Composition:

I.WR1T1NG A PARAGRAPH:
1 Paragraph Structure
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss one main idea. A paragraph
can be as short as one sentence or as long as ten sentences. The number of sentences is
unimportant; however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop the main idea
clearly. A paragraph may stand by itself.
In academic writing, you often write a paragraph to answer a test question such as the
following: "Define management by objective, and give one example of it from the
reading you have done for this class." A paragraph may also be one part of a longer piece
of writing such as an essay or a book. We mark a paragraph by indenting the first word
about a half inch (five spaces on a typewriter or computer) from the left margin.
The following model contains all the elements of a good paragraph. Read it carefully
two or three times. Then answer the questions that follow, which will help you analyze
its structure.
Q1. What is the topic of the paragraph?
Q 2. What are the main points does the writer make about the topic?
Q 3. In which sentences does the writer say the main points?
Q 4. What examples or details does the writer use to support the points?

2 The Three Parts of a Paragraph:

All paragraphs have a topic sentence and supporting sentences, and some paragraphs
also have a concluding sentence. The topic sentence states the main idea of the
paragraph. It not only names the topic of the paragraph, but it also limits the topic to
one specific area that can be discussed completely in the space of a single paragraph.
The part of the topic sentence that announces the specific area to be discussed is called
the controlling idea. Notice how the topic sentence of the next model states both the
topic and the controlling idea:
Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence. That is, they explain or prove the
topic sentence by giving more information about it.
Following are some of the supporting sentences that explain the topic sentence about
gold.
First of all, gold has a lustrous beauty that is resistant to corrosion.
For example, a Macedonian coin remains as untarnished today as the day it was made
25 centuries ago.
Another important characteristic of gold is its usefulness to industry and science.
The most recent use of gold is in astronauts' suits.
The concluding sentence signals the end of the paragraph and leaves the reader with
important points to remember:
In conclusion, gold is treasured not only for its beauty but also for its utility.
Concluding sentences are customary for stand-alone paragraphs. However, paragraphs
that are parts of a longer piece of writing usually do not need concluding sentences.

3 The Topic Sentence:

Every good paragraph has a topic sentence, which clearly states the topic and the
controlling idea of the paragraph. A topic sentence is the most important sentence in a
paragraph. It briefly indicates what the paragraph is going to discuss. For this reason,
the topic sentence is a helpful guide to both the writer and the reader. The writer can see
what information to include (and what information to exclude). The reader can see what
the paragraph is going to be about and is therefore better prepared to understand it.
1. A topic sentence is a complete sentence; that is, it contains at least one subject and
one verb. The following are not complete sentences because they do not have verbs:
Driving on freeways.
How to register for college classes.
The rise of indie films.!
2. A topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea. It names the topic and
then limits the topic to a specific area to be discussed in the space of a single paragraph.
Driving on freeways requires skill and alertness.
Registering for college classes can be a frustrating experience for new students.
The rise of indie film is due to several factors.
 Following is a general statement that could serve as a topic sentence.
The Arabic origin of many English words is not always obvious.
 The following sentence, on the other hand, is too specific. It could serve as a
supporting sentence but not as a topic sentence.
The slang expression so long (meaning "good-bye") is probably corruption of the Arabic
salaam.
 This sentence is too general.
English has been influenced by other languages.
Therefore, the topic sentence should not be too specific nor too general.

4 Position of Topic Sentences

The topic sentence is usually (but not always) the first sentence in a paragraph.
Experienced writers sometimes put topic sentences in other locations, but the best spot
is usually right at the beginning. Readers who are used to the English way of writing
want to know what they will read about as soon as they begin reading.
Sometimes a topic sentence comes at the end. In this case, the paragraph often begins
with a series of examples. Other paragraphs may begin with a series of facts, and the
topic sentence at the end is the conclusion from these facts.
1 Read the sentences in each of the following groups, and decide which sentence is the
best topic sentence. Write best TS (for "best topic sentence") on the line next to it.
2 Decide what is wrong with the other sentences. They may be too general, or they may
be too specific, or they may be incomplete sentences.
Group 1
_______________ A lunar eclipse is an omen of a coming disaster.
_______________ b. Superstitions have been around forever
_______________ c. People hold many superstitious beliefs about the moon.
_______________d. Is made of green cheese.
Group 2
________ a. The 11istory of astronomy is interesting.
________ b. Ice age people recorded the appearance of new moons by making
scratches in animal bones.
________ c. For example, Stonehenge in Britain, built 3500 years ago to track the
movement of the sun.
________ d. Ancient people observed and recorded lunar and solar events in different
ways.
Group 3
________ a. It is hard to know which foods are safe to eat nowadays.
________ b. In some large ocean fish, there are high levels of mercury.
________ c. Undercooked chicken and hamburger may carry E. coli bacteria.
________ d. Not to mention mad cow disease.
________ e. Food safety is an important issue.
Read the following scrambled paragraph and decide which sentence is the topic
sentence. Write TS on the line next to that sentence.
Paragraph 1
__ a. A notes/memo function lets you make quick notes to yourself.
__ b. Other capabilities include word processing, spreadsheets, and e-mail.
__ c. A voice recorder that uses a built-in microphone and speaker works like a tape
recorder.
__ d. Basic tools include a calendar to keep track of your appointments, an address and
phone number book, to-do lists, and a calculator.
 __ e. MP3 playback lets you listen to digital music files, and a picture viewer lets you
look at digital photos.
__ f. Most personal digital assistants (PDAs) have tools for basic tasks as well as for
multimedia functions.
__ g. A few models also include a built-in digital camera and keyboard.

