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Soil Fertility and

Nutrient Management
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2. Soil Fertility and Nutrient

Management (HNS 101) 2 (1+1)
Introduction to soil fertility and
productivity- factors affecting. Essential
plant nutrient elements- functions,
deficiency systems, transformations and
availability. Acid, calcareous and salt
affected soil-characteristics and
management. Role of microorganisms in
organic matter- decomposition – humus
formation. Importance of C:N ratio and pH
in plant nutrition. Integrated plant nutrient
management. Soil fertility evaluation
methods, critical limits of plant nutrient
elements and hunger signs. NPK fertilizers:
composition and application methodology,
luxury consumption, nutrient interactions,
deficiency symptoms, visual diagnosis.
Practical: Analysis of soil for organic
matter, available N,P,K and
Micronutrients and interpretations. Gypsum
requirement of saline and alkali
soils. Lime requirement of acid soils.
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Lesson 5 & 6

Functions and deficiency symptoms of Secondary

nutrient elements (Ca, Mg, S) and Micronutrients in
plants

1. SECONDARY NUTRIENTS?
2. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Secondary nutrients
a. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Calcium
b. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Magnesium
c. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Sulphur
3. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Micro nutrients
a. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Fe
b. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Mn
c. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Cu
d. Functions and deficiency symptoms of B
e. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Mo
f. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Cl
g. Functions and deficiency symptoms of Zn
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SECONDARY NUTRIENTS?

Ca, Mg, and S are called as secondary nutrients.

1. Calcium (Ca)

It is immobile in plants and exists as deposits of calcium oxalate, calcium pectate in the
middle lamella of cell wall and CaCO3 and CaPO4 in cell vacuoles. Although calcium is present in
plants in relatively higher proportion as compared with other elements, its actual requirement
by plants is not much higher than that of a primary nutrient.

Functions:

1. It is a constituent of the cell wall and promotes early root development.

2. It is required for cell divisions and chromosome stability, cell wall construction,
cell elongation of the shoot and root.
3. Stabilizing the pectin of the middle lamella in the cell wall by forming calcium pectate.
Thus Ca brings resistance against diseases.
4. Effect on fruit quality and increases in the firmness of the fruit.
5. Indirectly influences many enzyme systems and maintain cation- anion balance (by
acting as a counter ion).
Deficiency

 Deficiency is first observed on the young leaves and growing tips (immobile in plants).
 Leaves become small, distorted, cup shaped, crinkled and malformation of leaves (It
resembles boron deficiencies)
 Terminal buds may deteriorate and die in fruits trees. Root growth is impaired.
 Destruction of cell well structure results in disturbance of nuclear and cell division.
 Fruit quality is reduced, loss of fruit fleshy, sometimes rotting of fruits and susceptible to
fungal disease.
 Blossom end rot on a tomato (hyper link)
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Calcium deficiency (blossom end rot) on a tomato

Calcium deficiency

Death of growing point and die-back of main

stem from tip; die-back of leaves, progressing

from terminal leaflets and of flower and fruiting

trusses.
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Calcium deficiency: Dying off of terminal leaflets and flowers;

leaves purplish brown tinting.

Ca deficiency in coffee Ca Deficient root Healthy root(coffee)

(Leaves bronzed along edges, cupped downward; new leaves dead; eventual dieback of shoot
tips)

2. Magnesium (Mg):

Mg is a constituent of the chlorophyll molecule and located at its centre, without which
photosynthesis by plants would not occur. It is a mobile element and plant absorb as Mg 2+ ionic
form.

Functions:

 Very much essential for photosynthesis.

 It is involved in the regulation of cellular pH, cation-anion balance and turgur regulation
of cells.
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 Necessary for protein synthesis.

 Activator of enzymes in carbohydrate and ATP metabolism.
 Essential for the formation of oils and fats
 It is required for stabilization of cell membranes.
Deficiency:

 Interveinal chlorosis of lower leaves and in extreme cases becomes necrotic.

 Leaves remain in small and brittle even in final stages.
 Twigs may become weak and premature dropping of leaves results in heavy loss of fruit
crops.
 Inhibits nitrate reduction and the production of photo hormones.
 Stalk necrosis or stem ‘Die back’ in a Vine plant.
Excess of Mg absorption becomes poisonous leads to browning of roots as a result growth
is ceased and death of roots and leaves. It can be counteracted by CO 2 antagonistic action.

Deficiency symptoms of Mg on plants

3. Sulphur

It is abundant in plant, particularly in the leaves. Plant absorbs as sulphate (SO42-) form.
It does not easily translocated in plants.

Functions:

1. Required for synthesis of the S-containing amino acids like cystine, cysteine and
methionine, which are important for protein synthesis.
2. Role in photosynthesis by involving in structural formation of chlorophyll in leaves.
3. It is a constituent of proteins and volatile compounds responsible for the
characteristic taste & smell of plants in the mustard and onion families.
4. It enhances oil synthesis in crops
5. It is a vital part of Ferrodoxins (Non Heme iron, sulfur protein), S- adenosyl methionine.

Deficiency

1. Pale yellow or light green leaves in younger leaves (Deficiencies resemble those of
nitrogen)
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2. Stalks are short & slender, growth is retarded.

3. Fruits often do not mature fully & remain light green in colour.
4. In Brassica species, leaves shows cupping & curling.
5. Cell division is retarded & fruit development is suppressed.
6. Disrupts N metabolism, reduces protein quality & induces starch (carbohydrate)
accumulation.
S- Toxicity: Sulphide injury, necrosis of the leaves.

MICRONUTRIENTS

These are essential plant nutrients required in minute quantities. There are 7
micronutrients namely Iron, Manganese, Boron, Molybdenum, Copper, Zinc and Chlorine.
Micronutrients are also called minor elements or trace elements.

1. Iron: (Fe): It is the first micronutrient to be discovered as an essential element for plant
life. Iron present in chloroplasts as a “ferrodoxin” compound. Plants obtain as Fe 2+ and Fe3+
forms and also as chelated Fe form. Immobile element within the plant; as such iron deficiency
is noticeable in younger leaves at the growing region.

Functions:

1. Involved in biosynthesis of chlorophyll and in the synthesis of chloroplast proteins

2. Activates several enzymes involved in respiration.
3. It brings about oxidation-reduction reactions in the plant.
4. It regulates respiration, photosynthesis, reduction of nitrates and sulphates.

Deficiency symptoms:

1. Interveinal chlorosis of younger leaves and generally called as “Iron chlorosis” or lime
induced
chlorosis. On severe deficiency leaves become “Pale white”.
2. Reddish-brown necrotic spots along the leaf margins of young shoots in tree crops.
3. In Brassica necrotic terminal buds at early seedling stage.
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2. Manganese (Mn): It is absorbed by plants as Mn2+ form from the soil. It is

translocated to the different plant parts where it is most needed.

Functions:

1. Involved in oxidation-reduction reactions and electron transport in photosystem II

2. It is directly or indirectly involved in chloroplast formation and their multiplication.
3. It activates large number of enzymes and acts as a co-factor and catalyses most of the
enzymes
4. It helps in movement of Iron.

