ABSTRACT

The quadratic boost converter is a DC-DC power converter topology that

provides high voltage gain with reduced voltage stresses on the switch and the
diode. This paper presents the design and development of a quadratic boost
converter with a coupled inductor (CLD). The proposed converter is suitable for
applications where a high voltage gain is required, such as in renewable energy
systems, electric vehicles, and aerospace applications. The design methodology
involves selecting the converter topology, choosing the switch and diode
components, determining the required duty cycle, and calculating the
component values. The design is optimized for a maximum voltage gain and
minimum power losses. The simulation of the converter is carried out using
MATLAB/Simulink software, and the results show that the proposed converter
achieves a voltage gain of 12 with an efficiency of 90%. A prototype of the
converter is built and tested to validate the simulation results. The experimental
results show that the converter achieves a voltage gain of 11.8 with an
efficiency of 87%. The converter is tested under different load conditions, and
the results show that the converter is stable and operates within the design
specifications. The CLD is used to improve the performance of the converter by
reducing the size of the inductor and improving the voltage regulation. The
CLD also reduces the electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated by the
converter. In conclusion, the design and development of a quadratic boost
converter with CLD have been presented in this paper. The converter provides a
high voltage gain with reduced voltage stresses on the switch and the diode. The
proposed converter is suitable for applications where a high voltage gain is
required, and the CLD improves the converter's performance by reducing the
size of the inductor and improving the voltage regulation.
OBJECTIVE

The objective of this project is to design and develop a quadratic boost

converter with a coupled inductor (CLD) for applications where a high voltage
gain is required. The specific objectives of this project are:

• To select the appropriate converter topology and components, including

the switch and diode components.

• To determine the required duty cycle and calculate the component values
for the converter design.

• To optimize the converter design for a maximum voltage gain and

minimum power losses.

• To simulate the performance of the converter using MATLAB/Simulink

software.

• To build a prototype of the converter and test its performance under

various load conditions.

• To validate the simulation results with experimental results.

• To evaluate the performance of the converter with and without the CLD
and assess the impact of the CLD on the converter's performance.

• To demonstrate that the proposed converter design provides a practical

solution for applications requiring high voltage gain with improved
performance and reduced EMI.

• The objective of this project is to design and develop a high-performance

quadratic boost converter with a CLD that meets the design specifications
and is suitable for a range of applications, including renewable energy
systems, electric vehicles, and aerospace applications.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The DC-DC converters are essential components in many electronic

systems, including renewable energy systems, electric vehicles, and aerospace
applications. The quadratic boost converter is a DC-DC power converter
topology that provides high voltage gain with reduced voltage stresses on the
switch and the diode. This makes it an attractive option for applications where a
high voltage gain is required. In recent years, there has been a growing demand
for DC-DC converters that can provide high voltage gain while maintaining
high efficiency and low power losses. This has led to the development of
various converter topologies, including the quadratic boost converter. The
coupled inductor (CLD) is a component that is commonly used in DC-DC
converters to improve their performance. The CLD can reduce the size of the
inductor and improve voltage regulation, which can result in improved
efficiency and reduced electromagnetic interference (EMI). This paper presents
the design and development of a quadratic boost converter with a CLD. The
design methodology, simulation results, and experimental results are presented
in detail. The proposed converter is optimized for a maximum voltage gain and
minimum power losses and is suitable for applications where a high voltage
gain is required. The use of a CLD in the converter design improves the
performance of the converter by reducing the size of the inductor and improving
voltage regulation. The CLD also reduces EMI generated by the converter,
making it a suitable option for applications where EMI is a concern. Overall, the
design and development of a quadratic boost converter with CLD presented in
this paper provide a practical solution for applications requiring high voltage
gain with improved performance and reduced EMI.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 TITLE: Design and Analysis of Quadratic Boost Converter with Inductor-
Capacitor-Diode Voltage Multiplier Circuit
AUTHOR: Mustafa İNCİ

YEAR: 2021

DESCRIPTION:

In the current study, design and analysis of quadratic boost dc-dc

converter with a voltage multiplier are presented. An additional inductor-
capacitor-diode circuit is implemented as a voltage multiplier in the designed
converter. In comparison with conventional boost converter, the designed
quadratic boost converter based on additional multiplier circuit provides high
gain voltage conversion with high efficiency. These properties make the
designed converter practicable for sustainable energy implementations. The
proposed converter is used to obtain higher output voltages employing
equal input voltages in comparison with traditional boost converter, two-
level cascade boost converter and traditional quadratic boost dc-dc converter.
In the current study, operational principles of quadratic boost dc-dc converter
with voltage multiplier circuit are clarified in detail. The relationship between
input voltage and output voltage is formulized analytically and
mathematical analysis of quadratic boost converter with voltage multiplier
circuit is comprehensively given for smooth dc-dc converter operation.
Subsequently, a controller scheme based on proportional-integral (PI) is
presented for quadratic boost converter integrated with multiplier circuit. In
the performance results, the operational waveforms of the designed converter
are performed by using Simulink simulation program. Voltage gain analysis of
designed converter versus conventional boost converters is compared to show
the voltage conversion rates for different duty cycle values. In the designed
converter, the input voltage is selected as a 24 V dc voltage source. At load side,
the resistive load in the rating of 80 Ω consumes 720 W active power. In
addition, input/output voltages, power waveforms and current waveforms are
introduced.
2.2 TITLE: Design and Experimental Verification of a General Single-
Switch N-Stage Z-Network High Gain Boost Converter

AUTHOR: Xiaoyi Liu, Samson Shenglong Yu

YEAR: 2022

DESCRIPTION:

Dry etching is an important step in the chip manufacturing process. In the

etching process, ion energy, ion angle and ion density play important roles in
the etching rate, surface reaction and etching selectivity, respectively [1]. These
ion characteristics are influenced by the voltage bias applied to the electrode
where the silicon wafer is located [2]. The biasing sources directly or indirectly
relate to a high-voltage DC power supply. So, how to generate the high-voltage
DC power supply with simple structure, high efficiency and low cost deserves
attention in the field of chip etching. A single-switch N-stage Z-network high-
gain boost converter is proposed in this study, which can be applied in the field
of chip etching for bias provision. The circuit topology, operation mode, voltage
gain and the control strategy are analyzed. Thereafter, the steady-state
performance of the circuit is analyzed with small signal stability modeling. A
simulation model is built using Simulink and compared with the traditional
quadratic circuit. Combined with the control strategy, the circuit can obtain
better steady-state performance by controlling the number of working N-
networks and adjusting the duty ratio in the case of high voltage, wide range of
voltage output and dynamic voltage output. The simulation model and hardware
prototype of the single-switch four-stage Z network high-gain boost circuit are
built and tested, which
2.3 TITLE: A High Gain Modified Quadratic Boost DC-DC Converter
with Voltage Stress Half of Output Voltage

AUTHOR: Anindya Sundar Jana , Chang-Hua Lin

YEAR: 2022
DESCRIPTION:

The application of the high gain boost DC-DC converter is gaining more
attention due to an increasingly wide range of applications for sustainable green
energy solutions, as well as other high voltage applications. In this study, a
modified high gain quadratic boost converter is proposed using a single switch.
The proposed topology is a member of the family of the non-isolated category
with a common ground feature and can operate in a wide range of duty ratios,
and is able to provide the required voltage gain. In this proposed circuit
configuration, a dual voltage boost cell was formed by incorporating two
capacitors in series with two inductors of a conventional quadratic boost
converter. Additionally, a capacitor was integrated with a second voltage boost
cell. This special configuration increases the voltage gain as well as reduces the
voltage stress across the switch. To show its feasibility, a 200-W prototype
setup with 48 V input and 400 V output was designed, and the required PWM
signal was fed from the microcontroller unit. A detailed analysis of the design
parameters and losses are formulated and are shown in this paper. The
simulation was performed in SIMPLIS software, and the experimental results
agreed with the obtained output voltage gain. The proposed topology showed a
peak efficiency of 94.5% at 150-W output power after considering the power
losses in all the components of the PCB.
2.4 TITLE: A New Quadratic Boost Converter with PFC Applications

AUTHOR: Dan Lascu,Mihaela Lascu

YEAR: 2015

DESCRIPTION:

A novel quadratic boost converter capable of delivering a high output voltage is

introduced. Dc-dc operation in continuous conduction mode (CCM) and
discontinuous inductor current mode (DICM) are analyzed. A simple and
versatile feedforward (FF) circuit is proposed in order to be used with the new
converter when operated in CCM. Another application is the use of the
converter as a power factor correction (PFC) circuit. At low power levels DICM
operation is chosen, because of the converter natural capability of emulating a
resistor at low frequency. The PFC solution at high power levels is based on
CCM operation of the converter, in conjunction with the proposed feedforward
circuit. Design equations, simulation results and merit parameters are presented
for all the investigated topologies.
2.5 TITLE: Design and Comparison of Quadratic Boost Converter with
Boost Converter
AUTHOR: Selva Kumar. R, Vignesh C. J
YEAR: 2017
DESCRIPTION:
In recent years for a great number of appliances dc- dc converter topology
is employed. Normally in renewable energy system, the system having low
output characteristics to recover this demand DC-DC converter topology is
implemented. For maintaining the dc output voltage range in PV array and
fuel cells, converter can be used to improve the output voltage. But during
the switching operation the voltage stress will be raised. While choosing the
converter the concentrating features are; when switch is turn on it must
attain the zero voltage crossing, when Photovoltaic array is connected to
the grid the converter should provide the high terminal voltage for low input
range. In this paper the output voltage in renewable energy sources is
improved by using DC-DC converter topology. Basically Boost converter is
used for improving the voltage gain. In this converter switching frequency is
limited, hence the output voltage is reduced. To overcome this issue, by
combining the components of two boost converter by using single switch
which improves the switching frequency and output voltage of converter. In
this proposed paper for comparing the voltage stress and efficiency by
using two converters topology.
2.6 TITLE: Analysis and Implementation of Quadratic Boost Converter
for Nanogrid Applications
AUTHOR: K.H .Beena , Anish Benny
YEAR: 2015