5 Supporting Sentences
Supporting sentences explain or prove the topic sentence. One of the biggest problems
in student writing is that student writers often fail to support their ideas adequately.
They need to use specific details to be thorough and convincing. There are several kinds
of specific supporting details: examples, statistics, and quotations.

6 The Concluding Sentence

A concluding sentence serves two purposes:
1. It signals the end of the paragraph.
2. It leaves the reader with the most important ideas to remember. It can do this in two
ways:
• By summarizing the main points of the paragraph
OR
• By repeating the topic sentence in different words
A paragraph does not always need a concluding sentence. For single paragraphs,
especially long ones, a concluding sentence is helpful to the reader because it is a
reminder of the important points. However, a concluding sentence is not needed for
every paragraph in a multi paragraph essay. You may also end a paragraph without a
formal signal or perhaps by using an expression like:
 End-of-Paragraph Signals Followed by a Comma:
Finally, In brief, In conclusion, Indeed, In short,
 End-of-Paragraph Signals Not Followed by a Comma:
The evidence suggests that.... There can be no doubt that.... These examples show that
....
1 Underline the topic sentence in the following paragraph.
2 Add a good concluding sentence to the paragraph. You may either paraphrase the
topic sentence or summarize the main points.
3 Practice using end-of-paragraph signals by starting each concluding sentence with one
You can be a good conversationalist by being a good listener. When you are
conversing with someone, pay close attention to the speaker's words while looking at his
or her face. Show your interest by smiling and nodding. Furthermore, do not interrupt
while someone is speaking; it is impolite to do so. If you have a good story, wait until the
speaker is finished. Also, watch your body language; it can affect your communication
whether you are the speaker or the listener. For instance, do not sit slumped in a chair
or make nervous hand and foot movements. Be relaxed and bend your body slightly
forward to show interest in the person and the conversation.
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

II. UNITY AND COHERENCE:

1. Unity:
Unity is an important element of a good academic writing. A paragraph with unity
means that all the supporting sentences work together to support the topic sentence.
Cross out the sentences that are off topic:
2. Coherence:
In addition to unity a paragraph should be coherent as well. In other words, sentences
in a paragraph should be in a logical order and ideas to be related. Therefore, the
readear should be able to easily follow the main point and the supporting ones without
sudden jumps. i.e., one sentence leads naturally to the next one.
 The followings are techniques to be used to make your writing coherent and
unified:
- Repetition of Key Nouns and Substitutes:
The easiest way to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your
paragraph. Read the model paragraph about gold to see how it uses this technique to
smooth the flow of sentences. The key noun in this paragraph is gold. Circle the word
gold and all pronouns that refer to it.
If you do not wish to repeat a key noun again and again, you can use synonyms or
expressions with the same meaning.
- Transition Signals (linking words):
Transition signals are expressions such as first, finally, and however, or phrases such as
in conclusion, on the other hand, and as a result. Other kinds of words such as
subordinators (when, although), coordinators (and, but), adjectives (another,
additional), and prepositions (because of, in spite of) can serve as transition signals.
 Transition signals are like traffic signs; they tell your reader when to go forward, tum
around, slow down, and stop. In other words, they tell your reader when you are giving a
similar idea (similarly, and, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, but, in
contrast), an example (for example), a result (therefore, as a result), or a conclusion (in
conclusion). Transition signals give a paragraph coherence because they guide your
reader from one idea to the next.
Compare paragraphs 1 and 2 that follow. Which paragraph contains transition signals
and is more coherent? Circle all the transition signals you can identify.
Paragraph 1
One difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity? varies in
different climate zones. The Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as salty as
the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are reasons for this. In warm climates, water
evaporates8 rapidly. The concentration9 of salt is greater. The surrounding land is dry
and does not contribute much freshwater to dilute the salty seawater. In cold climate
zones, water evaporates slowly. The runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable
amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.
Paragraph 2
One difference among the world's seas and oceans is that the salinity varies in different
climate zones. For example, the Baltic Sea in northern Europe is only one-fourth as
saline as the Red Sea in the Middle East. There are two reasons for this. First of all, in
warm climate zones, water evaporates rapidly; therefore, the concentration of salt is
greater. Second, the surrounding land is dry; consequently, it does not contribute much
freshwater to dilute the salty seawater. In cold climate zones, on the other hand, water
evaporates slowly. Furthermore, the runoff created by melting snow adds a considerable
amount of freshwater to dilute the saline seawater.

