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INDEX
No. Chapter Page
1 Electric Charges & Field 01
2 Electric Potential & Capacitance 07
3 Current Electricity 13
4 Moving Charges & Magnetism 19
5 Magnetism & Matter 24
6 Electromagnetic Induction 26
7 Alternating Current 30
8 Electromagnetic Waves 36
9 Ray Optics 37
10 Wave Optics 43
11 Dual Nature of Radiation & Matter 47
12 Atoms 49
13 Nuclei 55
14 Semiconductor Devices 57

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1. ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Five Marks Questions
1. Derive expression for electric field due to electric dipole at a point on the axial line.
Ans:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of 2 point charges –
q and +q separated by a small distance 2a. Let E be the
electric intensity at a point P on the axial line of the dipole
at a distance OP = r from the centre O of the dipole.
Magnitude of electric intensity at P due to charge –q is
1 q 1 q
E−q = = along PA
40 AP 2
40 ( r + a )2
Magnitude of electric intensity at P due to charge +q is,
1 q 1 q
E+q = = along BP.
40 AP 2
40 ( r − a )2
since E − q & E + q are collinear vector acting in opposite directions and E + q  E − q therefore, the
magnitude of resultant electric field intensity E at P is
1 q 1 q
E = E+q − E−q = −
40 ( r − a ) 40 ( r + a )2
2

q  1 1 
E=  − 2 
4 0  ( r − a ) ( r + a ) 
2

 2
q (r + a ) − (r − a ) 
2
q 4ar
E= =
4o  ( )  40 ( r 2 − a 2 )2
2

 r 2
− a 2

q  2a  2r
E=
4 0 ( r 2 − a 2 )
2

Since p=q(2a), is the electric dipole moment

p 2r
E=
40 (r − a2 )
2 2

2. Derive expression for electric field due to electric dipole at a point on the equatorial line.
Ans:
Consider an electric dipole consisting of two point charges –q at
point A and +q at point B separated by a small distance 2a with
center O and dipole moment p=q(2a).
Let θ be the angle made by AP and BP with dipole axis.
Since, AP = OP + OA = r + a
2 2 2 2 2

Magnitude of electric field intensity at P due to charge –q is

1 q 1 q
E−q = =
4 0 AP 2
4 0 r + a 2
2
along PA

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Since, BP = OP + OB = r + a
2 2 2 2 2

Similarly, Magnitude of electric field intensity at P due to charge +q is

1 q 1 q
E+q = =
4 0 BP 2
4 0 r + a 2 along BP
2

The vertical components of E+q and E-q are in opposite direction.

E-q sin  and E+q sin  cancels out each other.
The horizontal components E+q and E-q are in same direction.
E-q cos  and E+q cos  gets added up.
E =E
Since, − q +q

Resultant electric field intensity at P is given by

E = E − q cos  + E + q cos  = 2E − q cos 
2 q 2 q  OA 
E= cos  = 2  
40 ( r + a )
2 2
40 ( r + a )  AP 
2

2 q a q  2a
E= . =
40 ( r + a ) r 2 + a 2 3
40 ( r 2 + a 2 ) 2
2 2

But q × 2a = p, the dipole moment

p
E= 3
40 ( r 2 + a 2 ) 2

3. State Gauss law. Obtain an expression for the electric field due to uniformly charged
infinite wire using Gauss law.
Ans: “The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 1/ εo times the total charge
enclosed by the surface.”
𝝓 = 𝒒/𝜺𝟎

Consider an infinitely long thin wire of uniform charge distribution

 = q/l
Let E be the field at a point P situated at a distance r from the charged wire.
Draw a cylindrical Gaussian surface of length l and radius r enclosing the
charge distribution.
The total flux due to the wire is the sum of electric flux through the circular
surfaces of cylinder ( 1) which is
𝜙1 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 cos 90𝑜 = 0
And, Electric Flux through the body of the cylinder (2) which is
𝜙2 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 cos 0𝑜 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆
The total flux through the entire surface is
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 = 0 + ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑆

𝜙 = 𝐸 ∫ 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) …………..(1)

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From Gauss law electric flux is given by

𝑞 𝜆𝑙
𝜙= = …………..(2)
𝜀0 𝜀0
From eqns(1) and (2)
𝜆𝑙
𝐸(2𝜋𝑟𝑙) =
𝜀0
Therefore, electric field due to an infinitely long straight uniformly charged conductor is,
𝜆
𝐸=
2𝜋𝑟𝜀0

4. State Gauss law. Obtain an expression for the electric field due to uniformly charged
infinite plane sheet using Gauss law.
Ans: “The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 1/ εo times the total charge
enclosed by the surface.”
𝝓 = 𝒒/𝜺𝟎

Consider a thin infinite plane sheet of a uniform charge

density .
Let E be the electric field at a point P situated at a
distance r from the plane sheet.

The total flux through the entire Gaussian surface is the

algebraic sum of the flux through circular faces (1 and
2) and the flux through the body of the cylinder (3).
On the circular faces flux is,
𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆
On the cylindrical face flux is,
𝜙3 = ∮ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠90𝑜 = 0
Total flux through the entire surface
𝜙 = 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 + 𝜙3
𝜙 = 2∮ 𝐸𝑑𝑆 = 2𝐸 ∮ 𝑑𝑆
𝜙 = 2𝐸𝐴 …………..(1)
From Gauss Law, we have
𝑞
𝜙 = …………..(2)
𝜀0
From eqns (1) and (2)
𝑞
2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0
For Surface charge distribution, 𝑞 = 𝐴
where  is surface charge density
𝐴
2𝐸𝐴 =
𝜀0

𝐸=
2𝜀0
Electric field E is independent of distance r.

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Three Marks Questions

1. Mention any three properties of electric charges.
i. Charges are additive.
ii. Charges are conserved.
iii. Charges are quantized.

2. Mention any three properties of electric field lines.

i. Electric field lines start from positive charge and terminate on negative charge.
ii. Two electric field lines never intersect each other.
iii. Tangent to the curve at a point shows direction of field.

3. Derive an expression for torque acting on electric dipole on uniform electric field.
Ans:Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges –
q & +q at points A and B respectively placed in a
uniform electric field.
Let 2a be the dipole length and θ be the angle between
dipole moment p ⃗.
⃗ and electric field 𝐄
⃗⃗⃗ in the opposite direction
The force acting on -q is -q𝐄
of ⃗⃗⃗
𝐄 and the force acting on +q is +q𝐄 ⃗⃗⃗ in the direction of ⃗⃗⃗
𝐄.
The magnitude of torque experienced by the dipole is,
τ = Magnitude of force on either charge × perpendicular distance between the two forces
i.e., τ = (qE) ( BC) = qE(2a sinθ )
= (q 2a)E sinθ
Since magnitude of dipole moment, p = (q 2a)
τ = p E sinθ

Two Marks Questions

1. State and explain Coulomb’s law in electrostatics.
Ans:
Statement: “The force of interaction between any two point charges at rest is directly proportional to
the product of the magnitude of charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them.”
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 are separated in vacuum by a distance r.
According to Coulomb’s law,
q1q2 q1q2
F F =k → (1)
r2 r2
Where K is electrostatic force constant & k = 1 = 9 109 Nm 2C −2
4 0
And  0 = 8.854 10 −12 C 2 N −1m −2 is absolute permittivity of free space.
From equation (1), the magnitude of force is,
1 q1q2
F=
4 0 r 2

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2. Write Coulomb’s law in vector form and explain the terms.

Ans:
Where,
q1 & q2 are charges
1 q1q2 r21 is distance between charges
F21 = r 21
4 0 r21 2
o is permittivity of free space
𝑟̂
21 is unit vector along the direction of force.

3. State and explain Gauss’s law in electrostatics.

Ans: “The total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to 1/εo times the total charge enclosed
by the surface.”
If 𝜙 is the electric flux through a Gaussian surface and q be the charge enclosed in it then
𝝓 = 𝒒/𝜺𝟎

where 0 is the permittivity of free space.

4. Define electric dipole moment. Write its S.I. unit.
Ans:
It is equal to the product of the magnitude of either charge and the distance between the two charges.
SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb-metre(C-m)

5. Sketch electric field lines due to a point charge if

i) q > 0 (an isolated positive charge) (ii) q < 0 (an isolated negative charge)
1) Due to positive charge(q>0) 2) Due to negative charge(q<0)

6. Sketch electric field lines for

i) an electric dipole (a pair of equal and opposite point charges)
ii) two equal positive point charges
i) Due to electric Dipole ii) Due to two equal positive charges

7. Define linear charge density at a point. Write its S.I. unit.

Ans: It is defined as the total charge per unit length of the conductor.
Its SI unit is coulomb per meter(C-m-1)

8. Define surface charge density at a point. Mention its S.I. unit.

Ans: It is defined as the total charge per unit area of the conductor.
Its SI unit is coulomb per square meter(C-m-2)

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9. Define volume charge density at a point. Mention its S.I. unit.

Ans: It is defined as the total charge per unit volume of the conductor.
Its SI unit is coulomb per cubic meter(C-m-3)
10. Define electric field (electric intensity or electric field strength). Give its S.I. unit.
Ans: It is defined as the electrostatic force experienced by unit positive charge placed at that point.
Its SI unit of electric field intensity is N/C.

11. What is an electric flux? Give its S.I. unit.

Ans: It is defined as scalar product of Electric field intensity and area vector at that point.
Its SI unit is Nm2.

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2. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

Five Marks Questions
1. Define electric potential. Derive expression for electric potential due to isolated point charge at
a point.
Ans: Electric Potential at any point in an electric field is defined as the work done in carrying a unit
positive charge (without acceleration) from infinity to that point against the electric field.

Consider a point charge +q at o. Let P be a point at a distance r from O. Electric potential at P is the
amount of work done in carrying unit positive charge from infinity (∞) to P.
Consider some intermediate point A at distance x from O. The electrostatic force on unit positive
charge is
1 q
E= along OA produced.
4 0 x 2
Small amount of work done in moving a unit positive charge form A to B where AB = dx is
dw = E.dx = E dx cos1800 = − E dx
where (-)ve sign implies E and dx are in opposite directions
 Total work done in moving unit + charge from ∞ to the point P is
−q
r r r
1 q
w =  −Edx = −
40 
dx = x −2dx
 
40 x 2

−q  −1
r
q 1 1  q
w=   =  − =
40  x   40  r   40 r
By definition, work done is the electrostatic potential at P due to charge q
1 q
V=
4 0 r

2. Derive expression for capacitance of parallel plate capacitor without dielectric medium
between the plates.
Ans:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two large plane parallel
conducting (metal) plates separated by a small distance. Let A
be the area of each plate and d be the distance between them.
The two plates have charges Q and –Q while their surface
charge densities are  and − respectively.

Since the distance d between the plates is very small compared

to the linear dimensions of the plates, the electric field due to
the two charged plates in the region between them is given by

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   Q
E= + = =
2 0 2 0  0  0 A
The direction of this electric field is from the positive plate to the negative plate. For uniform
electric field,
V
E= or V = Ed
d
Qd
V=
0A
 The capacitance C of the parallel plate capacitor is
Q 0 A A
C= =  C= 0
V d d

3. Derive expression for energy stored in capacitor.

Ans:
Consider a capacitor of capacitance C initially uncharged when a
potential difference V is applied across the capacitor using a battery, it
acquires a charge Q, with one conductor having charge +Q and the
other conductor having charge –Q.