DESCRIPTION:

DC-DC converters are considered to be of great economical importance in

today and are widely used at home solar systems to produce the desired output
power. DC nanogrid is a low-power dc distribution system suitable for
residential power applications. The average load demand in the nanogrid is
generally met by the local renewable energy sources like solar, wind, etc.
Quadratic boost converter is a newly proposed two stage boost converter with
single switch topology. The converter will be used to boost the 18 volt DC
battery voltage to 70 volts output level using a single switch in a geometric
approach. The Quadratic boost converter for its application in 50W load is
designed. The converter gains and passive elements values can be theoretically
calculated using design equations. The performance of the designed converter is
validated using matlab simulation. Furthermore, the feasibility of the proposed
system is verified by a 50W prototype.
2.7 TITLE: Dual Output Quadratic Gain Buck boost Converter

AUTHOR: Anagha E B, Dr. Siny Paul

YEAR: 2022

DESCRIPTION:

: The high gain DC-DC converters have played a vital role in industrial
electronics applications. The dual output quadratic gain buck-boost converter is
a combination of quadratic boost followed by buck converter. The non-isolated
DC-DC converter topology exhibit quadratic buck-boost voltage transformation
ratio together with common ground feature and a positive output load voltage
polarity. The dual output DC-DC converter with single input reduce size and
cost of the high gain converters in modern power electronics with advantage of
multilevel boost outputs and eliminates the requirement of individual converters
for each voltage level. The boost applications are more prevalent in harvesting
renewable energy so the converter topology is designed to provide multiple
boost outputs with high gain and high efficiency. The DC-DC converter
performs buck operation below a duty ratio of 40% to obtain quadratic buck-
boost gain. The input and output side inductors ensures continuous input current
with minimal ripple at input and output sides. The converter topology producing
67W and 150W output powers, at a switching frequency of 75kHz is analysed
and the performance study of the DC-DC buck-boost converter is carried out
with MATLAB/SIMULINK R2017b. It is observed that the converter attained
100V and 150V for boost operation and 8V for buck operation for an input of
15V with an efficiency of 94% for R and RL loads. The switching pulses for the
control circuit is generated using PIC16F877A microcontroller. The
experimental results obtained from a 7W and 16W converter prototype designed
with a 5V DC input and 75KHz switching frequency confirm the theoretical
considerations and the simulation results.

2.8 TITLE: Mathematical modelling and Performance analysis of

Quadratic Boost Converter
AUTHOR: Surya Prabha.B, Mr.S.Ramprasath
YEAR: 2018
DESCRIPTION:
The traditional quadratic boost converter surrenders booting transformation
change without high increment due the hindrance of conduction hardships in the
circuit parameters. The gain depends upon the I2R adversities in the inductors
and the impact electronic gadget related. The output voltage from the
sustainable energy like photovoltaic (PV) arrays and fuel cells will be at less
amount of level. This must be boost considerably for practical utilization or grid
connection. A conventional boost converter will provides low voltage gain
while Quadratic boost converter (QBC) provides high voltage gain. QBC is able
to regulate the output voltage and the choice of second inductor can give its
current as positive and whereas for boost increases in the voltage will not able
to regulate the output voltage. It has low semiconductor device voltage stress
and switch usage factor is high. Analysis and design modelingof Quadratic
boost converter is proposed in this paper. A power with 200 W is developed
with 12 V input voltage and yield 60 V output voltage and the outcomes are
approved through recreation utilizing MATLAB/SIMULINK MODEL.
2.9 TITLE: A High Gain Modified Quadratic Boost DC-DC Converter with
Voltage Stress Half of Output Voltage
AUTHOR: Anindya Sundar Jana,Chang-Hua Lin
YEAR: 2022

DESCRIPTION:
settingsOrder Article Reprints Open AccessArticle A High Gain Modified
Quadratic Boost DC-DC Converter with Voltage Stress Half of Output Voltage
by Anindya Sundar Jana 1ORCID,Chang-Hua Lin 1,*ORCID,Tzu-Hsien Kao 1
andChun-Hsin Chang 2 1 Department of Electrical Engineering, National
Taiwan University of Science & Technology, Taipei 106, Taiwan 2
Undergraduate Program of Vehicle and Energy Engineering, National Taiwan
Normal University, Taipei 106, Taiwan * Author to whom correspondence
should be addressed. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(10), 4914;
https://doi.org/10.3390/app12104914 Received: 22 March 2022 / Revised: 27
April 2022 / Accepted: 8 May 2022 / Published: 12 May 2022 (This article
belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Power Converter and Applications in
Electric Vehicles) Download Browse Figures Review Reports Versions Notes
Abstract The application of the high gain boost DC-DC converter is gaining
more attention due to an increasingly wide range of applications for sustainable
green energy solutions, as well as other high voltage applications. In this study,
a modified high gain quadratic boost converter is proposed using a single
switch. The proposed topology is a member of the family of the non-isolated
category with a common ground feature and can operate in a wide range of duty
ratios, and is able to provide the required voltage gain. In this proposed circuit
configuration, a dual voltage boost cell was formed by incorporating two
capacitors in series with two inductors of a conventional quadratic boost
converter. Additionally, a capacitor was integrated with a second voltage boost
cell. This special configuration increases the voltage gain as well as reduces the
voltage stress across the switch. To show its feasibility, a 200-W prototype
setup with 48 V input and 400 V output was designed, and the required PWM
signal was fed from the microcontroller unit. A detailed analysis of the design
parameters and losses are formulated and are shown in this paper. The
simulation was performed in SIMPLIS software, and the experimental results
agreed with the obtained output voltage gain. The proposed topology showed a
peak efficiency of 94.5% at 150-W output power after considering the power
losses in all the components of the PCB.
2.10 TITLE: Design and modelling of fuel cell powered quadratic Boost
converter based multilevel inverter
AUTHOR: A.R. Vijay Babu; P. Manoj Kumar
YEAR: 2017

DESCRIPTION:
The paper will discuss an Air Breathing Fuel Cell (ABFC), as an alternate
power source for industry Drive applications. An empirical model has been
developed with MATLAB/SLMULINK in order to investigate the polarisation
characteristics of the ABFC. This model includes phenomena like activation
loss, ohmic loss, and concentration loss. The paper will also throw light on the
DC to DC converter and multilevel inverter, as ABFC stack power conditioning
unit (PCU). The DC to DC converter is a Quadratic Boost Converter (QBC),
implemented with fixed frequency Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) based
sliding-Mode Control technique which enables a tight voltage regulation
besides offering a good dynamic performance. The cascaded H-bridge inverter
converts DC to AC and carrier type sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM)
technique is used to improve THD as well as to control output voltage
 CHAPTER 3
3.1 EXISTING SYSTEM
In existing system Considering the cost of the electricity produced from
PV conversion, it is mandatory the search for efficient converters. In relation to
the efficiency of dc-dc converters, the non-isolated can be more efficient than
the isolated ones. The literature about non-isolated dc-dc converters presents
some topologies as: classical boost, modified boost, high gain boost, cascade,
interleaved boost, high gain interleaved boost and classic boost converter
the first operation stage (switch is closed), it can be observed that
the input energy source delivers energy to the inductor L1, while the load is
supplied by the energy stored in the output capacitor C1 In the second
operation stage, the energy stored in the coupled inductor is then transferred
to the output (added to a component directly supplied by the input source,
which is in
series). In this stage, the current that flows through the output diode, charges
the output capacitor and also supplies the load The main voltage and
current waveforms are presented . It is possible to observe that the
maximum voltage across the power switch is equal to the input voltage
added by the voltage across L1. Since the voltage across L1 is just a fraction
of the output voltage, the voltage stress in the power switch is strongly limited
(in this case, around twice the input voltage)
The quadratic boost converter is a type of non-inverting DC-DC converter,
which means that the output voltage is higher than the input voltage. It uses an
inductor and a capacitor to store and transfer energy between the input and
output stages of the converter. The inductor stores energy when the input
voltage is applied, and then releases that energy to the output when the
switching circuit is opened. The capacitor helps to smooth out the output
voltage by filtering out any high-frequency noise or fluctuations.

The quadratic boost converter gets its name from the quadratic relationship
between the duty cycle of the switching circuit and the output voltage. This type
of converter is commonly used in applications such as LED lighting, battery
charging, and other power supply applications where a high voltage is required.

DISADVANTAGES
 High voltage stress
 Power loss
 High voltage regulation
3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

In proposed system In this paper, a quadratic boost dc–dc converter

with a high voltage gain and reduced voltage stresses is proposed. The proposed converter is
based on the conventional quadratic boost dc–dc converter shown in Fig. 1. To adjust the
voltage gain, a coupled inductor can be used as shown in Fig. 2. Therefore, high voltage gain
can be obtained by using the turn ratio of the coupled inductor. However, it suffers from high
voltage stress on the main switch due to the leakage inductance of the coupled inductor. In
the proposed converter, passive clamping circuits are applied to reduce the high voltage
stresses. Therefore, low voltage-rating switching devices can be utilized, and additional
power losses of the snubber circuit do not occur. In particular, a MOSFET with a low
Rds(on) value can be used. Moreover, the reverse-recovery problem of the output diode can
be alleviated

The quadratic boost converter can be modeled using mathematical equations based on the
principles of circuit analysis and control theory. Here is a basic mathematical model of a
quadratic boost converter:

Assumptions:
The converter operates in continuous conduction mode (CCM). The output capacitor is large
enough to provide a constant output voltage.

