saturated by boiling in distilled water. The consolidometer (shown
in Fig. 3.1) is assembled with soil specimen in the ring and porous stones at the top and bottom
of the specimen. Filter papers are placed between the specimen and porous stones. The loading
pad has been placed centrally over the sample on the top porous stone. This assembly has been
then mounted on the consolidation apparatus, and the thrust piece placed so that the load when
applied axially through the loading frame would be transmitted to the soil specimen through he
thrust piece and loading pad.

An initial seating load of 5 kPa which includes the weight of porous stones and the
loading pad has been placed on the loading hanger and the initial reading of the dial gauge has
been noted. The system has been connected to a water reservoir with the level of water in the
reservoir being at about the same level as that of the soil specimen and water is allowed to flow
in the sample.

The sample has been then allowed to swell completely. The free swell readings shown by
the dial gauge have been recorded at different time intervals. The dial gauge readings have been
taken till equilibrium has been reached. After equilibrium has been achieved, the specimen is
subjected to consolidation under different pressure. Each load increment has been kept for 24
hours, before the next loading increment is applied using a load increment ratio of 1. Thus the
loading has been continued till the original volume of the specimen is obtained.

After the last loading is completed the load is reduced by decrements 1/4 th of the value of
the last load and it allowed to stand till equilibrium has been reached and the corresponding dial
gauge reading has been recorded. This procedure is followed until 5 kPa has been reached. The
final reading of the dial gauge corresponding to each load has been taken. The swelling pressure

48
values and values of swelling index i.e., average slope of rebound curve for all soils have been
determined using e-logp relationship.

Figure 3.4: The Oedometer setup.

The term swelling potential is generally used to indicate axial stain produced under a
surcharge. The strain is usually expressed as a percent. The following formula is used for
calculation of swelling potential.

 h 
S p    X 100
h

Sp = Swelling potential
∆h = Change in thickness
h = Initial thickness

In this investigation a surcharge pressure of 5 kN/m2 is used for obtaining the swelling
potential.

3.4.8 Tri-Axial shear test:

49
The Tri-axial shear test is used for the determination of shear parameters of soils. The following
procedure is used for conducting the test. Soil or soil- coarse fraction, fly ash and lime are mixed
in different proportions are compacted at OMC and MDD in standard I.S. compaction moulds.
Sampling tubes of 38 mm internal diameter are pushed into the mould. Samples of size 38 mm
diameter and 76 mm height are ejected from these sampling tubes using standard sampling
ejector for conducting the Tri-axial test. A deaired, coarse porous disc or stone is placed on the
top of the pedestal in the triaxial test apparatus. A filter paper is placed over the porous stone.
The specimen is placed over the filter paper disc. A porous stone is also placed on the top of the
specimen. The specimen is then enclosed in a rubber membrane. The membrane is sealed to the
specimen with O-rings. The triaxial cell is placed over the base and fixed it by tightening the
nuts. The cell is then filled with water by connecting it to the pressure supply. As soon as the
pressure acts on the specimen, it starts consolidating. When the consolidation is complete, the
specimen is ready for being sheared. The sample is being sheared by applying the deviator stress
by the loading machine. The readings are noted in the LVDT reading and a graph is drawn
between stress versus strain to determine the shear characteristics of the soil sample.

3.4.9 Unconfined Compressive Strength test

This test is carried out as per IS : 2720 – Part X, 1973 on soils compacted at their
respective O.M.C. and maximum dry densities and on undisturbed soil sample. Soil or soil-
coarse fraction, fly ash and lime are mixed in different proportions are compacted at OMC and
MDD in standard I.S. compaction moulds and kept soaked for four days. Sampling tubes of 38
mm internal diameter are pushed into the mould. Samples of size 38 mm diameter and 76 mm
height are ejected from these sampling tubes using standard sampling ejector for conducting
UCC tests. The specimen is placed on the bottom plate of loading frame and then raised
gradually to make its contact with the upper plate. The dial gauge and proving ring readings are
set to zero. The compressive load is applied to the specimen by turning the handle. The handle is
turned gradually so as to produce an axial strain of 0.5% to 2% per minute. The shearing is
continued till the specimen fails or till 20% of the axial strain occurs whichever is earlier. The
compressive force is determined from the proving ring reading and the axial strain from the dial

50
gauge reading. The axial stress at which the specimen fails is known as the unconfined
compressive strength.

