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Financial Accounting Script PDF

This document provides information about a financial accounting course taught by Professor Thomas Kotulla at University of Applied Sciences Europe in Berlin, Germany. The course will cover 12 lectures and 6 tutorials over the summer term of 2020. Key topics will include the theoretical and conceptual foundations of financial accounting, exercises and calculations, and preparing for a final exam. Required textbooks are listed. The objectives of the course are to understand the core principles of bookkeeping and prepare and read financial statements.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
424 views82 pages

Financial Accounting Script PDF

This document provides information about a financial accounting course taught by Professor Thomas Kotulla at University of Applied Sciences Europe in Berlin, Germany. The course will cover 12 lectures and 6 tutorials over the summer term of 2020. Key topics will include the theoretical and conceptual foundations of financial accounting, exercises and calculations, and preparing for a final exam. Required textbooks are listed. The objectives of the course are to understand the core principles of bookkeeping and prepare and read financial statements.

Uploaded by

Q Yvonne
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 82

Financial

Accounting
Summer Term 2020
Prof. Dr. Thomas Kotulla

Introduction

Prof. Dr. Thomas Kotulla
2002‐2011: Master’s and Ph.D. studies in the fields of business and economics
BiTS, Iserlohn | Harvard University, Cambridge | ESCP Europe, Berlin
2002‐2017: Professional activities in the fields of management, strategy, and finance,
lastly as consultant, department head, and managing director
Bosch, Johannesburg | Porsche, Stuttgart | Kraft Foods, Bremen
TBWA, Düsseldorf | BBDO Consulting, Düsseldorf | Wertikale, Berlin 
PE Automotive, Wuppertal | Stiftung Bildung.Werte.Leben, Berlin
Since 2017: Professor of value‐based corporate management and finance
University of Applied Sciences Europe, Berlin
Contact:
thomas.kotulla@ue‐germany.de

2 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Introduction

Main elements:
• 12 lectures of 90 minutes each
 Theoretical and conceptual input
 Several exercises and calculations
• 6 tutorials of 90 minutes each
• 2‐hour module exam with Business Mathematics

3 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Introduction

Literature:
• English literature:
Bragg: Bookkeeping Guidebook
Publisher: Accounting Tools
ISBN‐13: 978‐1938910418
• German literature:
Schmolke/Deitermann: Industrielles Rechnungswesen
Publisher: Winklers
ISBN‐13: 978‐3804568488

4 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Introduction

Brainstorming

• Bookkeeping = numerical capturing and structuring of
each and every business transaction based on vouchers
Brainstorming:
• Financial Accounting = based on bookkeeping data,
What is your understanding of the following terms?
yearly illustration of a firm’s financial situation;
result: annual financial statement
Bookkeeping
• Financial Reporting = based on bookkeeping data and 
Financial Accounting
accounting data, quarterly/semi‐annual/annual illustration 
Financial Reporting 
and communication of the firm’s financial situation; 
result: quarterly/semi‐annual/annual report
Try to find a definition or key characteristics!

5 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

What is a balance sheet?

A student’s “balance sheet” as an example

Assets Equity & Debt
December 31, 2019 € December 31, 2019 €
Fixed assets 14,000 Equity 8,147
Computer 3,000
Clothes 5,000
Household appliance 5,000 Debt 8,000
Literature 1,000 Bank loan 3,000
Current assets 2,147 Parents loan 4,500
Frozen food 50 Accounts payable 500
Cigarettes 40
Bank account 2,000
Cash 57
Total assets 16,147 Total equity & debt 16,147

6 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


How to get there

The “Accounting Cycle”

1. Transactions

8. Financial 2. Booking 
statement vouchers

7. Closing 3. Postings/
the books Book entries

6. Adjusted 
4. Trial balance
trial balance

5. Adjusting 
book entries
7 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Let’s go

Objectives of this lecture

• Learn the core principles of bookkeeping:
 Gain an understanding of a firm’s operational processes 
from a numerical perspective
 Know how to prepare and read a firm’s financial statement 
(esp., balance sheet, income statement)
 Know where the numbers in other departments 
(e.g., controlling, finance) come from
Bookkeeping is an important basis for all matters of 
financial reporting, corporate finance, and controlling

8 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Agenda

1st Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Difference between financial and management accounting
• Objectives and functions of bookkeeping 
• German legal term of “Kaufmann” (merchant) and its implications
• Generally accepted accounting principles (Germany)
9 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Accounting

Objectives and target groups of accounting

Financial accounting Management accounting
External reporting Internal reporting

Objectives Objectives
Informing and giving account Internal Calculations, 
to external target groups Planning, Budgeting, Controlling

Tax  Public 
Owners Creditors Employees Suppliers Customers Management
authorities interests
Source: Möhlmann (2010)

10 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Accounting

Instruments of accounting

Financial accounting Management accounting

Annual financial  Cost 
statement accounting
Revenue 
Management 
Balance sheet

Other statistics, 
accounting
statement
Income 

Bookkeeping planning, and 
report
Notes

Profitability
budgeting
accounting
Performance
accounting
Source: Möhlmann (2010)
Based on legal requirements

11 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Legal requirements

Duty to keep accounting records

Sec. 238 (1) HGB: All merchants shall keep accounting records and shall record in
them their business transactions and their financial position in accordance with
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).

Merchant (in German “Kaufmann”) = natural person who runs a business that exceeds 
a specific size; three types:
 “Ist‐Kaufmann” (≈ “actual merchant”)
 “Kann‐Kaufmann” (≈ “can‐be merchant”)
 “Form‐Kaufmann” (≈ “formal merchant”)

12 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


The German Merchant (“Kaufmann”)

“Ist‐Kaufmann” (≈ “actual merchant”), Sec. 1 HGB

• Kaufmann (merchant) = natural person who runs a business that exceeds 
a specific size
• Business = any economic activity on one’s own account, own authority, 
and on a permanent basis, intended to make profits; not included:
 Liberal professions (self‐employed scientific, artistic, authorial, teaching,
or educational professions)
 Agricultural and silvicultural professions
• Size = usually the criterion is satisfied when the business requires 
“professional business operations”; indicators: profit, revenue, employees, 
IT systems, etc.
• Registering the Ist‐Kaufmann in the Commercial Register is “declarative”,
i.e., the status of being a merchant is independent of the registration

13 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

The German Merchant (“Kaufmann”)

“Kann‐Kaufmann” (≈ “can‐be merchant”), Sec. 2+3 HGB  Option

• Everybody who does not fulfill the criteria of being an Ist‐Kaufmann
(e.g., farmers or liberal professionals), can still become a merchant by 
registering in the Commercial Register
• Registering in the Commercial Register is “constitutive“, 
i.e., you become a merchant by registering
• Motivation: you signal your “professional work habit“

“Form‐Kaufmann” (≈ “formal merchant”), Sec. 6 HGB 

• Merchant by definition, triggered by the legal structure  (e.g., Ltd., PLC)
• Existence of a business not relevant

14 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Legal requirements

Duty to keep accounting records

Legal basis 

Note:
Exemption based on 
Sec. 241a HGB, if  Commercial law Tax law
Revenue < 600,000 € and  Sec. 238 ff. HGB Sec. 140 ff. AO
Profit < 60,000 €

Independent Based on Duty based on Revenue > 600,000 € or 


from legal form legal form other laws Profit > 60,000 € or
Value of agricultural or 
silvicultural land > 25,000 € 
”Ist‐Kaufmann”  “Form‐Kaufmann”
“Kann‐Kaufmann”

15 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP)

Bookkeeping‐related German GAAP

Objective: Firm owners and creditors shall be protected against incorrect 
information and unexpected losses
Since 2014: Accounting records, vouchers, and other relevant documents 
may be retained as photographic reproductions or on other data storage media
Most important principles: 
1.  Correct documentation of all business transactions
2.  No book entries without vouchers
3.  Bookkeeping results shall be clearly and understandably presented
4.  Correct storage of all accounting documents

16 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Wrap‐up of Lesson 1

Questions for self‐review

• What are the objectives of bookkeeping and accounting?
• What are the key differences between financial and management 
accounting?
• What does GAAP mean? 
• Explain the German legal term “Kaufmann” (merchant)
• What are the accounting‐related duties of a merchant in Germany?
• What kind of information instruments are available to the 
accounting department?

17 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Agenda

2nd Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Inventory and how to record it
• Balance sheet and its basic structure
• How to prepare a balance sheet
• Initial thinking about equity
18 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Difference between inventory and balance sheet

Inventory and balance sheet

Inventory record Balance sheet

Presentation Staggered form Account form

Content Quantities and values Values


Assets  Assets 
Key terms ./. Liabilities  ./. Debt 
= Net assets = Equity

Sec. 240 HGB: When commencing business, all merchants shall prepare accurate inventory
records of their real property, receivables and payables, the amount of cash funds and of all
other assets, and assign a value to each asset and liability. Thereafter, they shall prepare
such inventory records at the end of each financial year. The length of the financial year may
not exceed twelve months.
19 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Inventory

Inventory records

= physical inventory of all assets and all debt of a company at any given time 
by measuring, weighing, counting or detecting. Inventory describes the process 
(“Inventur”) as well as the documented outcome of that process (“Inventar”)

Inventory methods

Base case: At the end of the period Ongoing or permanent inventory 
(Sec. 240 (2) HGB) (Sec. 241 (2) HGB)

3 months prior/2 months after the period Statistical sampling methods 
(Sec. 241 (3) HGB) (Sec. 241 (1) HGB)

20 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Difference between inventory and balance sheet

Inventory and balance sheet

Inventory record Balance sheet

Presentation Staggered form Account form

Content Quantities and values Values

Assets  Assets 
Key terms ./. Liabilities  ./. Debt 
= Net assets = Equity

Sec. 242 (1) HGB: When starting a business and at the end of each financial year, all
merchants shall prepare financial statements (opening balance sheet, balance sheet)
presenting the relationship between their assets and debt.