Deficiency symptoms:

1. Interveinal chlorosis on old leaves similar to Iron chlorosis.

2. Speckled yellow of sugarbeet-leaves develop interveinal yellowish green chlorotic
mottling and leaf margins role upwards.
3. Depresses inflorescence and fructification and results in stunted leaf and root
development.

3. Copper (Cu): Minute quantities of copper are necessary for normal growth of plants.
Copper salts are poisonous even in exceedingly small concentrations. It is absorbed as cupric
ion (Cu2+). Its function is almost similar to those of Fe. It is immobile element in plants.

Functions:

1. It acts as electron carriers in enzymes which bring about oxidation-reduction reaction in

plants.
2. Helps in utilization of iron in chlorophyll synthesis.
3. Influence on cell wall permeability and nitrate reduction.
4. Play a role in the biosynthesis & activity of ethylene in ripening fruit.
5. Promote the formation of vitamin-A in plants.
6. Influence on pollen formation & fertilization.
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Deficiency:

1. Narrow, twisted leaves and pale white tips. interveinal chlorotic mottling of leaves.
2. In fruit trees “die-back” (terminal bud wither and die) is most common.
3. It affects fruit formation much more than vegetative growth.
4. The critical stage of Cu deficiency induces pollen sterility in microsporogenesis.
5. Reduced fruit set and number of flowers.

4. Boron (B): Boron is present especially at the growing points and in the conducting
tissue. This element being a non metal doesn’t appear to be a part of any enzyme system. Plants
absorb B as H3BO3-, B4O72-, H2BO3-, and HBO 2-3 & BO32-. It is immobile element in plants.

Function:

1. Essential for cell division in the meristematic tissues.

2. Involved in proper pollination, pollen formation, pollen tube growth/ flowering and
fruit or seed set.
3. Important role in the fertilizing process of plants and during blossom period its
requirement is high.
4. It influences carbohydrates and N-metabolism and also Ca.
5. Translocation of sugars through cellular membranes and prevents the
polymerization of sugars.
6. It enhances rooting of cutting through oxidation process.
7. It has role in hormone movement and action.
8. It gives resistance for pest and disease infection, e.g.: virus, fungi & insects.
9. Role in water relations i.e., prevents hydration of root tips & thus strengthens the plant
roots
10. Acts as a regulator of potassium/calcium ratio in the plant. Solubility & mobility of Ca
increases.

Deficiencies:

1. Young leaves may be deformed, appear like a “rosette”, cracking and cork formation
in stems, stalks and fruits, thickening of stems and leaves, reduced buds, flowers and
seed production.
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2. Premature seed or fruit drop.

3. ‘Hen and Chicken disease’ in grapes bunches i.e. fruits of vine with small & long
berries.
4. Deformed fruits of papaya tree.
5. Vine plant with thickened internodes. Poor fructification and development of the berries.
In mango, leaves become pale green distorted & brittle leaves.
6. Browning or hollow stem of cauliflower.
7. Heart rot disease’ in fruits of the sweet melon (Cucumis melo), sugar beet & marigold.
8. Interruption in cell wall formation and differentiation and then necrosis.
9. Flowers wilt, die and persist on the tree. This phenomenon is called “Blossom
Blast”.
10. Tissue break down and preventing sugar and starch accumulation in the leaves.
11. Excessive formation and accumulation of phenolics.
12. Bitter orange fruits with thickened peels or rinds & blackish discoloration.

 B Toxcity- yellowing of the leaf tip and leaf margin which spreads towards the midrib
leaves become scorched and may drop early.

B -deficiency in coffee

(Youngest leaves light green, mottled, with uneven edges and asymmetric shape; new leaves
with dead spots or tips).

‘Hen and Chicken disease’ in grapes bunches i.e. fruits of vine with small & long berries.
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Deformed fruits of papaya tree due to B deficiency.

5. Molybdenum (Mo): Required by plants in small quantity, plant absorb as MoO42-

form. It is structural components of Nitrogenase enzyme and constituent of nitrate reductase.

Functions:

1. Essential role in iron absorption and translocation in plants, protein synthesis and N-
Fixation in legumes.
2. Brings oxidation and reduction reactions especially in the reduction of NO3 to NH4.
3. It acts as a bridge or link in transferring electrons.
4. Role in phosphate system and ascorbic acid synthesis.

Deficiency:

1. Reddish or purplish discoloration of leaves, chlorosis and marginal necrosis of leaves.

2. Marginal scorching and rolling or cupping of leaves, “Yellow spot” disease of citrus and
“Whiptail” in cauliflower is commonly associated.
3. NO3 accumulation in plants thus inhibits the utilization of N for protein synthesis.

Mo Deficiency
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(Bright yellow mottling between veins; leaves wither, curl and margins collapse; leaves distorted
and narrow; older leaves affecter first. Rare deficiency).

6. Zinc (Zn): Zinc is having limited mobility in plants and immobile in soil and plant
absorb as Zn2+ form.

Functions:

1. Zn is a constituent of several enzymes systems which regulate various metabolic

reactions in the plant.
2. Influences the formation of some growth hormones in the plant like IAA, and Auxin.
3. Helpful in reproduction of certain plants.
4. Role in photosynthesis and involved in chlorophyll synthesis, protein synthesis.
5. Involved in alcohol dehydrogenase activity in fruit trees.

Deficiency:

1. Chlorotic and Brown rusty spots on leaves.

2. Lower Auxin level.
3. Drastic decrease in leaf area and leaf deformation (Rosetting), stunted growth (shortage
of internodes).
4. Under severe deficiency the shoot apices die (dieback) and diffusive or mottled leaf
5. The rate of protein synthesis is drastically reduced and amino acids and amides
accumulate.

Zn-deficiency in coffee

(Leaves not expanding normally; narrow, often strap-shaped; veins visible against a yellow-
green background; failure of inter-node to elongate properly, giving plants a compact
appearance).

7. Chlorine (Cl): Chlorine is readily taken up by plants and its mobility in short and long
distance transport is high. It does not form constituents of organic substance but act only in
ionic form. The plant requirement for chlorine is rather quite high as compared to other
micronutrients. The exact role of Cl in plant metabolism is still obscure.
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Functions:

1. Involved in the evolution of “Oxygen” by chloroplasts in photo system-II.

2. Associated with turgor production in the guard cells by the osmotic pressure exerted by
K+ ions
3. Role in stomata regulation (opening & closing).
4. Water splitting in photo system-II.
5. Act as a bridging ligand for stabilization of the oxidized state of Mn.
Deficiency

1. Chlorosis and burning of tips and margin of leaves. In tomato, leaves become chlorotic
and later bronzed.
2. Over wilting effect and leaf fall, yielding ability decreases.

Chloride toxicity on many crops- Bronze or yellow colors of leaves with brown or scorched
leaf margins.

Reference: 1. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers- Samual L. Tisdale, Werner L. Nelson and James
D. Beaton

2. Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management by S.S. Singh

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Lesson 7

Luxury consumption of nutrients and Nutrient

Interactions in plants and soils.