Consider the process of transferring charge from one conductor to the

other bit by bit, in small installments of dq. Consider an intermediate
situation when the charges on the conductors are +q and –q. At this
q
stage the potential difference between the conductors is V1 = . In the
C
next step, the charge dq is transferred from one conductor to the other so that the charge on capacitor
is (q+dq).
The work done in this process is
q
dW = V1dq = dq → (1)
C
The total work done in increasing the charge on the capacitor from 0 to Q is obtained by integrating
equation (1)
Q Q Q
q 1
W =  dW =  dW =  qdQ
0 0
C C0
1  q2  1  Q2  Q2
W=  Q
0  = C  2 − 0 = 2C
C 2   
This work done is stored as electrostatic potential energy of the system. i.e. W = U
Q2
U =
2C

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Three Marks Questions

1. Derive the relation between electric potential and electric field.
Ans:
Consider two equipotential surfaces A and B spaced closely as shown in figure.
Let the potential of A be VA = V and potential of B be VB = (V- dV) where dV is decrease in potential
in the direction of electric field E normal to A and B.
When a unit positive charge is taken along this perpendicular distance from the surface B to the surface
A against the electric field.
By definition, , Work done WBA
WBA = VA – VB = V – ( V- dV) = dV
Since Work done is,
WBA = E(dr) cos 180o = -E dr
-E dr = dV
dV
E = −
dr

Negative sign shows that the direction of electric field E is the direction of decreasing potential.

2. Mention any three factors on which capacitance of a conductor depend.

Ans:
i) Size and shape of the conductor
ii) Medium surrounding the conductor
iii) Presence of other conductors nearby

3. Mention any three factors on which capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor depend.
Ans:
i) Area of plates
ii) Distance between the plates
iii) Medium between the plates

4. Derive the expression for potential energy of a system of two charges in the absence of
external electric field
Ans:
Consider 2 point charges q1 and q2 separated by a distance r.
No work is done in bringing charge q1 from infinity to a point.
1 q1
The electric potential due to charge q1 at distance r is V1 =
40 r
Work done in bringing a charge q2 from infinity to a distance r from q1 against the electric field due to
q1 is,
1 q1q 2
W = V1q 2 =
4 0 r
This work done is stored as the potential energy of the system of two charges given as
1 q1q 2
 U=
40 r

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5. Derive the expression for potential energy of a system of two charges in the presence of
external electric field.
Ans:
Let V1 and V2 be the potentials due to an external electric field at two points separated by a distance
r. Let a charge q1 be brought from infinity and placed at the point where external potential is V1.
The work done against the external field is
W1= q1 V1.
Next a charge q2 is brought from infinity and placed at the other point where the external potential
is V2.
Now the work done against the external field is
W2/= q2 V2
The work done on q2 against the field due to q1 is
1 q1q 2
W2// =
4 0 r
Therefore, the total work done on q2 against two fields is
W2 =W2/+ W2//
1 q1q 2
W2 = q 2 v 2 +
40 r
The potential energy of the system of 2 charges in the external electric field is equal to the total work
done in assembling the configuration of two charges in the external electric field. It is given by
1 q1q 2
U = q1V1 + q 2 V2 +
40 r

6. Derive the expression for potential energy of an electric dipole in uniform electric field.
Ans:
Suppose an electric dipole of moment p is oriented at an angle  with the direction of uniform external
electric field E .
Then the torque acting on the dipole is
 = pEsin 
Small amount of work done in rotating the dipole through a small angle dθ against the torque is
dW = d = pE sin  d
 Total work done in rotating the dipole from orientation 1 to 2 is
2

W =  pE sin d = pE  − cos  2

1
1

W = −pE cos 2 − cos 1 

Work is done only in rotating the dipole from 1 =  / 2 and 2 = 


 pE sin d = pE − cos 


W= /2
/2

W = −pE cos  − cos  / 2 = −pE cos  − 0

 W = −pE cos 
U = −PE cos 

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7. Derive the expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in series.
Ans:
Let C1, C2 and C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors connected in series (from end to end) and a
potential difference V be applied across the combination.
If V1, V2 & V3 are the potential differences across the individual capacitors, then
V=V1+V2+V3
We know that
q = CV
q
Hence, V=
C
q q q
 V1 = ; V2 = ; V3 =
C1 C2 C3
q q q
 V1 = + +
C1 C 2 C3
1 1 1
V = q + + 
 C1 C2 C3 
→ (1)
Let the system of capacitors be replaced by a single capacitor of equivalent capacitance Cs such that it
acquires the same charge at the same potential difference V.
q
Then V= → (2)
Cs
From equations (1) and (2), we get
q 1 1 1
=q + + 
Cs  C1 C2 C3 
1 1 1 1
 = + +
Cs C1 C2 C3

8. Derive the expression for equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in parallel.
Ans:
Let C1, C2 and C3 be the capacitances of three capacitors connected in parallel
between two common terminals A and B. Let V be the p.d. applied between A
and B and p.d. across the plates of all capacitors is same.
If q1, q2 and q3 are the charges on the capacitors C1, C2 and C3 respectively,
q1 = C1V, q2 = C2V & q3 = C3V
The total charge q on the combinations
q = q1 + q2 + q3
q = C1 V + C 2 V + C3 V
q = (C1 + C2 + C3)V → (1)
Let the system of capacitors be replaced by a single capacitor of equivalent
capacitance Cp such that it acquires the same charge q at the same potential
difference V.
Then
q = Cp V → (2)

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From equations (1) & (2), we get

CpV = (C1 + C2 + C3)V
 CP = C1 + C2 + C3

9. What is equipotential surface? Mention any two properties of it.

Ans: An equipotential surface is that surface at every point of which electric potential is the same.
i. No work is done in moving the test charge from one point of equipotential surface to the other.
ii. For any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric
field at that point.
Two Marks Questions
1. What is electrostatic shielding? Mention one use of it.
Ans: It is the phenomenon of protecting a certain region of space from external electric field by making
cavity inside the conductor.
It is used to protecting sensitive instruments from external electric field.

12. Define capacitance of capacitor. Write its SI unit.

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of the charge stored in the capacitor to the potential difference between
the plates. Its SI unit is farad (F)

13. Give an example for polar and non-polar molecules.

Ans: Polar molecule- HCl Non polar molecule- H2

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3. CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Five Marks Questions
1. Derive the expression for conductivity of a conductor in terms of relaxation time.
Ans:
Consider a conductor, let L
L – length of the conductor A
A - cross-sectional area vd
E – applied electric field E
e – charge on electron
vd – drift velocity of the electrons + –
n – number of free electros per unit volume. Ɛ
The number of free electros for a given volume of a conductor = n x volume = nAL
Total charge passing through the conductor, q = (nAL)e
𝐿
The time in which the charges pass through the conductor , 𝑡 = 𝑣
𝑑
The current flowing through a conductor,
𝑞 𝑛𝐴𝐿𝑒
𝐼= =
𝑡 𝑡
𝑰 = 𝒏𝒆𝑨𝒗𝒅 . . . . . . . . . (1)
Current density,
𝐼
𝐽 = = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐴
Since drift velocity is
𝑒𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = 𝜏
𝑚
𝑒𝐸
∴ 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒 𝜏
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝐽 = 𝐸
𝑚
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
Where,
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
This is an expression for electrical conductivity.

2. Derive the expression for equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance when two cells
connected in series.
Ans: Consider two cells connected in
series, with negative terminal of one cell is
connected with positive terminal of the
other.
Let, ɛ1, ɛ2 – emf’s of two cells
r1, r2 - Internal resistance of two cells
I –Total current sent by the cells
VA, VB, VC – potential at A, B, C respectively.
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The p.d between the positive and negative terminals of the first cell is
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = ɛ1 − 𝐼𝑟1
The p.d between the positive and negative terminals of the second cell is
𝑉𝐵𝐶 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 = ɛ2 − 𝐼𝑟2
The p.d between the terminals A and C of the combination is
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 = (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 ) + (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐶 )
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = ɛ1 − 𝐼𝑟1 + ɛ2 − 𝐼𝑟2
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = ɛ1 + ɛ2 − 𝐼(𝑟1 + 𝑟2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1)
If the series combination of two cells are replaced by a single cell between A and C of emf ɛ eq and
internal resistance req. Then,
𝑉𝐴𝐶 = ɛ𝑒𝑞 − 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑞 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2)
Comparing eqn (1) and (2) we get,
ɛ𝑒𝑞 = ɛ1 + ɛ2 𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
&

3. Derive the expression for equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance when two cells
connected in parallel.
Ans:
Consider two cells connected in parallel.
Let, ɛ1, ɛ2 – emf’s of two cells
r1, r2 - Internal resistance of two cells
I1, I2 – current sent by the cells respectively
V - potential difference between B1 and B2 respectively.
Total current, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1)
The p.d across the terminals of the first cell is
𝑉 = Ɛ1 − 𝐼1 𝑟1

Ɛ1 − 𝑉
𝐼1 = . . . . . . . . . (2)
𝑟1
The p.d across the terminals of the second cell is
𝑉 = Ɛ2 − 𝐼2 𝑟2

Ɛ2 − 𝑉 .. . . . . . . . . . (3)
𝐼2 =
𝑟2
From eqn (1), (2) and (3)
Ɛ1 − 𝑉 Ɛ2 − 𝑉
𝐼= +
𝑟1 𝑟2
Ɛ1 Ɛ2 1 1
𝐼 = ( + )− 𝑉( + )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 Ɛ1 𝑟2 + Ɛ2 𝑟1
𝑉( )= −𝐼
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
Ɛ1 𝑟2 + Ɛ2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉= ( − 𝐼) 𝑥
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Ɛ1 𝑟2 + Ɛ2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉= ( )𝑥 −𝐼( )
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Ɛ1 𝑟2 + Ɛ2 𝑟1 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉= ( )−𝐼( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
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If the parallel combination of two cells is replaced by a single cell between B 1 and B2 of emf ɛeq and
internal resistance req. Then,

𝑉 = Ɛ𝑒𝑞 − 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑞 . . . . . . .. . . . . . (5)

Comparing eqn (4) and (5) we get,

Ɛ1 𝑟2 + Ɛ2 𝑟1 1 1 1 𝑟1 𝑟2
Ɛ𝑒𝑞 = & = + or 𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟𝑃 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

4. Deduce the balancing condition for Wheatstone’s network

Ans:
Let 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 are the four resistors
connected in quadrilateral as shown in figure. A
cell of emf ε is connected between A and C.
while galvanometer of resistance G is connected
between B and D respectively.

Using Kirchhoff’s junction rule,

at node A, 𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
at node B, 𝐼2 = 𝐼𝑔 + 𝐼4 . . . . . . .(1)
at node D, 𝐼3 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝑔 . . . . . . . (2)
Wheatstone’s network is said be balanced, when
no current flows through galvanometer
i.e, Ig = 0
eqn(i) and eqn(ii) becomes,
𝐼1 = 𝐼3 and 𝐼2 = 𝐼4 . . . . . . . (3)

Apply kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop ADBA

−𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0
−𝐼1 𝑅1 + 0 + 𝐼2 𝑅2 = 0 [since Ig= 0]
𝐼1 𝑅1 = 𝐼2 𝑅2 . . . . . . . . . . . (4)
Apply kirchhoff’s loop rule to the loop CBDC
𝐼4 𝑅4 − 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0
𝐼4 𝑅4 − 0 − 𝐼3 𝑅3 = 0 [since Ig= 0]
𝐼3 𝑅3 = 𝐼4 𝑅4 [ from eqn(3) ]
𝐼1 𝑅3 = 𝐼2 𝑅4 . . . . . . . . . . . (5)
Divide eqn(4) by eqn(5) we get,
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑅3 𝑅4
This is the condition for balanced Wheatstone’s network.

