Financial Accounting Script PDF
Financial Accounting Script PDF
Accounting
Summer Term 2020
Prof. Dr. Thomas Kotulla
Introduction
Prof. Dr. Thomas Kotulla
2002‐2011: Master’s and Ph.D. studies in the fields of business and economics
BiTS, Iserlohn | Harvard University, Cambridge | ESCP Europe, Berlin
2002‐2017: Professional activities in the fields of management, strategy, and finance,
lastly as consultant, department head, and managing director
Bosch, Johannesburg | Porsche, Stuttgart | Kraft Foods, Bremen
TBWA, Düsseldorf | BBDO Consulting, Düsseldorf | Wertikale, Berlin
PE Automotive, Wuppertal | Stiftung Bildung.Werte.Leben, Berlin
Since 2017: Professor of value‐based corporate management and finance
University of Applied Sciences Europe, Berlin
Contact:
thomas.kotulla@ue‐germany.de
Main elements:
• 12 lectures of 90 minutes each
Theoretical and conceptual input
Several exercises and calculations
• 6 tutorials of 90 minutes each
• 2‐hour module exam with Business Mathematics
Introduction
Literature:
• English literature:
Bragg: Bookkeeping Guidebook
Publisher: Accounting Tools
ISBN‐13: 978‐1938910418
• German literature:
Schmolke/Deitermann: Industrielles Rechnungswesen
Publisher: Winklers
ISBN‐13: 978‐3804568488
Brainstorming
• Bookkeeping = numerical capturing and structuring of
each and every business transaction based on vouchers
Brainstorming:
• Financial Accounting = based on bookkeeping data,
What is your understanding of the following terms?
yearly illustration of a firm’s financial situation;
result: annual financial statement
Bookkeeping
• Financial Reporting = based on bookkeeping data and
Financial Accounting
accounting data, quarterly/semi‐annual/annual illustration
Financial Reporting
and communication of the firm’s financial situation;
result: quarterly/semi‐annual/annual report
Try to find a definition or key characteristics!
What is a balance sheet?
A student’s “balance sheet” as an example
Assets Equity & Debt
December 31, 2019 € December 31, 2019 €
Fixed assets 14,000 Equity 8,147
Computer 3,000
Clothes 5,000
Household appliance 5,000 Debt 8,000
Literature 1,000 Bank loan 3,000
Current assets 2,147 Parents loan 4,500
Frozen food 50 Accounts payable 500
Cigarettes 40
Bank account 2,000
Cash 57
Total assets 16,147 Total equity & debt 16,147
The “Accounting Cycle”
1. Transactions
8. Financial 2. Booking
statement vouchers
7. Closing 3. Postings/
the books Book entries
6. Adjusted
4. Trial balance
trial balance
5. Adjusting
book entries
7 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Let’s go
Objectives of this lecture
• Learn the core principles of bookkeeping:
Gain an understanding of a firm’s operational processes
from a numerical perspective
Know how to prepare and read a firm’s financial statement
(esp., balance sheet, income statement)
Know where the numbers in other departments
(e.g., controlling, finance) come from
Bookkeeping is an important basis for all matters of
financial reporting, corporate finance, and controlling
1st Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Difference between financial and management accounting
• Objectives and functions of bookkeeping
• German legal term of “Kaufmann” (merchant) and its implications
• Generally accepted accounting principles (Germany)
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Accounting
Objectives and target groups of accounting
Financial accounting Management accounting
External reporting Internal reporting
Objectives Objectives
Informing and giving account Internal Calculations,
to external target groups Planning, Budgeting, Controlling
Tax Public
Owners Creditors Employees Suppliers Customers Management
authorities interests
Source: Möhlmann (2010)
Instruments of accounting
Financial accounting Management accounting
Annual financial Cost
statement accounting
Revenue
Management
Balance sheet
Other statistics,
accounting
statement
Income
Bookkeeping planning, and
report
Notes
Profitability
budgeting
accounting
Performance
accounting
Source: Möhlmann (2010)
Based on legal requirements
Legal requirements
Duty to keep accounting records
Sec. 238 (1) HGB: All merchants shall keep accounting records and shall record in
them their business transactions and their financial position in accordance with
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).
Merchant (in German “Kaufmann”) = natural person who runs a business that exceeds
a specific size; three types:
“Ist‐Kaufmann” (≈ “actual merchant”)
“Kann‐Kaufmann” (≈ “can‐be merchant”)
“Form‐Kaufmann” (≈ “formal merchant”)
“Ist‐Kaufmann” (≈ “actual merchant”), Sec. 1 HGB
• Kaufmann (merchant) = natural person who runs a business that exceeds
a specific size
• Business = any economic activity on one’s own account, own authority,
and on a permanent basis, intended to make profits; not included:
Liberal professions (self‐employed scientific, artistic, authorial, teaching,
or educational professions)
Agricultural and silvicultural professions
• Size = usually the criterion is satisfied when the business requires
“professional business operations”; indicators: profit, revenue, employees,
IT systems, etc.
• Registering the Ist‐Kaufmann in the Commercial Register is “declarative”,
i.e., the status of being a merchant is independent of the registration
The German Merchant (“Kaufmann”)
“Kann‐Kaufmann” (≈ “can‐be merchant”), Sec. 2+3 HGB Option
• Everybody who does not fulfill the criteria of being an Ist‐Kaufmann
(e.g., farmers or liberal professionals), can still become a merchant by
registering in the Commercial Register
• Registering in the Commercial Register is “constitutive“,
i.e., you become a merchant by registering
• Motivation: you signal your “professional work habit“
“Form‐Kaufmann” (≈ “formal merchant”), Sec. 6 HGB
• Merchant by definition, triggered by the legal structure (e.g., Ltd., PLC)
• Existence of a business not relevant
Duty to keep accounting records
Legal basis
Note:
Exemption based on
Sec. 241a HGB, if Commercial law Tax law
Revenue < 600,000 € and Sec. 238 ff. HGB Sec. 140 ff. AO
Profit < 60,000 €
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)
Bookkeeping‐related German GAAP
Objective: Firm owners and creditors shall be protected against incorrect
information and unexpected losses
Since 2014: Accounting records, vouchers, and other relevant documents
may be retained as photographic reproductions or on other data storage media
Most important principles:
1. Correct documentation of all business transactions
2. No book entries without vouchers
3. Bookkeeping results shall be clearly and understandably presented
4. Correct storage of all accounting documents
Questions for self‐review
• What are the objectives of bookkeeping and accounting?
• What are the key differences between financial and management
accounting?
• What does GAAP mean?
• Explain the German legal term “Kaufmann” (merchant)
• What are the accounting‐related duties of a merchant in Germany?
• What kind of information instruments are available to the
accounting department?
Agenda
2nd Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Inventory and how to record it
• Balance sheet and its basic structure
• How to prepare a balance sheet
• Initial thinking about equity
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Difference between inventory and balance sheet
Inventory and balance sheet
Inventory record Balance sheet
Sec. 240 HGB: When commencing business, all merchants shall prepare accurate inventory
records of their real property, receivables and payables, the amount of cash funds and of all
other assets, and assign a value to each asset and liability. Thereafter, they shall prepare
such inventory records at the end of each financial year. The length of the financial year may
not exceed twelve months.
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Inventory
Inventory records
= physical inventory of all assets and all debt of a company at any given time
by measuring, weighing, counting or detecting. Inventory describes the process
(“Inventur”) as well as the documented outcome of that process (“Inventar”)
Inventory methods
Base case: At the end of the period Ongoing or permanent inventory
(Sec. 240 (2) HGB) (Sec. 241 (2) HGB)
3 months prior/2 months after the period Statistical sampling methods
(Sec. 241 (3) HGB) (Sec. 241 (1) HGB)
Inventory and balance sheet
Inventory record Balance sheet
Assets Assets
Key terms ./. Liabilities ./. Debt
= Net assets = Equity
Sec. 242 (1) HGB: When starting a business and at the end of each financial year, all
merchants shall prepare financial statements (opening balance sheet, balance sheet)
presenting the relationship between their assets and debt.