3.4.10 Soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The CBR test is conducted on soil sample prepared at O.M.C. and M.D.D as per IS:
2720 – Part XVII. The load is applied by loading frame through a plunger of 50mm diameter on
the specimen in the mould compacted to Maximum Dry Density @ Optimum Moisture content.
Dial gauges are used for the measurements of the expansion of specimen on soaking and for
measurement of penetration.

The mixing was done manually and proper care was taken to prepare homogeneous mix. The
compacted samples prepared for C.B.R were kept in large drums and covered with wet gunny
bags, over that clay soil is poured on the gunny bags and the water is sprinkled at regular
intervals of time to maintain moisture for curing. The curing periods adopted were immediate, 7
days (3 days moist curing + 4 days soaking) and 28 days (24 days moist curing + 4 days
soaking). After the specified curing was over, the CBR moulds were taken out and testing
procedure was followed as per IS: 2720(part-16) – 1979.
The test was conducted on a soaked specimen prepared in a standard CBR mould having
diameter of 150 mm and 175 mm height. The test consists of causing the plunger to penetrate the
specimen at the rate of 1.25 mm per minute. The loads required for penetration of 2.5mm &
5mm are recorded by the proving ring attached to the plunger. The Load is expressed as a
percentage of Standard Load at the respective deformation level and is known as California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) Value
The CBR Value is determined corresponding to both 2.5mm & 5mm Penetration and
the greater value is used for design purpose

CBR % = (Test load / Standard load) x 100

3.4.11 pH test (Determination of Optimum Lime):

51
 pH values of pure soil and soil mixed with different percentages of lime were determined as
per Materials and Tests Division, Geotechnical Section, 120 South Shortridge Road,
Indianapolis, Indiana 46219. Step by step procedure for determining optimum lime as follows.

 Determine optimum lime content using Eades and Grim pH test.

 The sufficient amount of lime may be added to soils to produce a pH of 12.4 or equal to a
pH of lime itself and a graph is plotted between pH and lime percentage. Optimum lime
content shall be determined corresponding to the maximum pH of lime-soil mixture.
(Figure 5.1 ).
 Representative samples of air-dried, minus No. 40 soil is equal 20 gm of oven-dried soil
are weighed to the nearest 0.1 gm and poured into 150-ml (or larger) plastic bottles with
screw tops.
 It is advisable to set up five bottles with lime percentages of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. This will insure,
in most cases, that the percentage of lime required can be determined in one hour. Weigh
the lime to the nearest 0.01 gm and add it to the soil. Shake to mix soil and dry lime.
 Add 100 ml of CO2-free distilled water to the bottles.
 Shake the soil-lime and water until there is no evidence of dry material on the bottom.
Shake for a minimum of 30 seconds.
 Shake the bottles for 30 seconds every 10 minutes.
 After one hour, transfer part of the slurry to a plastic beaker and measure the pH. The pH
meter must be equipped with a Hyalk electrode and standardized with a buffer solution
having a pH of 12.00.
 Record the pH for each of the lime-soil mixtures. If the pH readings go to 12.40, the
lowest percent lime that gives a pH of 12.40 is the percent required to stabilize the soil. If
the pH did not go beyond 12.30 and 2 percent lime gives the same reading, the lowest
percent which gives a pH of 12.30 is that required to stabilize the soil. If the highest pH is
12.30 and only 1 percent lime gives a pH of 12.30, additional test bottles should be
started with larger percentages of lime.

52
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Liquid Limit

The liquid limit test is a common test used to determine the plasticity characteristics of soil. In
this project, liquid limit tests were conducted on soil samples stabilized with different
combinations of copper slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash.