Luxury consumption?

Consumption of Nitrogen by plants

Consumption of phosphorus by plants

Consumption of potassium by plants

Consumption of secondary nutrients by plants

Consumption of micro nutrients by plants

Nutrient interactions in plants and soils.

_
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Luxury consumption?

It is the tendency of some crops to absorb and accumulate nutrients far in excess of their
actual needs if it is present in sufficiently large quantities in the soil. Potassium is one of the
nutrient elements which is subjected to luxury consumption.

The absorption pattern of different nutrients by plants is varies greatly among the plant
species and also their age and growth stages.

Consumption of Nitrogen by plants

Plants absorb the N mostly in nitrate (NO3-) form or in ammonical (NH4+) form by some
plants. Plants usually absorb the N more during active growing period, but they do not always
absorb it at the same rate. The amount of nitrogen absorbed is at a maximum when the plants
are young and gradually declines as the plants age. Plants can absorb extra nitrogen when it is
available and store it to be used later if needed. An oversupply of N generally produces dark
green, succulent, vegetative growth. In such cases there will be a decline in seed production of
grain crops, fruit production in tomatoes and some tree crops. In sugar beets, sugar content
decreases and in and potatoes, tubers become watery. The negative effects of too much of N on
growing plants can be lessened if the P and K supplies are adequate.

The average utilization of applied N by crops is around 50 percent but with proper
nitrogen management strategies the efficiency as high as 80 % or more can be increased. Low N
use efficiency may be attributed to various losses such as Volatilization of Ammonia in alkaline
soil, Denitrification of Nitrate ions in flodded soil, Leaching loss of Nitrates in coarse textured
soil, soil erosion/run off and ammonium fixation in clay lattices.

Consumption of phosphorus by plants

Phosphorus application, unlike N is known to benefit the growth and productivity of

more than one crop in rotation. The residual P contributes more of P to crop nutrition.
Responses to applied P depend on soil properties, initial available P, variety, level of N applied
and management practices.

Phosphorus is absorbed as phosphate ions such as H2PO4- and HPO42- form. It is

concentrated more in the reproductive parts of plant and in seeds. Harvested crops contain
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considerable amounts of P. In general, seed crops contain largest percentages of P, and forage
crops contain moderate percentages.

Consumption of ‘P’ by the crops is very less after their application to soil and it accounts
even less than 10 % and remaining amount will be useful later. This is mainly because; P is
subjected to immobilization or fixation (retention/adsorption/precipitation/sorption) and
undergoes various transformations which render it unavailable to plants. P fertilizers are not
easily and completely soluble in water and their mobility is less within the soil. Therefore in
order to get maximum benefit from them we have to adopt suitable methods and time of
application.

Consumption of potassium by plants

Potassium uptake is often equal to or more than that of nitrogen. It is absorbed by

plants by K+ form. Crop species differ in their K requirement. Tuber crops like potato, vegetables
like cauliflower and cabbage, forages like alfalfa and fruits like banana, grapes and pineapple,
plantation crops like coconut, tea, rubber are among the heavy feeders of K. High crop yields
and higher rates of N and P application accelerate K uptake from the soil. Crop responses to K
are large on laterites, red and yellow and mixed red and black soils. Plants absorb and
accumulate K far in excess of their needs if it present sufficiently in soil without affecting the
metabolic activity or without any plant response. This is called as Luxury consumption.

Potassium also subjected for various losses

1) Leaching losses of K- Especially in sandy soils and soils rich in kaolinite located heavy rainfall
area.

2) Soil erosion losses- It also leads to considerable loss of total K from the soil.

3) Fixation of K by clay complex of illite type

Consumption of secondary nutrients by plants

The amount of secondary nutrients removed by crops depends on the soil type, crop
species, fertilizer sources and yield level. Generally, legumes and root crops remove more Ca and
Mg than do cereals and other grasses. Cereals may remove 10-20 kg Ca per ha, a good crop of
Brassica oleracea may remove 150 kg Ca per ha. A continuous cropping may result in the
reduction of exchangeable Ca in soil.
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Banana and pineapple crops with yield levels of 40 to 50 t/ha may remove 120 to 140 kg
of Ca and Mg . As a thumb rule, S removal per tonne grain production can be taken as 3-4 kg
for cereals, about 8 kg for pulses, about 12 kg for oil seeds and 18 kg for cruciferous and 38 kg
for mustards. In most of the crop species, the critical limits of S in plants are 0.20 to 0.25%.
Plants use approximately as much S as P.

Consumption of micro nutrients by plants

High crop yields remove substantial amounts of micronutrients from the soil, especially
Zinc and Boron. Micronutrients depletion in soil depends on soil fertility level and crop yields.
Maize based cropping sequence depletes the maximum micronutrients form soil, especially Zn
and Fe. The deficiencies of Zn and B are prevalent in most soils especially red and laterite soils.

Nutrient interactions in plants and soils.

Interaction can be defined as the influence of an element upon another in

relation to growth and crop yield. There may be positive or negative interaction of
nutrients occurs either in soil or plant. The positive interaction of nutrients gives higher
crop yield and such interactions should be exploited in increasing the crop production.
Conversely, all negative interactions will lead to decline in crop yield and should be
avoided in formulating agronomic packages for a crop.

The knowledge about interactions occurring in soils or plants or both is basic to help
develop appropriate and efficient technologies. Further this will help to refine the existing ones
to increase agricultural production.

There are mainly two types of interactions effect viz. antagonistic and synergistic
effects. Antagonistic effect means an increase in concentration of any nutrient element will
decrease the activity of another nutrient (negative effect). While synergistic effects means an
increase of concentration of any one nutrient element will influence the activity of another
nutrient element (Positive effect). One must understand how the negative or positive interaction
takes place within or outside the plant.

The following antagonistic effects have been well established on the uptake of
micronutrients by crops:

1. Excess of P adversely affects utilization of Zn, Fe and Cu

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2. Excess of Fe adversely affects utilization of Zn and Mn

3. Excess of Zn, Mn, and Cu induces Fe-deficiency in crops
4. Excess of S and Cu induces Mo-deficiency in crops
5. Excess of Lime induces deficiency of all micronutrients.
6. Presence of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in soil due to sodicity or over liming
reduces the availability of micronutrient cations to crops which suffer most iron
deficiency.
7. Lime X P, Lime X Mo, Mo X P, and Na X K are common negative interactions.
8. Excess of Ca may induce P deficiency
9. Excess of Ca and Mg may depress K uptake
10. Excess of Ca may reduce Mg uptake, if ratio is wider than 7:1
11. Excess of K and NH+ may reduce Mg uptake
12. Excess of N, K and Ca may reduce B toxicity
13. Excess of N,P,K may induces Cu deficiency
14. Excess of NO3-N may cause Fe deficiency

Reference:

1. Fundamentals of soil Science-published by Indian Society of Soil Science

2. Soils and fertility-6th edition-F.R. Troeh and L.M. Thompson.
3. Micronutrients: Their behavior in soils and plants by Dilip Kumar Das
4. Soil Fertility and Nutrient management-By S S Singh
5. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers- Samual L. Tisdale, Werner L. Nelson and James D. Beaton
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Lesson 8 And 9