The simplest balance sheet
Disposition of funds Source of funds
Fixed assets Equity
(long‐term) (Net assets)
Current assets Debt
(short‐term) („from third parties“)
Balance sheet classification for corporations, acc. to Sec 266 (1) HGB:
[…] On the assets side, large and medium‐sized corporations shall include, separately and in the
required order, the headings shown in subsection (2) below, and on the equity and debt side the
headings shown in subsection (3) below. Small corporations need only to prepare a condensed balance
sheet in which only those items designated by letters and Roman numerals in subsections (2) and (3)
below are presented separately and in the required order. […]
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Balance sheet in more detail
Balance sheet classification acc. to Sec. 266 HGB
The asset side (condensed form)
A Fixed assets B Current assets
I. Intangible fixed assets I. Inventories
II. Tangible fixed assets Raw materials, consumables, and supplies
Land and buildings Work in progress
Finished goods and merchandise
Technical equipment + machinery Prepayments
Other equipment, operating II. Receivables and other assets
and office equipment Trade receivables
Prepayments and assets Receivables from affiliated companies
under construction Other assets
III. Long‐term financial assets III. Securities
Shares/Loans to affiliated companies IV. Bank balances and cash‐in‐hand
Other long‐term equity investments C Prepaid expenses
Long‐term securities D Deferred tax assets
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Balance sheet in more detail
Balance sheet classification acc. to Sec. 266 HGB
The equity & debt side (condensed form)
A Equity C Liabilities
I. Subscribed capital 1. Bonds
II.Capital reserves 2. Liabilities to banks
III.
Revenue reserves 3. Payments received on account of orders
IV.Retained profits/Accumulated losses 4. Trade payables
brought forward 5.‐8. Other liabilities
V. Net income/Net loss for the financial year
D Deferred income
B Provisions E Deferred tax liabilities
1. Provisions for pensions and similar
obligations
2. Provisions for taxes
3. Other provisions
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From inventory to balance sheet
Assets Balance sheet as of 2019/12/31 Equity & Debt
A. Fixed assets A. Equity
• Tangible fixed assets
B. Provisions
B. Current assets
• Inventories C. Liabilities
• Receivables • Liabilities to banks
• Cash and • Trade payables
bank accounts
Inventory of the Computer GmbH as of 2019/12/31
• 2x desks à 500 € = 1,000 €
• 2x cupboards à 1,000 € = 2,000 € • Billings not yet paid by the customers 3,500 €
• 1x PC in use à 1,000 € = 1,000 € • Bank account 5,000 €
• 1x car à 8,000 € = 8,000 € • Cash 1,000 €
• 10x PC on stock à 1,200 € = 12,000 € • Billings not yet paid to the suppliers 3,000 €
• 10x TFTs à 200 € = 2,000 € • Loan 10,000 €
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Equity
Accounting for equity in a nutshell
• Equity has to be distinguished from debt
– Equity is what remains after subtracting all debt (provisions and liabilities)
from the assets (residual approach)
– Thus, equity represents the net assets attributable to the owners,
recognized and measured under the corresponding GAAP
• Individual jurisdiction might elaborate on subclasses of equity
(e.g., subscribed capital, reserves, earnings)
• Equity can be negative
Example 1: Preparation of a balance sheet
Consider the following transactions at the foundation of the Smart and Partner
GmbH (S+P) in 2019, owned by Mr. Miller.
1. Mr. Miller contributes € 100,000 in cash to the new company.
2. S+P buys a plot of land for € 50,000 in cash.
3. S+P buys desks in the value of € 10,000 on account.
4. S+P creates a report for a customer and gets a payment of € 20,000 in cash.
5. S+P takes out a loan in the amount of € 60,000. The money will be transferred
to the company account at the “Happy and Easy” bank.
6. S+P pays rent for a warehouse in the amount of € 1,000 by bank transfer.
How do you bookkeep these transactions? Please prepare the balance sheet!
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Wrap‐up of Lesson 2
Questions for self‐review
• What is an inventory? And how do you record it?
• What is the structure of a balance sheet?
• Can you find a simple explanation of “assets” and “liabilities”?
• What is equity and how is it determined for accounting purposes?
• Why do total assets always match total equity & debt
on the balance sheet?
3rd Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Introduction of T‐Accounts
• Know what “debit” and “credit” is all about
• Organizing accounts: Chart of accounts
• The closing procedure: Opening and closing accounts
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The term “Account” in the context of the balance sheet
‐ 50,000 € (Decrease Account “Cash”)
Account
Current assets Cash
Accounts receivable + - T‐Account
Cash 50,000
Bank account
Verbindlichkeit/Example
Fremdkapital
Total assets S+P GmbH buys a property (50,000 € cash).
Bilanzsumme (BS)
Current assets
Account
Cash
Example
+ -
10,000 50,000 Mr. Miller contributes 10,000 € to the
Verbindlichkeit/ Fremdkapital
entity in cash.
Total assets Bilanzsumme (BS)
The term “Account”: Debit and Credit entries
Debt
The terms “Debit” and “Credit”
are labels for the left and the right side of an account.
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Nature of an account
Different types of accounts in the balance sheet
Asset account Equity & Debt account
• Increases are accounted for on the • Increases are accounted for on the
debit side of the account (left) credit side of the account (right)
• Decreases are accounted for on the • Decreases are accounted for on the
credit side of the account (right) debit side of the account (left)
• Opening balance (usually) is a
• Opening balance (usually) is a
credit entry
debit entry
Organizing accounts
Using a chart of accounts
A chart of accounts represents a complete list of accounts that
may arise in financial accounting of an entity.
For industrial businesses, there are two commonly used types of
charts of accounts:
Your material
• Accounts sorted by function and process is based on
accounts by
• Accounts sorted by balance sheet items
function
Purpose: Unique coding and structuring of accounts
Take a look at traditional examples and “The World of DATEV”
• German example for sorting by function and process
– Gemeinschaftskontenrahmen der Industrie (GKR): Introduced by the
Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie e.V. (BDI) in 1948/49
• German example for sorting by balance sheet items
– Industriekontenrahmen (IKR), followed the GKR in 1971
• Modern standard chart of accounts “The World of DATEV”
– www.datev.de/web/de/m/ueber‐datev/datev‐im‐web/datev‐von‐a‐z/
skr‐standard‐kontenrahmen
Closing the accounts
System of financial accounting: From bookkeeping to balance sheet
Opening balance
Opening balance account = Prior year closing balance (PYCB)
(Carry forward) (Aggregation of individual accounts
to balance sheet items)
Balance sheet accounts
We consciously consider
the equity account at this point
Asset accounts E & D accounts in a very simplified form!
In the next lecture,
we will have a closer
look at this account.
Equity account
Closing balance
Closing balance account = Next year opening balance
(Aggregation of individual accounts
(Carry forward next year) to balance sheet items)
38 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Exercise
Example 2: Preparation of a balance sheet – Part 2
Prepare the opening balances of the individual accounts on the basis of the
balance sheet as of 2019/01/01.
Cash 70,000
Bank account Happy and Easy 59,000
Exercise
Example 2: Preparation of a balance sheet – Part 2
Consider the business transactions of Smart and Partner GmbH, which occur in the course of the year
2019. Post the transactions in T‐accounts.
1. Mr. Miller contributes another € 15,000 in cash to the new company.
2. S+P buys a plot of land for € 30,000 in cash.
3. S+P buys PCs on account, € 20,000.
4. S+P creates a report for a customer for a payment of € 10,000 in cash.
5. S+P takes out another loan in the amount of € 30,000. The money will be transferred to the
company account at the “Happy and Easy” bank.