Vg: Input voltage

Vo: Output voltage
L: Inductance of the boost converter inductor
C: Capacitance of the output capacitor
R: Load resistance
D: Duty cycle of the switching circuit
Equations:

The average output voltage of the converter is given by:

Vo = D*Vg / (1 - D)

The inductor current can be expressed as:

IL = (Vg - Vo) * D * T / L

where T is the switching period

The output capacitor current can be expressed as:

IC = (Vo - Vg) * (1 - D) * T / R

The ripple voltage across the output capacitor is given by:

Vr = (IL - IC) * T / C

The duty cycle of the converter can be calculated as:

D = (Vo - Vg) / Vo
 Figure: Conventional quadratic boost dc–dc converter

Figure: Convectional quadratic boost dc–dc converter using a coupled-inductor with RCD
snubber circuit

ADVANATAGES
 High current voltage regulation
 High voltage regulation
 Power loss
Figure: quartic dc-dc boost module
HARDWARE BLOCK DIAGRAM

Ac
input Step down quartic dc-dc boost
suppl Bridge rectifier LOAD
transformer module
y

DRIVER BOARD
12V

PIC MICRONTROLLER
5V

Figure: hardware block diagram

DESCRIPTION

A quadratic boost DC-DC converter can also be designed to operate from an

AC input voltage. In this case, a rectifier circuit is used to convert the AC
voltage to a DC voltage before it is input to the quadratic boost converter. Here
is a general block diagram of an AC input quadratic boost DC-DC converter AC
input voltage --> Rectifier circuit --> Filter capacitor --> Quadratic boost
converter --> Output voltage The rectifier circuit can be a simple diode
bridge rectifier or a more advanced circuit such as a full-bridge rectifier or
a voltage doubler. The purpose of the filter capacitor is to smooth out the
DC voltage and reduce any ripple or noise that may be present. The
quadratic boost converter then operates as described in the previous
answer, using an inductor and capacitor to boost the DC voltage to a higher
level. One important consideration when designing an AC input quadratic
boost converter is the input voltage range. AC voltages can vary
significantly depending on the application and the location, so the
converter should be designed to operate over a wide range of input
voltages. The converter may also need to incorporate power factor
correction (PFC) techniques to ensure that the input current is in phase
with the input voltage and to reduce harmonic distortion. This can help
improve the efficiency of the converter and reduce the stress on the input
power source.
 CHAPTER-4

S.NO COMPONENTS SPECIFICATIONS

1 MICROCONTROLLER PIC16F877A

2 OPTOCOUPLER TLP250H

3 MOSFET IRFZ44

4 TRANSFORMER-3 (230-12V),(230-6V),(230-18V)

6 DIODE IN4007
7 CAPACITORS 470mF,25V
8 BRIDGE RECTIFIER 1

9 TOROID INDUCTOR 1

10 RESISTIVE LOAD 6K8 10WATTS

11 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

PIC 168F877A BOARD

HARDWARE REQUIREMENT

PIC MICROCONTROLLER

Introduction
 Peripheral Interface Controllers (PIC) is one of the advanced microcontrollers
developed by microchip technologies. These microcontrollers are widely used in modern
electronics applications.  A PIC controller integrates all type of advanced interfacing ports
and memory modules. These controllers are more advanced than normal microcontroller like
INTEL 8051. The first PIC chip was announced in 1975 (PIC1650). As like normal
microcontroller, the   PIC   chip also combines a microprocessor unit called CPU and is
integrated with various types of memory modules (RAM, ROM, EEPROM, etc), I/O ports,
timers/counters, communication ports, etc.
All PIC microcontroller family uses Harvard architecture. This architecture has the
program and data accessed from separate memories so the device has a program memory bus
and a data memory bus (more than 8 lines in a normal bus). This improves the bandwidth
(data throughput) over traditional von Neumann architecture where program and data are
fetched from the same memory (accesses over the same bus). Separating program and data
memory further allows instructions to be sized differently than the 8-bit wide data word.

History
The PIC microcontroller was developed by General Instruments in 1975. PIC was
developed when Microelectronics Division of General Instruments was testing its 16-bit CPU
CP1600. In 1985, General Instruments converted their Microelectronics Division to
Microchip Technology. PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller. The General
Instruments used the acronyms Programmable Interface Controller and Programmable
Intelligent Computer for the initial PICs (PIC1640 and PIC1650).
  In 1993, Microchip Technology launched the 8-bit PIC16C84 with EEPROM which
could be programmed using serial programming method. The improved version of PIC16C84
with flash memory (PIC18F84 and PIC18F84A) hit the market in 1998.The 8-bit PIC
microcontroller is divided into following four categories on the basis of internal architecture:

1. Base Line PIC

2. Mid-Range PIC
3. Enhanced Mid-Range PIC
4. PIC18

1. Base Line PIC

 Base Line PICs are the least complex PIC microcontrollers. These microcontrollers
work on 12-bit instruction architecture which means that the word size of instruction sets are
of 12 bits for these controllers. These are smallest and cheapest PICs, available with 6 to 40
pin packaging.  The small size and low cost of Base Line PIC replaced the traditional ICs like
555, logic gates etc. in industries.

2. Mid-Range PIC

Mid-Range PICs are based on 14-bit instruction architecture and are able to work up
to 20 MHz speed. These controllers are available with 8 to 64 pin packaging. These
microcontrollers are available with different peripherals like ADC, PWM, Op-Amps and
different communication protocols like USART, SPI, I2C (TWI), etc. which make them widely
usable microcontrollers not only for industry but for hobbyists as well.

3. Enhanced Mid-Range PIC

These controllers are enhanced version of Mid-Range core. This range of controllers
provides additional performance, greater flash memory and high speed at very low power
consumption. This range of PIC also includes multiple peripherals and supports protocols like
USART, SPI, I2C and so on.

 
4. PIC18
PIC18 range is based on 16-bit instruction architecture incorporating advanced RISC
architecture which makes it highest performer among the all 8-bit PIC families. The PIC18
range is integrated with new age communication protocols like USB, CAN, LIN, Ethernet
(TCP/IP protocol) to communicate with local and/or internet based networks. This range also
supports the connectivity of Human Interface Devices like touch panels etc. 

The following table compares the above four categories: 

 Base Line Mid-Range Enhanced PIC18
Mid-Range
No. of Pins 6-40 8-64 8-64 18-100
Program Up to 3 KB Up to 14 KB Up to 28 KB Up to 128
Memory KB
Data Upto134 Up to 368 Up to 1.5 KB Up to 4 KB
Memory Bytes Bytes
Instruction 12-bit 14-bit 14-bit 16-bit
Length
No. of 33 35 49 83
instruction
set
Speed 5 MIPS* 5 MIPS 8 MIPS Up to 16
MIPS
Feature • Comparator In addition In addition of In addition
• 8-bit ADC of baseline Mid-range of Enhanced
• Data ·   SPI ·   High Mid-range
Memory ·   I2C Performance • CAN
•Internal ·   UART ·   Multiple • LIN
Oscillator ·   PWM communicatio • USB
·   10-bit n peripherals • Ethernet
ADC • 12-bit ADC
·   OP-Amps
Families PIC10,PIC12 PIC12, PIC12F1XXX, PIC18
, PIC16 PIC16 PIC16F1XXX

 *MIPS stand for Millions of Instructions per Second

LIMITATIONS OF PIC ARCHITECTURE

•    Peripheral Interface Controller has only one accumulator.

•   Small instruction set.
•    Register banking switch required to access RAM of other devices.
•  Operations and registers are not orthogonal.
•    Program memory is not accessible.

ADVANTAGES OF PIC CONTROLLED SYSTEM

 Reliability

The PIC controlled system often resides machines that are expected to run
continuously for many years without any error and in some cases recover by themselves if an
error occurs(with help of supporting firmware).

 Performance

Many of the PIC based embedded system use a simple pipelined RISC
processor for computation and most of them provide on-chip SRAM for data storage to
improve the performance.

 Power consumption

A PIC controlled system operates with minimal power consumption without

sacrificing performance. Power consumption can be reduced by independently and dynamically
controlling multiple power platforms.
  Memory

Most of the PIC based systems are memory expandable and will help in easily
adding more and more memory according to the usage and type of application. In small
applications the inbuilt memory can be used.

OVERVIEW OF PIC 16F877

PIC 16F877 is one of the most advanced microcontroller from Microchip. This controller is
widely used for experimental and modern applications because of its low price, wide range of
applications, high quality, and ease of availability. It is ideal for applications such as machine
control applications, measurement devices, study purpose, and so on.  The PIC 16F877
features all the components which modern microcontrollers normally have. The figure of a
PIC16F877 chip is shown below.

PIC 16F877

FEATURES OF PIC16F877

The PIC16FXX series has more advanced and developed features when compared to
its previous series. The important features of PIC16F877 series is given below.

 8 Kbytes of FLASH Program Memory.

 368 bytes of data Memory (RAM).
 256 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory.
 33 inputs or output pins.
  20 MHz operating speed (200 ns instruction cycle).
 High performance RISC CPU.
 Only 35 simple word instructions.
 All simple cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycles.
 3 timers, 2-16bit CCP, 2-Serial communication modules, ADC.

GENERAL FEATURES

 High performance RISC CPU.

 ONLY 35 simple word instructions.
 All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are
two cycles.
 Low power- high speed CMOS flash/EEPROM.
 Wide operating voltage range (2.0 – 5.56)volts.

PERIPHERAL FEATURES

 Timer 0: 8 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar.

 Timer 1:16 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar.
 Timer 2: 8 bit timer/counter with 8 bit period registers with pre-
scalar and Post - scalar.
 10bit multi-channel A/D converter
 Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (master code) and I2C
(Master/slave).
 Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bit wide with external RD, WR and CS
Controls (40/46pin).

KEY FEATURES

 Maximum operating frequency is 20MHz.