Q. From the choices given in parentheses, choose the transition signal that best
shows the relationship between the sentences in each group. Write the signal in
the space. Add punctuation and change capital letters to small letters if necessary.
The first one has been done for you as an example.
1. A recent article in Era magazine suggested ways to reduce inflation. The article
suggested that the president reduce the federal budget; furthermore , it suggested that
the government reduce federal, state, and local taxes. (however, in contrast,
furthermore)
2. The same article said that the causes of inflation were easy to find _____ the cure for
inflation was not so easy to prescribe. (however, for example, therefore)
3. Era also suggested that rising wages were one of the primary causes of inflation
______ the government should take action to control wages. (howevel; therefore, for
example)
4. In physics, the weight of an object is the gravitational force with which Earth attracts
_________ it; , if a man weighs 150 pounds, this means that Earth pulls him down
with a force of 150 pounds. (moreover, therefore, for example)
5. The farther away from Earth a person is, the less the gravitational force of Earth
______ a man weighs less when he is 50,000 miles from Earth than when he is only
5,000 miles away. (in conclusion, therefore, however)
Note: Don't Overuse Transition Signals
Read your paragraph aloud and pay attention to your own language. Are you using too
many transition signals? Too many can be distracting rather than helpful. There is no
rule about how many to use in one paragraph. Use them only when they will help your
reader follow your ideas.
The following paragraph has too many transition signals. Which ones are
helpful to the reader? Which transition signals are an unnecessary
distraction?
Step 1 Improve the paragraph by deleting some transition signals. You may want to
rewrite sentences, and you may have to change the capitalization and punctuation.
Step 2 There are many possible ways to do this assignment. Discuss your changes with a
partner or in a group.
How to Grow an Avocado Tree?
After you have enjoyed the delicious taste of an avocado, do not throw out the seed! You
can grow a beautiful houseplant or even your own tree by following these simple steps.
First, wash the seed. Second, dry it. Third, insert three toothpicks into its thickest part.
Then fill a glass or empty jar with water. After that, suspend the seed in the water with
the pointed end up and the broad end down. The water should cover about an inch of
the seed. Next, put the glass in a warm place, but not in direct sunlight. Add water when
necessary to keep the bottom of the seed under water at all times. In two to six weeks,
you
should see roots begin to grow. Furthermore, the seed will crack open, and then a stem
will emerge from the top. However, wait until the stem is 6 to 7 inches long. Then cut it
back to about 3 inches. Now wait until the roots are thick and the stem has leased out
again. Then fill an 8- to 10-inch diameter clay pot with enriched potting soil. Plant the
seed, leaving the top half exposed. Then water it well. After that, water frequently but
lightly; also give the plant an occasional deep soaking. However, do not overwater your
little tree. Yellow leaves are a sign of too much water. Then place the potted plant in a
sunny window and watch it grow. The more sunlight, the better; Then, when the stem is
12 inches high, cut it back to 6 inches to encourage the growth of side branches. In just a
few more weeks, you will have a beautiful indoor plant. In conclusion, enjoy your new
plant, but do not expect it to bear fruit. Avocados grown from seed occasionally flower
and bear fruit; however, first you will have to plant it outside and then wait anywhere
from five to thirteen years.
Logical Order:
In addition to using transition signals and repeating key nouns and pronouns, a
fourth way to achieve coherence is to arrange your sentences in some kind of logical
order. Your choice of one kind of logical order over another will, of course, depend on
your topic and your purpose. You may even combine two or more different logical
orders in the same paragraph.
The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is
logical to a reader accustomed to the English way of writing. Some common kinds of
logical order in English are chronological order, logical division of ideas, and
comparison/contrast.
• Chronological order is order by time-a sequence of events or steps in a process.
• In logical division of ideas, a topic is divided into parts, and each part is discussed
separately.
• In a comparison/contrast paragraph, the similarities and/or differences between two
or more items are discussed.

Sources:
-Academic Writing by Luke Strongman,Cambridge Scholars.pdf
-Writing Academic English, fourth edition, By Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue,Pearson
Longman.pdf