6. S+P pays salaries of € 2,000 by bank transfer.
7. S+P creates another report for a customer on account for a fee of € 17,000.
8. The invoice of transaction 7 is paid by bank transfer.
Prepare the closing balances of the individual accounts. What does the balance sheet as of 2019/12/31
look like?
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Wrap‐up of Lesson 3
Questions for self‐review
• What is a chart of accounts? Why do we use it?
• What is a T‐account?
• How do you post increases and decreases of items to the
individual accounts?
• What does “debit” and “credit” mean?
Agenda
4th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Journalizing business transactions and posting journal entries
• The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions
• Understand double‐entry bookkeeping
• Taking a closer look at equity: Income and expense
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Journalize each transaction
Booking entry / Journal entry / Accounting record
Example: Assets
A trade receivable (€ 100) is settled 14 Trade receivables Debit (+) Credit (‐)
by a customer by bank transfer.
100
What does the booking entry look like?
11 Bank Debit (+) Credit (‐)
Debit Credit
Booking entry: Debit (11) Bank 100, Credit (14) Trade receivables 100
Booking entry = written instruction for posting a business transaction
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Journalize each transaction
Steps in the Posting Process
2 Where do I expect the accounts in the BS?
Debt
(Asset acount or equity & debt account) Debit (+) Credit (-) Debit (-) Credit (+)
3 How are these accounts affected?
(Increase oder decrease? / Debit or credit?)
(Posting „Debit … Credit …“)
Account, on which a Account, on which a
DEBIT‐Entry CREDIT‐Entry
is posted is posted
The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions
1. Accounting exchange on the asset side: One (or more) assets account(s)
increase(s), one (or more) other assets account decrease(s).
Total assets and total equity & debt remain unchanged.
Example: Assets
A trade receivable (€ 100) is settled 14 Trade receivables Debit (+) Credit (‐)
by a customer by bank transfer.
100
What does the booking entry look like?
11 Bank Debit (+) Credit (‐)
Debit Credit
(11) Bank 100 100
(14) Trade Receivables 100
Total assets unchanged.
Posting of journal entries
The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions
2. Accounting exchange on the equity & debt side: One (or more) E & D account(s)
increase(s), one (or more) other E & D account decrease(s).
Total assets and total equity & debt remain unchanged.
Example: Equity & Debt
A convertible bond (€ 100) is converted 07 Equity Debit (‐) Credit (+)
from debt to equity. What does the
100
booking entry look like?
06 Debt Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit Credit
(06) Debt 100 100
(07) Equity 100
Total equity & debt unchanged.
The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions
3. Balance sheet extension: One (or more) assets account(s) increase(s),
one (or more) equity & debt account increase(s).
Total assets and total equity & debt increase.
Posting of journal entries
The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions
4. Balance sheet contraction: One (or more) assets account(s) decrease(s),
one (or more) equity & debt account decrease(s).
Total assets and total equity & debt decrease.
Recap: A student‘s “balance sheet”
Assets Equity & Debt
in € 19/12/31 20/03/31 in € 19/12/31 20/03/31
Fixed assets 11,000 11,000 Equity 8,647 8,377
Computer 3,000 2,600
Clothes 2,000 2,400
Household appliance 5,000 5,000 Debt 7,500 7,400
Literature 1,000 1,000 Bank loan 3,000 2,500
Current assets 5,147 4,777 Parents loan 4,500 4,500
Frozen food 50 60 Accounts payable 0 400
Cigarettes 40 20
Bank account 2,000 2,390
Cash 57 57
Prepaid rent 3,000 2,250
Total assets 16,147 15,777 Total equity & debt 16,147 15,777
What is an income statement?
Introducing a corresponding profit and loss (P&L) statement
20/01/01 – 20/03/31
in €
Revenue (Job) 1,600
Personnel expenses (Food) ‐600
Material expenses (Cigarettes) ‐120
Depreciation (Computer) ‐400
Other operating income (Sales on ebay) +300
Other operating expenses (Rent) ‐750
Operating income 30
Interest expense (Loan) ‐100
Income taxes ‐200
Loss for the period ‐270
The accounting dualism
Dualism
Two ways
Double‐entry to determine
bookkeeping financial
performance
Accounting Balance sheet:
Balance sheet: Income statement:
equation: Compare total
Total assets = Summarize income
Debit entry = assets and total
Total equity & debt and expenses
Credit entry equity & debt
Accounting terms
Performances in financial accounting Management Accounting
System of financial accounting: From bookkeeping to balance sheet
Opening balance
Opening balance account = Prior year closing balance (PYCB)
(Carry forward) (Aggregation of individual accounts
to balance sheet items)
Balance sheet accounts
Income statement accounts
Equity account P&L account
Closing balance
Closing balance account = Next year opening balance
(Aggregation of individual accounts
(Carry forward next year) to balance sheet items)
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Introducing income statement accounts
Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
• Income‐ and expenditure accounts are sub‐accounts of equity.
• Therefore they are shown on the right‐hand side of the balance sheet.
• A debit entry for an expense account is reducing equity.
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Posting journal entries on income statement accounts
Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Reimbursements and
Individual expenses corrections
Total expenses (Net)
Reimbursements and
corrections Individual income and revenues
Total income (Net)
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Equity and income statement accounts
Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity P&L account
O. Balance Expense
C. Balance Income
P&L C. Balance
Expenditure accounts Income accounts
Expense C. Balance
C. Balance Income
Debt
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Equity and income statement accounts
Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity
10 Cash
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
50 100
100 50
Transaction 1 Transaction 2
Owner contributes 100 € of Owner takes 50 € from the
his own money to the petty petty cash of the entity.
cash of the entity. Liabilities
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Equity and income statement accounts
Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity
10 Cash
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
50 100
100 50
200 100
100 200
Transaction 3
Entity gets 200 € in cash
for services provided. Debt
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Equity and income statement accounts
Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity P&L account
10 Cash
Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
50 100 100 200
100 50 100 100
150
200 100
Expenditure accounts Income accounts
Financial Statements
Calculate Profit or Loss Debt
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Transactions with Shareholders
Retained earnings, dividends and contributions by the entity‘s owners
• Profits increase and losses decrease the equity of the reporting entity;
if profits are not paid out to the owners, they are summarized as
“retained earnings” or “reserves” as a separate line within equity
• Dividends to or capital contributions from the owners
decrease/increase the equity without representing a profit or loss
– Transactions by a shareholder in his/her capacity as a shareholder
– In case of a German partnership: Separate equity accounts for each owner
(no. 19 “Private account”) as pre‐accounts of no. 7 “Equity”
– Business transactions with owners are treated as business as usual
Example 3: Income statement accounts and posting journal entries
Consider the following business transactions of Smart and Partner GmbH, owned by Mr. Miller.
Equity of S+P at the beginning of 2019 amounts to € 12,000. S+P has cash of € 2,000 and a bank account
amounting to € 10,000. Visualize all T‐accounts and post the journal entries.
1. S+P rents an office for € 600, payment by bank transfer.
2. S+P pays salaries of € 8,000 by bank transfer.
3. S+P gets invoices about the membership fee of € 500 from the Consulting Association
due date for payment: 14 days later
4. S+P creates a report for a customer for a payment of € 25,000 in cash.
5. S+P creates another report for a customer on account for a fee of € 2,000.
6. Mr. Miller takes € 1,500 from the petty cash.
Determine the Profit for the Year by closing the income statement accounts.
What does S+P’s equity amount to at year‐end 2019?
Wrap‐up of Lesson 4
Questions for self‐review
• What is a journal entry?
• Which are the basic types of bookkeeping transactions?
• What are the key steps in the posting process of a journal entry?
• What is the difference between cash and income?