Transformations and availability of nutrients in soils

N- Transformation and availability in soils

a. N-Cycle
b. N transformation in soils
Phosphorus transformation & availability in soils:
a. P-Cycle
b. P transformation in soils
K-transformations & availability in soils:
a. K-Cycle
b. K- Transformations
Calcium, Magnesium & Sulphur availability in soils:
a. Ca &Mg Cycle in soils
b. Ca & Mg Transformations
Sulphur availability & transformations in soil
a. S-Cycle
b. S-Transformations
Micronutrients availability and their Transformations in soil
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N- Transformation in soils
N- Availability in soil.
Dynamics and transformation of nitrogen in soil is very important with respect to plant
nutrition. A bulk of total N is present in the organic form (98%) and only about 2% in inorganic
form. However there are continuous transformations between these two pools. The crops utilize
nitrogen in the inorganic forms only such as NO3-N and NH4-N. The inorganic form of N is also
liable to undergo different types of loses like runoff, ammonia volatilization, leaching,
denitrification and fixation by clay minerals.

Nitrogen Cycle in soil

Gains of N Losses of N

Nitrogen cycle

The cycling of N in the soil – plant – atmosphere system involves many

transformations of N between inorganic and organic forms.

N transformations in aerobic soils

In aerobic soils, NO3-N is the dominant form of available N. The

mineralization/transformation of added or native organic matter in soil proceeds up to
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nitrification stage and giving predominantly NO3-N and small amount of NH4-N. There is a
quick transformation of NH4+ to NO3-N in the aerobic soils occur which will be utilized by
plants. Any fertilizer containing ammonium nitrogen when added to soil gets dissociated to
NH4+ which readily gets oxidized to NO3- ion which is either taken up by the crop or leaches
down to the lower horizon as it is readily soluble in water. Some amount of NO 3-N is also
immobilized by soil microbes during the process of mineralization of organic matter.

The organic form of N, particularly hydrolyzable form is slowly mineralized and is

transformed to mineral nitrogen through following process

a. Amminization
b. Ammonification.
c. Nitrification
d. Denitrification

Nitrogen mineralization

Mineralization is the conversation of organic N to inorganic forms of N as a result

of microbial decomposition. Mineralization increases with a rise in temperature and is
enhanced by adequate, soil moisture and a good supply of O2. Mineralization of organic
N involves in two reactions.

Aminization

Aminization is the decomposition of proteins and the release of amines, amino

acids and urea. A large number of soil microorganisms bring about this change.

Bacteria NH2 NH2

Proteins R – C – COOH + R NH2 + C = O + CO2 + Energy

Fungi H2O

H amines NH2

Amino acid Urea

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Under aerobic condition the major end products are CO2, (NH4)2 SO4 and H2O.
Under anaerobic conditions the end products are ammonia, amides, CO 2 and H2S.

The organic compounds and proteins are mainly decomposed by various species
of Pseudomonas, Bacilli, clostridium, serrotia, Micrococcus.

Conversion of urea

Urea is a product of aminization. The hydrolysis of urea by the action of urease

enzyme is effected by Bacilli micrococcus, Pseudomonas, clostridium, Acromobactor
and coryne bactor.

Co (NH2) + H+ + 2H2O 2NH4+ + HCO3-

NH4+ NH3 + H+

2NH3 + H2 CO3 (NH4)2 CO3 NH4+ + CO3-.

The optimum water holding capacity for these reactions is 50 – 75% and optimum
temperature is 30 – 50°C.

Ammonification

“Amines and Amino acids produced during aminization of organic N are

decomposed by other heterotrophs with release of NH4+ is termed Ammonifcation

R – NH2 + H2O NH3 + R – OH + energy

H2O NH4+ + OH –

Nitrification

Nitrification is the process of biological oxidation by which the ammonical

(NH4+) form of N converts to nitrate (NO3-) form of N. There are two steps.

(a) NH4 is converted first to NO2- and then to NO3-.

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Nitrosomonas

2NH4 + 3O2 2 NO2- + 2 H2O + 4 H+

(b) In the second reaction NO2- is further oxidized to NO3- by nitrobactor

Nitrobactor

2 NO2- + O2 2 NO3-.

Nitrosomonas are obligate autotropic bacteria that obtain their energy from the
oxidations of N and their C from CO2.

Denitrification

Denitrification is the biochemical reduction of NO3-N or NO2-N to gaseous N

forms, either as molecular Nitrogen or an oxide of Nitrogen. The most probable bio
chemical pathway is

NO3 NO2 NO N2O N2

Nitrate Nitrite Nitrogen Nitrous monoxide Nitrous oxide Dinitrogen

This is loss mechanism of nitrogen happening in anaerobic soil conditions.

Nitrogen immobilization

“Immobilisation is the process of conversion of inorganic N (NH4+ or NO3-) to

organic N and it is basically the reverse of N mineralization”. By this process plant
available N forms are converted to unavailable organic forms.

The Microorganisms accumulate NH4- N and NO3- N in the form of protein,

nucleic acid and other complexes. If C:N ratio is wider than 30, it favors immobilization
and lesser C:N ratio encourage mineralization.
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Losses of Nitrogen

The major losses of N from the soil are due to (1) crop removal and leaching,
however under certain conditions inorganic N ions can be converted to gases and lost to
the atmosphere. The primary pathway of gaseous N losses are

1. Denitrification
2. NH3 volatilization.
Nitrogen fixation

The conversation of atmospheric nitrogen to plant available forms readily usable

by biological process mediated by microorganisms.

Nitrogen Transformation in anaerobic soils

The N-transformations from added or native sources stops at NH 4 + stage, since

nitrification is not possible due to lack of oxygen. When NH 4+-N containing fertilizers are added
to soil, then NH4+ is oxidized to NO3- in the top layer (aerobic) of flood water or oxidized layer
and later which moves down to reduced layer. On the reduced layer NH4+-N remains as NH4-N
only for plant uptake. If NO3-N exists, then it moves down to the reduced layer, where it
undergoes denitrification by bacteria (NO3-NO2-N2). The denitrified NO3- is lost from the soil to
the atmosphere in the form of N2O or N2.

If NH4+ ions present in the flood water it is subjected to volatilization to atmosphere as

NH3 (ammonia gas) because of higher partial presence of CO 2 and high pH value developed due
to alkalinity. Therefore, there is an accumulation of NH4+ ions in the reduced layer, which is
either absorbed by root or gets oxidized in the rhizosphere to NO3- ions and are lost due to
dentrification. Some of the NH4+ and NO3- ions also get immobilized by the soil microbes & some
NH4+ may get fixed by the clay lattice.