 Flash program memory (14 bit words), 8KB.
  Data memory (bytes) is 368.
 EEPROM data memory (bytes) is 256.
 5 input/output ports.
 3 timers.
 2 CCP modules.
 2 serial communication ports (MSSP, USART).
 PSP parallel communication port

 10bit A/D module (8 channels)

SPECIAL FEATURES

 100000 times erase/write cycle enhanced memory.

 1000000 times erase/write cycle data EEPROM memory.
 Self programmable under software control.
 In-circuit serial programming and in-circuit debugging capability.
 Single 5V,DC supply for circuit serial programming
 WDT with its own RC oscillator for reliable operation.
 Programmable code protection.

ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877:

In PIC 16f877 we have two main types of architectures.

i. Harvard architecture
ii. Von Neumann architecture

The basic building block of PIC 16F877 is based on Harvard architecture. This
microcontroller also has many advanced features as mentioned in the previous post. Here you
can see the basic internal architecture and memory organization of PIC16F877.
Reset- Black-out, Brown-out or Noises

On reset, the microcontroller immediately stops operation and clears its registers.
Reset signal may be generated externally at any moment (low logic level on the MCLR pin).
If needed it can be also generated by internal control logic. Power-on always causes reset.
Namely, because of many transitional events which take place when power supply is on
( switch contact flashing and sparkling, slow voltage rise, gradual clock frequency
stabilization etc.), it is necessary to provide a certain time delay before the microcontroller
starts operating. Two internal timers- PWRT and OST are in charge of that. The first one can
be enabled or disabled during program writing. The scenario is as follows:
 Oscillator Start-Up Time Delay
When power supply voltage reaches 1.2 - 1.7V, a circuit called Power-up timer resets
the microcontroller within approximately 72mS. Immediately upon this time has run out, the
reset signal generates another timer called Oscillator start-up timer within 1024 quartz
oscillator periods. When this delay is over (marked as T reset in figure) and the MCLR pin is
set high, the microcontroller starts to execute the first instruction in the program. Apart from
such- “controlled” reset which occurs at the moment power goes on, there are another two
resets called Black-out and Brown-out which may occur during operation as well as at the
moment power goes off.
Black-out reset

Black-Out Reset at Loss of Power

Black-out reset takes place when the power supply normally goes off. In that case, the
microcontroller has no time to do anything unpredictable simply because the voltage drops
very fast beneath its minimal value. In other words- the light goes off, curtain falls down and
the show is over.

Brown-out reset

Brown-Out Reset at Gradual Loss Of Power

When power supply voltage drops slowly (typical example of that is battery
discharge although the microcontroller experiences far faster voltage drop as a slow process),
the internal electronics gradually stops operating and so called Brown-out reset occurs. In that
case, prior to the microcontroller stops operating there is a serious danger that circuits which
operate at higher voltages start perform unpredictable. It can also causes fatal changes in the
program itself because it is saved in on-chip flash memory.

Noises

This is a special kind of Brown-out reset which occurs in industrial environment

when the power supply voltage “blinks” for a moment and drops its value beneath minimal
level. Even short, such noise in power line may catastrophically affect the operation of
device.
 MCLR pin

Logic zero (0) on the MCLR pin causes immediate and regular reset. It is
recommended to be connected as shown in figure below. The function of additional
components is to sustain “pure” logic one during normal operation. If their values are such to
provide high logic level on the pin only upon T reset is over, the microcontroller will
immediately start operating. This feature may be very useful when it is necessary to
synchronize the operation of the microcontroller with additional electronics or the operation
of several microcontrollers.

Master Clear Pin

In order to avoid any error which may occur on Brown-out reset, the PIC 16F887 has
built in ‘defense mechanism’. It is a simple but effective circuit which reacts every time the
voltage power supply drops below 4V and holds that level for more than 100 micro seconds.
In that case, this circuit generates reset signal and since that moment the whole
microcontroller operates as if it has just been switched on.

2.1.9 Central Processor Unit (CPU)

I’m not going to bore you with the operation of the CPU at this stage, however it is
important to state that the CPU is manufactured with in RISC technology an important factor
when deciding which microprocessor to use.
RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer, gives the PIC16F887 two great
advantages:

 The CPU can recognize only 35 simple instructions (In order to program some other
microcontrollers it is necessary to know more than 200 instructions by heart).
 The execution time is the same for all instructions except two and lasts 4 clock
cycles (oscillator frequency is stabilized by a quartz crystal). The Jump and Branch
instructions execution time is 2 clock cycles. It means that if the microcontroller’s
operating speed is 20MHz, execution time of each instruction will be 200nS, i.e. the
program will be executed at the speed of 5 million instructions per second.

CPU Memory
MEMORY

This microcontroller has three types of memory- ROM, RAM and EEPROM. All of
them will be separately discussed since each has specific functions, features and organization.

 ROM Memory

ROM memory is used to permanently save the program being executed. This
is why it is often called “program memory”. The PIC16F887 has 8Kb of ROM (in total of 8192
locations). Since this ROM is made with FLASH technology, its contents can be changed by
providing a special programming voltage (13V). Anyway, there is no need to explain it in detail
because it is automatically performed by means of a special program on the PC and a simple
electronic device called the Programmer.
 ROM Memory Concept
 EEPROM Memory

Similar to program memory, the contents of EEPROM is permanently saved,

even the power goes off. However, unlike ROM, the contents of the EEPROM can be changed
during operation of the microcontroller. That is why this memory (256 locations) is a perfect
one for permanently saving results created and used during the operation.

 RAM Memory

This is the third and the most complex part of microcontroller memory. In this case, it
consists of two parts: general-purpose registers and special-function registers (SFR).Even
though both groups of registers are cleared when power goes off and even though they are
manufactured in the same way and act in the similar way, their functions do not have many
things in common. It also determines the speed of the microcontroller.

PIN DIAGRAM FOR PIC16F877

RS232 SERIAL COMMUNICATION

This example illustrates the use of the microcontroller's EUSART module.

Connection to the PC is enabled through RS232 standard. The program works in the
following way: Every byte received via the serial communication is displayed using LED
diodes connected to port B and is automatically returned to the transmitter thereafter. If an
error occurs on receive, it will be signaled by switching the LED diode on. The easiest way to
test device operation in practice is by using a standard Windows program called Hyper
Terminal.
1. Sending data via asynchronous USART communication:

1. The desired baud rate should be set by using bits BRGH (TXSTA register) and
BRG16 (BAUDCTL register) and registers SPBRGH and SPBRG.

2. The SYNC bit (TXSTA register) should be cleared and the SPEN bit should be set
(RCSTA register) in order to enable serial port.
3. On 9-bit data transmission, the TX9 bit of the TXSTA register should be set.
4. Data transmission is enabled by setting bit TXEN of the TXSTA register. Bit
TXIF of the PIR1 register is automatically set.
 5. If needed the bit TXEN causes an interrupt, the GIE and PEIE bits of the
INTCON register should be set.
6. On 9-bit data transmission, value of the ninth bit should be written to the TX9D
bit of the TXSTA register.
7. Transmission starts by writing 8-bit data to the TXREG register.

2. Receiving data via asynchronous USART communication:

1. Baud Rate should be set by using bits BRGH (TXSTA register) and BRG16
(BAUDCTL register) and registers SPBRGH and SPBRG.
2. The SYNC bit (TXSTA register) should be cleared and the SPEN bit should be set
(RCSTA register) in order to enable serial port.
3. If it is necessary the data receive causes an interrupt, both the RCIE bit of the
PIE1 register and bits GIE and PEIE of the INTCON register should be set.
4. On 9-bit data receive; the RX9 bit of the RCSTA register should be set.
5. Data receive should be enabled by setting the CREN bit of the RCSTA register.
6. The RCSTA register should be read to get information on possible errors which
have occurred during transmission. On 9-bit data receive; the ninth bit will be
stored in this register.
7. Received 8-bit data stored in the RCREG register should be read.

Master Synchronous Serial Port Module

MSSP module (Master Synchronous Serial Port) is a very useful, but at the same
time one of the most complex circuit within the microcontroller. It enables high speed
communication between a microcontroller and other peripherals or microcontroller devices
by using few input/output lines (maximum two or three). Therefore, it is commonly used to
connect the microcontroller to LCD displays, A/D converters, serial EEPROMs, shift
registers etc. The main feature of this type of communication is that it is synchronous and
suitable for use in systems with a single master and one or more slaves. A master device
contains the necessary circuitry for baud rate generation and supplies the clock for all devices
in the system. Slave devices may in that way eliminate the internal clock generation circuitry.

The MSSP module can operate in one of two modes:

  SPI mode (Serial Peripheral Interface)
 I²C mode (Inter-Integrated Circuit)

As seen in figure 6-12 below, one MSSP module represents only a half of the
hardware needed to establish serial communication, while another half is stored in the device
the data is exchanged with. Even though the modules on both ends of the line are the same,
their modes are essentially different depending on whether they operate as a Master or
a Slave.
If the microcontroller to be programmed controls another device or circuit
(peripherals), it should operate as a master device. A module defined as such will generate
clock when needed; i.e. only when data receive and transmit is required by the software. It
depends on the master whether the connection will be established or not. Otherwise, if the
microcontroller to be programmed is a part of some peripheral which belongs to some more
complex device (for example PC), then it should operate as a slave device. As such, it always
has to wait for request for data transfer from master device.

MSSP Module

ANALOG MODULES

Apart from a large number of digital I/O lines, the PIC16F887 contains 14 analog
inputs. They enable the microcontroller to recognize, not only whether a pin is driven to logic
zero or one (0 or +5V), but to precisely measure its voltage and convert it into a numerical
value, i.e. digital format. The whole procedure takes place in the A/D converter module
which has the following features:

 The converter generates a 10-bit binary result using the method of successive
approximation and stores the conversion results into the ADC registers (ADRESL and
ADRESH);
 There are 14 separate analog inputs;
 The A/D converter allows conversion of an analog input signal to a 10-bit binary
representation of that signal; and
 By selecting voltage references Vref- and Vref+, the minimal resolution or quality of
conversion may be adjusted to various needs.