21 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

The simplest balance sheet

Disposition of funds Source of funds

Assets Anlagevermögen Balance Sheet Equity & Debt

Fixed assets Equity 
(long‐term) (Net assets)

Current assets Debt
(short‐term) („from third parties“)

Balance sheet classification for corporations, acc. to Sec 266 (1) HGB: 
[…] On the assets side, large and medium‐sized corporations shall include, separately and in the 
required order, the headings shown in subsection (2) below, and on the equity and debt side the 
headings shown in subsection (3) below. Small corporations need only to prepare a condensed balance 
sheet in which only those items designated by letters and Roman numerals in subsections (2) and (3) 
below are presented separately and in the required order. […]
22 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Balance sheet in more detail

Balance sheet classification acc. to Sec. 266 HGB

The asset side (condensed form)
A   Fixed assets B   Current assets
I. Intangible fixed assets I. Inventories
II. Tangible fixed assets  Raw materials, consumables, and supplies
 Land and buildings  Work in progress
 Finished goods and merchandise
 Technical equipment + machinery  Prepayments
 Other equipment, operating  II. Receivables and other assets
and office equipment  Trade receivables
 Prepayments and assets   Receivables from affiliated companies
under construction  Other assets
III. Long‐term financial assets III. Securities
 Shares/Loans to affiliated companies IV. Bank balances and cash‐in‐hand
 Other long‐term equity investments C   Prepaid expenses
 Long‐term securities D   Deferred tax assets
23 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Balance sheet in more detail

Balance sheet classification acc. to Sec. 266 HGB

The equity & debt side (condensed form)
A   Equity C   Liabilities
I. Subscribed capital 1. Bonds
II.Capital reserves 2. Liabilities to banks
III.
Revenue reserves 3. Payments received on account of orders
IV.Retained profits/Accumulated losses  4. Trade payables
brought forward 5.‐8. Other liabilities
V. Net income/Net loss for the financial year
D   Deferred income
B   Provisions E    Deferred tax liabilities
1. Provisions for pensions and similar 
obligations
2. Provisions for taxes
3. Other provisions
24 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
From inventory to balance sheet

Assets Balance sheet as of 2019/12/31                Equity & Debt  
A.  Fixed assets A.  Equity
• Tangible fixed assets
B.  Provisions
B.  Current assets
• Inventories C.  Liabilities 
• Receivables • Liabilities to banks
• Cash and  • Trade payables
bank accounts

Inventory of the Computer GmbH as of 2019/12/31
• 2x desks à 500 €  =  1,000 €
• 2x cupboards à 1,000 € =  2,000 € • Billings not yet paid by the customers  3,500 € 
• 1x PC in use à 1,000 €  =  1,000 € • Bank account  5,000 €
• 1x car à 8,000 € =  8,000 €  • Cash 1,000 €
• 10x PC on stock à 1,200 € = 12,000 € • Billings not yet paid to the suppliers  3,000 €
• 10x TFTs à 200 € =  2,000 €  • Loan 10,000 €
25 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Equity

Accounting for equity in a nutshell

• Equity has to be distinguished from debt
– Equity is what remains after subtracting all debt (provisions and liabilities) 
from the assets (residual approach)
– Thus, equity represents the net assets attributable to the owners, 
recognized and measured under the corresponding GAAP
• Individual jurisdiction might elaborate on subclasses of equity
(e.g., subscribed capital, reserves, earnings)
• Equity can be negative

28 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Exercise

Example 1: Preparation of a balance sheet

Consider the following transactions at the foundation of the Smart and Partner 
GmbH (S+P) in 2019, owned by Mr. Miller. 
1. Mr. Miller contributes € 100,000 in cash to the new company.
2. S+P buys a plot of land for € 50,000 in cash.
3. S+P buys desks in the value of € 10,000 on account.
4. S+P creates a report for a customer and gets a payment of € 20,000 in cash.
5. S+P takes out a loan in the amount of € 60,000. The money will be transferred 
to the company account at the “Happy and Easy” bank.
6. S+P pays rent for a warehouse in the amount of € 1,000 by bank transfer.

How do you bookkeep these transactions? Please prepare the balance sheet!
29 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Wrap‐up of Lesson 2

Questions for self‐review

• What is an inventory? And how do you record it?
• What is the structure of a balance sheet?
• Can you find a simple explanation of “assets” and “liabilities”?
• What is equity and how is it determined for accounting purposes?
• Why do total assets always match total equity & debt 
on the balance sheet?

30 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Agenda

3rd Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Introduction of T‐Accounts
• Know what “debit” and “credit” is all about
• Organizing accounts: Chart of accounts
• The closing procedure: Opening and closing accounts
31 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

The term “Account” in the context of the balance sheet

Assets (disposition of funds) + 50,000 € (Increase Account “Property”) 


Passiva (Schulden/ Mittelherkunft)   
Account 
Fixed assets Eigenkapital
Property
 Property
T‐Account
+ -
 Office equipment
50,000

‐ 50,000 € (Decrease Account “Cash”) 
Account 
Current assets Cash
 Accounts receivable + - T‐Account
 Cash 50,000

 Bank account
Verbindlichkeit/Example
Fremdkapital

Total assets S+P GmbH buys a property (50,000 € cash).
Bilanzsumme (BS)

32 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


The term “Account” in the context of the balance sheet

Assets (disposition of funds) Equity & Debt (source of funds)


Fixed assets Equity
Account  Account
Property Equity
+ - - +
50,000 10,000

Current assets
Account
Cash
Example
+ -
10,000 50,000 Mr. Miller contributes 10,000 € to the 
Verbindlichkeit/ Fremdkapital
entity in cash.
Total assets Bilanzsumme (BS)

33 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

The term “Account”: Debit and Credit entries

Assets (disposition of funds) Equity & Debt (source of funds)


Equity
Account Account
Property Equity
+ - - +

Increase Decrease Decrease Increase

Debit Credit Debit Credit

Debt
The terms “Debit” and “Credit” 
are labels for the left and the right side of an account.
34 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Nature of an account

Different types of accounts in the balance sheet

Asset account Equity & Debt account
• Increases are accounted for on the  • Increases are accounted for on the 
debit side of the account (left) credit side of the account (right)
• Decreases are accounted for on the  • Decreases are accounted for on the 
credit side of the account (right) debit side of the account (left)
• Opening balance (usually) is a 
• Opening balance (usually) is a 
credit entry
debit entry

Debit (+) Asset account     Credit (‐) Debit (‐)        E&D account      Credit (+)


Opening balance Decreases Decreases Opening balance
Increases Closing balance (Net) Closing balance (Net) Increases
35 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Organizing accounts

Using a chart of accounts

A chart of accounts represents a complete list of accounts that 
may arise in financial accounting of an entity.
For industrial businesses, there are two commonly used types of 
charts of accounts:
Your material 
• Accounts sorted by function and process is based on 
accounts by 
• Accounts sorted by balance sheet items
function

Purpose: Unique coding and structuring of accounts

36 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Organising accounts

Take a look at traditional examples and “The World of DATEV”

• German example for sorting by function and process
– Gemeinschaftskontenrahmen der Industrie (GKR): Introduced by the 
Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie e.V. (BDI) in 1948/49
• German example for sorting by balance sheet items
– Industriekontenrahmen (IKR), followed the GKR in 1971
• Modern standard chart of accounts “The World of DATEV”
– www.datev.de/web/de/m/ueber‐datev/datev‐im‐web/datev‐von‐a‐z/
skr‐standard‐kontenrahmen

37 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Closing the accounts

System of financial accounting: From bookkeeping to balance sheet
Opening balance
Opening balance account = Prior year closing balance (PYCB)
(Carry forward) (Aggregation of individual accounts  
to balance sheet items)

Balance sheet accounts
We consciously consider
the equity account at this point 
Asset accounts E & D accounts in a very simplified form! 
In the next lecture, 
we will have a closer 
look at this account.
Equity account

Closing balance
Closing balance account = Next year opening balance 
(Aggregation of individual accounts  
(Carry forward next year) to balance sheet items)
38 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Exercise

Example 2: Preparation of a balance sheet – Part 2 

Prepare the opening balances of the individual accounts on the basis of the
balance sheet as of 2019/01/01.

Assets Balance sheet Equity & Debt   


Property 50,000 Equity 119,000

Office equipment 10,000 Liabilities to banks 60,000

Trade receivables Trade payables 10,000

Cash 70,000

Bank account Happy and Easy 59,000

Total assets:  Σ 189,000 Total equity & debt: Σ 189,000

39 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Exercise

Example 2: Preparation of a balance sheet – Part 2 

Consider the business transactions of Smart and Partner GmbH, which occur in the course of the year 
2019. Post the transactions in T‐accounts.
1. Mr. Miller contributes another € 15,000 in cash to the new company.
2. S+P buys a plot of land for € 30,000 in cash.
3. S+P buys PCs on account, € 20,000.
4. S+P creates a report for a customer for a payment of € 10,000 in cash.
5. S+P takes out another loan in the amount of € 30,000. The money will be transferred to the 
company account at the “Happy and Easy” bank.
6. S+P pays salaries of € 2,000 by bank transfer.
7. S+P creates another report for a customer on account for a fee of € 17,000.
8. The invoice of transaction 7 is paid by bank transfer.
Prepare the closing balances of the individual accounts. What does the balance sheet as of 2019/12/31 
look like?
40 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Wrap‐up of Lesson 3

Questions for self‐review

• What is a chart of accounts? Why do we use it?
• What is a T‐account? 
• How do you post increases and decreases of items to the 
individual accounts?
• What does “debit” and “credit” mean?