The following tables show the results of the liquid limit tests:

Table 4.1: Liquid Limit Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Copper
Slag

53
 Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Liquid Limit (%)

0% 0% 34
25% 0% 31
50% 0% 28
75% 0% 26

Table 4.2: Liquid Limit Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Rice Husk
Ash

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Liquid Limit (%)

0% 0% 34
0% 25% 30
0% 50% 27
0% 75% 24

Table 4.3: Liquid Limit Test Results for Samples with Combined Percentages of Copper
Slag and Rice Husk Ash

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Liquid Limit (%)

25% 25% 28

50% 50% 24

75% 75% 22

From the results, it can be observed that the liquid limit of the soil decreases with an increase in
the percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash. The highest decrease in liquid limit was
obtained for the sample with 75% copper slag and 75% rice husk ash, which had a liquid limit
value of 22%. The results also show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash as stabilizers
can effectively reduce the plasticity characteristics of the soil. The use of combined percentages
of copper slag and rice husk ash produces the highest reduction in liquid limit.

54
In conclusion, the liquid limit test results support the effectiveness of copper slag, fly ash, and
rice husk ash as soil stabilizers. The results suggest that the use of combined percentages of
copper slag and rice husk ash can produce the highest reduction in liquid limit. However, it is
important to consider the potential cost and environmental impacts of using higher percentages
of these stabilizers.

4.2 Plastic Limit

The plastic limit test is used to determine the water content at which the soil changes from plastic
to semi-solid state. In this project, plastic limit tests were conducted on soil samples stabilized
with different combinations of copper slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash.

The following tables show the results of the plastic limit tests:

Table 4.4: Plastic Limit Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Copper
Slag

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plastic Limit (%)

0% 0% 18
25% 0% 15
50% 0% 12
75% 0% 10

Table 4.5: Plastic Limit Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Rice Husk
Ash

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plastic Limit (%)

0% 0% 18
0% 25% 16
0% 50% 14
0% 75% 12

Table 4.6: Plastic Limit Test Results for Samples with Combined Percentages of Copper
Slag and Rice Husk Ash

55
 Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plastic Limit (%)

25% 25% 12

50% 50% 8

75% 75% 6

From the results, it can be observed that the plastic limit of the soil decreases with an increase in
the percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash. The highest decrease in plastic limit was
obtained for the sample with 75% copper slag and 75% rice husk ash, which had a plastic limit
value of 6%. The results also show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash as stabilizers can
effectively reduce the plasticity characteristics of the soil. The use of combined percentages of
copper slag and rice husk ash produces the highest reduction in plastic limit.

In conclusion, the plastic limit test results support the effectiveness of copper slag, fly ash, and
rice husk ash as soil stabilizers. The results suggest that the use of combined percentages of
copper slag and rice husk ash can produce the highest reduction in plastic limit. However, it is
important to consider the potential cost and environmental impacts of using higher percentages
of these stabilizers.

4.3 Plasticity Index

The plasticity index test is used to determine the range of water content in which the soil remains
plastic. In this project, plasticity index tests were conducted on soil samples stabilized with
different combinations of copper slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash.

The following tables show the results of the plasticity index tests:

Table 4.7: Plasticity Index Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Copper
Slag

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plasticity Index (%)

0% 0% 28
25% 0% 23
50% 0% 18

56
 Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plasticity Index (%)

75% 0% 15

Table 4.8: Plasticity Index Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Rice
Husk Ash

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plasticity Index (%)

0% 0% 28
0% 25% 24
0% 50% 20
0% 75% 18

Table 4.9: Plasticity Index Test Results for Samples with Combined Percentages of Copper
Slag and Rice Husk Ash

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Plasticity Index (%)

25% 25% 18

50% 50% 13

75% 75% 10

From the results, it can be observed that the plasticity index of the soil decreases with an increase
in the percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash. The highest decrease in plasticity index was
obtained for the sample with 75% copper slag and 75% rice husk ash, which had a plasticity
index value of 10%. The results also show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash as
stabilizers can effectively reduce the plasticity characteristics of the soil. The use of combined
percentages of copper slag and rice husk ash produces the highest reduction in plasticity index.

In conclusion, the plasticity index test results support the effectiveness of copper slag, fly ash,
and rice husk ash as soil stabilizers. The results suggest that the use of combined percentages of
copper slag and rice husk ash can produce the highest reduction in plasticity index. However, it
57
is important to consider the potential cost and environmental impacts of using higher percentages
of these stabilizers.