• How do the terms “Income”/“Expense”, “Profit”/“Loss” and
“Equity” interact?
• How do you treat transactions with shareholders in their capacity
as shareholders?
5th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Purchase of inventories and inventory changes
• Sale of trading goods
• How to consider the production process of goods
• Presentation of inventory transactions in the P&L statement
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Overview
Three types of transactions with inventories
1. Purchase Raw material
of inventories Purchase price
2. Sale of
purchased Trading goods
Purchase price Trading goods
inventories Selling price
Margin
3. Sale of
Raw material
produced Production
Purchase price Finished goods
inventories Production cost
Selling price
Margin
Labor
Machinery Sales process
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1. Purchase of inventories
Changes in inventories (asset‐driven approach)
Assets Equity & Debt
30 Raw material
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
OB 100 600 (3)
1,000 (1) CB 500 (2)
10 Cash 40 Cost of raw material
1. Purchase of inventories
Changes in inventories (expense‐driven approach)
Assets Equity & Debt
30 Raw material
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
OB 100
400 (3) CB 500 (2)
10 Cash 40 Cost of raw material
Purchase and sale of trading goods
Assets Equity & Debt
39 Merchandise inventories 85 Sales of merchandise
2. Sale of purchased inventories
Journal entry: Purchase of trading goods
Journal entry: Sale of trading goods
Purchase and Sale of trading goods (P&L closing)
39 Merchandise inventories 85 Sales of merchandise
OB 2,000 1,000 CB
Net amount:
Profit 3,000
10,000 10,000
3. Sale of produced inventories
Brainstorming: How to read a profit & loss statement
• From what we have learned so far, a P&L account should faithfully
represent the financial performance of an entity also in the
following cases:
1. A company purchases raw material (purchase costs),
uses them to produce goods (production costs), and sells the goods
The costs (purchase costs + production costs)
should be covered by the revenues (revenues > costs)
2. A company purchases raw material (purchase costs),
uses them to produce goods (production costs), and keeps the goods
as inventories (either “work in progress” or “finished goods”)
How is the value creation (covering all costs) reflected
on the balance sheet?
70 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
3. Sale of produced inventories
78 WIP 79 FG
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (+) Credit (‐)
OB 12,000 CB 10,000 2 OB 22,000 CB 30,000
Ch 2,000 Ch 8,000
1
89 Changes in WIP & FG 98 P&L
Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
WIP 2,000 FG 8,000 Ch 6,000
P&L 6,000 3
The amounts of work in progress (WIP) and finished goods (FG) are accounted for on separate
accounts (GKR class 7). They include costs related to the production process, e.g.:
• Consumption of raw materials, consumables and supplies
• Personnel expenses and other general and administrative expenses
• Depreciation for fixed production assets
Changes in the amounts of WIP and FG from the beginning to the end of the period are accounted
for as income or expense.
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Wrap‐up of Lesson 5
Questions for self‐review
• How do you account for changes in raw material and merchandise
inventories?
• Why is no journal entry immediately posted to a merchandise
inventory account after a sales transaction?
• What are the specific accounting treatments for changes in
work in progress and finished goods?
• How far does the account “Changes in WIP & FG” accurately reflect
the real P&L situation?
6th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Introduction of the German and EU VAT system
• Posting journal entries for purchases and sales with VAT
• Calculate and book a monthly VAT payment charge
VAT principle
Value added taxation of the purchase and sale of goods
Purchase Sale
Incoming invoice Outgoing invoice
Purchase price: 100 € Sales price: 300 €
VAT 19 % : 19 € VAT 19 % : 57 €
Amount payable: 119 € Amount receivable: 357 €
Net purchase price
Gross amount to be paid Net sales price
Taxation of the Value added (e.g. 19 %)
Tax authorities get:
Value added = Net sales price minus Net purchase price 200 € x 19 % = 38 €
Value added = 300 minus 100 = 200
74 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Excursus: German/EU VAT background
Legal environment
• European Law
– Council Directive 2006/112/EC of November 28, 2006 on the common
system of value added tax
– For more: www.europa.eu/legislation_summaries/taxation/l31057_en.htm
• German Law
– The legal sources of VAT taxation are:
• Value Added Tax Act (VATA)
• Implementing Value Added Tax Regulation
• Value Added Tax Guidelines
• Directives of tax authorities
75 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Excursus: German/EU VAT background
Scope
• Taxable persons and entities: Entrepreneur
– The term “entrepreneur” in the meaning of the VATA means
natural persons and/or corporate bodies that
• perform a commercial or professional activity on an independent basis
• on a continuous basis
• in order to achieve income (not necessarily profits)
• Taxable transactions: Turnovers
– Turnovers in the meaning of the VATA include:
• Supplies, other services, importation, intra‐Community (EU) purchases
(not supplies!)
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Excursus: German/EU VAT background
Amount of VAT
• Taxable Amount
– Consideration received, i.e. everything spent by a recipient of a
performance in order to obtain the performance, however,
minus the value added tax.
– For importations, the taxable amount is based on the customs value.
• Tax Rate
– The standard tax rate in Germany is 19%.
– However, quite a lot of transactions are eligible to a reduced rate of 7%.
(e.g. food products, print media, works of art and cultural performances
(listed in Annex 2 to the VATA)).
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Excursus: German/EU VAT background
Input VAT and Invoices
• An entrepreneur gets VAT
refunded, paid for:
Requirement: Existing invoice
– supplies and other services
provided by another entrepreneur
Invoices must contain the following information:
– importations • Name and address of the performing entrepreneur
and of the recipient of the performance;
• the performing entrepreneur’s tax number or,
– intra‐Community (EU) purchases if applicable, value added tax identification number;
• the date of issue;
• quantity and type (customary commercial
description) of the goods supplied or volume
and type of the other service;
• the time of supply or service;
• the consideration, listed according to tax rates and
applicable tax exemptions; and
• the applicable tax rate and tax amount relating to
the consideration or information about an
applicable tax exemption.
VAT exemptions and options
• Tax Exemptions
– In particular, for the following transactions:
• financial services (banking, insurance, investment services etc.)
• letting and sale of real estate
• medical services
• school and educational services
• Optional Taxation
– Option is granted, in particular, for certain services related to
real estate and financial services. The option can be exercised for
each individual turnover.
79 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
VAT payment charge
Value added taxation of the purchase and sale of goods
Purchase Sale
Incoming invoice Outgoing invoice
Purchase price: 100 € Sales price: 300 €
VAT 19 % : 19 € VAT 19 % : 57 €
Amount payable: 119 € Amount receivable: 357 €
From the buying perspective, the value‐added tax (VAT) is a tax on the purchase price/initial value
of the good. From the selling perspective, it is a tax on the value added to the product, material,
or service, as the tax on the initial value of the good is refunded (and instead paid by the supplier).
The manufacturer remits to the government the difference between these two amounts,
and retains the rest for themselves to offset the taxes they had previously paid on the inputs.
VAT receivable (+): 19 € VAT payable (–): 57 € Net VAT payment: ‐38
Example VAT Calculation (VAT 10%)
Net amount
/ (1 + Tax rate) = 10,000
/ 1.1 = * (Tax rate) =
VAT
* 0.1 =
1,000
Gross amount
(Amount payable/receivable) * (1 + Tax rate) =
11,000 * 1.1 =
Closing VAT accounts
Two different cases
Case 1: VAT > input VAT (Base case) Case 2: VAT < input VAT
There is a tax payable (VAT payment charge). There is a tax receivable (VAT credit).