41 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Agenda

4th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Journalizing business transactions and posting journal entries
• The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions
• Understand double‐entry bookkeeping
• Taking a closer look at equity: Income and expense
42 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Journalize each transaction

Booking entry / Journal entry / Accounting record

Example:  Assets
A trade receivable (€ 100) is settled  14 Trade receivables Debit (+) Credit (‐)
by a customer by bank transfer. 
100
What does the booking entry look like?
11 Bank Debit (+) Credit (‐)
Debit Credit

(11) Bank  100 100


(14) Trade receivables 100

Booking entry: Debit (11) Bank 100, Credit (14) Trade receivables 100

Booking entry = written instruction for posting a business transaction
43 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Journalize each transaction

Steps in the Posting Process

1 Which accounts are affected?  Assets Equity & Debt

What are their account No.? Assets Equity


Debit (+) Credit (-) Debit (-) Credit (+)

2 Where do I expect the accounts in the BS?
Debt
(Asset acount or equity & debt account) Debit (+) Credit (-) Debit (-) Credit (+)

3 How are these accounts affected? 
(Increase oder decrease? / Debit or credit?)

4 What does the booking entry look like? ... ............... / ... .............. ........


(No. Description     No. Description             Amount)

(Posting „Debit … Credit …“)
Account, on which a Account, on which a
DEBIT‐Entry CREDIT‐Entry
is posted is posted

44 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Posting of journal entries

The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions

1. Accounting exchange on the asset side: One (or more) assets account(s) 
increase(s), one (or more) other assets account decrease(s). 
Total assets and total equity & debt remain unchanged.

Example:  Assets
A trade receivable (€ 100) is settled  14 Trade receivables Debit (+) Credit (‐)
by a customer by bank transfer. 
100
What does the booking entry look like?
11 Bank Debit (+) Credit (‐)
Debit Credit
(11) Bank 100 100
(14) Trade Receivables  100
Total assets unchanged.

45 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Posting of journal entries

The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions

2. Accounting exchange on the equity & debt side: One (or more) E & D account(s) 
increase(s), one (or more) other E & D account decrease(s). 
Total assets and total equity & debt remain unchanged.

Example:  Equity & Debt
A convertible bond (€ 100) is converted  07 Equity Debit (‐) Credit (+)
from debt to equity. What does the 
100
booking entry look like?
06 Debt Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit Credit
(06) Debt 100 100
(07) Equity 100
Total equity & debt unchanged.

46 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Posting of journal entries

The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions

3. Balance sheet extension: One (or more) assets account(s) increase(s), 
one (or more) equity & debt account increase(s). 
Total assets and total equity & debt increase.

Example:  Assets E & D


Purchase of a machinery (€ 100)  01 Machinery                     16 Trade Payables
on account. What does the  Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
booking entry look like?
100 100
Debit Credit
(01) Machinery 100
(16) Trade Payables  100
Total assets and total E & D increase.

47 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Posting of journal entries

The four basic types of bookkeeping transactions

4. Balance sheet contraction: One (or more) assets account(s) decrease(s), 
one (or more) equity & debt account decrease(s). 
Total assets and total equity & debt decrease.

Example:  Assets E & D


Payment of an invoice (€ 100)  11 Bank                     16 Trade Payables
by bank transfer. What does the  Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
booking entry look like?
100 100
Debit Credit
(16) Trade Payables 100
(11) Bank 100
Total assets and total E & D decrease.

48 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Recap Lesson 1

Recap: A student‘s “balance sheet”

Assets Equity & Debt
in € 19/12/31 20/03/31 in € 19/12/31 20/03/31
Fixed assets 11,000 11,000 Equity 8,647 8,377
Computer 3,000 2,600
Clothes 2,000 2,400
Household appliance 5,000 5,000 Debt 7,500 7,400
Literature 1,000 1,000 Bank loan 3,000 2,500
Current assets 5,147 4,777 Parents loan 4,500 4,500
Frozen food 50 60 Accounts payable 0 400
Cigarettes 40 20
Bank account 2,000 2,390
Cash 57 57
Prepaid rent 3,000 2,250
Total assets 16,147 15,777 Total equity & debt 16,147 15,777

49 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

What is an income statement?

Introducing a corresponding profit and loss (P&L) statement

20/01/01 – 20/03/31
in €
Revenue (Job) 1,600
Personnel expenses (Food) ‐600
Material expenses (Cigarettes) ‐120
Depreciation (Computer) ‐400
Other operating income (Sales on ebay) +300
Other operating expenses (Rent) ‐750
Operating income 30
Interest expense (Loan) ‐100
Income taxes ‐200
Loss for the period ‐270

50 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Accounting dualism

The accounting dualism

Dualism

Two ways 
Double‐entry  to determine 
bookkeeping financial 
performance

Accounting  Balance sheet: 
Balance sheet: Income statement:
equation:  Compare total 
Total assets =  Summarize income 
Debit entry =  assets and total 
Total equity & debt and expenses 
Credit entry equity & debt

51 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Accounting terms

Performances in financial accounting Management Accounting

Cash inflow Receipts Income  Performance


Immediate cash inflow 
Measured effective 
or  Income for the period 
Inflow of cash and  creation/sale
increased receivables  in the ordinary course 
cash equivalents of goods
or  of business
in the period
decreased payables

Cash outflow Spending Expenditure Cost


Immediate cash outflow 
or  Measured effective  Expenses for the 
Outflow of cash and 
increased payables  consumption of goods  period in the ordinary 
cash equivalents
or  in the period course of business
decreased receivables

52 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Recap of lecture 3

System of financial accounting: From bookkeeping to balance sheet
Opening balance
Opening balance account = Prior year closing balance (PYCB)
(Carry forward) (Aggregation of individual accounts  
to balance sheet items)

Balance sheet accounts
Income statement accounts

Asset accounts E & D accounts Expenditure accounts Income accounts

Equity account P&L account
Closing balance
Closing balance account = Next year opening balance 
(Aggregation of individual accounts  
(Carry forward next year) to balance sheet items)
53 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Introducing income statement accounts

Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts

• Income represents an economic  Equity account


benefit whereas expenses represent 
an economic disadvantage for the  Income statement accounts
owners of the reporting entity
• Profit (or Loss) = Income less expenses 
(residual economic benefit attributable  Expenditure accounts Income accounts
to the owners of the reporting entity) 
• Profits increase equity whereas losses 
decrease equity P&L account

• Income‐ and expenditure accounts are sub‐accounts of equity.
• Therefore they are shown on the right‐hand side of the balance sheet.
• A debit entry for an expense account is reducing equity.
54 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Posting journal entries on income statement accounts

Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts

Debit (‐)                   Expenditure account Credit (+)   

Reimbursements and  
Individual expenses corrections

Total expenses (Net)

Debit (‐)                   Income account Credit (+)   

Reimbursements and  
corrections Individual income and revenues

Total income (Net)
55 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Equity and income statement accounts

Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity P&L account

Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)

O. Balance Expense
C. Balance Income
P&L C. Balance

Expenditure accounts Income accounts

Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)

Expense C. Balance
C. Balance Income

Debt
56 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Equity and income statement accounts

Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity
10 Cash
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
50 100
100 50

Transaction 1 Transaction 2
Owner contributes 100 € of  Owner takes 50 € from the 
his own money to the petty  petty cash of the entity.
cash of the entity. Liabilities
57 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Equity and income statement accounts

Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity
10 Cash
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
50 100
100 50
200 100

Transaction 4 Expenditure accounts Income accounts

Entity pays a rent in cash: 100 € Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)

100 200
Transaction 3
Entity gets 200 € in cash 
for services provided.  Debt
58 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Equity and income statement accounts

Interaction between equity, P&L and income statement accounts
Assets Equity & Debt
Fixed assets Equity
Current assets
07 Equity P&L account
10 Cash
Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
50 100 100 200
100 50 100 100
150
200 100

Expenditure accounts Income accounts

Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)

100 100 200 200

Financial Statements
Calculate Profit or Loss Debt
59 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Transactions with Shareholders

Retained earnings, dividends and contributions by the entity‘s owners

• Profits increase and losses decrease the equity of the reporting entity; 
if profits are not paid out to the owners, they are summarized as 
“retained earnings” or “reserves” as a separate line within equity
• Dividends to or capital contributions from the owners 
decrease/increase the equity without representing a profit or loss
– Transactions by a shareholder in his/her capacity as a shareholder
– In case of a German partnership: Separate equity accounts for each owner 
(no. 19 “Private account”) as pre‐accounts of no. 7 “Equity”
– Business transactions with owners are treated as business as usual

60 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Exercise

Example 3: Income statement accounts and posting journal entries

Consider the following business transactions of Smart and Partner GmbH, owned by Mr. Miller. 
Equity of S+P at the beginning of 2019 amounts to € 12,000. S+P has cash of € 2,000 and a bank account 
amounting to € 10,000. Visualize all T‐accounts and post the journal entries.
1. S+P rents an office for € 600, payment by bank transfer.
2. S+P pays salaries of € 8,000 by bank transfer.
3. S+P gets invoices about the membership fee of € 500 from the Consulting Association 
due date for payment: 14 days later
4. S+P creates a report for a customer for a payment of € 25,000 in cash.
5. S+P creates another report for a customer on account for a fee of € 2,000.
6. Mr. Miller takes € 1,500 from the petty cash.
Determine the Profit for the Year by closing the income statement accounts. 
What does S+P’s equity amount to at year‐end 2019?

61 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Wrap‐up of Lesson 4

Questions for self‐review

• What is a journal entry?
• Which are the basic types of bookkeeping transactions?
• What are the key steps in the posting process of a journal entry?
• What is the difference between cash and income?
• How do the terms “Income”/“Expense”, “Profit”/“Loss” and 
“Equity” interact?
• How do you treat transactions with shareholders in their capacity 
as shareholders?