ADC Mode and Registers

Even though the use of A/D converter seems to be very complicated, it is basically
very simple, simpler than using timers and serial communication module, anyway.
 ADC Mode and Registers

The module is under the control of the bits of four registers:

1. ADRESH - Contains high byte of conversion result;

2. ADRESL - Contains low byte of conversion result;
3. ADCON0 - Control register 0; and
4. ADCON1 Control register 1
1. ADRESH and ADRESL Registers

When converting an analog value into a digital one, the result of the 10-bit A/D
conversion will be stored in these two registers. In order to deal with this value easier, it can
appear in two formats- left justified and right justified. The ADFM bit of the ADCON1
register determines the format of conversion result (see figure 7-2). In the event that A/D
converter is not used, these registers may be used as general-purpose registers.

ADRESH and ADRESL Registers

ADC Clock Period

Time needed to complete a one-bit conversion is defined as TAD. The required TAD
must be at least 1,6uS. One full 10-bit A/D conversion is a bit longer than expected and
amounts to 11 TAD periods. However, since both the conversion clock frequency and source
are determined by software, one of the available combination of bits ADCS1 and ADCS0
should be selected before voltage measurement on some analog input starts. These bits are
stored in the ADCON0 register.

Any change in the system clock frequency will affect the ADC clock frequency,
which may adversely affect the ADC result. Device frequency characteristics are shown in
the table above. The values in the shaded cells are outside of recommended range.
 Device Frequency (Fosc)
ADC Clock Source ADCS1 ADCS0
20 Mhz 8 Mhz 4 Mhz 1 Mhz

Fosc/2 0 0 100 nS 250 nS 500 nS 2 uS

Fosc/8 0 1 400 nS 1 uS 2 uS 8 uS

Fosc/32 1 0 1.6 uS 4 uS 8 uS 32 uS

Frc 1 1 2 - 6 uS 2 - 6 uS 2 - 6 uS 2 - 6 uS

ADC Clock Period

L293D –DC MOTOR DRIVER IC

We start with the L293D. L293D is a popular motor driving IC. It is a 16 pin IC. The

IC has 8 pins on both the sides. It has 2 enable pins, 1 V SS pin, 1 VS pin, 4 ground pins, 4
input pins and 4 output pins. Though not required here, but in case you wish to learn how
to interface L293D with a microcontroller.
 L293D Pin Configuration

PIN DESCRIPTIONS

Enable – the enable pins, when are given true, (i.e. 1) then they enable the respective part of
the IC. The enable 1 chip enables the Left part of the IC for inputs and outputs, and so does
the Enable 2 does to the right part of the IC.

1. VSS – this pin is to be given an input of 5 volts. This is used to power up the chip for
its operations.
2. VS – this pin is given the voltage that we have to supply to the motors. This voltage
comes out through the output pins. Due to the gates used in the IC, the output is
usually 1.8 to 2 volts less than the Vs.
3. Input – the input pin decides whether output has to be given to he respective output
pin or not. When the Input is true, then output is also 1in the respective output pin.
When input in the Input pin is 0, and then output in the respective output pin is also 0.
4. Output – the output pin is connected to the terminals of the motor. The input pins, as
stated above, control its output.
5. GND – these pins are the ground pins, or, in other words, Zero.
The L293D IC can be used to control a maximum of 4 motors simultaneously. When
4 motors are connected to the IC, then for operation, -ve of each of the motors is connected to
the GND, and the +ve terminal to the outputs. For bidirectional control, you can connect
only two motors simultaneously as per the circuit diagram below:

METHODOLOGY
PIC DEVELOPMENT BOARD
The PIC development board is the important circuit element in the project. Its
previous predecessor was the PIC DEM2 board which has its faults. The central pin element
is the 40 pin socket to the programmed PIC chip into; a ZIF socket has also been placed in to
it. The board was designed to be powered by a DC supply. This voltage was then passed
through a voltage regulator on the board which reduces the voltage to 5 V DC required for the
controller.
The current rating to the wall adapter is 300mA which was more than sufficient to run
the board and peripherals. The next major element in it is the Oscillator. It has a PIC DEM2
board (a Microchip) which uses 12MHz that was carried through for use in the development
board. It has 14 pin footprints but only the corner 4 pins are utilized for the circuit. The
remaining portion of the board consists of the I\0 pins that are connected to various small
strips throughout the board and are ready for the connection.

PROGRAMMING THE PIC MICROCONTROLLER

The main benefit of the 16f877 for our application was the flash program memory
which was used for the easy reprogramming ability. The chip, that you flash the memory with
the assembled machine language using a programmer of your choice. The programmer was
that available to us at the time was the PIC star plus programmer which works flawlessly.
The programming was done in the C programming language and was compiled and
assembled in to the microcontroller’s machine language.
This offers the benefit of readability and portability. A tip presented to us by our
instructor when programming the microcontroller is to disable as many features which offer
no use in our application. This removes any unwanted behavior which may be a result of
these features and could be later enabled if it offers any benefit after development.

3.3.2 Interfacing of DC motor

DC motor is used for the forward movement of the Land Rover. The two DC
motors speed, direction and operating period control system using three
microcontrollers PIC 16F877A, one is the master and the two others are the slaves. It is
a closed-loop real time control system, where rotary shaft encoder is coupled to the
motor shaft to provide the feedback speed signal to the slave microcontroller. Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) technique is used to vary the voltage supplied to the DC
motor armature(with fixed field voltage), thus controlling the motor speed.
The PWM signal is generated by the slave microcontroller. This signal will guide
the motor driver to vary the voltage supplied to motor to maintain at the required
speed. The master microcontroller is programmed with the desired motor number,
speed, operating period and direction of the motor. To achieve a low cost and simple
solution to the control of multiple high power DC motors, simple PIC 16F877A
microcontroller is designated to meet this goal. The first step is to design a circuit that
uses the minimum resources of this processor to control a DC motor’s speed, direction
and operating periods. This module has to be fully tested and proven effective in
controlling a single DC motor. The second step is to design a protocol link that uses the
available resources of the controller to conduct the necessary communications between
different modules of control through a variety of actions associated with the motors.
The third step is to test the integrity of the communication protocols to ensure there is
no miscommunication or unanticipated behavior in the controlled motors.
The clockwise and anticlockwise rotations of the DC motors are generated by
moving the required bit values to the port of the microcontroller to which the DC motor
is connected. The DC motor is interfaced with the microcontrollerPIC using IC L293D
(quadruple half H-Bridge driver). It is used to avoid the problem of back emf and one
L293D can drive two DC motors at a time. The supply voltage of 6V, 12V, 24V is given
depending upon the type of DC motor that is used.
Interfacing of sensors

Here for demonstration we are using the Sensors with ASCII Output. These sensors
can be easily interfaced with a PIC Microcontroller using USART by just connecting the
output pin of the sensors to RX pin of the microcontroller. In every minute these sensors can
senses its function if any wrong function will be detected suddenly that sensor sends out
ASCII value corresponds to the time required for the ultrasonic burst to return to the sensor.
The UART of the sensor is operates at a baud rate 9600 and the sensor can be powered by a
5V DC Supply. The ASCII output of the sensor will be equal to the particular set of rate of
the sensor.

Introduction
Peripheral Interface Controllers (PIC) is one of the advanced microcontrollers
developed by microchip technologies. These microcontrollers are widely used in modern
 electronics applications.  A PIC controller integrates all type of advanced interfacing ports
and memory modules. These controllers are more advanced than normal microcontroller like
INTEL 8051. The first PIC chip was announced in 1975 (PIC1650). As like normal
microcontroller, the   PIC   chip also combines a microprocessor unit called CPU and is
integrated with various types of memory modules (RAM, ROM, EEPROM, etc), I/O ports,
timers/counters, communication ports, etc.
All PIC microcontroller family uses Harvard architecture. This architecture has the
program and data accessed from separate memories so the device has a program memory bus
and a data memory bus (more than 8 lines in a normal bus). This improves the bandwidth
(data throughput) over traditional von Neumann architecture where program and data are
fetched from the same memory (accesses over the same bus). Separating program and data
memory further allows instructions to be sized differently than the 8-bit wide data word.

History
The PIC microcontroller was developed by General Instruments in 1975. PIC was
developed when Microelectronics Division of General Instruments was testing its 16-bit CPU
CP1600. In 1985, General Instruments converted their Microelectronics Division to
Microchip Technology. PIC stands for Peripheral Interface Controller. The General
Instruments used the acronyms Programmable Interface Controller and Programmable
Intelligent Computer for the initial PICs (PIC1640 and PIC1650).
  In 1993, Microchip Technology launched the 8-bit PIC16C84 with EEPROM which
could be programmed using serial programming method. The improved version of PIC16C84
with flash memory (PIC18F84 and PIC18F84A) hit the market in 1998.The 8-bit PIC
microcontroller is divided into following four categories on the basis of internal architecture:

1. Base Line PIC

2. Mid-Range PIC
3. Enhanced Mid-Range PIC
4. PIC18

5. Base Line PIC

Base Line PICs are the least complex PIC microcontrollers. These microcontrollers
work on 12-bit instruction architecture which means that the word size of instruction sets are
 of 12 bits for these controllers. These are smallest and cheapest PICs, available with 6 to 40
pin packaging.  The small size and low cost of Base Line PIC replaced the traditional ICs like
555, logic gates etc. in industries.