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Three Marks Questions

1. State and explain Ohm’s law and hence define ohm.
Ans: The steady current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
between the ends of the conductor provided temperature and other physical conditions remain
constant.
Explanation: If I is a steady current flowing through a conductor and V is potential difference across
the conductor. Then according to Ohm’s law,
𝐼 𝛼 𝑉 or 𝑉 𝛼 𝐼

𝑽 = 𝑹𝑰
Where R is a proportional constant called electrical resistance of a conductor.
Then,
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
1 ohm: The resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm if a potential difference of one volt sends
a current of one ampere through it.

2. Derive the expression for drift velocity in terms of relaxation time.

Ans:
When potential difference is applied across the ends of the conductor, an electric field is set up inside
the conductor.
As a result, the free electrons in the conductor experiences a force in a direction opposite to the electric
field. The magnitude of force on the electrons in the electric field E is
𝐹 = 𝑒𝐸 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(1)
If ‘τ’ is the average time between two successive collisions and the acceleration of the electron be a,
then the magnitude of drift velocity is given by
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑎𝜏 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(2)
The magnitude of force experienced by the electron of mass m is 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.
Hence,
𝐹 𝑒𝐸
𝑎= = .. . . . . .(3)
𝑚 𝑚
From eqn (2) and eqn (3)
𝒆𝑬
𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉
𝒎

3. Derive the 𝒋 = 𝝈𝑬 from Ohm’s law.

Ans:
Consider a conductor, let
L – length of the conductor
A - cross-sectional area
E – applied electric field
e – charge on electron
vd – drift velocity of the electrons
n – number of free electros per unit volume.

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Since,
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒𝐴𝑣𝑑
𝐼
= 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
𝐴
𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑
Since,
eE
vd = τ
m
𝑒𝐸
∴ 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒
𝑚
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜏= 𝐸
𝑚
ne2 τ
∵σ=
m
∴ 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸

Two Marks Questions

1. Write expression for drift velocity and explain the terms.
Ans: Where,
𝒆𝑬 e- charge of electron
𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉 E- Electric field
𝒎 m- mass of electron
τ- relaxation time
2. Define mobility of free electrons and mention its SI unit.
Ans: Mobility is defined as the magnitude of drift velocity per unit electric field.
𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
Its SI unit is m2V-1s-1.

3. Define electrical resistance. What is its SI unit?

Ans: It is defined as the ratio of the potential difference across its ends to the strength of the current
flowing through it.
Its SI unit of resistance is ohm(Ω)

4. Mention the factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends.

Ans:
i. Length & Cross section area
ii. Nature of material
iii. Temperature

5. Mention two limitations of ohm’s law.

Ans:
i. Not applicable when the physical conditions like temperature, pressure and tension
changes.
ii. Not applicable for semiconductors, diodes, transistors, thermistors, vacuum tubes and
discharge tubes.

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6. What are ohmic device? Give one example

Ans: The one which obeys ohms law.
Ex. Resistor
7. State and explain Kirchhoff’s junction rule (I rule/ Current rule)
Ans:
At any junction in an electric network the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal sum of the
currents leaving the junction.
or
The algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is zero i.e. i = 0.
Explanation:
Let I1, I2, I3 and I4 are the currents flowing through the junction.
Hence, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction
must equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.
i.e, 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼4 Or 𝛴𝐼 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼4 = 0

8. State and explain Kirchhoff’s loop rule (II rule/ Voltage rule)
Ans:
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.
i.e, ∑ ɛ + ∑ 𝐼𝑅 = 0
Let ɛ1, ɛ2 are emf’s, I1, I2, I3 are currents and R1, R2, R3 are the
resistances are connected in the circuit as shown in the figure
respectively.
Consider the loop ABCA,

𝐼1 𝑅1 − 𝐼2 𝑅2 + 𝐼3 𝑅3 = ɛ2 − ɛ1

9. On what factors does the resistivity of a conductor depend?

Ans:
i. Nature of material
ii. Temperature

10. Represent graphically the variation of resistivity with absolute temperature for copper and
nichrome.
Ans:
(a) For copper/Metals: (b) For Nichrome/ alloys:

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4. MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM

Five Marks Questions
1. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to circular current carrying loop at any point
on its axis.
Ans:

Consider a circular loop of radius 𝑅 carrying a steady current 𝐼. Let the loop be placed in 𝑦-𝑧
plane with its centre at the origin 𝑂. Let 𝑃 be a point on the 𝑥-axis at a distance 𝑥 from 𝑂.
Consider a current element ⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑙 at a distance 𝑟 from the point 𝑃.

According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of magnetic field at 𝑃 due to current element is
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ |
𝜇0 𝐼|𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =
|𝑑𝐵 ∙
4𝜋 𝑟2

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛90°
𝑑𝐵 = ∙ ⃗⃗⃗ is ⊥ to 𝑟
∵ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑟2

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = ∙ 2 … (1) ∵ 𝑟2 = 𝑅2 + 𝑥 2
4𝜋 𝑅 + 𝑥 2

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑑𝑙

The direction of 𝑑𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑟. The magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 has
two components 𝑑𝐵𝑦 = 𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 along 𝑦-axis and 𝑑𝐵𝑥 = 𝑑𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 along 𝑥-axis respectively.
The vertical components of magnetic field due to 𝑑𝑙 are cancelled by the contribution due to their
diametrically opposite current elements and horizontal component of magnetic field are added up.

Total magnetic field at 𝑃 due to one turn of the coil is,

𝐵 = ∑ 𝑑𝐵𝑥 = ∑ 𝑑𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 … (2)

From the above figure,

𝑅 𝑅
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = … (3)
𝑟 √𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2

Substituting (1) and (3) in (2)

𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑅 𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
𝐵 = ∑( ∙ 2 )( )= ∙ ∑ 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋 𝑅 + 𝑥 2
√𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 4𝜋 (𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 )32

Since ∑ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅 = circumference of the circular loop

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We get,
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅
𝐵= ∙ × 2𝜋𝑅
4𝜋 (𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 )32

μo 2𝜋𝐼𝑅 2
𝐵=
4π (𝑅 2 + 𝑥 2 )3/2

2. Derive expression for force between two infinitely long parallel current carrying conductor.
Hence define one ampere.
Ans: Consider two long parallel conductors 𝑃 and 𝑄 of length 𝐿 carrying current 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 in the
same direction. Let 𝑟 be the distance between the two conductors as shown in the figure.
The magnetic field at any point on 𝑄 due to the current in 𝑃 is
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐵1 = … (1)
2𝜋𝑟
This field is into the plane of the paper. 𝐹1 𝐹2
The conductor 𝑄 which carries a current 𝐼2 finds itself in an external 𝐵
⨀ ⨂
2 𝐵1
magnetic field 𝐵1, Hence the conductor 𝑄 will experience a magnetic force

𝐹2 = 𝐵1 𝐼2 𝐿 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ∵ 𝜃 = 90° 𝑟

and is given by 𝑃 𝑄
𝐹2 = 𝐵1 𝐼2 𝐿

This force is directed towards the conductor 𝑃

𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿
𝐹2 = … (2)
2𝜋𝑟
Similarly, the force experience by the conductor 𝑃 due to the magnetic field 𝐵2 due to 𝑄 is
𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐿
𝐹1 = … (3)
2𝜋𝑟
This force is directed towards the conductor 𝑄
From equation (2) and (3)
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐹

Force per unit length of the conductor is,

𝐹 𝜇𝑜 𝐼1 𝐼2
=
𝐿 2𝜋𝑟

𝐹
= 2 × 10−7 𝑁𝑚−1
𝐿

One ampere is that steady current which when flowing in each of two infinitely long straight parallel
conductors of negligible cross section placed 1 m apart in vacuum will cause each conductor to
experience a force equal to 2 × 10−7 newton per meter length.

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Three Marks Questions

1. Derive an expression for magnetic force on a current carrying conductor in external
magnetic field.
Ans:
Consider a rod of a uniform cross-sectional area 𝐴 and length 𝑙. Let 𝑛 be the number charges per
unit volume of the conductor.
Total volume of the conductor= 𝐴𝑙

Then the total number of charge carriers= 𝑛𝐴𝑙.

The total charge inside the conductor = no. of charges ×charge
𝑄 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙 × 𝑞
For a steady current 𝐼, let 𝑣𝑑 be the average drift velocity of the charge in the conductor. Then force
on these charged particles in an external magnetic field 𝐵 is,
⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑄(𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵

⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐴𝑙𝑞(𝑣𝑑 × 𝐵

⃗)
𝐹 = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝑣𝑑 (𝑙 × 𝐵

⃗)
𝐹 = 𝐼(𝑙 × 𝐵 ∵ 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑞𝑣𝑑

Where 𝑙 is a vector of magnitude 𝑙 along the direction of current 𝐼 (Since 𝐼 is not a vector, 𝑙 is treated
as a vector).

2. State and explain Biot-Savart’s law.

Ans: Statement: The magnitude of magnetic field 𝑑𝐵 at a point 𝑃 due to a current element is
(i) directly proportional to the current, 𝐼
(ii) directly proportional to the length of the element, 𝑑𝑙
(iii) directly proportional to the sine of the angle between the current element and the line joining the
point to the element, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
(iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the point and current element, 𝑟 2
Hence
𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | ∝
|𝑑𝐵
𝑟2
Or
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | =
|𝑑𝐵 ∙
4𝜋 𝑟2

𝜇0
Where is constant of proportionality.
4𝜋
Here μ0 is called permeability of free space and μ0 = 4π × 10−7 TmA−1 .

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3. Derive an expression for magnetic field due to infinitely long straight current carrying
conductor using Ampere’s circuital law.
Consider an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current 𝐼 as
shown. Let 𝑃 be a point at a perpendicular distance 𝑟 from the
conductor.
Consider a circle of radius 𝑟 around the conductor passing through 𝑃 as
the Amperian loop.
Consider a small element 𝑑𝑙 on the circular loop such that the magnetic
field acts along the same direction.

Hence from Ampere’s circuital law, we have

⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡
⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑙 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
∵𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 𝜃
∮𝐵

⃗⃗⃗ are along same direction, 𝜃 = 0°

⃗ and 𝑑𝑙
∵𝐵
∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑙 cos 0° = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼

∵ ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑟 = Circumference of circular loop.

𝐵 ∮ 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼

𝐵 2𝜋𝑟 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑟

4. Explain how a galvanometer is converted into ammeter?

Ans:
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter a small
resistance called shunt resistance(𝑆) must be connected
in parallel with it. This reduces the resistance of the
galvanometer 𝐺 considerably.
Let 𝐼𝑔 be the current required to produce full scale
deflection in a galvanometer having resistance 𝐺 and
let 𝐼 be the maximum current to be read.
Since 𝑆 and 𝐺 are in parallel,
p.d. across 𝑆 = p.d. across 𝐺

(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )𝑆 = 𝐼𝑔 𝐺 …(1)

𝐼𝑔 𝐺
𝑆=
(𝐼 − 𝐼𝑔 )

5. Explain how a galvanometer is converted into voltmeter?

To convert a given galvanometer into voltmeter a high resistance (R) must be connected in series
with the galvanometer. The resistance R depends on the maximum voltage V that is to be measured.