62 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Agenda

5th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Purchase of inventories and inventory changes
• Sale of trading goods
• How to consider the production process of goods
• Presentation of inventory transactions in the P&L statement
63 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Overview

Three types of transactions with inventories

1. Purchase  Raw material
of inventories Purchase price

2. Sale of
purchased Trading goods
Purchase price Trading goods
inventories Selling price
Margin

3. Sale of 
Raw material
produced Production
Purchase price Finished goods
inventories Production cost
Selling price
Margin
Labor
Machinery Sales process
64 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
1. Purchase of inventories

Changes in inventories (asset‐driven approach)
Assets Equity & Debt

30 Raw material
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
OB 100 600 (3)
1,000 (1) CB 500 (2)

10 Cash 40 Cost of raw material

Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)


OB 2,000 1,000 (1) 600 (3) CB 600
CB 1,000

Transaction (1) Inventory record (2) Closing (3)


Purchase: Raw material of  Changes in raw material  Posting the change of 
100 pieces times 10 €, cash to 50 pieces times 10 € raw materials inventories
65 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

1. Purchase of inventories

Changes in inventories (expense‐driven approach)
Assets Equity & Debt

30 Raw material
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
OB 100
400 (3) CB 500 (2)

10 Cash 40 Cost of raw material

Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)


OB 2,000 1,000 (1) 1,000 (1) 400 (3)
CB 1,000 CB 600

Transaction (1) Inventory record (2) Closing (3)


Purchase: Raw material of  Changes in raw material  Posting the change of 
100 pieces times 10 €, cash to 50 pieces times 10 € raw materials inventories
66 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
2. Sale of purchased inventories

Purchase and sale of trading goods
Assets Equity & Debt

39 Merchandise inventories 85 Sales of merchandise

Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)


OB 100 1,000 (3) 1,500 (2)
2,000 (1) CB 1,100

10 Cash 14 Tr. receivables Expenditure account (4X) 

Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)


OB 3,000 2,000 (1) 1,500 (2) 1,000 (3)

Transaction (1) Transaction (2) Closing/Inventory r. (3)


Purchase: Merchandise of  Sale: Merchandise of 100  Posting the reduction of 
200 pieces times 10 €, cash pieces for 15 €, on account merchandise inventories
67 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

2. Sale of purchased inventories

Journal entry: Purchase of trading goods

1. Buying trading goods,  Assets     E & D


6,000 € on account
39 Merchandise inv. 16 Trade payables
Debit Credit
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
39 Merchan‐ 6,000 16 Trade  6,000
6,000 6,000
dise invent. payables

Journal entry: Sale of trading goods

2. Selling trading goods,  Assets     E & D


10,000 € on account
14 Trade receivables 85 Sales of merchandise
Debit Credit Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
14 Trade  10,000 85 Sales of  10,000
10,000 10,000
receivables merchandise
68 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
2. Sale of purchased inventories

Purchase and Sale of trading goods (P&L closing)

39   Merchandise inventories 85 Sales of merchandise
OB 2,000 1,000 CB

Purchase of Cost of Sales of


goods 6,000 7,000 sales CB 10,000 10,000 goods
8,000 8,000 10,000 10,000

Asset‐driven approach:  1) 989 P&L 2)


Inventory adjustment 
Cost of Trade
is done at end of period
sales 7,000 10,000 revenues

Net amount:
Profit 3,000

10,000 10,000

69 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

3. Sale of produced inventories

Brainstorming: How to read a profit & loss statement 

• From what we have learned so far, a P&L account should faithfully 
represent the financial performance of an entity also in the 
following cases:
1. A company purchases raw material (purchase costs), 
uses them to produce goods (production costs), and sells the goods
The costs (purchase costs + production costs)
should be covered by the revenues (revenues > costs)
2. A company purchases raw material (purchase costs), 
uses them to produce goods (production costs), and keeps the goods 
as inventories (either “work in progress” or “finished goods”)
How is the value creation (covering all costs) reflected 
on the balance sheet?
70 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
3. Sale of produced inventories

78 WIP 79 FG
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (+) Credit (‐)
OB 12,000 CB 10,000 2 OB 22,000 CB 30,000
Ch 2,000  Ch 8,000 
1

89 Changes in WIP & FG 98 P&L
Debit (‐) Credit (+) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
WIP 2,000 FG 8,000 Ch 6,000
P&L 6,000  3

The amounts of work in progress (WIP) and finished goods (FG) are accounted for on separate
accounts (GKR class 7). They include costs related to the production process, e.g.:
• Consumption of raw materials, consumables and supplies
• Personnel expenses and other general and administrative expenses
• Depreciation for fixed production assets
Changes in the amounts of WIP and FG from the beginning to the end of the period are accounted
for as income or expense.
71 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Wrap‐up of Lesson 5

Questions for self‐review

• How do you account for changes in raw material and merchandise 
inventories?
• Why is no journal entry immediately posted to a merchandise 
inventory account after a sales transaction?
• What are the specific accounting treatments for changes in 
work in progress and finished goods?
• How far does the account “Changes in WIP & FG” accurately reflect 
the real P&L situation?

72 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Agenda

6th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Introduction of the German and EU VAT system
• Posting journal entries for purchases and sales with VAT
• Calculate and book a monthly VAT payment charge

73 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

VAT principle

Value added taxation of the purchase and sale of goods

Purchase Sale

Incoming invoice Outgoing invoice
Purchase price:  100 € Sales price:  300 €
VAT 19 % : 19 € VAT 19 % : 57 €
Amount payable:   119 € Amount receivable:  357 €

Net purchase price 
Gross amount to be paid Net sales price

Taxation of the Value added (e.g. 19 %)
Tax authorities get:
Value added = Net sales price minus Net purchase price 200 € x 19 % = 38 €
Value added = 300 minus 100 = 200
74 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Excursus: German/EU VAT background

Legal environment

• European Law
– Council Directive 2006/112/EC of November 28, 2006 on the common 
system of value added tax
– For more: www.europa.eu/legislation_summaries/taxation/l31057_en.htm
• German Law
– The legal sources of VAT taxation are:
• Value Added Tax Act (VATA)
• Implementing Value Added Tax Regulation
• Value Added Tax Guidelines
• Directives of tax authorities
75 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Excursus: German/EU VAT background

Scope

• Taxable persons and entities: Entrepreneur
– The term “entrepreneur” in the meaning of the VATA means 
natural persons and/or corporate bodies that 
• perform a commercial or professional activity on an independent basis
• on a continuous basis
• in order to achieve income (not necessarily profits)
• Taxable transactions: Turnovers
– Turnovers in the meaning of the VATA include:
• Supplies, other services, importation, intra‐Community (EU) purchases 
(not supplies!)
76 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Excursus: German/EU VAT background

Amount of VAT

• Taxable Amount
– Consideration received, i.e. everything spent by a recipient of a 
performance in order to obtain the performance, however, 
minus the value added tax.
– For importations, the taxable amount is based on the customs value.
• Tax Rate
– The standard tax rate in Germany is 19%. 
– However, quite a lot of transactions are eligible to a reduced rate of 7%. 
(e.g. food products, print media, works of art and cultural performances 
(listed in Annex 2 to the VATA)).
77 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Excursus: German/EU VAT background

Input VAT and Invoices

• An entrepreneur gets VAT 
refunded, paid for:
Requirement: Existing invoice
– supplies and other services 
provided by another entrepreneur
Invoices must contain the following information:
– importations • Name and address of the performing entrepreneur 
and of the recipient of the performance;
• the performing entrepreneur’s tax number or, 
– intra‐Community (EU) purchases if applicable, value added tax identification number;
• the date of issue;
• quantity and type (customary commercial 
description) of the goods supplied or volume 
and type of the other service;
• the time of supply or service;
• the consideration, listed according to tax rates and 
applicable tax exemptions; and
• the applicable tax rate and tax amount relating to 
the consideration or information about an 
applicable tax exemption.

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Excursus: German/EU VAT background

VAT exemptions and options

• Tax Exemptions
– In particular, for the following transactions:
• financial services (banking, insurance, investment services etc.)
• letting and sale of real estate
• medical services
• school and educational services
• Optional Taxation
– Option is granted, in particular, for certain services related to 
real estate and financial services. The option can be exercised for 
each individual turnover.
79 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

VAT payment charge

Value added taxation of the purchase and sale of goods

Purchase Sale

Incoming invoice Outgoing invoice
Purchase price:  100 € Sales price:  300 €
VAT 19 % : 19 € VAT 19 % : 57 €
Amount payable:   119 € Amount receivable:  357 €

From the buying perspective, the value‐added tax (VAT) is a tax on the purchase price/initial value 
of the good. From the selling perspective, it is a tax on the value added to the product, material, 
or service, as the tax on the initial value of the good is refunded (and instead paid by the supplier).

The manufacturer remits to the government the difference between these two amounts, 
and retains the rest for themselves to offset the taxes they had previously paid on the inputs.
VAT receivable (+): 19 €  VAT payable (–): 57 € Net VAT payment: ‐38 

80 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


VAT calculation

Example VAT Calculation (VAT 10%)

Net amount
/ (1 + Tax rate) =  10,000
/ 1.1 =  * (Tax rate) =
VAT
* 0.1 =
1,000

Gross amount 
(Amount payable/receivable) * (1 + Tax rate) = 
11,000 * 1.1 = 

81 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Closing VAT accounts

Two different cases

Case 1:  VAT > input VAT (Base case) Case 2: VAT <  input VAT
There is a tax payable (VAT payment charge). There is a tax receivable (VAT credit).