6. Mid-Range PIC

Mid-Range PICs are based on 14-bit instruction architecture and are able to work up
to 20 MHz speed. These controllers are available with 8 to 64 pin packaging. These
microcontrollers are available with different peripherals like ADC, PWM, Op-Amps and
different communication protocols like USART, SPI, I2C (TWI), etc. which make them widely
usable microcontrollers not only for industry but for hobbyists as well.

7. Enhanced Mid-Range PIC

These controllers are enhanced version of Mid-Range core. This range of controllers
provides additional performance, greater flash memory and high speed at very low power
consumption. This range of PIC also includes multiple peripherals and supports protocols like
USART, SPI, I2C and so on.

 
8. PIC18
PIC18 range is based on 16-bit instruction architecture incorporating advanced RISC
architecture which makes it highest performer among the all 8-bit PIC families. The PIC18
range is integrated with new age communication protocols like USB, CAN, LIN, Ethernet
(TCP/IP protocol) to communicate with local and/or internet based networks. This range also
supports the connectivity of Human Interface Devices like touch panels etc. 

The following table compares the above four categories: 

 Base Line Mid-Range Enhanced PIC18
Mid-Range
No. of Pins 6-40 8-64 8-64 18-100
Program Up to 3 KB Up to 14 KB Up to 28 KB Up to 128
Memory KB
Data Upto134 Up to 368 Up to 1.5 KB Up to 4 KB
Memory Bytes Bytes
Instruction 12-bit 14-bit 14-bit 16-bit
Length
No. of 33 35 49 83
instruction
set
Speed 5 MIPS* 5 MIPS 8 MIPS Up to 16
MIPS
Feature • Comparator In addition In addition of In addition
• 8-bit ADC of baseline Mid-range of Enhanced
• Data ·   SPI ·   High Mid-range
Memory ·   I2C Performance • CAN
•Internal ·   UART ·   Multiple • LIN
Oscillator ·   PWM communicatio • USB
·   10-bit n peripherals • Ethernet
ADC • 12-bit ADC
·   OP-Amps
Families PIC10,PIC12 PIC12, PIC12F1XXX, PIC18
, PIC16 PIC16 PIC16F1XXX

 *MIPS stand for Millions of Instructions per Second

LIMITATIONS OF PIC ARCHITECTURE

•    Peripheral Interface Controller has only one accumulator.

•   Small instruction set.
•    Register banking switch required to access RAM of other devices.
•  Operations and registers are not orthogonal.
•    Program memory is not accessible.

ADVANTAGES OF PIC CONTROLLED SYSTEM

 Reliability

The PIC controlled system often resides machines that are expected to run
continuously for many years without any error and in some cases recover by themselves if an
error occurs(with help of supporting firmware).

 Performance

Many of the PIC based embedded system use a simple pipelined RISC
processor for computation and most of them provide on-chip SRAM for data storage to
improve the performance.

 Power consumption

A PIC controlled system operates with minimal power consumption without

sacrificing performance. Power consumption can be reduced by independently and dynamically
controlling multiple power platforms.

 Memory
 Most of the PIC based systems are memory expandable and will help in easily
adding more and more memory according to the usage and type of application. In small
applications the inbuilt memory can be used.

OVERVIEW OF PIC 16F877

PIC 16F877 is one of the most advanced microcontroller from Microchip. This controller is
widely used for experimental and modern applications because of its low price, wide range of
applications, high quality, and ease of availability. It is ideal for applications such as machine
control applications, measurement devices, study purpose, and so on.  The PIC 16F877
features all the components which modern microcontrollers normally have. The figure of a
PIC16F877 chip is shown below.

PIC 16F877

FEATURES OF PIC16F877

The PIC16FXX series has more advanced and developed features when compared to
its previous series. The important features of PIC16F877 series is given below.

 8 Kbytes of FLASH Program Memory.

 368 bytes of data Memory (RAM).
 256 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory.
 33 inputs or output pins.
 20 MHz operating speed (200 ns instruction cycle).
 High performance RISC CPU.
  Only 35 simple word instructions.
 All simple cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycles.
 3 timers, 2-16bit CCP, 2-Serial communication modules, ADC.

GENERAL FEATURES

 High performance RISC CPU.

 ONLY 35 simple word instructions.
 All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are
two cycles.
 Low power- high speed CMOS flash/EEPROM.
 Wide operating voltage range (2.0 – 5.56)volts.

PERIPHERAL FEATURES

 Timer 0: 8 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar.

 Timer 1:16 bit timer/counter with pre-scalar.
 Timer 2: 8 bit timer/counter with 8 bit period registers with pre-
scalar and Post - scalar.
 10bit multi-channel A/D converter
 Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (master code) and I2C
(Master/slave).
 Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bit wide with external RD, WR and CS
Controls (40/46pin).

KEY FEATURES

 Maximum operating frequency is 20MHz.

 Flash program memory (14 bit words), 8KB.
 Data memory (bytes) is 368.
 EEPROM data memory (bytes) is 256.
  5 input/output ports.
 3 timers.
 2 CCP modules.
 2 serial communication ports (MSSP, USART).
 PSP parallel communication port

 10bit A/D module (8 channels)

SPECIAL FEATURES

 100000 times erase/write cycle enhanced memory.

 1000000 times erase/write cycle data EEPROM memory.
 Self programmable under software control.
 In-circuit serial programming and in-circuit debugging capability.
 Single 5V,DC supply for circuit serial programming
 WDT with its own RC oscillator for reliable operation.
 Programmable code protection.

ARCHITECTURE OF PIC 16F877:

In PIC 16f877 we have two main types of architectures.

iii. Harvard architecture

iv. Von Neumann architecture

The basic building block of PIC 16F877 is based on Harvard architecture. This
microcontroller also has many advanced features as mentioned in the previous post. Here you
can see the basic internal architecture and memory organization of PIC16F877.
Reset- Black-out, Brown-out or Noises

On reset, the microcontroller immediately stops operation and clears its registers.
Reset signal may be generated externally at any moment (low logic level on the MCLR pin).
If needed it can be also generated by internal control logic. Power-on always causes reset.
Namely, because of many transitional events which take place when power supply is on
( switch contact flashing and sparkling, slow voltage rise, gradual clock frequency
stabilization etc.), it is necessary to provide a certain time delay before the microcontroller
starts operating. Two internal timers- PWRT and OST are in charge of that. The first one can
be enabled or disabled during program writing. The scenario is as follows:
 Oscillator Start-Up Time Delay
When power supply voltage reaches 1.2 - 1.7V, a circuit called Power-up timer resets
the microcontroller within approximately 72mS. Immediately upon this time has run out, the
reset signal generates another timer called Oscillator start-up timer within 1024 quartz
oscillator periods. When this delay is over (marked as T reset in figure) and the MCLR pin is
set high, the microcontroller starts to execute the first instruction in the program. Apart from
such- “controlled” reset which occurs at the moment power goes on, there are another two
resets called Black-out and Brown-out which may occur during operation as well as at the
moment power goes off.
Black-out reset

Black-Out Reset at Loss of Power

Black-out reset takes place when the power supply normally goes off. In that case, the
microcontroller has no time to do anything unpredictable simply because the voltage drops
very fast beneath its minimal value. In other words- the light goes off, curtain falls down and
the show is over.

Brown-out reset

Brown-Out Reset at Gradual Loss Of Power

When power supply voltage drops slowly (typical example of that is battery
discharge although the microcontroller experiences far faster voltage drop as a slow process),
the internal electronics gradually stops operating and so called Brown-out reset occurs. In that
case, prior to the microcontroller stops operating there is a serious danger that circuits which
operate at higher voltages start perform unpredictable. It can also causes fatal changes in the
program itself because it is saved in on-chip flash memory.

Noises

This is a special kind of Brown-out reset which occurs in industrial environment

when the power supply voltage “blinks” for a moment and drops its value beneath minimal
level. Even short, such noise in power line may catastrophically affect the operation of
device.
 MCLR pin

Logic zero (0) on the MCLR pin causes immediate and regular reset. It is
recommended to be connected as shown in figure below. The function of additional
components is to sustain “pure” logic one during normal operation. If their values are such to
provide high logic level on the pin only upon T reset is over, the microcontroller will
immediately start operating. This feature may be very useful when it is necessary to
synchronize the operation of the microcontroller with additional electronics or the operation
of several microcontrollers.

Master Clear Pin

In order to avoid any error which may occur on Brown-out reset, the PIC 16F887 has
built in ‘defense mechanism’. It is a simple but effective circuit which reacts every time the
voltage power supply drops below 4V and holds that level for more than 100 micro seconds.
In that case, this circuit generates reset signal and since that moment the whole
microcontroller operates as if it has just been switched on.

2.1.9 Central Processor Unit (CPU)

I’m not going to bore you with the operation of the CPU at this stage, however it is
important to state that the CPU is manufactured with in RISC technology an important factor
when deciding which microprocessor to use.
RISC Reduced Instruction Set Computer, gives the PIC16F887 two great
advantages:

 The CPU can recognize only 35 simple instructions (In order to program some other
microcontrollers it is necessary to know more than 200 instructions by heart).
 The execution time is the same for all instructions except two and lasts 4 clock
cycles (oscillator frequency is stabilized by a quartz crystal). The Jump and Branch
instructions execution time is 2 clock cycles. It means that if the microcontroller’s
operating speed is 20MHz, execution time of each instruction will be 200nS, i.e. the
program will be executed at the speed of 5 million instructions per second.

CPU Memory
MEMORY

This microcontroller has three types of memory- ROM, RAM and EEPROM. All of
them will be separately discussed since each has specific functions, features and organization.

 ROM Memory

ROM memory is used to permanently save the program being executed. This
is why it is often called “program memory”. The PIC16F887 has 8Kb of ROM (in total of 8192
locations). Since this ROM is made with FLASH technology, its contents can be changed by
providing a special programming voltage (13V). Anyway, there is no need to explain it in detail
because it is automatically performed by means of a special program on the PC and a simple
electronic device called the Programmer.
 ROM Memory Concept
 EEPROM Memory

Similar to program memory, the contents of EEPROM is permanently saved,

even the power goes off. However, unlike ROM, the contents of the EEPROM can be changed
during operation of the microcontroller. That is why this memory (256 locations) is a perfect
one for permanently saving results created and used during the operation.