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From the diagram,

We have R and G in series
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑔 (𝑅 + 𝐺)
where 𝐼𝑔 is the current for full scale deflection
𝑉
(𝑅 + 𝐺) =
𝐼𝑔 Voltmeter
𝑉
𝑅= −𝐺
𝐼𝑔

Two Marks Questions

1. Write the expression for Biot-Savart law in vector form and explain the terms.
⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟̂ )
𝜇0 𝐼( 𝑑𝑙 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑟 )
𝜇0 𝐼( 𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 ∙ Or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 ∙
4𝜋 𝑟2 4𝜋 𝑟3

2. Write the expression for Lorentz force and explain the terms.
𝐹 = 𝑞[ 𝐸⃗ + (𝑣 × 𝐵
⃗)]

3. Write an expression for Bohr’s magneton and explain the terms.

𝑛𝑒ℎ
𝜇𝑙 =
4𝜋𝑚

4. State Ampere’s circuital law and mention an expression for it.

⃗ around any closed curve enclosing an area is
Ans: Statement: The line integral of magnetic field B
equal to μ0 times the net current enclosed by the path.
i.e.,

⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡

Where ∮ 𝐵 ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ over any closed path and 𝐼 is the current enclosed
𝑑𝑙 is line integral of magnetic field 𝐵
by the path.

5. Define current sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer and mention an expression for it.
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit current flowing through it.
Current sensitivity of a galvanometer,
𝜙 𝑛𝐴𝐵
=
𝐼 𝑘

6. Define voltage sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer and mention an expression for it.
It is defined as the deflection produced per unit voltage applied across it.
Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer,
𝜙 𝑛𝐴𝐵
=( )
𝑉 𝑘𝑅

Where 𝑅 = Resistance of galvanometer.

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5. MAGNETISM & MATTER

Three Marks Questions
1. Write the properties of magnetic field lines.
Ans:
i) They are directed from north to south outside the magnet and south to north inside the magnet.
ii) The magnetic field lines form continuous closed loops.
iii) The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the magnetic field at that
point.
iv) The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude of the
magnetic field.
v) The magnetic field lines do not intersect.

2. State and explain Gauss law in magnetism.

Ans:
Statement:
“The net magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero.”
Explanation:
⃗ . Let ∆𝑆 be a small area element. Then magnetic
Consider closed surface 𝑆 in an uniform magnetic field 𝐵
flux through this area element is
∆𝜙𝐵 = 𝐵 ⃗ . ∆𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗
The total magnetic flux through the closed surface will be

𝜙𝐵 = ∑∆𝜙𝐵 = ∑𝐵. ∆𝑠 = 0
Two Marks Questions
3. Define intensity of magnetization and write its expression.
Ans:
Magnetization of a sample to be equal to its net magnetic moment per unit volume.
𝑚
⃗⃗ 𝑛𝑒𝑡
⃗⃗ =
𝑀
𝑉

4. Define magnetic susceptibility of a substance and mention its SI unit.

Ans:
The ratio of magnetization ′𝑀′ in the material to the magnetic intensity ′𝐻′ of magnetizing field in
which the material is placed. It has no unit.

5. Write relation between 𝑩𝑬 , 𝑯𝑬 and 𝒁𝑬 with necessary diagram.

Ans:

√𝑍𝐸 2 + 𝐻𝐸 2 = 𝐵𝐸

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One Marks Questions

1. Can the north and south poles of the magnet be isolated?
Ans: No

2. Write SI unit of magnetic dipole moment.

Ans: Ampere metre2 or Am2

3. What is geographic meridian?

Ans:
A plane passing through the given place and the geographic North and South poles of earth is called
geographic meridian.

4. What is meant by magnetic meridian?

Ans:
A plane passing through the given place and the magnetic North and South poles of earth is called
magnetic meridian.

5. Define magnetic declination.

Ans:
Declination is the angle between magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at that place.

6. What is meant by magnetic inclination (or angle of dip)?

Ans:
Inclination is defined as the angle made by the earth’s magnetic field 𝐵𝐸 at the place with the surface
of the earth.

7. Write SI unit of intensity of magnetization.

Ans: Ampere per meter or 𝐴𝑚−1

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6. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Five Marks Questions
1. With the help of a labelled diagram, derive the expression for the instantaneous emf
induced in an AC generator.
Ans: Consider a coil of N turns and cross-sectional area A placed with its plane perpendicular to the
⃗ . So that θ = 0o at t = 0.
magnetic field 𝐵
As the coil rotates about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗ , it keeps changing its relative
orientation with respect to the field. Hence, magnetic flux ϕ will keep changing continuously. Because
of this, an emf will be induced in the coil.
As the coil rotates with constant angular velocity  , the angle θ between the magnetic field B and
normal to the plane of the coil at any instant of time t is given by 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
The magnetic flux linking the coil at any instant of time t is given by
ϕ𝐵 = NAB cos 𝜃 = NAB cos 𝜔𝑡
From Faraday’s law, the emf induced in the coil is given by
dϕ𝐵 𝑑(NAB cos 𝜔𝑡)
Ɛ=− =− = −𝑁𝐴𝐵(− sin 𝜔𝑡)𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
That is, Ɛ = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡
where NAB𝜔 is the maximum value of induced emf.
Taking 𝜀𝑜 = 𝑁𝐴𝐵𝜔, the instantaneous value of emf is
∴ Ɛ = Ɛ𝑜 sin 𝜔𝑡

Three Marks Questions

1. Describe the coil and magnet experiment of Faraday and Henry to demonstrate
electromagnetic induction.
Ans:
In the figure , C is a coil of a few turns of conducting material
insulated from one another It is connected to a sensitive
galvanometer G. Following were the observations made:
i) When the north pole of a magnet is moved towards a coil, the
galvanometer shows a sudden deflection indicating that a current is
induced in the coil.
ii) The deflection continues as long as the magnet is in motion.
iii) When the magnet is moved away from the coil, the galvanometer shows deflection in the
opposite direction which indicates the reversal in the direction of induced current.
iv) When south pole of a magnet is moved towards or away from the coil the galvanometer
deflections are opposite to those observed with the north pole for similar movements.
v) The galvanometer deflection (and hence the induced current) is found to be larger when the
magnet is moved faster towards or away from the coil.
vi) When the bar magnet is held fixed and the coil C is moved towards or away from the magnet, the
same effects are observed. It shows that the relative motion between the magnet and the coil is
responsible for the generation of electric current in the coil.

2. State and explain Lenz’ law.

Ans: The polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to produce a current which opposes the
change in magnetic flux that produced it.

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Explanation: when the North Pole of a bar magnet is moved towards a coil,
the direction of induced current is such that the nearer face of the coil
acquires North Polarity. Therefore, work must be done against the force of
repulsion, to bring the magnet closer to the coil. Similarly, When the North
Pole of the magnet is moved away from the coil, the direction of the induced
current is such that the nearer face of the coil acquires South polarity. Again,
work must be done against the force of attraction to move the magnet away
from the coil. The mechanical energy spent in this process is converted into electrical energy and
appears as induced emf in the coil. Thus, Lenz’s law is in accordance with the law of conservation of
energy.

3. Derive the expression for motional emf in a conducting rod moving in a uniform magnetic
field.
Ans: Consider a conductor PQ moving in a uniform
magnetic field B.
Let l – length of conductor, v – velocity of conductor
and t – time taken to travel a distance x.
The area covered by the conductor is
A = ldx.
magnetic flux = magnetic field x area
ϕ = B(𝑙𝑥)
The magnitude of the emf induced in the conductor is
dϕ d(B𝑙𝑥)
Ɛ= = = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Since 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 is the velocity of the conductor.

4. Mention any three applications of eddy current.

Ans: 1) Magnetic braking in trains.
2) Electromagnetic damping.
3) Electric power meters.

5. Obtain the expression for energy stored in an inductor.

Ans: An inductor is a device having self-inductance. The self-induced emf always opposes any change
in current in the circuit. Hence it is called back emf. Work needs to be done against this back emf in
establishing the current. This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy in the coil.
If I is the current at any instant in a coil, then the rate of work done is
𝑑𝑤
= |Ɛ|𝐼
𝑑𝑡
where  is the induced emf.
𝐝𝐈
We have, |Ɛ| = 𝐋
𝐝𝐭
Then, 𝐝𝐰 𝐝𝐈
= 𝐋 𝐈
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭
dw = LIdt
The total work done in establishing the current is

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𝐼 𝐼
1 2
w = ∫ 𝑑𝑤 = ∫ LIdt = 𝐿 ∫ Idt = 𝐿𝐼
2
0 0
Thus, the magnetic potential energy stored in an inductor of self-inductance L carrying a current I is:
1
U = 𝐿𝐼 2
2

6. State and explain Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

Ans: The magnitude of induced emf is directly proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linked with the circuit.
Explanation: If the magnetic flux linking a closed loop changes from ϕ1 to ϕ2 in a time interval t, the
𝑑𝝓
rate of change of magnetic flux = 𝑑𝑡
If ε is the magnitude of the induced emf, according to Faraday’s law,
𝑑𝝓
ε∝ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝝓
ε = −𝐾
𝑑𝑡
where k is a constant of proportionality. But in all system of units, k=1
𝑑𝝓
∴ ε=−
𝑑𝑡
The magnetic flux linked with a coil varies as 𝝓 = 𝟑𝒕𝟐 + 𝟒𝒕 + 𝟗. Find the magnitude of the emf
induced at t = 2 s.
Ans:
𝑑𝝓 𝑑(𝟑𝒕𝟐 +𝟒𝒕+𝟗)
ε= = = 6𝑡 + 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

at t = 2 s, ε = 6 × 2 + 4 = 12 + 4 = 16 𝑉

One Mark Questions

1. What is electromagnetic induction?
Ans: The phenomena in which electric current is induced in closed coils by varying magnetic field.

2. Define S.I unit of magnetic flux.

Ans: One weber is the amount of magnetic flux over a plane area of 1 metre2 held normal to a uniform
magnetic field of one tesla.

3. What is self- inductance?

Ans: The phenomenon in which an emf is induced in one coil due to of variation of current in the
another coil.

4. What is mutual inductance?

Ans: The phenomenon in which an emf is induced in a coil due to the change in magnetic flux through
the coil as a result of variation of current in the same coil.

5. Mention the significance of Lenz’ law.

Ans: Conservation of energy or it gives polarity of induced emf (any one)

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6. What is eddy current?

Ans: The current induced in bulk piece of conductors when they are subjected to changing magnetic
flux is called eddy current.

7. What is AC generator ?
Ans: A device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

8. On what principle AC generator works?

Ans: On the principle of electromagnetic induction.

9. How the self-inductance of a coil depend on the number turns in the coil?
Ans: Self induction is directly proportional to square of number of turns in coil.
i.e, 𝑙 ∝ 𝑁 2

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7. ALTERNATING CURRENT

Five Marks Questions

1. Arrive at the expression for the impedance of a series LCR circuit using phasor diagram
method and hence write the expression for the current through the circuit.
Consider an inductor(𝐿), a capacitor(𝐶) and a resistor(𝑅)
connected in series to a AC source of voltage,
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 …..(1)
Where 𝑉 is the instantaneous value of AC, 𝑉𝑚 is the peak
value of AC and 𝜔 is the angular frequency.