1. CB of Acc. No. 154 “Input VAT”  1. CB of Acc. No. 174 “VAT” is transferred 
is transferred to Acc. No. 174 “VAT”: to Acc. No. 154 “Input VAT”:
• D  174 VAT  • D  174 VAT 
Cr 154 Input VAT Cr 154 Input VAT
2. Closing Acc. No. 174 “VAT”: 2. Closing Acc. No. 154 “Input VAT”:
• D  174 VAT  • D    15 Other receivables
Cr   17 Other payables Cr 154 Input VAT
3. Bank transfer to the tax authorities: 3. Reimbursement by the tax authorities
• D   17 Other payables  • D  11 Bank
Cr  11 Bank Cr 15 Other receivables

82 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Exercise

Example 4.1: Posting VAT journal entries

You are a young entrepreneur and consider the following business transactions. 
Please prepare the journal entries and T‐accounts. (Assumption: VAT 10%)
1. You buy trading goods, net purchase price 6,000 € on account.
2. You sell trading goods, net selling price 10,000 € in cash.
3. At the end of the month, you calculate the VAT payable to the tax authorities. 
4. Three days later, you settle the VAT payable by bank transfer.

83 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Exercise

Example 4.2: Booking and closing VAT accounts

Consider further business transactions of Smart and Partner GmbH, which 
occurred in October 2019. Post the transactions in T‐accounts and prepare 
the journal entries. (Assumption: VAT 10%)
1. Mr. Miller contributes € 100,000 in cash to the company.
2. S+P buys a plot of land  for € 50,000 by bank transfer.
3. S+P buys PCs on account, for a net amount of € 10,000.
4. S+P creates a report for a customer for a payment of net € 20,000 in cash.
5. S+P takes out another loan in the amount of € 50,000 (cash).
6. Determine the total VAT payable and close the VAT accounts.
7. S+P pays the resulting VAT payable by bank transfer.

84 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Wrap‐up of Lesson 6

Questions for self‐review

• Please explain the core German/EU Value Added Tax principles.
• What is the difference between VAT and input VAT?
• How do you calculate and account for the monthly VAT payment 
charge? How do you close the VAT accounts?

85 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Agenda

7th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Recap accounting for transactions with inventories and VAT
• Accounting for credit vouchers and returns
• Accounting for sales discounts
• Accounting for cash discounts
86 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Transactions with inventories

Dealing with revenue adjustments

• Three types of transactions considered so far:
– Purchase of raw materials
– Sale of trading goods
– Sale of produced goods
• Now to consider
– Credit vouchers/returns
– Price reductions (sales discount, cash discount, bonus)
• Also to consider:
– Incidental acquisition expenses (e.g., assembly, freight charge)
– Selling expenses (e.g., promotion, marketing, freight charge)

87 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Credit vouchers / returns

Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Purchase)

• Purchase of raw materials (100 pieces times 10 € net) on account

Assets     E & D
30 Raw material 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
1,000 1,100
30 Raw  1,000 16 Trade  1,100
Material payables 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input  100 100
VAT

88 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Credit vouchers / returns

Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Purchase)

• Getting a credit note for the purchased raw materials (100 € net)

Assets     E & D
30 Raw material 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
100 110
16 Trade  110 30 Raw  100
payables Material 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input  10 10
VAT

89 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Credit vouchers / returns

Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Sale)

• Sale of goods (200 pieces times 10 €) on account

Assets     E & D
14 Trade receivables 83 Sales of goods
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
2,200 2,000
14 Trade  2,200 80 Sales of 2,000
receivables goods 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 200 200

90 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Credit vouchers / returns

Journal entries when considering a pay back / credit voucher (Sale)

• Granting a credit note for the goods sold (100 € net)

Assets     E & D
14 Trade receivables 88 Rev. reversals
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
110 100
88 Rev. 100 14 Trade  110
reversals receivables 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 10 10

91 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Price reductions

Overview of price reductions

Cash discount Bonus
Sale Customer cash discount Customer bonus
Purchase Supplier cash discount Supplier bonus

• Bonuses are price reductions granted after the billing process, 
e.g., when the client exceeds a specific amount of revenue 
• Cash discounts are also price reductions granted after the billing process, 
but only if the invoice is paid within a certain period of time
• In contrast, sales discounts are granted/advertised prior to the billing 
process as a spontaneous incentive to buy

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Bonus

Example: 10% Bonus after a purchase (10% VAT) 

Purchase price Discount Discount  Adjusted 


[€] [%] [€] purchase price [€]
Raw material
10,000 € 10 %  1,000 € 9,000 €
(net amount)

VAT 1,000 € 10 % 100 € 900 €

Raw material 
11,000 € 10 % 1,100 € 9,900 €
(gross amount)

Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the discount
D    30 Raw material € 10,000 D    16 Trade payables  € 1,100
D 154 Input VAT € 1,000 Cr   30 Raw material   € 1,000
Cr 16 Trade payables  € 11,000 Cr 154 Input VAT € 100
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Bonus

Example: 10% Bonus after a sale (10% VAT) 

Selling price Discount Discount  Adjusted selling price 


[€] [%] [€] [€]
Trading goods 
10,000 € 10 %  1,000 € 9,000 €
(net amount)

VAT 1,000 € 10 % 100 € 900 €

Trading goods 
11,000 € 10 % 1,100 € 9,900 €
(gross amount)

Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the discount
D 14 Trade receivables € 11,000 D   88 Revenue reversals € 1,000
Cr 85 Sales of merchandise € 10,000 D 174 Payables from VAT € 100
Cr 174 Payables from VAT € 1,000 Cr  14 Trade receivables € 1,100
94 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Bonus

Journal entries when considering a bonus (Purchase)

• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards getting a 5% bonus

Assets     E & D
39 Trading goods 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
10,000 11,000
39 Trading 10,000 16 Trade  11,000
goods payables 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 1,000 1,000
VAT

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Bonus

Journal entries when considering a bonus (Purchase)

• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards getting a 5% bonus

Assets     E & D
39 Trading goods 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
500 550
16 Trade  550 39 Trading  500
payables goods 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 50 50
If already paid: 
10/11 Cash/Bank  VAT
or 14/15 Trade or 
other receivables

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Bonus

Journal entries when considering a bonus (Sale)

• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards granting a 5% bonus

Assets     E & D
14 Trade receivables 85 Sales of goods
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
11,000 10,000
14 Trade  11,000 85 Sales of  10,000
receivables goods 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 1,000 1,000

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Bonus

Journal entries when considering a bonus (Sale)

• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Afterwards granting a 5% bonus

Assets     E & D
14 Trade receivables 88 Rev. reversals
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
550 500
88 Rev. 500 14 Trade  550
reversals receivables 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 50 50
If already paid: 
10/11 Cash/Bank 
or 16/17 Trade or 
other payables

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Cash discount

Example: 2% Cash discount after a purchase (10% VAT) 

Purchase price Discount Discount  Adjusted purchase 


[€] [%] [€] price [€]
Raw material
10,000 € 2 %  200 € 9,800 €
(net amount)

VAT 1,000 € 2 % 20 € 980 €

Raw material 
11,000 € 2 % 220 € 10,780 €
(gross amount)

Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the payment
D  30 Raw material € 10,000 D  16 Trade payables  € 11,000
Cr 11 Bank €10,780
D  154 Input VAT € 1,000
Cr 30 Raw material   € 200
Cr  16 Trade payables  € 11,000 Cr 154 Input VAT € 20
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Cash discount

Example: 2% Cash discount after a sale (10% VAT) 

Selling Discount Discount  Adjusted selling price 


price [€] [%] [€] [€]
Trading goods 
10,000 € 2 %  200 € 9,800 €
(net amount)

VAT 1,000 € 2 % 20 € 980 €

Trading goods 
11,000 € 2 % 220 € 10,780 €
(gross amount)

Booking entry for the billing Booking entry for the payment
D  14 Trade receivables € 11,000 D  11 Bank € 10,780
D  88 Revenue reversals € 200
Cr 85 Sales of merchandise € 10,000
D  174 Payables from VAT € 20
Cr 174 Payables from VAT € 1,000 Cr 14 Trade receivables € 11,000
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Cash discount

Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Purchase)

• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 20,000 €) on account
• Getting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (cash)

Assets     E & D
39 Trading goods 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
20,000 22,000
39 Trading 20,000 16 Trade  22,000
goods payables 154 Input VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
154 Input 2,000 2,000
VAT

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Cash discount

Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Purchase)

• Purchase of trading goods (net amount 20,000 €) on account
• Getting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (cash)

Assets     E & D
10 Cash 16 Trade payables
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
20,900 22,000
16 Trade  22,000 10 Cash 20,900
payables 39 Trading goods
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
39 Trading  1,000 1,000
goods
154 Input VAT
154 Input 100 Debit (+) Credit (‐)
VAT 100
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Cash discount

Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Sale)

• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Granting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (bank transfer)

Assets     E & D
14 Trade receivables 85 Sales of goods
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
11,000 10,000
14 Trade  11,000 85 Sales of  10,000
receivables goods 174 VAT
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 VAT 1,000 1,000

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Cash discount

Journal entries when considering a cash discount (Sale)

• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account
• Granting a 5% cash discount if paid within 10 days (bank transfer)

Assets     E & D
11 Bank 88 Rev. reversals
Debit € Credit €
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
10,450 500
11 Bank 10,450 14 Trade  11,000
receivables 14 Trade receivables 174 VAT
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
88 Rev.  500 11,000 50
reversals
174 VAT 50

104 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Exercise

Example 5: Booking discounts

Post the journal entries. (10% VAT)
1. Purchase of raw materials on account, net amount 15,000 €.
2. Sales of trading goods on account, net amount 20,000 €.
3. You pay the bill of No. 1, cash discount 2% by bank transfer.
4. When delivering the goods of No. 2, you pay freight charge of 200 € net in cash.
5. You get a sales bonus on purchased (and paid) raw material of € 1,800 gross. 
The bonus will be paid within 30 days.
6. A customer pays an amount of € 23,520 by bank transfer, settling trade payables 
after considering 2% cash discount

105 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Wrap‐up of Lesson 7

Questions for self‐review

• What are reasons for price reductions and how do you account 
for them (selling side and buying side)?
• Please give examples of selling expenses as well as of incidental 
acquisition expenses.
• What is the difference between a cash discount, a sales discount, 
and a bonus?
• What are the journal entries when getting or granting 
a cash discount?

