19CSE311 :Computer Security

Lecture 03
More on Mathematical
Foundations for Cryptography

By
Ritwik M
Assistant Professor(SrGr)
Dept. Of Computer Science & Engg.
Sources: Stallings William, Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice, 7th Edition, Pearson/Prentice- Hall, 2018.; Forouzan B A, Cryptography and Network Security, Tata
McGraw Hill, 2007; The internet. All images from google images
Quick Recap

• Integer Arithmetic
• Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
• Euclidean Algorithm to calculate GCD
• Examples
• Exercises

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Modular Arithmetic

• The division relationship (a = q × n + r)

(discussed previously section) has two inputs (a and n) and two
outputs (q and r).In modular arithmetic
• In modular arithmetic, we are interested in only one of the outputs,
the remainder r.
• i.e. we want to know what is the value of r when we divide a by n.
• This implies that we can change the above relation into a binary operator
with two inputs a and n and one output r.

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 Modular Arithmetic cont.

• The modulo operator (mod) takes an integer (a) from the set Z and
a positive modulus (n).
• The modulo operator creates a nonnegative residue (r).
• Therefore
a mod n = r

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Modular Arithmetic - Example

• 27 mod 5
• Dividing 27 by 5 results in r = 2. This means that 27 mod 5 = 2.
• 36 mod 12
• Dividing 36 by 12 results in r = 0. This means that 36 mod 12 = 0.
• −18 mod 14
• Dividing −18 by 14 results in r = −4.
• However, we need to add the modulus (14) to make it nonnegative.
• We have r = −4 + 14 = 10. This means that −18 mod 14 = 10.
• −7 mod 10
• Dividing −7 by 10 results in r = −7.
• After adding the modulus to −7, we have r = 3. This means that −7 mod 10 = 3

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Modular Arithmetic - Exercise

• 271 mod 5
• 236 mod 12
• −184 mod 14
• −17 mod 10
• 23 mod 15
• -23 mod 100

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 Congruence
• In cryptography, we often used the concept of congruence instead of equality
• To show that two integers are congruent, we use the congruence operator (≡).
• Add the phrase (mod n) to the right side of the congruence to define the value
of modulus that makes the relationship valid
• The congruence operator maps a member from Z to a member of Zn
• Example.
• 2 ≡ 12 (mod 10)
• 13 ≡ 23 (mod 10)
• 8 ≡ 13 (mod 5) −8 ≡ 2 ≡ 12 ≡ 22 (mod 10)
• 34 ≡ 24 (mod 10)
• 23 ≡ 33 (mod 5)
• −8 ≡ 12 (mod 10)
• −8 ≡ 2 (mod 5)

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 Congruence - Properties
• The following properties allow us to first map the two inputs to Zn (if
they are coming from Z) before applying the three binary operations
(+, −, ×)

• Properties
• First Property: (a + b) mod n = [(a mod n) + (b mod n)] mod n
• Second Property: (a − b) mod n = [(a mod n) − (b mod n)] mod n
• Third Property: (a × b) mod n = [(a mod n) × (b mod n)] mod n

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 Inverse
• Additive
• In Zn , two numbers a and b are additive inverses of each other if
•
a + b ≡ 0 (mod n)

• In Zn , the additive inverse of a can be calculated as b = n − a.

• Multiplicative
• In Zn , two numbers a and b are multiplicative inverses of each other if
a x b ≡ 1 (mod n)

• For example, if the modulus is 10,

• the multiplicative inverse of 3 is 7. i.e. (3 × 7) mod 10 = 1.
• In modular arithmetic, an integer may or may not have a multiplicative inverse.
• When it does, the product of the integer and its multiplicative inverse is congruent to 1
modulo n.
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Importance of Inverse

• It can be proved that a has a multiplicative inverse in Z n if and

only if GCD (b, a) = 1.
• In mathematics, two integers a and n are coprime (relatively prime
/ mutually prime) if the only positive integer that is a divisor of
both of them is 1
• Consequently, any prime number that divides a does not divide b, and
vice versa.
• This is equivalent to their GCD being 1
• The concept of prime and co-prime numbers is critical for most
cryptographic systems

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Extended Euclidean Algorithm

• Given two integers a and b, the aim is to find two integers, s and t,
such that
s × a + t × b = gcd (a, b)

• The extended Euclidean algorithm can calculate both the gcd (a, b)
and the value of s and t simultaneously
• The algorithm can also find the multiplicative inverse of an integer
in modular arithmetic

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Extended Euclidean Algorithm Cont.

The Process
• By reversing the steps in the Euclidean algorithm, it is
possible to find these integers s and t.
• The whole idea is to start with the GCD and recursively
work our way backwards. The Algorithm
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Extended Euclidean Algorithm Cont.
• Step 1: Ensure inverse exists I.e GCD(b,a)=1
• The formulae
• rn+1 = rn-1 - q*rn • The last value of u n+1 and vn+1
• un+1 = un-1 - q*un correspond to the values s and t
• vn+1 = vn-1 - q*vn • The inverse is one of them

• At the start of the iterations set:

• r0 = a
• r1 = b
• n = 1
• u0 = 1
• u1 = 0
• v0 = 0
• v1 = 1
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Example : Inverse using extended Euclidean Algorithm
• Calculate 7-1 in z10
Iteration q rn-1 rn rn+1 un-1 un un+1 vn-1 vn vn+1

1 1 10 7 3 1 0 1 0 1 -1

2 2 7 3 1 0 1 -2 1 -1 3
•
3 3 3 1 0

U n+1 = -2 and vn+1 = 3

Check (7x–2) mod 10 = -14 mod 10 = 4mod 10
check (7x3)mod 10 = 21 mod 10 = 1 mod 10 --> success
Therefore 7-1 in Z10 is 3

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 Example2 : Inverse using extended Euclidean Algorithm
• Calculate 23-1 in z100
Iteration q rn-1 rn rn+1 un-1 un un+1 vn-1 vn vn+1

1 4 100 23 8 1 0 1 0 1 -4

2 2 23 8 7 0 1 -2 1 -4 9
• 3 1 8 7 1 1 -2 3 -4 9 -13

4 7 7 1 0

U n+1 = 3 and v n+1 = -13

Check (23x3) mod 100 = 69 mod 100
check (23x-13)mod100 = [(23mod100) x (87 mod 100)]mod 100
= 2001 mod100 = 1mod100--> success
Z should be positive. -13 mod 100 ≡ 87 mod 100
Therefore 23-1 in Z100 is 87
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Inverse using extended Euclidean Algorithm - Exercises

• Calculate 23-1 in Z100

• Calculate 12-1 in Z26
• Calculate 1432-1 in Z123211
• Calculate 2317-1 in Z123456
• Calculate 2312-1 in Z12454

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Summary

• Modular Arithmetic
• Congruence
• Inverse
• Extended Euclidean Algorithm to calculate Inverse
• Examples
• Exercises

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Up Next..

Even More Mathematical Foundations for Cryptography

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