As 𝐿, 𝐶 and 𝑅 are in series, the current through each element

is same at any instant of time, having same amplitude and
phase. The current is,
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) …..(2)

From phasor diagram we have

⃗ =𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑅 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝐿

The maximum potential difference across

i). Resistor, 𝑉𝑅𝑚 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑅 ……(3)
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 is in phase with i
ii). Capacitor, 𝑉𝐶𝑚 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐶 …....(4)
𝑉𝐶 is lagging i by 𝜋⁄2
⃗⃗⃗⃗
iii). Inductor, 𝑉𝐿𝑚 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 ........(5)
𝑉𝐿 is leading i by 𝜋⁄2
⃗⃗⃗

If 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 , then 𝑉𝐶 > 𝑉𝐿

⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 and ⃗⃗⃗
Since 𝑉 𝑉𝐿 are along the same line in opposite direction, they can be combined into a single phasor
⃗⃗⃗⃗𝐶 + ⃗⃗⃗
(𝑉 𝑉𝐿 ) which has magnitude|𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚 |.

Applying Pythagorean theorem, we get:

2
𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑉𝑅𝑚 + (𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚 )2

From eqn (3), (4) and (5)

𝑉𝑚2 = (𝑖𝑚 𝑅)2 + (𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑉𝑚2 = 𝑖𝑚
2
[𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 ]

The current through the circuit is,

𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚
…(6) 𝑖𝑚 = =
√𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 𝑍

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Here, 𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2 is the impedance of the ac circuit and is defined as the opposition offered
by the series 𝐿𝐶𝑅 circuit against the flow of AC through it.

Three Marks Questions

1. Show that voltage and current are in the same phase, when AC voltage applied to pure resistor.
Consider a resistor 𝑅 connected to a AC source. The instantaneous value of AC voltage of the source
is given by,
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 …(1)
Where 𝑉𝑚 is peak value of AC and 𝜔 is its angular frequency.

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit,

𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑖𝑅 = 0
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
Since 𝑅 is constant, we can write,
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 …(2)
Where 𝑖𝑚 is peak value of current.

From (1) and (2), we find that the voltage across a pure resistor and the current through it are in phase.

The phase angle between the voltage and current is always zero when AC passes through a resistor.

2. Show that voltage leads current by 𝝅/𝟐 when AC voltage applied to pure inductance.
Consider an inductor of inductance 𝐿 connected to a AC source. The instantaneous value of AC voltage
of the source is given by,
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 …(1)
Where 𝑉𝑚 is peak value of AC and 𝜔 is its angular
frequency.

Using Kirchhoff’s loop rule,

𝑉+𝜀 =0
𝑑𝑖
∵ induced emf across the inductor, 𝜀 = −𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑉−𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

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𝑑𝑖
𝑉=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑉 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
= =
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝑑𝑖 = sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
To obtain the current, we need to integrate the above equation;
𝑉𝑚
𝑖=∫ sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝑖=− cos(𝜔𝑡) + constant
𝜔𝐿
The average value of cos𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 over one complete cycle is zero. Thus in the above equation:
constant = 0.

Therefore,
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= (− cos 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔𝐿
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝜋
𝑖= [sin (𝜔𝑡 − )] [∵ − cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin (𝜔𝑡 − )]
𝜔𝐿 2 2
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 [sin (𝜔𝑡 − 2 )] …(2)

𝑚𝑉
Where 𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿 is the amplitude of the alternating current.
𝜋
From (1) & (2); we observe current lags behind the applied voltage by radian or 90°.
2

3. Show that voltage lags the current by 𝝅/𝟐 when AC voltage applied to a pure capacitor.
Consider a capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 connected to a AC
source. The instantaneous value of AC voltage of the source
is given by,
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 …(1)
Where 𝑉𝑚 is peak value of AC and 𝜔 is its angular
frequency.

From Kirchhoff’s loop rule, the voltage across the source and the capacitor are equal.

∵ 𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑞/𝐶

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𝑞
𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝐶
𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Hence we get,
𝑑
𝑖 = (𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 [ ∵ cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) ]
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
𝑖= sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
(1⁄𝜔𝐶 ) 2
𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 2 ) …(2)

𝑉𝑚
Where 𝑖𝑚 = (1 is the amplitude of the alternating current.
⁄𝜔𝐶 )
𝜋
From (1) & (2); we observe current leads the voltage across the capacitor by 2 radian or 90°

4. Derive the condition for the resonant frequency of a series LCR circuit.
For a series LCR circuit driven by voltage of amplitude 𝑉𝑚 and frequency 𝜔, the peak value of current
is given by:
𝑉𝑚 𝑉𝑚 1
𝑖𝑚 = = Where 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶 and 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝑍 √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2

If frequency is varied, at a particular frequency 𝜔0 the condition 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 is achieved, this condition is

called resonance condition. This frequency at which current through the circuit is maximum is called
the resonant frequency.

At resonance condition (current through the circuit is maximum),

𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿
1
= 𝜔0 𝐿
𝜔0 𝐶

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1
= 𝐿𝐶
𝜔0 2
1
𝜔0 =
√𝐿𝐶
1
2𝜋𝜈0 =
√𝐿𝐶
1
𝜈0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

5. Draw a neat diagram of a transformer. Explain its working.

The device to change (or transform) an alternating voltage from one to another of greater or smaller
value is called transformer.
The transformer uses the principle of mutual induction.

It consists of two coils, insulated from each other and

wound over a soft iron core as shown in the figure. One of
the coils called the primary coil, also called input coil, has
𝑁𝑝 turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil or
output coil and has 𝑁𝑠 turns.
When current in the primary coil is changed the flux
linked to the secondary coil changes. Consequently, an
emf is induced in the secondary coil due to faraday law of electromagnetic induction.

6. Mention the sources of energy losses in transformer.

Sources of energy loss in transformer:
a) Magnetic flux leakage
b) Resistance of the winding
c) Eddy current
d) Hysteresis loss

Two Marks Questions

1. Write the relationship between rms and peak value of AC current and voltage.
RMS value of current,
𝑖𝑚
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
√2

2. What is inductive reactance? Mention the expression for the same.

Opposition offered by a pure inductive circuit to the alternating current is called inductive reactance
(𝑋𝐿 ).
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

3. What is capacitive reactance? Mention the expression for the same.

Opposition offered by a pure capacitive circuit to the alternating current is called capacitive
reactance (𝑋𝐶 ).
1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶 𝜔 = 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
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4. Mention the expression for frequency of LC Oscillations.

Frequency of LC oscillations,
1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜈0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟

5. Write the expression for sharpness of resonance (Q – factor). Explain the terms.
Quality factor,
𝜔0 𝐿 1 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐿 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑄= =
𝑅 𝜔0 𝐶𝑅 𝐶 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜔0 = 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

One Marks Questions

1. What is electrical resonance of a series LCR circuit?
At a particular frequency of input AC, the impedance of the circuit is minimum and current through
the circuit is maximum. This is called electrical resonance.

2. What is transformer?
Transformer is the device used to increase or decrease AC voltage.

3. On what principle does a transformer work?

Mutual induction

4. How does the capacitive reactance vary with the frequency of AC?
1
𝑋𝐶 ∝
𝜐

5. How does the inductive reactance vary with the frequency of AC?
𝑋𝐿 ∝ 𝜐

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8. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Two Marks Questions
1. What are the electromagnetic waves? Write the expression for the velocity of
electromagnetic waves in terms of electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of free
space.
Ans: Electromagnetic waves are the waves with sinusoidal variation of electric and magnetic
field vectors at right angle to each other and perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
1
𝑐=
√𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝜇𝑜 𝑖𝑠 magnetic permeability 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀𝑜 is electric permittivity

2. Give two uses of microwaves.

Ans:
(i) To prepare food in oven
(ii) In RADAR systems

3. Give two applications of infrared rays.

Ans:
(i) For taking photographs’ in fog or smoke
(ii) In green house to keep plants warm.

4. Give two applications of UV rays.

Ans:
(i) In the study of molecular structure.
(ii) In sterilizing the surgical instruments.

5. Give two applications of X- rays.

Ans:
(i) In the study of crystal structure.
(ii) In finding of bone fractures

6. Give two applications of - rays.

Ans:
(i) The study of nuclear structure.
(ii) For radiotherapy in medicine.

One Mark Questions

1. What is the source of electromagnetic waves?
Ans: An accelerated charge emits electromagnetic waves.

2. What is the nature of electromagnetic waves, transverse or longitudinal?

Ans: Transverse

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9. RAY OPTICS
Five Marks Questions
1. Derive relation between n, R, u and v for spherical refracting surfaces.
Ans:
Consider a convex spherical refracting surface of a denser medium of refractive index n 2 placed in a
rarer medium of refractive index n1.
Let R be the radius of curvature of the refracting surface. Let O be a point object placed at a distance u
from the pole. Let I be the corresponding image formed at a distance v from the pole.
From the diagram,
In ∆ NOP,
𝑁𝑃
tan 𝛼 =
𝑃𝑂
In ∆ NCP,
𝑁𝑃
tan 𝛽 =
𝑃𝐶
In ∆ NIP,
𝑁𝑃
tan 𝛾 =
𝑃𝐼
Since ray ON is paraxial, the angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are very small, tan 𝛼 ≈ 𝛼, tan 𝛽 ≈ 𝛽 and tan 𝛾 ≈
𝛾. Then
𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
𝛼= 𝛽= 𝛾=
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

From triangle NOC,

Angle of incidence i = 𝛼 + 𝛽,
𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
i= + . . . . . . . (1)
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶
Similarly, from triangle NCI, 𝛽 = 𝑟 + 𝛾
Angle of refraction 𝑟 = 𝛽 − 𝛾
𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
r= − . . . . . . . (2)
𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

From Snell’s law,

n1sin i = n2sin r
Since angles i and r are small, sin i ≈ i and sin r ≈ r
Therefore, n1i = n 2 r

𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝑁𝑃
n1 ( + ) = n2 ( − )
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

Dividing by NP on both sides,

n1 n1 n2 n2
+ = −
𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐶 𝑃𝐼

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Applying Cartesian sign convention to the distances.

PO= –u, PC = +R PI = + v
n1 n1 n2 n2
+ = −
−u 𝑅 𝑅 v

n2 n1 n2 − n1
− =
v u 𝑅

2. Derive lens maker’s formula.

Ans:
Consider a convex lens of focal length f, refractive index n2
placed in a rarer medium of absolute refractive index n1. Let
C1 and C2 be the centre of curvature, R1 and R2 be the radii of
curvature of the two surfaces ABC and ADC respectively. Let
u be the object distance and v be the image distance.
The image formation can be understood in 2 steps:

i)Refraction at ABC:
In the absence of surface ADC, I1 is the real image formed
corresponding to the point object O.
We know that,
𝑅.𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅.𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅.𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒−𝑅.𝐼 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒
− = …….(1)
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Here, v = BI1, u = – OB and R = BC1
Eqn(1) becomes,
n2 n1 n2 − n1
+ =
B𝐼1 OB 𝐵𝐶1 . . . . . .(2)

ii)Refraction at ADC:
For refraction through ADC, I1 acts as a virtual object and
I is the real image. Here, v = DI, u = DI1 and R = –DC2
Eqn(1) becomes

n1 n2 n1 − n2 n2 − n1
− = = . . . . . .(3)
DI D𝐼1 −𝐷𝐶2 𝐷𝐶2

For thin lens, DI1 ≈ BI1

Then eqn(3) becomes,
n1 n2 n2 − n1
− = . . . . .. .(4)
DI B𝐼1 𝐷𝐶2

Adding eqn(2) and eqn(4), we get

n1 n1 1 1
+ = (n2 − n1 ) [ + ] . . . . . . .(5)
OB DI 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2

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Suppose the object is at ∞ then OB = ∞ and DI = f. Then eqn(5) becomes,

n1 1 1
= (n2 − n1 ) [ + ] . . . . .. . (6)
DI 𝐵𝐶1 𝐷𝐶2

Here f is the focal length of the lens.