1. CB of Acc. No. 154 “Input VAT” 1. CB of Acc. No. 174 “VAT” is transferred
is transferred to Acc. No. 174 “VAT”: to Acc. No. 154 “Input VAT”:
• D 174 VAT • D 174 VAT
Cr 154 Input VAT Cr 154 Input VAT
2. Closing Acc. No. 174 “VAT”: 2. Closing Acc. No. 154 “Input VAT”:
• D 174 VAT • D 15 Other receivables
Cr 17 Other payables Cr 154 Input VAT
3. Bank transfer to the tax authorities: 3. Reimbursement by the tax authorities
• D 17 Other payables • D 11 Bank
Cr 11 Bank Cr 15 Other receivables
Example 4.1: Posting VAT journal entries
You are a young entrepreneur and consider the following business transactions.
Please prepare the journal entries and T‐accounts. (Assumption: VAT 10%)
1. You buy trading goods, net purchase price 6,000 € on account.
2. You sell trading goods, net selling price 10,000 € in cash.
3. At the end of the month, you calculate the VAT payable to the tax authorities.
4. Three days later, you settle the VAT payable by bank transfer.
Exercise
Example 4.2: Booking and closing VAT accounts
Consider further business transactions of Smart and Partner GmbH, which
occurred in October 2019. Post the transactions in T‐accounts and prepare
the journal entries. (Assumption: VAT 10%)
1. Mr. Miller contributes € 100,000 in cash to the company.
2. S+P buys a plot of land for € 50,000 by bank transfer.
3. S+P buys PCs on account, for a net amount of € 10,000.
4. S+P creates a report for a customer for a payment of net € 20,000 in cash.
5. S+P takes out another loan in the amount of € 50,000 (cash).
6. Determine the total VAT payable and close the VAT accounts.
7. S+P pays the resulting VAT payable by bank transfer.
Questions for self‐review
• Please explain the core German/EU Value Added Tax principles.
• What is the difference between VAT and input VAT?
• How do you calculate and account for the monthly VAT payment
charge? How do you close the VAT accounts?
Agenda
7th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Recap accounting for transactions with inventories and VAT
• Accounting for credit vouchers and returns
• Accounting for sales discounts
• Accounting for cash discounts
86 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Transactions with inventories
Dealing with revenue adjustments
• Three types of transactions considered so far:
– Purchase of raw materials
– Sale of trading goods
– Sale of produced goods
• Now to consider
– Credit vouchers/returns
– Price reductions (sales discount, cash discount, bonus)
• Also to consider:
– Incidental acquisition expenses (e.g., assembly, freight charge)
– Selling expenses (e.g., promotion, marketing, freight charge)
Credit vouchers / returns
Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Purchase)
• Purchase of raw materials (100 pieces times 10 € net) on account
Assets E & D
30 Raw material 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
1,000 1,100
30 Raw 1,000 16 Trade 1,100
Material payables 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 100 100
VAT
Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Purchase)
• Getting a credit note for the purchased raw materials (100 € net)
Assets E & D
30 Raw material 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
100 110
16 Trade 110 30 Raw 100
payables Material 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 10 10
VAT
Credit vouchers / returns
Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Sale)
• Sale of goods (200 pieces times 10 €) on account
Assets E & D
14 Trade receivables 83 Sales of goods
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
2,200 2,000
14 Trade 2,200 80 Sales of 2,000
receivables goods 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 200 200
Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Sale)
• Granting a credit note for the goods sold (100 € net)
Assets E & D
14 Trade receivables 88 Rev. reversals
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
110 100
88 Rev. 100 14 Trade 110
reversals receivables 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 10 10
Price reductions
Overview of price reductions
Cash discount Bonus
Sale Customer cash discount Customer bonus
Purchase Supplier cash discount Supplier bonus
• Bonuses are price reductions granted after the billing process,
e.g., when the client exceeds a specific amount of revenue
• Cash discounts are also price reductions granted after the billing process,
but only if the invoice is paid within a certain period of time
• In contrast, sales discounts are granted/advertised prior to the billing
process as a spontaneous incentive to buy
Example: 10% Bonus after a purchase (10% VAT)
Raw material
11,000 € 10 % 1,100 € 9,900 €
(gross amount)
Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the discount
D 30 Raw material € 10,000 D 16 Trade payables € 1,100
D 154 Input VAT € 1,000 Cr 30 Raw material € 1,000
Cr 16 Trade payables € 11,000 Cr 154 Input VAT € 100
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Bonus
Example: 10% Bonus after a sale (10% VAT)
Trading goods
11,000 € 10 % 1,100 € 9,900 €
(gross amount)
Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the discount
D 14 Trade receivables € 11,000 D 88 Revenue reversals € 1,000
Cr 85 Sales of merchandise € 10,000 D 174 Payables from VAT € 100
Cr 174 Payables from VAT € 1,000 Cr 14 Trade receivables € 1,100
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Bonus
Journal entries when considering a bonus (Purchase)
• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards getting a 5% bonus
Assets E & D
39 Trading goods 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
10,000 11,000
39 Trading 10,000 16 Trade 11,000
goods payables 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 1,000 1,000
VAT
Bonus
Journal entries when considering a bonus (Purchase)
• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards getting a 5% bonus
Assets E & D
39 Trading goods 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
500 550
16 Trade 550 39 Trading 500
payables goods 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 50 50
If already paid:
10/11 Cash/Bank VAT
or 14/15 Trade or
other receivables
Journal entries when considering a bonus (Sale)
• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards granting a 5% bonus
Assets E & D
14 Trade receivables 85 Sales of goods
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
11,000 10,000
14 Trade 11,000 85 Sales of 10,000
receivables goods 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 1,000 1,000
Bonus
Journal entries when considering a bonus (Sale)
• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards granting a 5% bonus
Assets E & D
14 Trade receivables 88 Rev. reversals
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
550 500
88 Rev. 500 14 Trade 550
reversals receivables 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 50 50
If already paid:
10/11 Cash/Bank
or 16/17 Trade or
other payables
Example: 2% Cash discount after a purchase (10% VAT)
Raw material
11,000 € 2 % 220 € 10,780 €
(gross amount)
Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the payment
D 30 Raw material € 10,000 D 16 Trade payables € 11,000
Cr 11 Bank €10,780
D 154 Input VAT € 1,000
Cr 30 Raw material € 200
Cr 16 Trade payables € 11,000 Cr 154 Input VAT € 20
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Cash discount
Example: 2% Cash discount after a sale (10% VAT)
Trading goods
11,000 € 2 % 220 € 10,780 €
(gross amount)
Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the payment
D 14 Trade receivables € 11,000 D 11 Bank € 10,780
D 88 Revenue reversals € 200
Cr 85 Sales of merchandise € 10,000
D 174 Payables from VAT € 20
Cr 174 Payables from VAT € 1,000 Cr 14 Trade receivables € 11,000
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Cash discount
Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Purchase)
• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 20,000 €) on account
• Getting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (cash)
Assets E & D
39 Trading goods 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
20,000 22,000
39 Trading 20,000 16 Trade 22,000
goods payables 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 2,000 2,000
VAT
Cash discount
Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Purchase)
• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 20,000 €) on account
• Getting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (cash)
Assets E & D
10 Cash 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
20,900 22,000
16 Trade 22,000 10 Cash 20,900
payables 39 Trading goods
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
39 Trading 1,000 1,000
goods
154 Input VAT
154 Input 100 Debit (+) Credit (‐)
VAT 100
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Cash discount
Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Sale)
• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Granting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (bank transfer)
Assets E & D
14 Trade receivables 85 Sales of goods
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
11,000 10,000
14 Trade 11,000 85 Sales of 10,000
receivables goods 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 1,000 1,000
Cash discount
Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Sale)
• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Granting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (bank transfer)
Assets E & D
11 Bank 88 Rev. reversals
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
10,450 500
11 Bank 10,450 14 Trade 11,000
receivables 14 Trade receivables 174 VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
88 Rev. 500 11,000 50
reversals
174 VAT 50
Example 5: Booking discounts
Post the journal entries. (10% VAT)
1. Purchase of raw materials on account, net amount 15,000 €.
2. Sales of trading goods on account, net amount 20,000 €.
3. You pay the bill of No. 1, cash discount 2% by bank transfer.
4. When delivering the goods of No. 2, you pay freight charge of 200 € net in cash.
5. You get a sales bonus on purchased (and paid) raw material of € 1,800 gross.
The bonus will be paid within 30 days.