106 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Agenda

8th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Social security in Germany
• Personal income tax in Germany
• Payroll accounting

107 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Social security in Germany

German Social Security System

• Statutory insurance system
– Provides financial protection against the major life risks
– Basic principles:
• Principle of compulsory insurance
– Mandatory insurances for all employees, except certain groups of people, 
because they are not intended to be covered by some insurances 
(e.g. civil servants, soldiers, persons who reached their regular retirement age)
– Voluntary opting out in certain cases (e.g., private health insurance)
• Principle of financing through contributions
– Financed through contributions paid by employees and employers
– Contribution rates are based on the wage or salary of the employee
• Principle of solidarity
• Principle of self‐government
108 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Social security in Germany

The five branches of social insurance

• Statutory insurances
– Unemployment insurance 
(“Arbeitslosenversicherung”: AV)
– Pension insurance
(“Rentenversicherung”: RV)
– Health insurance
(“Krankenversicherung”: KV)
– Accident insurance
(“Unfallversicherung”: UV)
– Long‐term care insurance  
(“Pflegeversicherung”: PV)

109 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Social security in Germany

Unemployment insurance

• Purpose
– Insures employees’ livelihood in case of unemployment 
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 3.0 % of the contribution assessment basis (employee's 
gross wage or salary [“assessable income”]), 
• Employer and employee each pay one half (1.5 % each)
• Up to a certain contribution assessment ceiling 
(as of 2019: federal states (west) € 6,350 per month / 
federal states (east) € 5,700 per month)
• Organization
– Federal Employment Agency (“Bundesagentur für Arbeit”)
110 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Social security in Germany

Pension insurance 

• Purpose
– Insures members in old age as well as in case of reduced earning 
capacity, and insures, upon an employees' death, 
his/her survivors as well
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 18.7 % of the assessable gross wage or salary
• Employer and employee each pay one half (9.35 % each)
• Same assessment ceiling as for the unemployment insurance
• Organization
– German Pension Insurance (“Deutsche Rentenversicherung”)

111 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Social security in Germany

Health insurance 

• Purpose
– Supports maintenance and restoration of good health and eases 
the financial consequences of illness
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 14.6 % of the assessable gross wage or salary
• Employer pays 7.3 % and employee pays 7.3 % (plus supplement)
• Up to a certain contribution assessment ceiling (as of 2019: € 4,800 per month)
– Individual risk‐based rate in case of voluntary private health insurance 
(option for those who earn more than € 4,800) 
• Organization
– Six types of health insurance funds: AOK, vdek, BKK, IKK, LKK, Knappschaft
112 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Social security in Germany

Long‐term care insurance 

• Purpose
– Provides financial support for those dependent on care and assistance 
from others
• Contribution
– Rate is set at 2.55 % of the assessable gross wage or salary
• Employer and employee each pay one half (except in Saxony)
• Same assessment ceiling as for health insurance
• Childless people, if their minimum age is 23 and their year of birth 
is after 1939, pay an additional premium of 0.25 %
– Individual risk‐based rate in case of voluntary private insurance
• Organization
– Long‐term care insurance under the umbrella of health insurance
113 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Social security in Germany

Accident insurance 

• Purpose
– Helps an employee regain his earning ability after a work‐related accident
• Contribution
– Contribution rates are determined based on expenditures in prior years:
• In contrast to health, long‐term care, pension and unemployment insurance, 
accident insurance is contribution‐free for those insured; 
the costs for insurance coverage are borne by employers 
(depending on the occupational risk) 
• Organisation
– Deutsche Gesetzliche Unfallversicherung (DGUV) 
– Landwirtschaftliche Berufsgenossenschaft
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Personal income tax in Germany

Wages tax

• Legal background: Einkommensteuergesetz (EStG)
• Employee subject to wages tax
– Pay‐as‐you‐earn principle, withholding tax (based on monthly salary), Sec. 38 EStG
– “Monthly estimate” of personal income tax: Allowable against yearly income tax 
(i.e. considered like a tax prepayment)
– Different wage tax classes (I to VI) depending on family status etc.
• Tax base (example for 2019):
Gross salary 12 * € 2,500 = € 30,000
Blanket deduction for income‐related expenses (Sec. 9a EStG) ‐ € 1,000
Provisional lump sum ‐ € 4,653
Blanket allowance for special expenses (Sec. 10, 10a, 10b, 10c EStG) ‐ € 36
Estimated taxable income basis for wage tax € 24,311

– Applicable tax rate calculated under the principles for personal income tax 
(calculation see next slide)
– Result: Wage tax on a yearly basis: € 3,758 (€ 313.16 a month); here: 15.5 %
115 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Personal income tax in Germany

Progressive personal income tax

• Calculation acc. to Sec. 32a EStG for 2019
Taxable income Formula Key
Up to  € 8,652 0
€ 8,653 to € 13,669 (993.62 • y + 1,400) • y y=(taxable income – € 8,652)/10,000
€ 13,670 to € 53,665 (225.40 • z + 2,397) • z + 952.48 z=(taxable income – € 13,669)/10,000
€ 53,666 to € 254,446 0.42 • x – 8,394.14 x=taxable income
More than € 254,446 0.45 • x – 16,027.52 x=taxable income

– Also consider splitting 
for married couples

116 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Personal income tax in Germany

Church taxes and solidarity surcharge

• Church tax
– Contribution to a religious community
– Rate is 8 % or 9 % of the income/wage tax (relevant assessment basis), 
depending on the place of residence
– Considered as part of the wage tax procedure on a monthly basis 
(as well as via the income tax declaration on a yearly basis)
• Solidarity surcharge
– Introduced to finance the Gulf War 1991, later the reunification of Germany: 
Solidaritätszuschlaggesetz (SolzG) 1995
– Levied from all taxpayers on personal tax (also corporation tax)
– Surcharge is currently 5.5 % of the income/wage tax (relevant assessment basis)
– Considered as part of the wage tax procedure on a monthly basis 
(as well as via the income tax declaration on a yearly basis)
117 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Illustrative example

Monthly gross salary € 2.500, unmarried, no children, wage tax class 1, born 1991, protestant, living in Berlin

Employee Employer
• Health insurance  14.60 % (+1.10%)  210.00 € 182.50 €
• LT care insurance  2.55 % (+0.25%) 38.13 € 31.88 €
• Pension insurance  18.70 % 233.75 € 233.75 €
• Unemployment insurance  3.00 % 37.50 € 37.50 €
Social security charges 519.38 € 485.63 €
Subtotal 1,980.62 €
• Wage income tax               12.5264 % 313.16 €
• Church tax                             9.00 % 28.18 €
• Solidarity surcharge            5.50 % 17.22 € 
Total tax and charges 877.94 €
Net salary: 1,622.06 €
118 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Payroll accounting

Payment procedure

• Social security contributions
– Employers submit these contributions as an overall social insurance 
contribution (including the share of the employee) to the health insurance 
fund (collection office); exception: UV (direct payment to the UV carrier); 
the collection offices then forward the contributions designated for other 
insurances to the responsible authorities
• Wage/Income taxes, church tax, solidarity surcharge
– Employee is subject to wage tax, church tax and solidarity surcharge
– However, employer has to calculate, deduct from the monthly salary and 
pay these taxes to the responsible tax authority

119 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Payroll accounting

Which accounts are basically affected?

Expenditure  Balance sheet 
accounts (D) accounts (Cr)

Net salary
10 Cash or 11 Bank
(Payment to employee)
Gross salary
43 Personnel 
expenses Income taxes

Employee‘s social 
insurances share 
17 Other payables
44 Social security Employer‘s social 
and similar costs insurances share 

120 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Exercise

Example 6: Payroll accounting

Post the journal entries.
1. Salary payments by bank transfer: Gross salaries € 33,000, 
income wage taxes € 4,500, church taxes € 400. Social security: 
employee’s and employer’s share € 6,000 each.
2. Salary payments in cash: gross salaries € 22,000, income wage 
taxes € 3,000, church taxes € 250. Social security: employee’s 
and employer’s share € 4,000 each.
3. Payment of social security contributions to the collection office 
on the 10th of the following month by bank transfer.

121 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Wrap‐up of Lesson 8

Questions for self‐review

• Which social security insurances do exist?
• How are social security charges considered when accounting 
for payrolls?
• How do you calculate church taxes?
• What is the solidarity surcharge?
• Which social security insurances are paid solely 
by the employer‘s side?

122 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Agenda

9th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Initial and subsequent measurement of fixed assets
• Nature and extent of purchase‐ and production cost
• Accounting for amortization of fixed assets
• Depreciation methods
123 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Introduction to fixed assets

Starting point

• Fixed assets = property, plant and specific equipment:
– Items that are held
• for use in the production or supply of goods or services,
• for rental to others, or 
• for administrative purposes; and
– are expected to be used during more than one period
– i.e. not transformed, machined or sold during the production process
• Keep them in the balance sheet unchanged?
– Similar question for intangible assets (software, license)

124 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Introduction to fixed assets

Structure of this session

• Initial measurement
– Acquisition of fixed assets
• Purchase costs
– Production of fixed assets
• Production costs
• Subsequent measurement
– Allocation of cost over time: Amortization
– Depreciation methods?