By sign convention, BC1= + R1 and DC2 = – R2
1 n2 1 1
= ( − 1) [ − ]
f n1 𝑅1 𝑅2

This equation is known as lens maker’s formula.

3. Obtain expression for equivalent focal length of two thin lenses in contact.
Consider two thin lenses A and B of focal
lengths f1 and f2 placed in contact with each
other.

Refraction through the lens A:

In the absence of lens B, I1 is the real image
formed corresponding to the object O.
Lens maker’s formula for lens A is
1 1 1
− =
v1 u f1
Refraction through the lens B:
In the absence of lens A, I1 acts as a virtual object and I is the final real image formed.
Lens maker’s formula for B is
1 1 1
− =
v v1 f2
Add eqn(1) and eqn(2)
1 1 1 1
− = +
v u f1 f2
If the combination is replaced by a single lens of focal length f called equivalent lens which
would produce a same effect as that of the combination.
Using lens formula
1 1 1
− =
v u f
4. Derive expression for refractive index of material of prism.
Ans: Consider refraction of light through a triangular prism ABC. The angle of incidence and refraction
at the first face AB are i1 and r1, while the angle of incidence at the second face AC is r2 and the angle
of emergence i2. The angle between emergent ray RS and the direction of the incident ray PQ is called
angle of deviation d.
In the quadrilateral AQNR,
∠AQN + ∠ARN = 900
A + ∠QNR = 1800 . . . . . . . (1)
From triangle QNR,
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + ∠𝑄𝑁𝑅 = 1800 . . . . .(2)

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Comparing (1) and (2), we get

𝑟1 + 𝑟2 = A . . . . . . . . (3)
The total deviation d is the sum of deviations at the two faces,
d = d1 + d2
d= (i1 - r1) + (i2 -r2)
d= i1 + i2 - A . . . . . . . . . (4)
A plot between the angle of deviation and angle of incidence is shown in the figure.
At minimum deviation
d = Dm, i1 = i2 = i
which implies r1 = r2 = r
𝐴
Equation (3) becomes 2r = A or 𝑟 = 2
Dm + 𝐴
Equation (4) becomes Dm = 2i – A or 𝑖 = 2
By using Snell’s law,
Dm + 𝐴
𝑛2 sin 𝑖 sin ( 2 )
= =
𝑛1 sin 𝑟 𝐴
sin ( )
2

For prism of R.I n surrounded by air (i.e, n1 = 1 and n2 = n), then above equation becomes
Dm + 𝐴
sin ( )
𝑛 = 2
𝐴
sin ( 2 )

Three Marks Questions

1. Explain cartesian sign conventions for spherical refracting surfaces.
Ans: Cartesian sign conventions are
1) All the distances are measured from the pole of the refracting surface.
2) The distances measured in the direction of incident light are taken positive, whereas distances
measured opposite to that of the incident light are taken negative.
3) The heights measured upwards with respect to x-axis and normal to the principal axis (x-axis) of
the mirror / lens are taken positive. The heights measured downwards are taken as negative.

2. Derive relation between critical angle and refractive index of medium.

Ans:
Consider a ray of light travelling from denser medium of refractive index 𝐧𝟏 to rarer medium of
refractive index 𝐧𝟐 .
From Snell’s law, n1 sini = n2 sin r
𝑛2 sin 𝑖
= . . . . . . (1)
𝑛1 sin 𝑟

For i = C = critical angle and r = 900, eqn(1) becomes

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𝑛2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶
= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶 . . . . . . (2)
𝑛1 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900

For 𝑛1 = 𝑛 and 𝑛2 = 1(air), eqn(2) leads to the form,

1
𝑛=
sin 𝐶

Therefore, refractive index of a medium is equal to reciprocal of sine of the critical angle.

3. Mention consequences of refraction.

Ans:
Consequences are,
1. Sun appearing before actual sunrise and after actual sunset.
2. Lateral shift
3. Normal shift

4. Mention applications of TIR.

Ans:
Applications are,
1. Sparkling of diamonds.
2. Mirage
3. Optical fiber

5. Draw neat labelled diagram of compound microscope.

Ans:
AB- Object
A’B’- Intermediate image
A”B”- Final image
u- object distance
D- Image distance
fo- focal length of objective
fe- focal length of eyepiece
L- length of tube

6. Draw neat labelled diagram of refracting telescope.

Ans:
A’B’- Intermediate image
A”B”- Final image
fo- focal length of objective
fe- focal length of eyepiece
L- length of tube

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Two Marks Questions

1. Mention conditions for total inter reflection.
Ans:
i. The ray of light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium.
ii. The angle of incidence in denser medium should be greater than critical angle.

2. Define linear magnification of lens and write its expression.

Ans:
It is defined as the ratio of size of the image to the size of the object.
h′ v
𝑚= =
h u

3. Define power of lens and write its SI unit.

Ans:
The power of lens is defined as the tangent of the angle by which lens converges or diverges a beam of
light falling at unit distance from the optic centre.
Its SI unit is diopter(D).

4. Define total internal reflection and critical angle.

Ans:
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
The bouncing back of light into the denser medium completely, when a ray of light travels from denser
medium to rarer medium, incident on the interface of the media at an angle greater than critical angle is
called total internal reflection.
Critical angle (c)
The angle of incidence in the denser medium at which the angle of refraction becomes 90 0 in the rarer
medium is called critical angle.

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10. WAVE OPTICS

Five Marks Questions
1. Derive expression for fringe width of interference pattern obtained by Young’s double slit
experiment.
Ans: The distance of separation between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is called fringe width.
Let A and B be the two slits act as coherent sources separated by
a small distance d. Let D be the distance between the slits and the
screen. O is the point on the screen which is equidistant from A
and B. The path difference between the waves from A and B at O
is zero. Hence a bright fringe is formed at O.
Let P be a point on the screen at a distance x from O. The path
difference between the waves arriving from A and B at P is (BP
– AP).
From the ∆AMP,
2
d 2 d2
AP = AM + MP =D + ( x − ) = D2 + x2 - xd +
2 2 2
2 4
From the ∆BNP,
2
2 d d2
BP = BN + NP =D + ( x + ) = D2 + x2 + xd +
2 2 2
2 4
2 2
BP - AP = 2xd
i.e., (BP + AP) (BP - AP) = 2xd
since d is very small compared to D and the point P is very close to O, BP≈ AP≈ D,
2D (BP - AP) = 2xd
2xd xd
Path difference, Δ= (BP – AP) = =
2D D
For a bright fringe formed at P, the path difference, Δ = nλ
xd
i.e., = nλ
D
nλD
x=
d
th
Position of n bright fringe is,
nλD
xn=
d
Position of (n -1)th bright fringe is,
λD
x n-1 = (n -1)
d
By definition fringe width,
β = x n – x n-1
Therefore,
λD
β=
d

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2. Give the theory of interference. Hence arrive at the conditions for constructive and
destructive interferences.
Ans:
Consider two light waves of same wavelength travelling in the same direction.
Their displacements at any instant of time t is given by,
𝑦1 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡
ϕ
𝑦2 = 𝑎 sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
2
where ϕ is the phase difference between the two waves and angular frequency ω = 2пf, f is frequency
of the waves.
According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement of the waves is
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
ϕ
𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑎 sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
2
ϕ
𝑦 = 𝑎 [sin 𝜔𝑡 + sin (𝜔𝑡 + )]
2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
Since, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐴 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐵 = 2 sin 2 cos 2
Therefore,
ϕ ϕ
𝑦 = 𝑎 [2 cos sin (𝜔𝑡 + )]
2 2
ϕ ϕ
𝑦 = 2𝑎 cos sin (𝜔𝑡 + )
2 2
𝑦 = 𝑅 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
where R represents the resultant amplitude given as
ϕ
𝑅 = 2𝑎 cos
2
ϕ
and θ is the phase difference given as 2
The resultant intensity I is given by
𝑰 = 𝒌𝑹𝟐
ϕ
𝑰 = 𝟒𝒌𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐
2
where, k is proportionality constant.
i) Condition for Constructive Interference
Phase difference, ϕ = 2n
Path difference, Δ = n

ii) Condition for Destructive Interference

Phase difference, ϕ = (2n + 1) 
λ
Path difference, Δ = (2n + 1)
2

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Three Marks Questions

1. Explain reflection of light using Huygens wave theory.
Ans:
Let AB be incident plane wavefront.
Let the secondary wavelets from B strike MN at C in t seconds.
 BC = v × t ….(1)
where v is the velocity of light in the medium.
The secondary wavelets form A will travel the same distance v × t in the same time. Therefore, with A
as centre and v × t as radius, we draw an arc at E, so that AE = v× t
CE is the tangent at point E.
Hence CE is the secondary wavefront propagating after t seconds.
Angle of incidence, i = BAC and angle of reflection, r = ECA
In ΔACB and ΔACE,
BC = AE = v × t,
B = E = 900
and AC is common,
Therefore, ΔACB and ΔACE are congruent.
∠𝐵𝐴𝐶 = ∠𝐸𝐶𝐴
i.e. ∠𝒊 = ∠𝒓
This proves the first law of reflection.

2. Explain refraction of light using Huygens wave theory.

Ans:
Let XY be the plane surface that separates a denser medium of
refractive index n from a rarer medium. If v1 is velocity of light in
rarer medium and v2 is velocity of light in denser medium, then by
definition,
v
n= 1
v2
AB is a plane wavefront incident on XY at BAC = i .
Let the secondary wavelets from B strike XY at C in t seconds.
 BC = v1 × t
The secondary wavelets from A travel in the denser medium with a velocity v2 and would cover a
distance (v 2 × t) in t seconds. Therefore, with A as centre and radius equal to (v 2 × t), draw an arc at E
to obtain the secondary wavefront EC.
Let ACE = r , angle of refraction.
BC v1  t
In ACB, sin i = =
AC AC
AE v 2  t
In ACE, sin r = =
AC AC
sin i v1
 = =n
sin r v 2

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3. Mention different types of sources & their wavefront.

Ans:
i) Point source produces- Spherical Wavefront
ii) Slit produces- Cylindrical wavefront
iii) Distant source produces- Plane wavefront

4. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.

Ans:
Interference Diffraction
1. It is the phenomenon in which the 1. It is the phenomenon of bending of light
modification in the distribution of light around small obstacles and hence its
energy due to the superposition of two encroachment into the geometrical
or more waves. shadow region
2. Interference fringes are of equal
2. Diffraction bands are of unequal width.
width.
3. Intensity of all bright fringes is
3. Intensity of each bright band varies.
uniform.

5. Distinguish between constructive interference and destructive interference.

Ans:
Constructive Interference Destructive Interference
1. Intensity is maximum. 1. Intensity is minimum.

2. Path difference is Δ= n λ, 2. Path difference isΔ = ( 2n + 1)
2
3. Phase difference is ϕ = 2n 3. Phase difference is ϕ = (2n + 1) 

Two Marks Questions

1. State Huygens principle.
Ans:
1. Every point on the given wavefront (called primary wavefront) acts as a source of secondary
wavelets, which travel in all directions with the velocity of light in the medium.
2. A surface touching these secondary wavelets, tangentially in the forward direction at any instant
gives the new wavefront at that instant. This is called secondary wavefront.