Phosphorus transformation & availability in soils:

Phosphorus Cycle in soil

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Fertilizers Plant Uptake Plant & Animal

residues

Mineralization
Adsorption
ADSORBED P
(Labile P) SOIL
Desorption SOLUTION P ORGANIC
H2PO4 MATTER
Precipitation HPO4
SECONDARY Microbile P
MINERALS Dissolution Immobilization
Fe/AlPO4 (Nonlabile P)
CaPO4
(Nonlabile P)
Dissolution (Labile P)

PRIMARY Leaching
MINERALS
(Nonlabile P)
PHOSPHORUS CYCLE

In P cycle the phosphorus is not involved in any exchange process with the atmosphere.
The amount of dissolved or solution P mostly H2PO4- and HPO42- ions in the soil is very small
and crops will utilize P from this source. The soil solution P can come from mineralization of
organic matter, added fertilizers, adsorbed phosphate ions and solid P compounds (primary &
secondary minerals). Any P present in solution P form and it is available to plants is called
Labile P, where as any P which is bounded in solid P compounds such as primary and
secondary minerals is called Non Labile P which is not available to plants.

P transformation in aerobic soils: P transformation depends on their solubility, interaction

with other soil components. When a water soluble phosphate fertilizer, such as super phosphate
is applied to a soil, P dissolves immediately and enters the soil solution and readily forms new
compounds with Ca as Ca-PO4 and carbonates of hydroxyapatite in calcareous and alkaline soils
respectively. While in acid soils rich in Al, Mn and Fe, applied P is converted as Al-PO4 , Mn –
PO4 and Fe-PO4. All these gets newly formed compounds are precipitated thus reduce the
availability of P to crops.

P transformation in Anaerobic soils

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P- Transformation in submerged or flooded conditions/soils with a wide range of pH

create reducing conditions which lead to reduction of Ferric-PO4 to ferrous PO4 resulting in
greater availability of P in the reduced soil. Organic acids formed under submerged conditions
also solubilize PO4.

K-transformations & availability in soils:

K- Availability

Potassum is present in soil solution as K+ ion which is readily available to plants. But this
form is in dynamic equilibrium with exchangeable K which intern with fixed K. Fixed K is in
equilibrium with mineral K.

Forms & availability of K

Relatively unavailable
K (Feldspars, micas
etc) 90-98% of total K

Slowly available K Readily available K

(Non exchangeable=fixed) (Exchangeable & in solution)
1-10 % of total K 1-2 % of total K

90 % 10 %

Slow Rapid
Non exchangeable K Exchangeable K Soil Solution K
(50-750 ppm) (40-600 ppm) (1-10 ppm)

Reserve or Mineral K
(> 5000 ppm)
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K Cycle

K Cycle

K- Transformations:

When potassic fertilizers are added to the soil, K may either remain in soil solution or in
exchangeable form on the clay surface or in non-exchangeable form held by illitic clay minerals
as fixed K as it is not available to plants. Plants get K mainly from solution-K and exchangeable-
K. As and when the exchangeable K fraction is depleted substantially or exhausted by cropping,
the non exchangeable form of K replenishes the exchangeable K and supply of K to plants is
maintained and equilibrium is attained. The reservoir source of K is mineral lattice K which
undergoes weathering and releases K. In all these transformations equilibrium is maintained
always.
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Gains & Losses of Available K in soil

Crop residues & Slowly available

Commercial
manures K minerals
fertilizers

Available
K

Crop Leaching Erosion

remova l Fixation
Losses losses

Calcium and Magnesium availability in soils

Ca &Mg availability in soils:

Ca and Mg are the most abundant cations occupying the exchange sites of the soil
colloids of both inorganic (clay) and organic (humus). Thus most soils contain enough Ca and
Mg except highly weathered leached acid soils and alkali soils. Deficiencies of Ca and Mg
frequently occur in coarse textured as well as acidic soils developed under high rainfall
conditions. The critical limits of exchangeable Ca and Mg vary widely among soils. However
average value of <2.0 m.eq/100g for exchangeable Ca and < 0.5 m.eq/ 100g for exchangeable
Mg are considered critical limits for availability.

Ca & Mg Transformations:

Ca & Mg occupying the exchange sites of the soil colloids (clay & humus) are subjected to cation
exchange reactions then released into soil solution for plants absorption or adsorbed on the clay
and organic matter surfaces. Soils usually contain less Mg than Ca because Mg 2+ ions are not
adsorbed as strongly by clay and organic matter as Ca2+ ions and further Mg2+ ions are more
susceptible to leaching than Ca2+ions.
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Simple representation of Ca & Mg Equilibrium &

transformations in soil

Lime Manures /
Uptake Residues

Soil Solution
(Ca2 / Mg2)

Exchangeable Ca/Mg Mineral Ca / Mg

Sulphur Cycle and Transformation in soils

Sulphur Cycle in soil

Sulphur Cycle Coal or

Fuel oil
Animal &
Gases
Plant residues
H2S
(CH3)2S Pesticides &
COS amendments Fertilizers
Fertilize

Organics Polysulfides
Thiosulfides
compounds
bisulfites

Reduction
Soil Sulfides Sulfates Soil
minerals (S2-) (SO42-) minerals
Oxidation

Sulphur Clay
Soil Transformation
of S
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S-Transformations

In aerobic soil

The sulphur in soil is being cycled continuously between inorganic and organic forms
just like Nitrogen. The nature of compounds formed and their transformations are influenced by
the biologically mediated process. Organic matter is the major of source of S, it undergoes
oxidation to SO42- . This is brought about by autotrophic bacteria belonging to the genus
Thiobacillus under aerobic conditions of soil.

Aeration (O2)

Organic S --------------------------- SO42- + H+

(Proteins, Amino acids).

The released SO42- ion is taken up by plants and microorganisms. The rate of
mineralization is affected by factors such as moisture (60% field capacity), aeration,
temperature (35-40oC) and Soil pH.

In anaerobic soil

Under anaerobic conditions or flooded soils, the soil aeration is completely cut off. The
SO4 ion is reduced to sulphides (S2-) by the autotrophic bacteria such as Desulpho vibrio and
2-

Desulpho maculans which use SO42- for their O2 requirements.

SO42- + 8 H+ + 8e- = S2- + 4H2O.

Micronutrients Cycle and their Transformations in soil

The total content of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Co, Cl & B varies considerably in different soils.
Except Zn, Cu and B, all other micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Cl, Mo) are present in Indian soils in
sufficient amounts to sustain agricultural productivity. Zn and Boron deficiency is found in all
the soils of agro ecological regions of the country.

The availability of micronutrient cations in soil is highly affected by inorganic ions in soil
solution, soil solid constituents like free oxides of Fe & Al, soil organic matter, fertilizers and
amendments applied to soil
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Micronutrients Cycle

Animals &
Fertilizers Humans

Clay
minerals

Soil MICRO Organic

Soil
Minerals NUTRIENTS Organism Matter
Soil Solution
(insoluble CYLCE s (bound
Forms) forms)

Chelates

Leaching

Reference: 1. Soil and Soil Fertility-6th edition by Frederick R. Troeh and Louis M.
Thompson
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Lesson 10

Acid Soils and Calcareous soils, their Formation and

Management

1. Acid soil?
2. Causes of soil acidity
3. Problem of soil acidity
4. Management or Amelioration of soil acidity
a. Lime requirement (LR):
b. Liming reaction in soils
c. Benefits of liming on acidic soils
5. Calcareous soil
6. Formation, characteristics & management of calcareous soil
_
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Soil acidity is an important agricultural problem while evaluating the production potential of
most of the crops. Millions of hectares of land lie idle because of strong soil acidity. In India 49
million hectares of land have problems of soil acidity. Soil acidity is more common in regions
with high rainfall. This leads to leaching of appreciable amounts of calcium and magnesium
from the surface layer leading to build up of H and Al species causing soil more acidity.