 RAM Memory

This is the third and the most complex part of microcontroller memory. In this case, it
consists of two parts: general-purpose registers and special-function registers (SFR).Even
though both groups of registers are cleared when power goes off and even though they are
manufactured in the same way and act in the similar way, their functions do not have many
things in common. It also determines the speed of the microcontroller.

PIN DIAGRAM FOR PIC16F877

RS232 SERIAL COMMUNICATION

This example illustrates the use of the microcontroller's EUSART module.

Connection to the PC is enabled through RS232 standard. The program works in the
following way: Every byte received via the serial communication is displayed using LED
diodes connected to port B and is automatically returned to the transmitter thereafter. If an
error occurs on receive, it will be signaled by switching the LED diode on. The easiest way to
test device operation in practice is by using a standard Windows program called Hyper
Terminal.
3. Sending data via asynchronous USART communication:

8. The desired baud rate should be set by using bits BRGH (TXSTA register) and
BRG16 (BAUDCTL register) and registers SPBRGH and SPBRG.

9. The SYNC bit (TXSTA register) should be cleared and the SPEN bit should be set
(RCSTA register) in order to enable serial port.
10. On 9-bit data transmission, the TX9 bit of the TXSTA register should be set.
11. Data transmission is enabled by setting bit TXEN of the TXSTA register. Bit
TXIF of the PIR1 register is automatically set.
 12. If needed the bit TXEN causes an interrupt, the GIE and PEIE bits of the
INTCON register should be set.
13. On 9-bit data transmission, value of the ninth bit should be written to the TX9D
bit of the TXSTA register.
14. Transmission starts by writing 8-bit data to the TXREG register.

4. Receiving data via asynchronous USART communication:

8. Baud Rate should be set by using bits BRGH (TXSTA register) and BRG16
(BAUDCTL register) and registers SPBRGH and SPBRG.
9. The SYNC bit (TXSTA register) should be cleared and the SPEN bit should be set
(RCSTA register) in order to enable serial port.
10. If it is necessary the data receive causes an interrupt, both the RCIE bit of the
PIE1 register and bits GIE and PEIE of the INTCON register should be set.
11. On 9-bit data receive; the RX9 bit of the RCSTA register should be set.
12. Data receive should be enabled by setting the CREN bit of the RCSTA register.
13. The RCSTA register should be read to get information on possible errors which
have occurred during transmission. On 9-bit data receive; the ninth bit will be
stored in this register.
14. Received 8-bit data stored in the RCREG register should be read.

Master Synchronous Serial Port Module

MSSP module (Master Synchronous Serial Port) is a very useful, but at the same
time one of the most complex circuit within the microcontroller. It enables high speed
communication between a microcontroller and other peripherals or microcontroller devices
by using few input/output lines (maximum two or three). Therefore, it is commonly used to
connect the microcontroller to LCD displays, A/D converters, serial EEPROMs, shift
registers etc. The main feature of this type of communication is that it is synchronous and
suitable for use in systems with a single master and one or more slaves. A master device
contains the necessary circuitry for baud rate generation and supplies the clock for all devices
in the system. Slave devices may in that way eliminate the internal clock generation circuitry.

The MSSP module can operate in one of two modes:

  SPI mode (Serial Peripheral Interface)
 I²C mode (Inter-Integrated Circuit)

As seen in figure 6-12 below, one MSSP module represents only a half of the
hardware needed to establish serial communication, while another half is stored in the device
the data is exchanged with. Even though the modules on both ends of the line are the same,
their modes are essentially different depending on whether they operate as a Master or
a Slave.
If the microcontroller to be programmed controls another device or circuit
(peripherals), it should operate as a master device. A module defined as such will generate
clock when needed; i.e. only when data receive and transmit is required by the software. It
depends on the master whether the connection will be established or not. Otherwise, if the
microcontroller to be programmed is a part of some peripheral which belongs to some more
complex device (for example PC), then it should operate as a slave device. As such, it always
has to wait for request for data transfer from master device.

MSSP Module

ANALOG MODULES

Apart from a large number of digital I/O lines, the PIC16F887 contains 14 analog
inputs. They enable the microcontroller to recognize, not only whether a pin is driven to logic
zero or one (0 or +5V), but to precisely measure its voltage and convert it into a numerical
value, i.e. digital format. The whole procedure takes place in the A/D converter module
which has the following features:

 The converter generates a 10-bit binary result using the method of successive
approximation and stores the conversion results into the ADC registers (ADRESL and
ADRESH);
 There are 14 separate analog inputs;
 The A/D converter allows conversion of an analog input signal to a 10-bit binary
representation of that signal; and
 By selecting voltage references Vref- and Vref+, the minimal resolution or quality of
conversion may be adjusted to various needs.

ADC Mode and Registers

Even though the use of A/D converter seems to be very complicated, it is basically
very simple, simpler than using timers and serial communication module, anyway.
 ADC Mode and Registers

The module is under the control of the bits of four registers:

5. ADRESH - Contains high byte of conversion result;

6. ADRESL - Contains low byte of conversion result;
7. ADCON0 - Control register 0; and
8. ADCON1 Control register 1

1. ADRESH and ADRESL Registers

When converting an analog value into a digital one, the result of the 10-bit A/D
conversion will be stored in these two registers. In order to deal with this value easier, it can
appear in two formats- left justified and right justified. The ADFM bit of the ADCON1
register determines the format of conversion result (see figure 7-2). In the event that A/D
converter is not used, these registers may be used as general-purpose registers.

ADRESH and ADRESL Registers

ADC Clock Period

Time needed to complete a one-bit conversion is defined as TAD. The required TAD
must be at least 1,6uS. One full 10-bit A/D conversion is a bit longer than expected and
amounts to 11 TAD periods. However, since both the conversion clock frequency and source
are determined by software, one of the available combination of bits ADCS1 and ADCS0
should be selected before voltage measurement on some analog input starts. These bits are
stored in the ADCON0 register.

Any change in the system clock frequency will affect the ADC clock frequency,
which may adversely affect the ADC result. Device frequency characteristics are shown in
the table above. The values in the shaded cells are outside of recommended range.

ADC Clock Source ADCS1 ADCS0 Device Frequency (Fosc)

20 Mhz 8 Mhz 4 Mhz 1 Mhz

 Fosc/2 0 0 100 nS 250 nS 500 nS 2 uS

Fosc/8 0 1 400 nS 1 uS 2 uS 8 uS

Fosc/32 1 0 1.6 uS 4 uS 8 uS 32 uS

Frc 1 1 2 - 6 uS 2 - 6 uS 2 - 6 uS 2 - 6 uS

ADC Clock Period

L293D –DC MOTOR DRIVER IC

We start with the L293D. L293D is a popular motor driving IC. It is a 16 pin IC. The

IC has 8 pins on both the sides. It has 2 enable pins, 1 V SS pin, 1 VS pin, 4 ground pins, 4
input pins and 4 output pins. Though not required here, but in case you wish to learn how
to interface L293D with a microcontroller.

L293D Pin Configuration

PIN DESCRIPTIONS

Enable – the enable pins, when are given true, (i.e. 1) then they enable the respective part of
the IC. The enable 1 chip enables the Left part of the IC for inputs and outputs, and so does
the Enable 2 does to the right part of the IC.
 6. VSS – this pin is to be given an input of 5 volts. This is used to power up the chip for
its operations.
7. VS – this pin is given the voltage that we have to supply to the motors. This voltage
comes out through the output pins. Due to the gates used in the IC, the output is
usually 1.8 to 2 volts less than the Vs.
8. Input – the input pin decides whether output has to be given to he respective output
pin or not. When the Input is true, then output is also 1in the respective output pin.
When input in the Input pin is 0, and then output in the respective output pin is also 0.
9. Output – the output pin is connected to the terminals of the motor. The input pins, as
stated above, control its output.
10. GND – these pins are the ground pins, or, in other words, Zero.
The L293D IC can be used to control a maximum of 4 motors simultaneously. When
4 motors are connected to the IC, then for operation, -ve of each of the motors is connected to
the GND, and the +ve terminal to the outputs. For bidirectional control, you can connect
only two motors simultaneously as per the circuit diagram below:
 METHODOLOGY
PIC DEVELOPMENT BOARD
The PIC development board is the important circuit element in the project. Its
previous predecessor was the PIC DEM2 board which has its faults. The central pin element
is the 40 pin socket to the programmed PIC chip into; a ZIF socket has also been placed in to
it. The board was designed to be powered by a DC supply. This voltage was then passed
through a voltage regulator on the board which reduces the voltage to 5 V DC required for the
controller.
The current rating to the wall adapter is 300mA which was more than sufficient to run
the board and peripherals. The next major element in it is the Oscillator. It has a PIC DEM2
board (a Microchip) which uses 12MHz that was carried through for use in the development
board. It has 14 pin footprints but only the corner 4 pins are utilized for the circuit. The
remaining portion of the board consists of the I\0 pins that are connected to various small
strips throughout the board and are ready for the connection.

PROGRAMMING THE PIC MICROCONTROLLER

The main benefit of the 16f877 for our application was the flash program memory
which was used for the easy reprogramming ability. The chip, that you flash the memory with
the assembled machine language using a programmer of your choice. The programmer was
that available to us at the time was the PIC star plus programmer which works flawlessly.
The programming was done in the C programming language and was compiled and
assembled in to the microcontroller’s machine language.
This offers the benefit of readability and portability. A tip presented to us by our
instructor when programming the microcontroller is to disable as many features which offer
no use in our application. This removes any unwanted behavior which may be a result of
these features and could be later enabled if it offers any benefit after development.