6. A customer pays an amount of € 23,520 by bank transfer, settling trade payables
after considering 2% cash discount
Wrap‐up of Lesson 7
Questions for self‐review
• What are reasons for price reductions and how do you account
for them (selling side and buying side)?
• Please give examples of selling expenses as well as of incidental
acquisition expenses.
• What is the difference between a cash discount, a sales discount,
and a bonus?
• What are the journal entries when getting or granting
a cash discount?
8th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Social security in Germany
• Personal income tax in Germany
• Payroll accounting
Social security in Germany
German Social Security System
• Statutory insurance system
– Provides financial protection against the major life risks
– Basic principles:
• Principle of compulsory insurance
– Mandatory insurances for all employees, except certain groups of people,
because they are not intended to be covered by some insurances
(e.g. civil servants, soldiers, persons who reached their regular retirement age)
– Voluntary opting out in certain cases (e.g., private health insurance)
• Principle of financing through contributions
– Financed through contributions paid by employees and employers
– Contribution rates are based on the wage or salary of the employee
• Principle of solidarity
• Principle of self‐government
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Social security in Germany
The five branches of social insurance
• Statutory insurances
– Unemployment insurance
(“Arbeitslosenversicherung”: AV)
– Pension insurance
(“Rentenversicherung”: RV)
– Health insurance
(“Krankenversicherung”: KV)
– Accident insurance
(“Unfallversicherung”: UV)
– Long‐term care insurance
(“Pflegeversicherung”: PV)
Social security in Germany
Unemployment insurance
• Purpose
– Insures employees’ livelihood in case of unemployment
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 3.0 % of the contribution assessment basis (employee's
gross wage or salary [“assessable income”]),
• Employer and employee each pay one half (1.5 % each)
• Up to a certain contribution assessment ceiling
(as of 2019: federal states (west) € 6,350 per month /
federal states (east) € 5,700 per month)
• Organization
– Federal Employment Agency (“Bundesagentur für Arbeit”)
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Social security in Germany
Pension insurance
• Purpose
– Insures members in old age as well as in case of reduced earning
capacity, and insures, upon an employees' death,
his/her survivors as well
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 18.7 % of the assessable gross wage or salary
• Employer and employee each pay one half (9.35 % each)
• Same assessment ceiling as for the unemployment insurance
• Organization
– German Pension Insurance (“Deutsche Rentenversicherung”)
Social security in Germany
Health insurance
• Purpose
– Supports maintenance and restoration of good health and eases
the financial consequences of illness
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 14.6 % of the assessable gross wage or salary
• Employer pays 7.3 % and employee pays 7.3 % (plus supplement)
• Up to a certain contribution assessment ceiling (as of 2019: € 4,800 per month)
– Individual risk‐based rate in case of voluntary private health insurance
(option for those who earn more than € 4,800)
• Organization
– Six types of health insurance funds: AOK, vdek, BKK, IKK, LKK, Knappschaft
112 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Social security in Germany
Long‐term care insurance
• Purpose
– Provides financial support for those dependent on care and assistance
from others
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 2.55 % of the assessable gross wage or salary
• Employer and employee each pay one half (except in Saxony)
• Same assessment ceiling as for health insurance
• Childless people, if their minimum age is 23 and their year of birth
is after 1939, pay an additional premium of 0.25 %
– Individual risk‐based rate in case of voluntary private insurance
• Organization
– Long‐term care insurance under the umbrella of health insurance
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Social security in Germany
Accident insurance
• Purpose
– Helps an employee regain his earning ability after a work‐related accident
• Contribution
– Contribution rates are determined based on expenditures in prior years:
• In contrast to health, long‐term care, pension and unemployment insurance,
accident insurance is contribution‐free for those insured;
the costs for insurance coverage are borne by employers
(depending on the occupational risk)
• Organisation
– Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung (DGUV)
– Landwirtschaftliche Berufsgenossenschaft
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Personal income tax in Germany
Wages tax
• Legal background: Einkommensteuergesetz (EStG)
• Employee subject to wages tax
– Pay‐as‐you‐earn principle, withholding tax (based on monthly salary), Sec. 38 EStG
– “Monthly estimate” of personal income tax: Allowable against yearly income tax
(i.e. considered like a tax prepayment)
– Different wage tax classes (I to VI) depending on family status etc.
• Tax base (example for 2019):
Gross salary 12 * € 2,500 = € 30,000
Blanket deduction for income‐related expenses (Sec. 9a EStG) ‐ € 1,000
Provisional lump sum ‐ € 4,653
Blanket allowance for special expenses (Sec. 10, 10a, 10b, 10c EStG) ‐ € 36
Estimated taxable income basis for wage tax € 24,311
– Applicable tax rate calculated under the principles for personal income tax
(calculation see next slide)
– Result: Wage tax on a yearly basis: € 3,758 (€ 313.16 a month); here: 15.5 %
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Personal income tax in Germany
Progressive personal income tax
• Calculation acc. to Sec. 32a EStG for 2019
Taxable income Formula Key
Up to € 8,652 0
€ 8,653 to € 13,669 (993.62 • y + 1,400) • y y=(taxable income – € 8,652)/10,000
€ 13,670 to € 53,665 (225.40 • z + 2,397) • z + 952.48 z=(taxable income – € 13,669)/10,000
€ 53,666 to € 254,446 0.42 • x – 8,394.14 x=taxable income
More than € 254,446 0.45 • x – 16,027.52 x=taxable income
– Also consider splitting
for married couples
Church taxes and solidarity surcharge
• Church tax
– Contribution to a religious community
– Rate is 8 % or 9 % of the income/wage tax (relevant assessment basis),
depending on the place of residence
– Considered as part of the wage tax procedure on a monthly basis
(as well as via the income tax declaration on a yearly basis)
• Solidarity surcharge
– Introduced to finance the Gulf War 1991, later the reunification of Germany:
Solidaritätszuschlaggesetz (SolzG) 1995
– Levied from all taxpayers on personal tax (also corporation tax)
– Surcharge is currently 5.5 % of the income/wage tax (relevant assessment basis)
– Considered as part of the wage tax procedure on a monthly basis
(as well as via the income tax declaration on a yearly basis)
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Illustrative example
Monthly gross salary € 2.500, unmarried, no children, wage tax class 1, born 1991, protestant, living in Berlin
Employee Employer
• Health insurance 14.60 % (+1.10%) 210.00 € 182.50 €
• LT care insurance 2.55 % (+0.25%) 38.13 € 31.88 €
• Pension insurance 18.70 % 233.75 € 233.75 €
• Unemployment insurance 3.00 % 37.50 € 37.50 €
Social security charges 519.38 € 485.63 €
Subtotal 1,980.62 €
• Wage income tax 12.5264 % 313.16 €
• Church tax 9.00 % 28.18 €
• Solidarity surcharge 5.50 % 17.22 €
Total tax and charges 877.94 €
Net salary: 1,622.06 €
118 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Payroll accounting
Payment procedure
• Social security contributions
– Employers submit these contributions as an overall social insurance
contribution (including the share of the employee) to the health insurance
fund (collection office); exception: UV (direct payment to the UV carrier);
the collection offices then forward the contributions designated for other
insurances to the responsible authorities
• Wage/Income taxes, church tax, solidarity surcharge
– Employee is subject to wage tax, church tax and solidarity surcharge
– However, employer has to calculate, deduct from the monthly salary and
pay these taxes to the responsible tax authority
Payroll accounting
Which accounts are basically affected?