Acid soil?

Acid soil is a base unsaturated soil with enough amount of adsorbed exchangeable H + & Al3+ions
with the soil pH of <6.0 is called acid soil. An acid soil is actually a mixed H-Al system, i.e. such
a soil has both H+ and Al3+ ions as exchangeable ions.

Causes of soil acidity

1. Leaching of bases like Ca, Mg, Na etc., due to heavy rainfall

2. Acidic parent material like granite
3. Use of acid forming fertilizers like Urea and ammonium sulphate
4. Decomposition of organic matter leading to release of various organic acids
5. Continuous cultivation of crops leads to more absorption of basic cations form the soil
6. Acid rains containing sulphate and nitrate ions
7. Aluminium and Iron polymers- One Al species release 3 H+ ions upon step wise
hydrolysis and similar reactions are possible with Fe3+ also.
8. Laterization, podzolization and accumulation of undecomposed organic matter under
marshy conditions contribute to soil acidity.

Problem of soil acidity

Soil acidity causes physical, chemical and biological problems in soil.

1. Physical Problems- in extreme acid soil, soil will be heavily aggregated and
very compact like laterite.
2. Chemical problems are
a. Acid toxicity
b. Toxicity of different nutrient elements- such as Fe, Al and Mn are more
soluble form
c. Nutrient availability is reduced especially N, P, K Ca, Mg, Na,
d. Nutrient imbalances due to fixation of PO4 by Fe, Al and Mn,
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e. Boron and Mo availability decreased

3. Biological problems: Microbial activity decreases

a. Bacteria and actinomycetes will not show their activity when the soil pH drops
below 5.5.
b. Nitrogen fixation in acid soils is greatly affected by lowering the activity of
Azatobacter sp., and Rhizobium species.
c. Fungi can grow well under very acid soils and cause various diseases like
Foot rot of Black pepper and blights of potato etc.

Management or Amelioration of soil acidity

In general the fertility status of acid soils is very poor and under strongly to moderately
acidic soils, the plant growth and development is affected to a great extent. The crops grown
on such problematic soils do not give remunerative returns. One of the most important and
practically feasible management practices is the use of LIME AND LIMING MATERIALS to
ameliorate the soil acidity. The addition of lime raises the soil pH, thereby eliminating most
major problems of acid soils. Cultivation of acid tolerant crops/varieties is also possible
option.

Lime requirement (LR): Is defined as the amount of liming material that must be added
to raise the pH to some desired value (pH 6.0 to 7.0). There are a number of liming
materials available in the market and may be used according to their availability,
convenience and economy. Some of the important liming materials are;

1. Lime oxide (CaO)- Burnt lime/quick lime or oxide of lime. Caustic in nature
and
difficult to handle.
2. Lime hydroxide {Ca (OH)2}- hydrated lime or slaked lime. Caustic in nature
and
difficult to handle.
3. Lime carbonate (CaCO3)- ground lime stone occurs as Boglime or marl,
Calcite,
Oysters shells and precipitate carbonates. It is most commonly used and it is
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largely sold in the market as pulverized or ground lime stone, called

agriculture
lime.
4. Basic slag: Byproduct of Iron industry.
5. Dolomite (CaMgCO3)

Liming reaction in soils

H+ [Soil] + CaCO3 ------- Ca2+ [Soil) + CO2 + H2O

or

CaCO3+H2CO3 -------Ca (HCO3)2

H+ [Soil] + Ca(HCO3)2-------- [Soil ]Ca2+ + 2 H2O + 2CO2

Benefits of liming on acidic soils

1. Direct benefits
a. Addition of lime raises the soil pH to a desired level.
b. It eliminates major problems of Fe, Al, Mn and H toxicities.
2. Indirect benefits
a. The nutrients like Ca2+ and Mg2+ are added to the soil if lime is dolomite
(Ca, MgCO3)
b. The raised pH also reduces excess soluble Mn and Fe by forming insoluble
hydroxides.
3. Phosphorus availability is improved or increased because of liming
precipitates Fe and Al in other forms (P is fixed as Fe and AlPO4).
4. It makes K+ more efficient in plant nutrition.
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5. It increases the availability of N by creating a more favorable environment for

microbes.
6. Bacterial activity is enhanced and help in control of certain plant pathogens
like club rot disease of cole crops.
_

Calcareous soil, their formation, characteristics &

management

Calcareous soils are those that contain enough free calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) and give
effervescence visibly releasing CO2 gas when treated with dilute 0.1 N hydrochloric acid. The pH
of calcareous soil is > 7.0 and also regarded as an alkaline (basic) soil.

Formation

The soil is formed largely by the weathering of calcareous rocks and fossil shell beds like
varieties of chalk, marl and lime stone and frequently a large amount of phosphates. Soils are
often very fertile, thin and dry. They are found in large part of arid and semiarid regions, which
may prove very fertile when sufficient moisture for crops is available. Soils also can become
calcareous through long term irrigation with water contains small amounts of dissolved CaCO3
that can accumulate with time. Calcareous soils can contain from 3% to >25% CaCO 3 by weight
with pH values with a range of 7.6 to 8.3.

Management of Calcareous soil

Fertilizer management in calcareous soils is different from that of non calcareous soils
because of the effect of soil pH on soil nutrient availability and chemical reactions that affect the
loss or fixation of some nutrients. The presence of CaCO3 directly or indirectly affects the
chemistry and availability of nitrogen (N) Phosphorus (P), Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K),
Manganese (Mn), Zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe). The availability of copper (Cu) also is affected.
Application of acid forming fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate and urea fertilizers, sulphur
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compounds, organic manures and green manures is considered as effective measures to reduce
the pH of soil to neutral pH value.

Reference: 1. Principles of soil chemistry by Kim H. Tan

2. The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle C. Brady and Ray R. Well
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Lesson 11 And 12

Salt affected soils, their formation & management

1. Salt affected soils?

2. Classification of salt affected soils;
3. Formation of salt affected soils:
A. SALINE SOILS & THEIR MANAGEMENT
a. Characteristics of saline soil
b. Formation/Development of saline soils:
c. How to diagnose salinity problems in the field?
d. Soil salinity classes and crop growth:
e. Effect of salinity on crop growth:
f. Methods of Reclamation and Management Saline soils.
I. Physical methods
II. Agronomic and cultural methods
B. ALKALI SOILS & THEIR MANAGEMENT
a. Characteristics of Alkali soils
b. Formation of Alkali soil and their classification
c. How to diagnose Alkali Soils in the field?
d. Problems of alkali soils an plant growth
e. Reclamation and management of alkali soils
1. Use of Chemical/Industrial amendments
2. Organic amendments
3. Cultural practices.
4. Watermanagement
5. Method of application of amendments
f. Sodicity classification according to the FAO
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1. Salt affected soils?