125 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Initial measurement

Purchase costs are…
Purchase costs comprise the expenditures incurred in order to acquire an asset and bring 
it to working condition to the extent that they can be allocated to the specific asset. 
Purchase price reductions shall be deducted.

… also includes incidental expenses 
Any costs directly attributable to bringing the asset to the location and condition 
necessary for it to be capable of operating in the manner intended by management 
including import duties and non‐refundable purchase taxes.

… and subsequent purchase costs
Expenses incurred after the commissioning of the asset for a substantial improvement or 
change in its use purpose.
Do not consider regular maintenance costs (incurred as expense instead).

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Initial measurement

Determine purchase costs

• Example: Purchase of machinery, € 100,000 net. Transportation cost € 1,000, 
transportation insurance € 500. Two weeks later, an IT interface is delivered 
(purchase price € 1,000 net) to control the machine.
• How do you initially measure the machinery at its acquisition date? 
Type of cost Explanation
Purchase price 100,000 €
• Deducting trade discounts e.g. cash discounts, bonuses: € 0

• Directly attributable costs Incidental expenses for transportation: € 1,500

• Subsequent costs Terminal necessary for the machine to be capable of 


operating in the manner intended: € 1,000
=   Total purchase costs € 102,500
127 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Subsequent measurement

Amortization of fixed assets 

Depreciation (scheduled) Impairment (unscheduled)

• Purchase‐ or production cost  • Write down to the lower 


of fixed assets with finite  of cost or market value 
useful lives shall be reduced  if impairment is expected 
by depreciation to be permanent

Predictable, regular development Unforeseeable extraordinary events

Any amortization of an asset reduces its carrying amount and therefore represents an 
economic outflow of resources. Considered as expense in the profit & loss statement.

128 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Subsequent measurement

Regular depreciation charge

• The depreciation (tangible) or amortization (intangible) schedule shall allocate 
the purchase‐ or production cost over the financial years in which the asset 
is expected to be used.
Start when it is available for use
Depreciable amount total costs
defined in terms of the asset’s expected utility
 expected usage (by reference to capacity or physical output)
Useful life  expected physical wear and tear
 technical or commercial obsolescence 
 legal limits

Account for the depreciation charge on expense account: 23 Depreciation (Debit entry) 
Counterpart is a reduced carrying amount of the fixed asset (Account No. 00 – 05)

129 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Subsequent measurement

Depreciation methods

• A depreciation method reflects the pattern in which the asset’s future 
economic benefits are expected to be consumed by the entity
Depreciation method Description Formula
Straight line depreciation Same depreciation is charged over the  Depreciation expense = 
entire useful life. (depreciable amount) / useful Life
Reducing balance depreciation Depreciation expense decreases at a  Depreciation expense = 
constant rate as the life of an asset  (residual depreciable amount) x 
progresses. Rate %
Sum of the year' digits depreciation Depreciation charge declines by a constant  Depreciation expense = 
amount as the life of the asset progresses.  [(un‐depreciated useful life + 1) / 
sum of the years' digits] x 
depreciable amount
Units of production method Depreciation charge varies each period in  Depreciation expense = (value of work 
proportion to the change in level of activity.  certified as complete / total expected 
production or usage) x depreciable amount
Depreciable amount = purchase‐ or production cost – residual value when the asset is sold at the end of the useful life

130 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Subsequent measurement

Illustrative Example

• Illustration based on the following information:
– Cost of fixed asset: € 100,000
(Residual value = 0)
– Useful life: 4 Years 
– Total machine hours: 20,000 
– Rate of depreciation: 40%
(for calculating depreciation
using reducing balance method)

131 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Exercise

Example 7: Amortization of fixed assets

Post the journal entries! (10% VAT)
1. Purchase of a car by bank transfer, given the following information:
• Purchase price:  Gross amount € 132,000 
• Date of purchase:  January 1, 2019
• Useful life of the car:  5 years
Prepare a depreciation schedule on a yearly basis, including the depreciation 
charge and carrying amount of the car at the end of the years 2019 to 2023.
Then post the journal entries for the amortization process until 2023.
Consider two different options of depreciation methods: 
2. Straight line
3. Sum of the years’ digits method

132 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Wrap‐up of Lesson 9

Questions for self‐review

• Please explain the basic concept of amortization.
• What is the difference between depreciation and impairment of 
fixed assets?
• What depreciation methods do you know and what are their differences 
in economic substance?
• Which depreciation method do you think an entity will prefer 
a) to short‐time minimize taxable profits b) to short‐time maximize 
distributable profits to shareholders?
• Does the carrying amount of a regularly depreciated fixed asset 
necessarily reflect its fair value? What might be reasons for or against 
this assumption?
133 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Agenda

10th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Impairment of trade receivables
• Considering VAT adjustments
• Taking into account later settlements of impaired receivables

134 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Impairment of receivables

1 Base Case: Journal entries for the initial sale
• Sale of trading goods (net amount 10,000 €) on account (credit term 30 days)
• No doubt about the collectability in the future
• Date of sale: October 20, 2019
• Seller expects the customer to pay the bill during the granted credit term

Debit € Credit € Assets     E & D


14 Trade receivables 85 Sales of goods
14 Trade  11,000 85 Sales of  10,000 Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
receivables goods 11,000 10,000
174 Payables  1,000 174 VAT
from VAT Debit (‐) Credit (+)
1,000

135 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Impairment of receivables

2 Level 1: Journal entries for a doubtful account receivable 
• Doubts about the future collectability of the trade receivables
• E.g. customer has not paid the bill within the credit term and has liquidity problems
• Reporting date: December 31, 2019
• Separating these doubtful accounts from the other trade receivable, 
just for presentation reasons, no measurement adjustments yet

Debit € Credit € Assets     E & D


14 Trade receivables
14a Doubtful 11,000 14 Trade  11,000 Debit (+) Credit (‐)
debts receivables 11,000

14a Doubtful debts
Debit (+) Credit (‐)
11,000

136 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Impairment of receivables

3 Level 2: Journal entries for a very doubtful account receivable 
• Serious doubts about the future collectability of the trade receivables
• E.g. arranging a settlement out of court with the customer that he will pay 10% only
• Reporting date: December 31, 2019
• Impairment of the doubtful accounts to the amount envisaged in the arrangement
• No VAT adjustments yet

Debit € Credit € Assets     E & D


14a Doubtful debts 48 Imputed costs
48 Imputed 9,000 14a Doubtful 9,000 Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
costs debts 9,000 9,000

Loss in the 
P&L!

137 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Considering VAT adjustments

Adjustments to VAT

• VAT constitutes a liability towards the tax authorities. It is based on the
taxable amount, i.e. the consideration receivable from the customer.
• Doubts about the collectability of this considerations are not sufficient 
to declare a reduced taxable amount towards the tax authorities.
– Liabilities from VAT remain unchanged and impairments of the trade 
receivable are based on its net amount.
• A VAT adjustment is only accepted by tax authorities, if it is virtually 
certain that a certain portion or all of the taxable amount is no longer 
collectable.

138 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Considering VAT adjustments

Adjustments to VAT

• Alternative: The customer’s insolvency proceedings have started 
(in this case, 100% initial write‐down).
• Future adjustment to the taxable amount and the liable VAT might be 
necessary if the initial assessment of the envisaged collectable share 
needs to be changed (e.g. the entity gets a share of its outstanding 
receivables as part of the later insolvency procedures)

139 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Impairment of receivables

4 Level 3: Journal entries for an uncollectable account receivable 
• 100% Assurance about the uncollectability of 90% of the trade receivables
• Customer pays 10% in December 2019 as envisaged in the settlement arrangement
• Reporting date: December 31, 2019
• Write‐off of the uncollectable accounts in the amount lost due to the arrangement
• Adjusting the liable VAT

Debit € Credit € Assets     E & D


11 Bank 174 VAT
11 Bank 1,100 14a Doubtful 2,000 Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
debts 1,100 900
174 Payables 900 14a Doubtful debts
from VAT Debit (+) Credit (‐)
2,000

140 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Impairment of receivables

Summarizing the examples

1 Trade receivables / gross amount: € 11,000

Trade receivables, net amount: € 10,000 VAT € 1,000

2 Trade receivables get doubtful / gross amount: € 11,000

3 90 % impairment 
Based on the net amount of € 10,000 (i.e. € 9,000) VAT € 1,000

4 Customer pays the remaining 10 % as envisaged / VAT reduction of € 900
gross amount: € 1,100  Liable for VAT of € 100

141 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Settlements of impaired receivables

Excursus: Journal entries for a changed uncollectable receivable (–)  
• Surprise: Changed uncollectability of 95% of the trade receivables
• Customer pays 5% in January 2020 which is even less than envisaged in the arrangement
• Reporting date: December 31, 2020
• Write‐off of an additional uncollectable amount of 5%
• Adjusting the liable VAT and considering an operating expense from other accounting periods

Debit € Credit €
Assets     E & D
11 Bank 550 14a Doubtful 2,000
11 Bank 174 VAT
debts
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 Payables 950 550 950 Loss in the 
from VAT P&L!
14a Doubtful debts 26 OpEx. oth. period
26 Oper. Exp.  500
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
other periods
2,000 500

142 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Settlements of impaired receivables

Excursus: Journal entries for a changed uncollectable receivable (+)  
• Surprise: Changed uncollectability of 85% of the trade receivables
• Customer pays 15% in January 2020 which is more than envisaged in the arrangement
• Reporting date: December 31, 2020
• Reversal of a uncollectable amount of 5%
• Adjusting the liable VAT and considering an operating income from other accounting periods

Debit € Credit €
Assets     E & D
11 Bank 1,650 14a Doubtful 2,000
11 Bank 174 VAT
debts
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
174 Payables 850 26 Oper. inc. 500 1,650 850 Gain in the 
from VAT other periods P&L!
14a Doubtful debts 26 OpIn. oth. period
Debit (+) Credit (‐) Debit (‐) Credit (+)
2,000 500

143 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Exercise

Example 8: Doubtful debt and VAT

Post the transactions in T‐accounts and prepare the journal entries (10% VAT) 
for 2019 and 2020.
1. Sales of trading goods as of November 15, 2019 on account to customer Miller, 
net amount € 100,000.
2. As of November 31, 2019, Miller faces some liquidity problems. 
3. As of December 31, 2019, you arrange a settlement out of court with the 
customer that he will pay 50% only.
4. Case 1: As of January 31, 2020, Miller pays 50% by bank transfer as envisaged 
in the settlement arrangement.
5. Case 2: As of January 31, 2020, Miller pays only 10%, i.e. less than envisaged.
6. Case 3: As of January 31, 2020, Miller pays only 80%, i.e. more than envisaged.