2. Can two sodium vapor lamps be considered as coherent sources? Why?

Ans: No. Even if intensity and frequency are equally maintained it is impossible to have same or
constant phase difference.

3. Define interference and diffraction.

Ans:
The phenomenon of modification in the distribution of light energy when two or more light waves
superpose on one another is called interference.
The phenomenon of bending of light around small obstacles and hence its spreading into the geometrical
shadow region is called diffraction.

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11. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTER

Five Marks Questions
1. Write Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect. Give Einstein’s explanation of Photoelectric
effect.
Ans:
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is
hν = Ф0 + KEmax
where, h is Planck’s constant
ν is frequency of incident radiation
Ф0 is work function of metal.
KEmax- maximum KE of electrons
1. If ν  νo, kinetic energy will be negative which is hypothetical. Therefore, the photoelectric
emission is not possible. Hence a minimum frequency called threshold frequency(νo) exists
for the photoelectric emission.

2. Greater the intensity of incident radiation, the greater will be the number of photons in it.
Hence, the number of photons undergoing collision with the electrons increases resulting in
larger photoelectric current.

3. As the work function Ф0 is a constant for a given material, the increase in frequency of
incident radiation increases the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons. Hence the
maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
incident radiation. It is independent of intensity.

4. According to Einstein, photoemission is due to the elastic collision between photon and the
free electron. In this process all the energy of photon is transferred to the free electron at
once. Hence the photo emission is instantaneous.

1. Explain laws of photoelectric effect./ Explain experimental observations of photoelectric effect.

Ans:
1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the threshold
frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.
2. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is
found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential
is independent of its intensity.
3. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident
radiation called the threshold frequency, below which no emission of photoelectrons takes
place.
4. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
5. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag (~10– 9s
or less), even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.

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Three Marks Questions

1. What are matter waves? Write expression for de Broglie wavelength and explain the terms.
Ans: The waves associated with the material particles in motion are called matter waves.
h
λ=
mv
where m & v are the mass & velocity of the material particle respectively.

2. Explain Hallwach’s observations on photoelectric effect.

Ans: Hallwach’s observed the following when zinc plate was illuminated by UV rays.
i. Negatively charged zinc plate becoming neutral.
ii. Neutral zinc plate turning into positively charged plate.
iii. Positively charged plate enhancing its positive charge.

3. Explain Lenard’s ’s observations on photoelectric effect.

Ans: Lenard observed that
i) When UV radiations are made to strike the emitter plate, current was recorded in the external circuit.
ii) When UV radiations were stopped, the current flow also stopped.
This indicates the emission of negatively charged particles is due to UV rays. They are attracted towards
the anode which causes electric current in the circuit.

4. Define a) work function, b) Threshold frequency and c) stopping potential.

Ans:
a) Work function (Ф0): The minimum energy required just to liberate a free electron from the metal
surface is called photoelectric work function.

b) Threshold frequency (υo): It is the minimum frequency of incident radiation below which there
is no photo emission takes place.

c) Stopping potential (V0): It is the minimum negative potential of anode for which the emitted
electrons are prevented from reaching the anode. It is also called retarding potential.

5. Mention any three properties of photons.

Ans:
h
i. Each photon has energy, E = hν and momentum, P= where h is Planck’s constant, ν and λ

are the frequency and wavelength of radiation.
ii. All photons travel with same speed in free space that is 3×108ms-1
iii. Rest mass of photon is zero.
iv. Photons are electrically neutral not affected by electric and magnetic fields.

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12. ATOMS
Five Marks Questions
1. State the postulates of a Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom.
Ans: Postulates of Bohr’s atomic model:
1. First postulate: An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the
emission of radiant energy. Such orbits are called stationary orbits.
2. Second postulate: Electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the
angular momentum of the electron is an integral multiple of h/2π, where h is Planck’s
constant. That is
𝑛ℎ
𝐿=
2𝜋
where n = 1, 2, 3......... principal quantum number
This postulate is also called Bohr’s Quantum Condition.
3. Third postulate: When an electron makes a transition from a higher energy orbit to lower
energy orbit, the difference in the energies is emitted as a photon of frequency,
𝐸2 − 𝐸1
ν =
ℎ
This postulate is also called Bohr’s frequency Condition.

2. Derive an expression for the radius of nth Bohr’s orbit of Hydrogen atom.
Ans:
Consider an atom of atomic number ‘Z’, the charge on its nucleus is +Ze. Let an electron of mass
‘m’ & charge ‘-e’ revolve around the nucleus. Let ‘r’ be the radius of the circular orbit & ‘v’ be the
linear velocity.
The electro static force of attraction between the nucleus & the electron is
1 𝑍𝑒(𝑒) 1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐹𝐸 = =
4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2 4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2
The necessary centripetal force 𝐹𝐶 is required for orbital motion of the electron.
Therefore FC = FE
𝑚𝑣 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
=
𝑟 4𝜋ε0 𝑟 2
2
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 𝑟 = … … … … … (1)
4𝜋ε0
From Bohr’s quantization rule, we have
ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛
2𝜋
2 2 2 2
ℎ2
𝑚 𝑣 𝑟 =𝑛 … … … . . (2)
4𝜋 2
Dividing (2) by (1) we get
ℎ2
𝑛2 2 2 2 2
4𝜋 = 𝑚 𝑣 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑟
4𝜋ε0
Hence, radius of nth orbit is given as
ε0 𝑛2 ℎ2
𝒓𝒏 =
𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
For H-atom, Z = 1
Therefore,

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𝛆𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐
𝒓𝒏 =
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐
3. Obtain an expression for the energy of an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom in terms
of the radius of the orbit and absolute constants.
Ans:
Consider an atom of atomic number Z. The charge on its nucleus is +Ze. Let an electron of
mass m and charge -e revolve around the nucleus with an orbital velocity v. Let r be the
radius of the orbit.
The electrons revolving around the nucleus possess
a) Potential energy because it is in the electrostatic field of nucleus and
b) Kinetic energy by virtue of its motion.
Thus, the total energy of an electron revolving around the nucleus is sum of kinetic energy
(KE) and potential energy (PE),
i.e. E = KE + PE…………………………..(1)
The Potential energy possessed by an electron is
1 𝑍𝑒(−𝑒) −𝑍𝑒 2
𝑃𝐸 = = … … … . (2)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Form Bohr’s postulates,
𝑍𝑒 2
𝑚𝑣 2 = … … … … … … … … … … . . . (3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
KE of electron of mass ‘m’ and velocity ‘v’ is given by
1
KE = mv 2 … … … … … … … … … … … … (4)
2
Substituting (3) in (4) we get kinetic energy as,
1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐾𝐸 = ( ) … … … … … … … … … . (5)
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Substituting equations (2) and (5) in equation (1) we get,
1 𝑍𝑒 2 1 𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸= ( ) + (− )
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
𝑍𝑒 2 1 −𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸= [ − 1] =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 8𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Substituting the expression of
𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
radius of nth orbit of Hydrogen 𝑖𝑒, . 𝑟𝑛 =
atom, 𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
−𝑍𝑒 2 𝜋𝑚𝑍𝑒 2
𝐸=
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑛2 ℎ2 𝜀0
−𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = 2 2 2
8𝜀0 𝑛 ℎ
For H-atom Z=1,
Therefore
−𝒎𝒆𝟒
𝑬𝒏 =
𝟖𝜺𝟐𝟎 𝒏𝟐 𝒉𝟐

4. Give an account of the spectral series of hydrogen atom.

Ans: Spectral series of Hydrogen are classified into five series as,
1. Lyman series: This series obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher orbits to
the first orbit. i.e from n2 = 2,3,4,……..to n1 = 1.

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It is represented by the formula

1 1 1
𝜈= = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 1 𝑛2
These spectral lines lie in the ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum.
2. Balmer series: this series is obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher orbits to
the second orbit. i.e from n2=3,4,6…….. to n1=2.

It is represented by the formula

1 1 1
𝜈= = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 2 𝑛2

There spectral lines lie in the visible region. These spectral lines are called 𝐻𝛼 , 𝐻𝛽 , 𝐻𝛾

3. Paschen series: This series is obtained due to transition of an electron from higher orbits
to the third orbit. i.e from n2 = 4,5,6,7……to n1 =3.
It is represented by the formula
1 1 1
𝜈 = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 3 𝑛2
These spectral lines lie in the near infrared region.
4. Brackett series: This series is obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher
orbits to the fourth orbit. i.e from n2 = 5,6,7…..to n1 =4.
It is represented by the formula
1 1 1
𝜈 = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 4 𝑛2
These spectral lines lie in the mid infrared region.

5. Pfund series: This series is obtained due to the transition of an electron from higher orbits
to the fifth orbit. i.e from n2 = 6,7,8… to n1 =5.
It is represented by the formula
1 1 1
𝜈 = = 𝑅 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 5 𝑛2
There spectral lines lie in far infrared region.
5. Derive an expression for the frequency/wavenumber of spectral series by assuming the
expression for energy.
Ans: According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an electron of an atom makes a
transition from the higher energy level of quantum number n2 to the lower energy level of quantum
number n1 (n1<n2). The difference of energy is carried away by a photon of frequency ν, such that
ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸𝑛2 − 𝐸𝑛1

For the electron in the nth state, energy is

−𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
𝐸𝑛 = 2 2 2
8𝜀0 𝑛 ℎ
Therefore
−𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 −𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
ℎ𝜈 = 2 2 2 − [ 2 2 2 ]
8𝜀0 𝑛2 ℎ 8𝜀0 𝑛1 ℎ
2 4
−𝑚𝑍 𝑒 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4
ℎ𝜈 = 2 2 2 + [ 2 2 2 ]
8𝜀0 𝑛2 ℎ 8𝜀0 𝑛1 ℎ

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𝑐
Since, 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆 → 𝜈 =
𝜆
ℎ𝑐 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
= 2 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 2
8𝜀0 ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2
1 𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
= 2 [ 2 − 2]
𝜆 3
8𝜀0 𝑐ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2

Wave number is defined as number of waves per unit length.

It is equal to reciprocal of wavelength. Therefore,
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
𝜈 = 2 3 [ 2 − 2]
8𝜀0 𝑐ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑚𝑍 2 𝑒 4 1 1
𝜈 = 2 3 [ 2 − 2]
8𝜀0 𝑐ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2
1 1
𝜈 = R𝑍 2 [ 2 − 2 ]
𝑛1 𝑛2
Where R is called Rydberg constant.

For hydrogen atom, Z = 1

Therefore, wave number is
1 1
∴ 𝜈 = R [ 2 − 2]
𝑛1 𝑛2

Three Marks Questions

1. Explain experimental observations of Geiger Marsden alpha scattering experiment.
Ans:
i. Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the gold foil. That means they do not suffer
any collision with gold atoms.
ii. Only about 0.14% of the incident alpha particles are scattered by more than 10.
iii. About 1 in 8000 of the incident alpha particles is deflected by more than 900.

2. Give de-Broglie’s explanation of Bohr’s quantum condition.

Ans: According to de-Broglie, the electron in its circular orbit must be seen as a matter wave.
Consider an electron moving in the nth circular orbit of radius rn with speed v. Total distance travelled
by electron is equal to the circumference of the orbit i.e. 2πrn (where n = 1, 2, 3, 4….).

For a stationary orbit,

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆 … . . (1)
For a de Broglie wave, the wavelength is,
ℎ
𝜆= … … . (2)
𝑚𝑣

Substituting (2) in (1) we get,

ℎ
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑚𝑣
𝑛ℎ
𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 =
2𝜋

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Since, 𝑚𝑣𝑛 𝑟𝑛 is angular momentum L.