All soils contain some amounts of soluble salts. Many of these salts act as a source of
essential nutrients for the healthy growth of plants. However, when the quantity of the salts in
the soil exceeds a particular limit, the growth, yields and/or quality of most crops is adversely
affected depending upon the kind and amount of salt present. According to Central Salinity
Research Institute, Karnal, the area of salt affected soils (Soil salinity plus alkalinity) in India is
7421 thousand hectares (approximately).

Soil that contains excess amount of soluble salts such as chlorides, sulphates, carbonates
and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and sodium so as to impair productivity of crops is
called salt affected soil.

2. Classification of salt affected soils;

Indian system of classification: Classified in to 2 major types of salt affected soils based on
pH, EC and ESP.

Soil Characteristics Saline soils Alkali soils

pH(s) < 8.2 > 8.2

ESP < 15 > 15

EC(e) >4 ds/m Variable, mostly <4dS/m

Nature of Soluble salts Neutral mostly Cl- & SO42-, HCO3- Capable of alkaline
may be present but CO32- is absent hydrolysis, preponderance
of HCO3- & CO32- of Na+.

3. Formation of salt affected soils:

Nature and amount of soluble salts play an important role in the formation salt affected
soils. Soluble salts are those inorganic chemicals that are more soluble than gypsum. Soluble
salts in soils are mainly composed of the cations like sodium (Na+), Calcium (Ca2+) and
magnesium (Mg2+) and potassium (K+) and ammonium (NH4+) in small amount. The anions
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like chlorides (Cl-). Sulphates (SO42-) carbonates (CO32-) and bicarbonates (HCO3-). The salt
formation is therefore expected to result from a combination of these groups such as NaCl,
Na2SO4, MgSO4, CaCl2, CaSO4, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, and MgCO3 and CaCO3.

Salt affected soils formed mainly in 2 phases or process:

1. Salinization process: Process of accumulation of soluble salts in the soil results in the
formation of saline soil.
2. Alkalization process: Process of accumulation of exchangeable sodium in the soil &
formation of sodic soils is termed as alkalization.

A. SALINE SOILS & THEIR MANAGEMENT

Saline soils?

They are defined as soils containing appreciable amounts of soluble salts like chlorides,
sulphates of Ca, Mg, K, and Na etc. that interfere with plant growth.

Characteristics of saline soil

The EC of saturation paste extract of these soils is > 4dSm-1, pH of the saturation paste is
< 8.2 and the ESP is < 15. They are also known as white alkali soils or solon chalks. These
soils lack structural B horizon and contain very little organic matter (<1%). Soluble salts mostly
consist of chlorides and sulphates of Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+. Bicarbonates may or may not be
present. However carbonates are generally absent.

Formation of saline soils:

Saline soils are formed whenever climate, soil and hydrological conditions favour
accumulation of soluble salts in the root zone. Arid and semi-arid regions of low rain fall and
high temperature leads to less leaching, more evaporation of water and less transport of soluble
salts. Irrigation with salt-laden underground water and their indiscriminate use under
inadequate drainage creates more salinity problems. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers may
also leads to form saline saline soils.
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How to diagnose salinity problems in the field?

In the field, saline soils can be identified by:

 Presence of white crust layer of salts on the surface of soils in a dry region. It is a
mixture of NaCl and Na2SO4 salts.
 Good physical conditions and high permeability of soil.
 Natural vegetation consisting of mainly small bushes and some halophytes such as
Cressa cretica, Cyperus rotudus, Chloris gayana etc.
 In cultivated fields patchy and stunted growth of crops
 Wilting sign due to water stress in plants even when the soil apparently contains
enough water due to plasmolysis
 A thin soil crust that may prevent emergence of seedlings of sensitive crops.

Soil salinity classes and crop growth:

Sl. No Soil salinity class EC(e).dSm- Effect on crop growth

1

1. Non saline <2 Salinity effects negligible

2. Slightly saline 2- 4 Yields of sensitive crops may be

restricted.

3. Moderately saline 4-8 Yield of many crops restricted.

4. Strongly saline 8 - 16 Only tolerant crops yield

satisfactory.

5. Very strongly saline >16 Only a few very tolerant crops yield
is satisfactory.
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Equations for relating EC with OP and TDS

Conversions

Total cations (m eq/L)=10 X EC(dS/m) at 25oC

Salt Concentration(mg/L)= 640 X EC(dS/m) at 25oC

Osmotic Pressure= 0.36 X EC (dS/m) at 25oC

% Salt in solution= 0.064 X EC (dS/m) at 25oC X Saturation percentage(SP)

100

Effect of salinity on crop growth:

Excess amount of soluble salts affects the plant in the following ways;

1. Water availability to plants decreases: with increase in salt concentration of the soil the
osmotic pressure of the soil solution increases and plants are not able to extract water as easily
as they can from the soil. Therefore, EC (e) of the soil increases the water becomes less available
to the plant even though the soil may contain water and appears quite moist. Due to high
osmotic pressure water comes out of the plant which is called reverse osmosis or plasmolysis.
The plant show wilting symptoms which referred as physiological drought.

2. Specific Toxic effect of ions: Higher concentration of individual ions in the root
environment or in the plant may prove toxic to the plant or may retard the uptake (absorption)
and metabolism of the essential plant nutrients and thus affect the normal growth of the plant.
Antagonism between Cl- and H2PO4-, C1- and NO3-, C1- and SO42- and Na+ and K+ may disturb the
normal nutrition of plants.

Methods Of Reclamation Or Management Of Saline Soils

I. Physical methods

 Scraping: The salts accumulated on the surface can be removed by mechanical means.
This is the simplest & most economical way to reclaim saline soils if the area is very small
e.g. small garden lawn or a patch in a field. This improves plant growth only temporarily
as the salts accumulate again & again.
 Flushing: Washing of surface salts by flushing water. This is especially practicable for
soils having a crust & low permeability. However this is not sound method of practice.
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 Leaching: leaching with good quality water, irrigation or rain is the only practical way
to remove excess salts from the soil. It is effective if drainage facilities are available, as
this will lower the water table & remove the salts by draining the salt rich effluent.

Leaching requirement: The amount of water needed to remove the excess soluble salts from the
saline soils is called leaching requirement or The fraction of the irrigation water that must be
leached through the root zone or soil profile to control soil salinity at any specific level(Salt
balance)

EC iw Ddw
Leaching Requirement (LR)= -------------X100 or ----------------x100
EC dw Diw
Where, EC= Electrical Conductivity in dSm-1
iw= EC of Irrigation water in dSm-1
dw= EC of Drainage water in dSm-1
Ddw= Depth of drainage water in inches
Diw= Depth of irrigation water in inches

II. Agronomic and cultural methods: In areas where only saline irrigation water is
available or when shallow saline water table prevails and soil permeability is low, the following
cultural practices are adopted .