Expenditure Balance sheet
accounts (D) accounts (Cr)
Net salary
10 Cash or 11 Bank
(Payment to employee)
Gross salary
43 Personnel
expenses Income taxes
Employee‘s social
insurances share
17 Other payables
44 Social security Employer‘s social
and similar costs insurances share
Example 6: Payroll accounting
Post the journal entries.
1. Salary payments by bank transfer: Gross salaries € 33,000,
income wage taxes € 4,500, church taxes € 400. Social security:
employee’s and employer’s share € 6,000 each.
2. Salary payments in cash: gross salaries € 22,000, income wage
taxes € 3,000, church taxes € 250. Social security: employee’s
and employer’s share € 4,000 each.
3. Payment of social security contributions to the collection office
on the 10th of the following month by bank transfer.
Wrap‐up of Lesson 8
Questions for self‐review
• Which social security insurances do exist?
• How are social security charges considered when accounting
for payrolls?
• How do you calculate church taxes?
• What is the solidarity surcharge?
• Which social security insurances are paid solely
by the employer‘s side?
9th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Initial and subsequent measurement of fixed assets
• Nature and extent of purchase‐ and production cost
• Accounting for amortization of fixed assets
• Depreciation methods
123 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Introduction to fixed assets
Starting point
• Fixed assets = property, plant and specific equipment:
– Items that are held
• for use in the production or supply of goods or services,
• for rental to others, or
• for administrative purposes; and
– are expected to be used during more than one period
– i.e. not transformed, machined or sold during the production process
• Keep them in the balance sheet unchanged?
– Similar question for intangible assets (software, license)
Structure of this session
• Initial measurement
– Acquisition of fixed assets
• Purchase costs
– Production of fixed assets
• Production costs
• Subsequent measurement
– Allocation of cost over time: Amortization
– Depreciation methods?
Initial measurement
Purchase costs are…
Purchase costs comprise the expenditures incurred in order to acquire an asset and bring
it to working condition to the extent that they can be allocated to the specific asset.
Purchase price reductions shall be deducted.
… also includes incidental expenses
Any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition
necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management
including import duties and non‐refundable purchase taxes.
… and subsequent purchase costs
Expenses incurred after the commissioning of the asset for a substantial improvement or
change in its use purpose.
Do not consider regular maintenance costs (incurred as expense instead).
Determine purchase costs
• Example: Purchase of machinery, € 100,000 net. Transportation cost € 1,000,
transportation insurance € 500. Two weeks later, an IT interface is delivered
(purchase price € 1,000 net) to control the machine.
• How do you initially measure the machinery at its acquisition date?
Type of cost Explanation
Purchase price 100,000 €
• Deducting trade discounts e.g. cash discounts, bonuses: € 0
Subsequent measurement
Amortization of fixed assets
Depreciation (scheduled) Impairment (unscheduled)
Predictable, regular development Unforeseeable extraordinary events
Any amortization of an asset reduces its carrying amount and therefore represents an
economic outflow of resources. Considered as expense in the profit & loss statement.
Regular depreciation charge
• The depreciation (tangible) or amortization (intangible) schedule shall allocate
the purchase‐ or production cost over the financial years in which the asset
is expected to be used.
Start when it is available for use
Depreciable amount total costs
defined in terms of the asset’s expected utility
expected usage (by reference to capacity or physical output)
Useful life expected physical wear and tear
technical or commercial obsolescence
legal limits
Account for the depreciation charge on expense account: 23 Depreciation (Debit entry)
Counterpart is a reduced carrying amount of the fixed asset (Account No. 00 – 05)
Subsequent measurement
Depreciation methods
• A depreciation method reflects the pattern in which the asset’s future
economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity
Depreciation method Description Formula
Straight line depreciation Same depreciation is charged over the Depreciation expense =
entire useful life. (depreciable amount) / useful Life
Reducing balance depreciation Depreciation expense decreases at a Depreciation expense =
constant rate as the life of an asset (residual depreciable amount) x
progresses. Rate %
Sum of the year' digits depreciation Depreciation charge declines by a constant Depreciation expense =
amount as the life of the asset progresses. [(un‐depreciated useful life + 1) /
sum of the years' digits] x
depreciable amount
Units of production method Depreciation charge varies each period in Depreciation expense = (value of work
proportion to the change in level of activity. certified as complete / total expected
production or usage) x depreciable amount
Depreciable amount = purchase‐ or production cost – residual value when the asset is sold at the end of the useful life
Illustrative Example
• Illustration based on the following information:
– Cost of fixed asset: € 100,000
(Residual value = 0)
– Useful life: 4 Years
– Total machine hours: 20,000
– Rate of depreciation: 40%
(for calculating depreciation
using reducing balance method)
Exercise
Example 7: Amortization of fixed assets
Post the journal entries! (10% VAT)
1. Purchase of a car by bank transfer, given the following information:
• Purchase price: Gross amount € 132,000
• Date of purchase: January 1, 2019
• Useful life of the car: 5 years
Prepare a depreciation schedule on a yearly basis, including the depreciation
charge and carrying amount of the car at the end of the years 2019 to 2023.
Then post the journal entries for the amortization process until 2023.
Consider two different options of depreciation methods:
2. Straight line
3. Sum of the years’ digits method
Questions for self‐review
• Please explain the basic concept of amortization.
• What is the difference between depreciation and impairment of
fixed assets?
• What depreciation methods do you know and what are their differences
in economic substance?
• Which depreciation method do you think an entity will prefer
a) to short‐time minimize taxable profits b) to short‐time maximize
distributable profits to shareholders?
• Does the carrying amount of a regularly depreciated fixed asset
necessarily reflect its fair value? What might be reasons for or against
this assumption?
133 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Agenda
10th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Impairment of trade receivables
• Considering VAT adjustments
• Taking into account later settlements of impaired receivables
1 Base Case: Journal entries for the initial sale
• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account (credit term 30 days)
• No doubt about the collectability in the future
• Date of sale: October 20, 2019
• Seller expects the customer to pay the bill during the granted credit term
Impairment of receivables
2 Level 1: Journal entries for a doubtful account receivable
• Doubts about the future collectability of the trade receivables
• E.g. customer has not paid the bill within the credit term and has liquidity problems
• Reporting date: December 31, 2019
• Separating these doubtful accounts from the other trade receivable,
just for presentation reasons, no measurement adjustments yet
14a Doubtful debts
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
11,000
3 Level 2: Journal entries for a very doubtful account receivable
• Serious doubts about the future collectability of the trade receivables
• E.g. arranging a settlement out of court with the customer that he will pay 10% only
• Reporting date: December 31, 2019
• Impairment of the doubtful accounts to the amount envisaged in the arrangement
• No VAT adjustments yet
Loss in the
P&L!
Considering VAT adjustments
Adjustments to VAT
• VAT constitutes a liability towards the tax authorities. It is based on the
taxable amount, i.e. the consideration receivable from the customer.
• Doubts about the collectability of this considerations are not sufficient
to declare a reduced taxable amount towards the tax authorities.
– Liabilities from VAT remain unchanged and impairments of the trade
receivable are based on its net amount.
• A VAT adjustment is only accepted by tax authorities, if it is virtually
certain that a certain portion or all of the taxable amount is no longer
collectable.
Adjustments to VAT
• Alternative: The customer’s insolvency proceedings have started
(in this case, 100% initial write‐down).