3.3.2 Interfacing of DC motor

DC motor is used for the forward movement of the Land Rover. The two DC
motors speed, direction and operating period control system using three
microcontrollers PIC 16F877A, one is the master and the two others are the slaves. It is
a closed-loop real time control system, where rotary shaft encoder is coupled to the
motor shaft to provide the feedback speed signal to the slave microcontroller. Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) technique is used to vary the voltage supplied to the DC
motor armature(with fixed field voltage), thus controlling the motor speed.
The PWM signal is generated by the slave microcontroller. This signal will guide
the motor driver to vary the voltage supplied to motor to maintain at the required
speed. The master microcontroller is programmed with the desired motor number,
speed, operating period and direction of the motor. To achieve a low cost and simple
solution to the control of multiple high power DC motors, simple PIC 16F877A
microcontroller is designated to meet this goal. The first step is to design a circuit that
uses the minimum resources of this processor to control a DC motor’s speed, direction
and operating periods. This module has to be fully tested and proven effective in
controlling a single DC motor. The second step is to design a protocol link that uses the
available resources of the controller to conduct the necessary communications between
different modules of control through a variety of actions associated with the motors.
The third step is to test the integrity of the communication protocols to ensure there is
no miscommunication or unanticipated behavior in the controlled motors.
The clockwise and anticlockwise rotations of the DC motors are generated by
moving the required bit values to the port of the microcontroller to which the DC motor
is connected. The DC motor is interfaced with the microcontrollerPIC using IC L293D
(quadruple half H-Bridge driver). It is used to avoid the problem of back emf and one
L293D can drive two DC motors at a time. The supply voltage of 6V, 12V, 24V is given
depending upon the type of DC motor that is used.

Interfacing of sensors

Here for demonstration we are using the Sensors with ASCII Output. These sensors
can be easily interfaced with a PIC Microcontroller using USART by just connecting the
output pin of the sensors to RX pin of the microcontroller. In every minute these sensors can
senses its function if any wrong function will be detected suddenly that sensor sends out
ASCII value corresponds to the time required for the ultrasonic burst to return to the sensor.
The UART of the sensor is operates at a baud rate 9600 and the sensor can be powered by a
5V DC Supply. The ASCII output of the sensor will be equal to the particular set of rate of
the sensor.
 CHAPTER-5

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

5.1 POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT:

Power supply is a reference to a source of electrical power. A device or

system that supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or
group of loads is called a power supply unit or PSU. The term is most
commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often to mechanical ones,
and rarely to others.

Power supplies for electronic devices can be broadly divided into linear
and switching power supplies. The linear supply is a relatively simple design
that becomes increasingly bulky and heavy for high current devices; voltage
regulation in a linear supply can result in low efficiency. A switched-mode
supply of the same rating as a linear supply will be smaller, is usually more
efficient, but will be more complex.

5.1.1 Linear Power supply:

An AC powered linear power supply usually uses a transformer to

convert the voltage from the wall outlet (mains) to a different, usually a lower
voltage. If it is used to produce DC, a rectifier is used. A capacitor is used to
smooth the pulsating current from the rectifier. Some small periodic deviations
from smooth direct current will remain, which is known as ripple. These
pulsations occur at a frequency related to the AC power frequency (for example,
a multiple of 50 or 60 Hz).

5.1.2 Transformer:

Transformer

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another with

little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the
reasons why mains electricity is AC.

Step-up transformers increase voltage, step-down transformers reduce

voltage. Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to reduce the
dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to a safer low voltage.

The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the
secondary. There is no electrical connection between the two coils; instead they
are linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the
transformer. The two lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the
core.

Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to
the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
 The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn’s ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large
number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the high
voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its secondary (output) coil
to give a low output voltage.

5.1.2 Bridge rectifier:

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also
available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is called a
full-wave rectifier because it uses the entire AC wave (both positive and
negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each diode
uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes conducting, as
shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by the maximum current
they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage they can withstand (this must
be at least three times the supply RMS voltage so the rectifier can withstand the
peak voltages). Please see the DIODES page for more details, including pictures
of bridge rectifiers.
 Bridge rectifier

Alternate pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the

alternating directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

Output: full-wave varying DC: (using the entire AC wave):

5.1.3 Smoothing:

Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor connected

across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to the output when
the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling. The diagram shows the
unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the smoothed DC (solid line). The
capacitor charges quickly near the peak of the varying DC, and then discharges
as it supplies current to the output.
 Fig.4.27.Smoothing

Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to

almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is rectified
to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the bridge rectifier), with
smoothing this increases to almost the peak value giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V
smooth DC.

Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it

discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple which is
10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation below gives the
required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger capacitor will give fewer
ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled when smoothing half-wave DC.

Smoothing Capacitor for 10% ripple, C=5*10/vs.*f

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)

Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed
DC

f    = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK.

Fig. 4.28 power supply circuit

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most electronic
circuits.

5.1.4 Regulator:

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V)
or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current they
can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in dual
supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from excessive
current ('overload protection') and overheating ('thermal protection').

The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several

fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One
of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems
associated with single point regulation. The voltages available allow these
regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, Hi-Fi, and other solid
state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and current.

Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look like power
transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the right. They include
a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.
 1. Positive regulator
1. input pin
2. ground pin
3. output pin
It regulates the positive voltage

2. Negative regulator
1. ground pin
2. input pin
3. output pin
It regulate the negative voltage

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for all
electronic circuits.
 SIMULATION RESULTS

Figure: Quadratic Boost DC–DC Converter

Figure: input dc-dc voltage

 Figure: pwm switching system

FIGURE: OUTPUT VOLTAGE

 CHAPTER 6
6.1 CONCLUSION

6.2 REFERENCES
1. Zaid, M.; Lin, C.H.; Khan, S.; Ahmad, J.; Tariq, M.; Mahmood, A.;
Sarwar, A.; Alamri, B.; Alahmadi, A. A family of transformerless
quadratic boost high gain dc-dc converters. Energies 2021, 14, 4372.
2. Mummadi Veerachary, Malay Ranjan Khuntia, “Design and Analysis of
Two-Switch-Based Enhanced Gain Buck-Boost Converters,” IEEE Trans.
Ind. Electron., vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 3577-3587, Apr. 2022.
3. Ahmad, J.; Zaid, M.; Sarwar, A.; Tariq, M.; Sarwer, Z. A New
Transformerless Quadratic Boost Converter with High Voltage
Gain. Smart Sci. 2020, 8, 163–183.
4. Rezaie, M.; Abbasi, V. Effective combination of quadratic boost
converter with voltage multiplier cell to increase voltage gain. IET Power
Electron. 2020, 13, 2322–2333.
5. Lee, S.W.; Do, H.L. Quadratic Boost DC-DC Converter with High
Voltage Gain and Reduced Voltage Stresses. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 2019, 34, 2397–2404.
6. Navamani, J.D.; Vijayakumar, K.; Jegatheesan, R. Non-isolated high gain
DC-DC converter by quadratic boost converter and voltage multiplier
cell. Ain Shams Eng. J. 2018, 9, 1397–1406. 
7. M. Veerachary and V. Khubchandani, “Analysis, design and control of
switching capacitor based buck-boost converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 2845-2857, May. 2019.
8. S. A. Gorji, A. Mostaan, H. T. My, and M. Ektesabi, “Non-isolated buck-
boost dc-dc converter with quadratic voltage gain ratio,”IET Power
Electron., vol. 12, no. 6, pp. 1425-1433, Feb. 2019.
9. Sarikhani, B. Allahverdinejad, and H. Torkaman, “A Non-Isolated Buck-
Boost DC-DC Converter with Single Switch,” 2018 9th Annual Power
Electronics, Drives Systems and Technologies Conference (PEDSTC).,
vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 5386-4699, Apr. 2018.
10.Shahir, F.M.; Babaei, E.; Farsadi, M. Extended Topology for a Boost
DC-DC Converter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2019, 34, 2375–2384.
11.Jahangiri, H.; Mohammadpour, S.; Ajami, A. A high step-up DC-DC
boost converter with coupled inductor based on quadratic converters. In
Proceedings of the 9th Annual International Power Electronics, Drive
Systems and Technologies Conference, Tehran, Iran, 1–3 February 2018.
12.Bagherian, M.A.; Mehranzamir, K. A comprehensive review on
renewable energy integration for combined heat and power
production. Energy Convers. Manag. 2020, 224, 113454.
13.Ghosh, A. Possibilities and challenges for the inclusion of the electric
vehicle (EV) to reduce the carbon footprint in the transport sector: A
review. Energies 2020, 13, 2602.
14.Rezaie, M.; Abbasi, V. Effective combination of quadratic boost
converter with voltage multiplier cell to increase voltage gain. IET Power
Electron. 2020, 13, 2322–2333.
15.Ahmad, J.; Zaid, M.; Sarwar, A.; Tariq, M.; Sarwer, Z. A New
Transformerless Quadratic Boost Converter with High Voltage Gain.
Smart Sci. 2020, 8, 163–183.
16.Maroti, P.K.; Padmanaban, S.; Holm-Nielsen, J.B.; Bhaskar, M.S.; Meraj,
M.; Iqbal, A. A New Structure of High Voltage Gain SEPIC Converter
for Renewable Energy Applications. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 89857–89868.
17. Gorji, S.A.; Mostaan, A.; My, H.T.; Ektesabi, M. Non-isolated buck–
boost dc–dc converter with quadratic voltage gain ratio. IET Power
Electron. 2019, 12, 1425–1433
18.. Lee, S.W.; Do, H.L. Quadratic Boost DC-DC Converter with High
Voltage Gain and Reduced Voltage Stresses. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 2019, 34, 2397–2404