144 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Wrap‐up of Lesson 10

Questions for self‐review

• Are impairments relevant for current assets?
In which cases? Why? 
• Please describe how to account for trade receivables 
which become doubtful, need to be impaired and 
are settled to a certain extent in the future?
• What do you need to consider regarding VAT 
in the context of impairment of trade receivables?

145 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Agenda

11th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Introducing provisions
• Recognition‐ and measurement principles
• Accounting for provisions
• Use, change and reversal of provisions
146 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Introduction to provisions

Provisions ...

• … are a specific type of debt
– separate chapter on the debt side of the balance sheet
• … are present obligations of the entity
– of uncertain timing or amount 
– arising from past events
– the settlement of which is expected to result in a financial outflow 
from the entity
• Purpose: To account for the true and fair financial performance of 
the entity for the reporting period

147 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Introduction to provisions

Types of provisions acc. to Sec. 249 HGB

• Provisions for 
1. uncertain obligations
2. expected losses from executory contracts
3. expenses for deferred maintenance
4. expenses for deferred land restoration
5. warranty expenditures 
• Under German GAAP, provisions may not be recognized for other 
reasons

148 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Recognition

1. Provisions for uncertain obligations

• Recognition criteria
– “Certain” probability that the future outflow will occur 
– Obligation towards a third party 
– Reliable estimate of the obligation
– Based on an event before the end of the reporting period

149 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Recognition

2. Provisions for expected losses from executory contracts

• Executory contract = contract in which the rights and obligations of 
both parties have not yet been fulfilled
• Recognition criteria
– Present obligation under a contract…
• in which the unavoidable costs of meeting the obligations under the 
contract exceed the economic benefits expected to be received under it
• Alternatively: The unavoidable costs can be the cost of exiting from the 
contract (if these costs are lower)

150 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Recognition

3. – 5. Other types of provisions 

3. Provisions for deferred maintenance expenses
– if deferred from the financial year to the first three months
of the following year
4. Provisions for deferred land restoration
– if deferred from the financial year to the following year
5. Provisions for warranty expenses
– incurred with or without a contractual obligation

151 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Measurement

Measurement of provisions acc. to Sec. 253 HGB

• Core principle
– Provisions are recognized at the settlement amount dictated by 
prudent business judgement in accordance with the prudence principle
• Long‐term provisions
– Provisions with a maturity of more than one year shall be discounted
using an appropriate market interest rate (under German GAAP, 
this is a seven‐year average interest rate)
• Pensions
– Specific measurement principles apply to provisions for 
post‐employment obligations or similar long‐term obligations
(e.g., specific mathematical procedures for risk capture)
152 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Use, change and reversal of provisions

• Initial recognition of a provision Assets             Equity & Debt


The initial recognition of a provision 
shall be considered in the expenditure  4… Expenditure
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
account reflecting the type of expenses 
X
that are expected to occur in future 
periods from the obligation 08 Provisions
Debit (‐) Credit (+)
X
• Subsequent changes or use
a. A provision shall be used only for expenditures for which the provision was 
originally recognized.
b. Provisions shall be reviewed at the end of each reporting period and 
adjusted to reflect the current best estimate.
c. If it is no longer probable that an outflow of resources embodying economic 
benefits will be required for settlement, the provision shall be reversed.
153 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Journal entries

Provision for income taxes

Please post the journal entry for 2019.
• December 15, 2019: For the current period you expect to pay an additional 
trade income tax of € 3,000 in the course of 2020 
• Mandatory recognition of a provision for uncertain obligations from income 
taxes: 

Year Debit Amount Credit Amount


2019 46 Income taxes  € 3,000 08 Provisions € 3,000

154 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Journal entries

Provision for income taxes

Please post the journal entry for 2020.
• January 15, 2020: The additional trade income tax of € 3,000 is paid in the 
amount as previously estimated
• Use of the provision for uncertain obligations from income taxes for 
expenditures for which the provision was originally recognized: 

Year Debit Amount Credit Amount


2019 46 Income taxes  € 3,000 08 Provisions € 3,000
2020 08 Provisions € 3,000 11 Bank € 3,000

155 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Journal entries

Provision for income taxes

Please post the journal entry for 2020.
• January 15, 2020: An additional trade income tax of € 3,500 is paid in an amount 
higher than previously estimated
• Use of the provision for uncertain obligations from income taxes for 
expenditures for which the provision was originally recognized, 
but actual expenditure are higher than expected!
Year Debit Amount Credit Amount
2019 46 Income taxes  € 3,000 08 Provisions € 3,000
2020 08 Provisions € 3,000 11 Bank € 3,500
26 Operating expense for  € 500
other accounting period

156 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Journal entries

Provision for income taxes

Please post the journal entry for 2020.
• January 15, 2020: An additional trade income tax of € 2,500 is paid in an amount 
lower than previously estimated
• Use of the provision for uncertain obligations from income taxes for 
expenditures for which the provision was originally recognized, 
but actual expenditure are lower than expected!
Year Debit Amount Credit Amount
2019 46 Income taxes  € 3,000 08 Provisions € 3,000
2020 08 Provisions € 3,000 11 Bank € 2,500
26 Operating income for  € 500
other accounting period

157 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Exercise

Example 9: Provisions

Post the 2019/2020 journal entries for the following transactions.
1. Receiving an official letter on December 15, 2019 to pay property tax 
of € 700 for 2019 within the next four weeks.
2. Provisions for pensions increase by € 13,500.
3. Recognizing a provision with regard to a court case, best estimate 
amounting to € 60,000 as of December 31, 2019.
4. As of January 15, 2020 the actual final costs of that court case add up 
to € 65,000, paid by bank transfer.
5. As of January 15, 2020 the trade income tax supplementary payment 
is set to € 3,000. Last year‘s estimate as reflected in the corresponding 
tax provision amounted to € 4,000.
158 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Wrap‐up of Lesson 11

Questions for self‐review

• What is the difference between provisions and reserves?
• What types of provisions do we distinguish under German GAAP? 
In which (sub‐)chapters of the balance sheet are they presented?
• How do you account for the use, the change and the reversal 
of provisions?

159 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting

Agenda

12th Lesson
1 Fundamentals about accounting
2 Inventory and balance sheet as the starting point of bookkeeping

3 Breakdown of the balance sheet into accounts
4 Accounting for core business transactions
5 Relation of financial and management accounting

Topics today
• Link between financial accounting and management accounting

160 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting


Financial accounting vs. management accounting

Structuring the income‐ and expenditure accounts

Income/Expense

Operating Non‐operating

Actual period Other periods

Ordinary Extraordinary

Income/Revenue Expense/Costs Nonoperating and similar income and expense


Acc. No. 8 … Acc. No. 4 … Acc. No. 25 Acc. No. 26 Acc. No. 20‐24

Management accounting
161 Kotulla/Biethahn/Helms/Morich University of Applied Sciences Europe Financial Accounting
Joint industrial standard chart of accounts

Class 0: Fixed assets and long-term debt and equity


00 Land and buildings
01 Plant
02 Factory equipment
03 Office equipment
04 Other fixed assets
05 Other long-term assets
06 Long-term debt / Bank loans
07 Equity
08 Provisions
09 Deferred Income&Expense
Class 1: Working Capital
10 Cash
11 Bank accounts
12 Notes receivable, cheques
13 Securities
14 Trade receivables
14a Doubtful debts
15 Other receivables
154 Receivables from input VAT
16 Trade payables
17 Other payables
174 Payables from VAT
18 Notes payable
19 Private accounts
Class 2: Nonoperating and similar income and expense
20 Non-operating income and expense
21 Gains and losses from land and buildings
23 Depreciation
24 Interest income and expense
25 Operating extraordinary income and expense
26 Operating income and expense for other accounting periods
27 Allocation of operating costs for other accounting periods
28 Allocation of imputed costs
Class 3: Inventories
30 Raw material
33 Consumables
34 Supplies
38 Purchased goods inventories
39 Merchandise inventories
Class 4: Cost elements
40 Cost of raw material
41 Cost of consumables and supplies
42 Energy, fuel and similar costs
43 Personnel expenses (Wages and salaries)
44 Social security and similar costs
45 Maintenance and purchased services
46 Taxes, levies, fees, insurances and similar contributions
47 Rental, office, marketing and similar overhead costs
48 Imputed costs
49 Special direct costs
Class 5: Cost Center
empty
Class 6: Cost Center
empty
Class 7: Finished goods inventories and work in progress
78 Work in progress
79 Finished goods
Class 8: Revenues
83 Sales of goods and services
85 Sales of merchandise
86 Sales from secondary business
87 Other own work capitalised
88 Write downs, discounts, revenue reversals
89 Increase or decrease in finished goods inventories and work in progress
Class 9: Closing accounts
98 P&L accounts
980 Result from ordinary activities
985 Allocated results
988 Profit distribution
989 Profit and loss account
99 Balance sheet accounts
998 Opening balance account
999 Closing balance account

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