• Future adjustment to the taxable amount and the liable VAT might be
necessary if the initial assessment of the envisaged collectable share
needs to be changed (e.g. the entity gets a share of its outstanding
receivables as part of the later insolvency procedures)
Impairment of receivables
4 Level 3: Journal entries for an uncollectable account receivable
• 100% Assurance about the uncollectability of 90% of the trade receivables
• Customer pays 10% in December 2019 as envisaged in the settlement arrangement
• Reporting date: December 31, 2019
• Write‐off of the uncollectable accounts in the amount lost due to the arrangement
• Adjusting the liable VAT
Summarizing the examples
1 Trade receivables / gross amount: € 11,000
Trade receivables, net amount: € 10,000 VAT € 1,000
2 Trade receivables get doubtful / gross amount: € 11,000
3 90 % impairment
Based on the net amount of € 10,000 (i.e. € 9,000) VAT € 1,000
4 Customer pays the remaining 10 % as envisaged / VAT reduction of € 900
gross amount: € 1,100 Liable for VAT of € 100
Settlements of impaired receivables
Excursus: Journal entries for a changed uncollectable receivable (–)
• Surprise: Changed uncollectability of 95% of the trade receivables
• Customer pays 5% in January 2020 which is even less than envisaged in the arrangement
• Reporting date: December 31, 2020
• Write‐off of an additional uncollectable amount of 5%
• Adjusting the liable VAT and considering an operating expense from other accounting periods
Debit € Credit €
Assets E & D
11 Bank 550 14a Doubtful 2,000
11 Bank 174 VAT
debts
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 Payables 950 550 950 Loss in the
from VAT P&L!
14a Doubtful debts 26 OpEx. oth. period
26 Oper. Exp. 500
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
other periods
2,000 500
Excursus: Journal entries for a changed uncollectable receivable (+)
• Surprise: Changed uncollectability of 85% of the trade receivables
• Customer pays 15% in January 2020 which is more than envisaged in the arrangement
• Reporting date: December 31, 2020
• Reversal of a uncollectable amount of 5%
• Adjusting the liable VAT and considering an operating income from other accounting periods
Debit € Credit €
Assets E & D
11 Bank 1,650 14a Doubtful 2,000
11 Bank 174 VAT
debts
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 Payables 850 26 Oper. inc. 500 1,650 850 Gain in the
from VAT other periods P&L!
14a Doubtful debts 26 OpIn. oth. period
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
2,000 500
Exercise
Example 8: Doubtful debt and VAT
Post the transactions in T‐accounts and prepare the journal entries (10% VAT)
for 2019 and 2020.
1. Sales of trading goods as of November 15, 2019 on account to customer Miller,
net amount € 100,000.
2. As of November 31, 2019, Miller faces some liquidity problems.
3. As of December 31, 2019, you arrange a settlement out of court with the
customer that he will pay 50% only.
4. Case 1: As of January 31, 2020, Miller pays 50% by bank transfer as envisaged
in the settlement arrangement.
5. Case 2: As of January 31, 2020, Miller pays only 10%, i.e. less than envisaged.
6. Case 3: As of January 31, 2020, Miller pays only 80%, i.e. more than envisaged.
Questions for self‐review
• Are impairments relevant for current assets?
In which cases? Why?
• Please describe how to account for trade receivables
which become doubtful, need to be impaired and
are settled to a certain extent in the future?
• What do you need to consider regarding VAT
in the context of impairment of trade receivables?
Agenda
11th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Introducing provisions
• Recognition‐ and measurement principles
• Accounting for provisions
• Use, change and reversal of provisions
146 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Introduction to provisions
Provisions ...
• … are a specific type of debt
– separate chapter on the debt side of the balance sheet
• … are present obligations of the entity
– of uncertain timing or amount
– arising from past events
– the settlement of which is expected to result in a financial outflow
from the entity
• Purpose: To account for the true and fair financial performance of
the entity for the reporting period
Introduction to provisions
Types of provisions acc. to Sec. 249 HGB
• Provisions for
1. uncertain obligations
2. expected losses from executory contracts
3. expenses for deferred maintenance
4. expenses for deferred land restoration
5. warranty expenditures
• Under German GAAP, provisions may not be recognized for other
reasons
1. Provisions for uncertain obligations
• Recognition criteria
– “Certain” probability that the future outflow will occur
– Obligation towards a third party
– Reliable estimate of the obligation
– Based on an event before the end of the reporting period
Recognition
2. Provisions for expected losses from executory contracts
• Executory contract = contract in which the rights and obligations of
both parties have not yet been fulfilled
• Recognition criteria
– Present obligation under a contract…
• in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the
contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it
• Alternatively: The unavoidable costs can be the cost of exiting from the
contract (if these costs are lower)
3. – 5. Other types of provisions
3. Provisions for deferred maintenance expenses
– if deferred from the financial year to the first three months
of the following year
4. Provisions for deferred land restoration
– if deferred from the financial year to the following year
5. Provisions for warranty expenses
– incurred with or without a contractual obligation
Measurement
Measurement of provisions acc. to Sec. 253 HGB
• Core principle
– Provisions are recognized at the settlement amount dictated by
prudent business judgement in accordance with the prudence principle
• Long‐term provisions
– Provisions with a maturity of more than one year shall be discounted
using an appropriate market interest rate (under German GAAP,
this is a seven‐year average interest rate)
• Pensions
– Specific measurement principles apply to provisions for
post‐employment obligations or similar long‐term obligations
(e.g., specific mathematical procedures for risk capture)
152 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Use, change and reversal of provisions
Journal entries
Provision for income taxes
Please post the journal entry for 2019.
• December 15, 2019: For the current period you expect to pay an additional
trade income tax of € 3,000 in the course of 2020
• Mandatory recognition of a provision for uncertain obligations from income
taxes:
Provision for income taxes
Please post the journal entry for 2020.
• January 15, 2020: The additional trade income tax of € 3,000 is paid in the
amount as previously estimated
• Use of the provision for uncertain obligations from income taxes for
expenditures for which the provision was originally recognized:
Journal entries
Provision for income taxes
Please post the journal entry for 2020.
• January 15, 2020: An additional trade income tax of € 3,500 is paid in an amount
higher than previously estimated
• Use of the provision for uncertain obligations from income taxes for
expenditures for which the provision was originally recognized,
but actual expenditure are higher than expected!
Year Debit Amount Credit Amount
2019 46 Income taxes € 3,000 08 Provisions € 3,000
2020 08 Provisions € 3,000 11 Bank € 3,500
26 Operating expense for € 500
other accounting period
Provision for income taxes
Please post the journal entry for 2020.
• January 15, 2020: An additional trade income tax of € 2,500 is paid in an amount
lower than previously estimated
• Use of the provision for uncertain obligations from income taxes for
expenditures for which the provision was originally recognized,
but actual expenditure are lower than expected!
Year Debit Amount Credit Amount
2019 46 Income taxes € 3,000 08 Provisions € 3,000
2020 08 Provisions € 3,000 11 Bank € 2,500
26 Operating income for € 500
other accounting period
Exercise
Example 9: Provisions
Post the 2019/2020 journal entries for the following transactions.
1. Receiving an official letter on December 15, 2019 to pay property tax
of € 700 for 2019 within the next four weeks.
2. Provisions for pensions increase by € 13,500.
3. Recognizing a provision with regard to a court case, best estimate
amounting to € 60,000 as of December 31, 2019.
4. As of January 15, 2020 the actual final costs of that court case add up
to € 65,000, paid by bank transfer.
5. As of January 15, 2020 the trade income tax supplementary payment
is set to € 3,000. Last year‘s estimate as reflected in the corresponding
tax provision amounted to € 4,000.
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Wrap‐up of Lesson 11
Questions for self‐review
• What is the difference between provisions and reserves?
• What types of provisions do we distinguish under German GAAP?
In which (sub‐)chapters of the balance sheet are they presented?
• How do you account for the use, the change and the reversal
of provisions?
Agenda
12th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping
3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting
Topics today
• Link between financial accounting and management accounting
Structuring the income‐ and expenditure accounts
Income/Expense
Operating Non‐operating
Actual period Other periods
Ordinary Extraordinary
Management accounting
161 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Joint industrial standard chart of accounts