𝑛ℎ
𝐿=
2𝜋
This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for an angular momentum of electron.

Two Marks Questions

14. Draw the schematic diagram representing Geiger Marsden experiment.
Ans:

15. Write the expression for the radius of nth orbit of hydrogen atom and explain the terms
ε0 𝑛2 ℎ2 Where,
𝑟𝑛 = n- orbit no.
𝜋𝑚𝑒 2
m- mass of electron
e- charge of electron
0- permittivity of free space
h- Planck’s constant

16. Write the expression for the velocity of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom and explain
the terms.
Where,
𝑒2 n- orbit no.
𝑣𝑛 = e- charge of electron
2𝑛ε0 ℎ 0- permittivity of free space
h- Planck’s constant

17. Write the formula for the wave number of a spectral line and explain the terms.
Where,
1 1 R- Rydberg constant
∴ 𝜈 = R [ 2 − 2]
𝑛1 𝑛2 n1- lower energy level
n2- higher energy level

18. Write the expression for the Rydberg’s constant and explain the terms.
Where,
𝑚𝑒 4 m-mass of electron
𝑅= 2 3 e- charge of electron
8𝜀0 𝑐ℎ 0- permittivity of free space
c- speed of light
h- Planck’s constant
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19. Define a) distance of closest approach and b) impact parameter.

Ans:
a) When the alpha particle is at a particular distance D from the nucleus, its kinetic energy
becomes zero and is completely converted into potential energy. This distance D is the
distance of closest approach.
b) Impact parameter is defined as the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of
the alpha particle from the central line of the nucleus.

20. Mention any two limitations of Rutherford’s atomic theory.

Ans:
i. It could not explain how the electrons and protons could be close-packed to give a stable
nucleus.
ii. Rutherford’s model could not explain the origin of atomic line spectra.

21. Mention any two limitations of Bohr’s atomic theory.

Ans:
i. Bohr’s theory is applicable only to hydrogen atom and hydrogen like atoms.
ii. Bohr’s theory fails to explain the fine structure of spectral lines even in hydrogen atom.
iii. This model couldn’t explain stark effect and Zeeman effect.

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13. NUCLEI
Three Mark Questions
1. Write any three properties of nuclear force.
Ans:
i. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature.
ii. It is a short-range force
iii. It is charge independent.
iv. It is spin dependent.
v. It is a non-central force. It has the property of saturation.

2. Distinguish between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion.

Ans:
Nuclear Fission Nuclear fusion
1. It is a process in which a heavy nucleus splits 1. It is a process in which two lighter nuclei fuse
into two lighter nuclei with the release of to form a heavier nucleus with the release
energy. of energy.

2. High temperature is not required. 2. High temperature of about 109 K is required.

3. The process is initiated by a neutron. 3. No neutron is required to initiate the process.

4. Neutrons are released along with fission 4. Positrons are released along with fusion
fragments. products.
5. The fission fragments are unstable and 5. The fusion products are stable and non-
radioactive. radioactive.
6. Energy yield per unit mass of the reactants is 6. Energy yield per unit mass of the reactants is
low. high.
7. Radioactive wastes are produced. 7. No radioactive active wastes are produced.

One Mark Questions

1. Define 1 atomic mass unit or 1 u.
Ans: One atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th the mass of Carbon-12 atom.

2. How does nucleus radius of an atom depend on its mass number A?

Ans: R is directly proportional to A1/3

3. What is mass defect?

Ans: The difference between the sum of the rest masses of constituent nucleons of a nucleus and the
mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect.

4. Define binding energy.

Ans: Binding energy is the amount of energy released when the nucleus is formed from its constituent
nucleons.

5. What are isotopes?

Ans: Nuclei with same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called as 'isotopes'.
[ Ex. Hydrogen 1H1, Deuterium 1H2]

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6. What are isotones?

Ans: Nuclei with different atomic numbers Z and different mass numbers A, but same neutron numbers
(N) are called as 'isotones'
[Ex:6C14, 7N15]

7. What are isobars?

Ans: Nuclei with same mass number (A), but different atomic numbers (Z) are called as 'isobars'.
[Ex: 16S36 and 18 Ar36 ]

8. What is the ratio of the nuclear densities of two nuclei having mass numbers in the ratio 1:3?
Ans: density of nuclei () is independent of atomic muss number (A), it means  is same of all nuclei.

9. What is the principle of a nuclear reactor?

Ans: It works on the principle of controlled nuclear chain reaction

10. What is the principle of atom bomb?

Ans: Uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction

11. In proton- proton cycle, what is the approximate energy released?

Ans: In P-P chain reaction approximate 26.7 MeV releases.

Two Mark Questions

1. Write the binding energy formula and explain the terms.
Ans: 𝐸𝑏 = 𝛥 𝑚𝑐 2
where Δm is mass defect and c is speed of light in free space.

2. Draw the Schematic diagram of nuclear reactor and mention the parts.
Ans: A schematic diagram of nuclear reactor

3. Write the expression for mass defect and explain the terms.
Ans:
𝚫𝐦 = [ 𝐙 𝐦𝐩 + (𝐀– 𝐙) 𝐦𝐧 ] – 𝐌
Where, mp is rest mass of proton
mn is rest mass of neutron
M is rest mass of nucleus
Z is atomic number
A is mass number
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13. SEMICONDUCTORS
Five Marks Questions
1.What is rectification? Explain full wave rectifier with necessary waveforms.
Ans: The process of converting ac into pulsating dc is called rectification.

The circuit consists of a centre-tap transformer, an ac

source, and two diodes D1 & D2 and a load resistor as
shown. When ac input is given to primary of a
transformer, a voltage is induced in the secondary.

During positive half cycle of ac i.e., when A is positive

Y X potential and B is negative potential, diode D1 in forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased. Consequently, D1
conducts while D2 does not. The conventional current
flows through RL from X to Y.

During the negative half cycle, A becomes negative

potential and B positive potential. D 1 is reverse biased
and D 2 is forward biased. Hence D 2 conducts while D 1
does not. The conventional current again flows through
RL from X to Y.

Thus, current flows through the circuit during both the

half cycles and the current is unidirectional. The output
is taken across RL.
The input and output waveforms are as shown.

2. Explain VI characteristics of semiconductor diode with necessary curve.

Ans:
Forward bias
When p-side of the semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal
and n-side to the negative terminal of the battery, the p-n junction is said
to be forward biased.

With the application of bias voltage V, the effective barrier potential reduces and the width of
depletion region decreases. The majority charge carriers easily cross the junction. This constitutes a
flow of current (of mA) in the circuit. The current rises sharply with the applied voltage. The voltage
across the diode at which current through it increases sharply is called cut-in voltage. (Vin)

Reverse Bias
When p-side of the semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal
and n-side to the positive terminal of the battery, the p-n junction is
said to be reverse biased.

With the application of reverse bias voltage V, the effective potential barrier increases and the width
of depletion region increases. The majority carriers cannot cross the junction. Hence the current
through the circuit is practically zero. The p-n junction offers very high resistance in the circuit.

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However, a small current flow in the circuit due to minority charge carriers which is called reverse
current (few A) .

If the reverse bias voltage is further increased then p-n junction conducts heavily due to breakage of
depletion region. This voltage called breakdown voltage (Vbr).

Thus, the VI characteristics of p-n junction diode is as shown.

3. Explain classification of solids on the basis of band theory.

Ans:
Conductors: In conductors, the energy gap between valence band and the conduction band zero or
the valence and conduction bands are overlapping. Valence band is completely filled with free
electrons and the conduction band is partially filled. With the application of very small electric field,
electrons flow in the conduction band which constitutes electric current.

Insulators: In insulators, the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is very large
(above 3eV). Valence band is completely filled with free electrons and the conduction band is
completely empty. Hence the insulator does not conduct practically.

Semiconductors: In semiconductors, the energy gap between valence band and the conduction band
is less than 3eV. Valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is completely empty at
zero kelvin. Hence at 0K semiconductors are perfect insulators. At higher temperatures some
electrons acquire thermal energy and jump to the conduction band. They are free to move when
electric field is applied. But its conductivity is less compared to that of conductors.
Conduction

Conduction > 3eV

Conduction < 3eV

band
Valence band Valence band Valence band

Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

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Three Marks Questions

1. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
1. These are semiconductors with impurity
1. These are pure semiconductors.
atoms.
2. Number of electrons and number of 2. Number of electrons and number of
holes are equal. holes are not equal.
3. The conductivity depends on 3. The conductivity depends on
temperature. temperature and concentration of doping.

2. Distinguish between n- type and p- type semiconductors.

n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor
1. It is obtained when a pure semiconductor 1. It is obtained when a pure semiconductor
is doped with pentavalent impurities. is doped with trivalent impurities.
2. Electrons are the majority charge carriers 2. Holes are the majority charge carriers and
and holes are the minority charge carriers. electrons are the minority charge carriers.
3. The impurity added is called donor. 3. The impurity added is called acceptor.
4. Majority charge carriers are in the 4. Majority charge carriers are in the valence
conduction band. band.
5. Donor impurity level lies just below the 5. Acceptor impurity level lies just above
conduction band. the valence band.

3. Explain half wave rectifier with necessary waveforms.

Ans:
The circuit diagram of half wave rectifier consists of
an ac source, a transformer, a diode and a load resistor
RL. The ac signal that is to be rectified is given to the
transformer and the output is taken across the load
resistor RL. When ac input is given to primary of a
transformer, a voltage is induced in the secondary of
the transformer.

During the positive half cycle of ac i.e., when A is

positive potential and B is negative potential, the diode
is forward biased and hence it will conduct.

During the negative half cycle, point A is negative

potential and B is positive potential. The diode is now
reverse biased and hence it will not conduct. The
output current flows only during positive half cycles
of input ac.
The input and output waveforms are as shown.

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4. Mention working principle and give an application of photodiode.

Ans:
When light is made to incident on the depletion region of the diode, there is an increase in the
concentration of minority charge carriers. As a result, the reverse current increases which is directly
proportional to the intensity of light. The photodiode is operated in the reverse bias mode.
Use:
a) Detection of both visible and invisible radiations
b) Measure light intensity

5. Mention working principle and give an application of LED.

Ans:
When a heavily doped p-n junction is connected in forward biased condition, a large number of electron
– hole recombination takes place due to the transition of electrons from conduction band to the valence
band. During this process the energy is released as photons whose wavelengths are in the visible region.
Use:
a) Traffic lights
b) Infra-red LED’s in remote controls

6. Mention working principle and give an application of solar cell.

Ans:
When light is incident on the p-n junction, the electron- hole pairs are created at the junction. Due to the
junction potential difference, electrons move to n-side and holes to p-side. An emf is developed on two
sides of the semiconductor. A current flow in the circuit when a load is connected to the cell.
Use:
a) As power sources in artificial satellites
b) To supply power in calculators

Two Marks Questions

1. Give symbol and truth table of NOT gate.
Logic symbol: Truth Table:
Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0

2. Give symbol and truth table of OR gate.

Logic symbol: Truth Table:
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

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3. Give symbol and truth table of AND gate.

Logic symbol: Truth Table:
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

4. Give symbol and truth table of NAND gate.

Logic symbol: Truth Table:
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

5. Give symbol and truth table of NOR gate.

Logic symbol: Truth Table:
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

******************

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