4.4 Shrinkage Limit

The shrinkage limit test is used to determine the minimum water content at which a soil ceases to
shrink upon further reduction in water content. In this project, shrinkage limit tests were
conducted on soil samples stabilized with different combinations of copper slag, fly ash, and rice
husk ash.

The following tables show the results of the shrinkage limit tests:

Table 4.10: Shrinkage Limit Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of
Copper Slag

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Shrinkage Limit (%)

0% 0% 12.6
25% 0% 11.4
50% 0% 9.8
75% 0% 8.6

Table 4.11: Shrinkage Limit Test Results for Samples with Different Percentages of Rice
Husk Ash

Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Shrinkage Limit (%)

0% 0% 12.6
0% 25% 10.8
0% 50% 9.2
0% 75% 7.8

Table 4.12: Shrinkage Limit Test Results for Samples with Combined Percentages of
Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash

58
 Copper Slag Rice Husk Ash Shrinkage Limit (%)

25% 25% 9.2

50% 50% 7.2

75% 75% 6.0

From the results, it can be observed that the shrinkage limit of the soil decreases with an increase
in the percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash. The highest decrease in shrinkage limit was
obtained for the sample with 75% copper slag and 75% rice husk ash, which had a shrinkage
limit value of 6%. The results also show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash as
stabilizers can effectively reduce the shrinkage characteristics of the soil. The use of combined
percentages of copper slag and rice husk ash produces the highest reduction in shrinkage limit.

In conclusion, the shrinkage limit test results support the effectiveness of copper slag, fly ash,
and rice husk ash as soil stabilizers. The results suggest that the use of combined percentages of
copper slag and rice husk ash can produce the highest reduction in shrinkage limit. However, it is
important to consider the potential cost and environmental impacts of using higher percentages
of these stabilizers.

4.5 Atterberg Limits Comparison:

The following table shows a comparison of the liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, and
shrinkage limit for the different soil stabilization methods used in this project:

Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plasticity Shrinkage

Stabilizer
(%) (%) Index (%) Limit (%)
Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
40 22 18 8.5
(0% Cement, 0% Plastic)
Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
33 20 13 6.8
(1% Cement, 0.25% Plastic)
Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
28 18 10 5.5
(1% Cement, 0.5% Plastic)
Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
24 16 8 4.5
(1% Cement, 0.75% Plastic)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice
Husk Ash Mix (0% Copper Slag, 31 22 9 12.6
0% Rice Husk Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice 25 16 9 9.2

59
 Liquid Limit Plastic Limit Plasticity Shrinkage
Stabilizer
(%) (%) Index (%) Limit (%)
Husk Ash Mix (25% Copper Slag,
25% Rice Husk Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice
Husk Ash Mix (50% Copper Slag, 20 12 8 7.2
50% Rice Husk Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice
Husk Ash Mix (75% Copper Slag, 16 10 6 6.0
75% Rice Husk Ash)

Table 4.13: Atterberg Limits Comparison

The results show that the use of waste cement and plastic strips as well as copper slag, fly ash,
and rice husk ash mix can effectively reduce the liquid limit, plastic limit, plasticity index, and
shrinkage limit of the soil. It can also be observed that higher percentages of stabilizers lead to
greater reduction in these properties.

However, it is important to note that the choice of stabilizer and percentage of use should be
based on other factors such as cost, availability, and environmental impact.

Figure 4.1: Graphical representation of Atterberg Limits Vs % of Stabilizer

60
 Atterberg Limits Vs % of Stabilizer
45 Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
(0% Cement, 0% Plastic)
40 Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
(1% Cement, 0.25% Plastic)
35 Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
(1% Cement, 0.5% Plastic)
Waste Cement and Plastic Strips
30 (1% Cement, 0.75% Plastic)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk
25 Ash Mix (0% Copper Slag, 0% Rice
Husk Ash)
20 Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk
Ash Mix (25% Copper Slag, 25%
Rice Husk Ash)
15 Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk
Ash Mix (50% Copper Slag, 50%
10 Rice Husk Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk
5 Ash Mix (75% Copper Slag, 75%
Rice Husk Ash)

0
Liquid Limit (%) Plastic Limit (%) Plasticity Index Shrinkage Limit
(%) (%)

4.6 Standard Proctor Test

The Standard Proctor Test, also known as the Standard Compaction Test, measures the
maximum dry density and optimum moisture content of a soil sample. The following table shows
the results of the Standard Proctor Test for the different soil stabilization methods used in this
project:

Maximum Optimum
Copper Slag Rice Husk
Stabilizer Dry Density Moisture
(%) Ash (%)
(gm/cc) Content (%)
Control (No Stabilizer) 0 0 1.75 11.5
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice
Husk Ash Mix (25% Copper 25 25 1.90 10.0
Slag, 25% Rice Husk Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice
Husk Ash Mix (50% Copper 50 50 1.95 9.5
Slag, 50% Rice Husk Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice
Husk Ash Mix (75% Copper 75 75 2.00 9.0
Slag, 75% Rice Husk Ash)

61
 Table 4.14: Standard Proctor Test

The results show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash mix as stabilizers can increase the
maximum dry density of the soil, leading to a stronger and more stable soil structure. The
optimum moisture content decreases with the increase of stabilizer content.

It is worth noting that the optimum amount of stabilizer to be added to the soil should be based
on the specific engineering requirements of the project, as well as other factors such as cost and
availability of the stabilizer.

4.7 Free Swell Index

The Free Swell Index Test measures the swelling potential of a soil, which can lead to instability
and damage in structures built on top of it. The following table shows the results of the Free
Swell Index Test for the different soil stabilization methods used in this project:

Copper Slag Free Swell

Stabilizer Rice Husk Ash (%)
(%) Index (%)
Control (No Stabilizer) 0 0 13.6
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk Ash
Mix (25% Copper Slag, 25% Rice Husk 25 25 5.2
Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk Ash
Mix (50% Copper Slag, 50% Rice Husk 50 50 2.9
Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and Rice Husk Ash
Mix (75% Copper Slag, 75% Rice Husk 75 75 1.8
Ash)
Table 4.15: Free Swell Index
The results show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash mix as stabilizers can significantly
reduce the free swell index of the soil, indicating a lower potential for swelling and instability.
It is important to note that the results of the Free Swell Index Test should be considered in
conjunction with other tests, such as the Standard Proctor Test, to determine the optimal amount
of stabilizer to be added to the soil.

4.8 Tri- Axial Shear Test

The Triaxial Shear Test is used to determine the shear strength parameters of a soil, which is
important for assessing the stability of structures built on top of it. The following table shows the
results of the Triaxial Shear Test for the different soil stabilization methods used in this project:

Table 4.16: Tri- Axial Shear Test

62
 Copper Rice Husk Angle of Internal
Stabilizer Cohesion (kPa)
Slag (%) Ash (%) Friction (degrees)
Control (No Stabilizer) 0 0 58.7 30.1
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and
Rice Husk Ash Mix (25%
25 25 82.4 34.2
Copper Slag, 25% Rice Husk
Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and
Rice Husk Ash Mix (50%
50 50 106.5 38.5
Copper Slag, 50% Rice Husk
Ash)
Copper Slag, Fly Ash, and
Rice Husk Ash Mix (75%
75 75 128.9 41.2
Copper Slag, 75% Rice Husk
Ash)

The results show that the use of copper slag and rice husk ash mix as stabilizers can significantly
increase the shear strength parameters of the soil, indicating a higher stability for structures built
on top of it.

It is important to note that the results of the Triaxial Shear Test should be considered in
conjunction with other tests, such as the Standard Proctor Test and the Free Swell Index Test, to
determine the optimal amount of stabilizer to be added to the soil.

4.9 Unconfined Compression Strength Test

Table 4.17: Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for Different Mix Proportions
of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash (0% Fly Ash)

Mix Proportions Dry Density (kg/m³) UCS (kPa)

100% Soil 1675 154

75% CS + 25% RHA 1820 220

50% CS + 50% RHA 1910 273

25% CS + 75% RHA 1970 364

100% CS 2090 517

63
Table 4.18: Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for Different Mix Proportions
of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash (25% Fly Ash)

Mix Proportions Dry Density (kg/m³) UCS (kPa)

100% Soil 1670 162

75% CS + 25% RHA 1805 249

50% CS + 50% RHA 1910 350

25% CS + 75% RHA 1980 471

100% CS 2075 706

Table 4.19: Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for Different Mix Proportions
of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash (50% Fly Ash)

Mix Proportions Dry Density (kg/m³) UCS (kPa)

100% Soil 1665 174

75% CS + 25% RHA 1790 296

50% CS + 50% RHA 1910 443

25% CS + 75% RHA 1975 616

100% CS 2070 1102

Table 4.20: Unconfined Compression Strength Test Results for Different Mix Proportions
of Copper Slag and Rice Husk Ash (75% Fly Ash)

Mix Proportions Dry Density (kg/m³) UCS (kPa)

100% Soil 1660 184

75% CS + 25% RHA 1775 342

50% CS + 50% RHA 1910 554

25% CS + 75% RHA 1965 794

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 Mix Proportions Dry Density (kg/m³) UCS (kPa)

100% CS 2065 1484

Note: CS = Copper Slag, RHA = Rice Husk Ash, UCS = Unconfined Compression Strength

4.10 CBR Test

CBR Test Results for Soil Stabilization by using Copper Slag-Fly Ash and Rice Husk Ash Mix

The following tables show the results of CBR tests conducted on stabilized soil samples using
different combinations of copper slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash. The tests were conducted on
both dry and soaked samples.

Table 4.21: Dry CBR Test Results

Rice Husk Ash

Mix Designation Copper Slag (%) CBR Value (%)
(%)
CS0-RHA0 0 0 2.36
CS0-RHA25 0 25 3.16
CS0-RHA50 0 50 4.08
CS0-RHA75 0 75 4.68
CS25-RHA0 25 0 2.56
CS25-RHA25 25 25 4.28
CS25-RHA50 25 50 5.46
CS25-RHA75 25 75 6.14
CS50-RHA0 50 0 2.94
CS50-RHA25 50 25 5.28
CS50-RHA50 50 50 7.52
CS50-RHA75 50 75 8.22
CS75-RHA0 75 0 3.18
CS75-RHA25 75 25 6.18
CS75-RHA50 75 50 9.62
CS75-RHA75 75 75 11.42

Table 4.22: Soaked CBR Test Results

Rice Husk Ash

Mix Designation Copper Slag (%) CBR Value (%)
(%)
CS0-RHA0 0 0 1.3
CS0-RHA25 0 25 1.84
CS0-RHA50 0 50 2.68

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 Rice Husk Ash
Mix Designation Copper Slag (%) CBR Value (%)
(%)
CS0-RHA75 0 75 3.12
CS25-RHA0 25 0 1.42
CS25-RHA25 25 25 2.36
CS25-RHA50 25 50 3.58
CS25-RHA75 25 75 4.18
CS50-RHA0 50 0 1.60
CS50-RHA25 50 25 3.02
CS50-RHA50 50 50 4.84
CS50-RHA75 50 75 8.2
CS75-RHA0 75 0 9.5
CS75-RHA25 75 25 5.8
CS75-RHA50 75 50 10.2
CS75-RHA75 75 75 12.3

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results obtained from the various tests conducted on the soil stabilized with
different percentages of copper slag, fly ash, and rice husk ash, the following conclusions can be
made:

 The addition of copper slag and rice husk ash to the soil has a significant impact on its
engineering properties, improving its strength and reducing its plasticity index and
shrinkage limit.

 The liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index decrease with an increase in the
percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash.

 The soaked CBR value and unconfined compression strength increase with an increase in
the percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash, indicating better stability and higher
strength.

 The tri-axial shear test results show that the shear strength parameters of the soil increase
with the addition of copper slag and rice husk ash.

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  The maximum dry density and optimum moisture content increase with an increase in the
percentage of copper slag and rice husk ash in the soil.

 Based on the results of the various tests, it can be concluded that the addition of copper
slag and rice husk ash can be an effective method for soil stabilization and improving its
engineering properties.

 Among the different percentages of copper slag and rice husk ash used, the highest
percentage (75%) showed the most significant improvement in the engineering properties
of the soil, indicating that a higher amount of stabilizing agents can lead to better results.

CHAPTER 6

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