1. Selection of crops and crop rotations:

On the basis of crop tolerance to quality of irrigation water or soil salinity the crops can be
classified in four groups viz.

 Highly tolerant crops: Barley, Sugar beet, datepalm

 Tolerant: Tapioca,mustard,coconut, spinach, amaranthus, pomegranate, guava, ber
 Semi-tolerant:Ashguard, bittterguard, brinjal, cabbage, cluster bean, Pea, lady’s finger,
muskmelon, onion, potato, dolichos, sweet potato, tomato, turnip, water melon
 Sensitive: Radish, carrot, Coriander, Cumin, Mint, Grape, sweet orange.

2. Method of raising plants:

a. crop should be raised by transplanting seedlings (especially vegetables, flowers, fruit

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trees) than germinating the seeds.

b. Wild root stocks grafted with a good quality but salinity sensitive scion. (Mango,

citrus, Guava and ornamental plants like rose).

3. Irrigation practices:

a. Method of water application- follow furrow or drip irrigation, sub surface irrigation
systems and sprinkler irrigation.
b. Frequency of irrigation- irrigation more often (frequent) can maintain better water
availability & decrease the salinity should not too much irrigations.

4. Use of mulching materials to prevent evaporation losses like straws, plastic

sheets etc.

ALKALI SOILS & THEIR MANAGEMENT

Alkali soil?

Alkali soils are those that contain measurable amounts of soluble salts mostly as
carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium.

Characteristics of Alkali soils

These soils have pHs > 8.2 and ESP > 15. The ECe of alkali soils is variable but normally
<4 dSm-1. Neutral salts like NaCl and Na2SO4 are present in very small quantities. The alkali
soils are also known as sodic or solonetz. They are also called as Black alkali soils. It is mainly
because of high pH and Na2CO3 the finely decomposed organic matter is dissolved along with
the water that imparts a dark black or brown colour to the soil.

Formation of Alkali soils:

1. Sodication due to repeated cycles of wetting & drying.

2. Sodication due to shallow brackish ground waters.
3. Sodication due to the use of high RSC water.
4. Sodication due to the use of saline irrigation waters low in Cl: SO4 ratio.
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In contract to saline soils the saturation extract of alkali soils contains measurable amounts
of CO32- and HCO3-; C1- and SO42- may also be present in appreciable amounts. Among the
cations, sodium (Na+) is the dominant one followed by Mg2+ and Ca2+.

Sodicity classification according to the FAO:

Class ESP Description

a <10 Sodic free soil

b 10-20 Slightly sodic

c 20-30 Moderately sodic

d 30-50 Straggly sodic

e >50 Very sodic

Characteristics of Sodic soils

 There will not be any natural vegetation except some very hardy grasses.
 When wet, alkali soils turn black because of the humic acid fraction of organic matter,
which is dissolved by Na2CO3 at high pH.
 They are very slippery and soft when wet but very hard when dry.
 Upon drying deep cracks, 1-2 cm wide develops in the soil which closes when wetted.
 The surface soil develops a hard crust with typical convex surfaces.
 Water movement is restricted due to the sealing effect of Na- clays. A few centimeters
below the surface may therefore be almost saturated with water while the surface is dry
& vice versa.
 Runoff water is always turbid because of the bad physical conditions.
 Clay pan formation or kankar pan formation at variable depths.
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Problems of alkali soils on plant growth

 Poor water and air permeability as a result of high dispersion of soil aggregates and clay
particles.
 Low availability of water due to poor conductance from the lower soil layers.
 Seedling emergence & germination is greatly affected due to hard crust surface.
 Seed bed preparation is very difficult because it does not come to proper moisture
conditions.
 Deficiency of Ca and there is an antagonistic effect on K and Ca nutrition.
 Toxic concentration of HCO3- and CO32- ions.
 Decreased solubility of Fe & Zn.
 Increased solubility and accumulation of toxic elements such as F, Se & Mo in plants that
may affect crop yield.

RECLAMATION or MANAGEMENT OF ALKALI SOILS

I. Use of Amendments: For successful crops in alkali soils ESP of the soil must be lowered
which can be achieved by application of amendments.

Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is the most commonly used amendment for reclamation. Elemental S
and pyrite are also used.

Gypsum requirement (GR): The amount of gypsum needed for removal of exchangeable sodium
from alkali soil and also to decrease the soil pH to a desired level is called gypsum requirement.

1 milli equivalent of Ca2+ is required to replace 1 milli equivalent of Na+ ion from the exchange
complex of sodic soil.

Method of application of amendments: Amendment should normally be broadcasted and

incorporated in the surface 10 cm soil. Deeper depth of mixing of gypsum becomes inactivated
and thereby reduces the effectiveness of the applied gypsum and yield of crops. To ensure
proper dissolution of gypsum and leaching of replaced exchangeable Na +, the water is to be
ponded/stagnated continuously on the soil for a period of 8-10 days (80% of gypsum gets
dissolved). It brings down soil exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) to a desired level before
sowing. When pyrites or elemental Sulphur are used as an amendment, then a cycle of wetting
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and drying is needed to maintain proper moisture and aerobic conditions to ensure maximum
oxidation and higher production of H2SO4.

Reactions amendments in soil

If Gypsum used

Na2CO3 + CaSO4- ---------CaCO3 + Na2SO4

2NaHCO3 + CaSO4- --------- Ca(HCO3)2 + Na2SO4.
Or
2Na+--Soil+ + CaSO4- ------------Ca2+ - Soil + Na2SO4.
If Elemental Sulphur used

2S + 3O2 ------------- 2 SO3 (Microbial oxdation)

SO3 + H20 ------------H2SO4.
H2SO4 + CaCO3--------------- CaSO4 + CO2 + H2O
2Na X +CaSO4-----------------Ca-X2 + Na2SO4.
B. Organic Amendments: Addition of crop residues and other organic materials have got a
tremendous influence on maintaining soil physical, chemical and biological properties of these
soils. Organic amendments like straw, rice husk. Ground nut and safflower hulls, FYM, compost,
poultry droppings, green manures, tree leaves and saw dust. They Produce CO 2 (carbonic acid)
and organic acids, they increase the solubility of calcite and lower the ESP.

C. Industrial by products as Amendments: Phospho-gypsum, Press mud, Molasses, Acid

wash and Effluent from milk plants. They are used to provide soluble Ca directly/indirectly by
dissolving soil lime.

D. Cultural practices:

 Land leveling and shaping:- To ensure proper water management and uniform leaching
of salts the field should be leveled properly.
 Maintain Plant population: Crop stand in alkali soils can be improved by increasing the
seed rate and reducing the planting distance.
 Age of seedlings - planting old seedlings has proved to be beneficial.
 Green manuring: Increases organic matter content, there will be releasing of CO 2 and
formation carbonic acid. This lowers the pH and it enhances solubility of native CaCO 3
and adds a considerable amount of plant nutrients in the soil.
Ex: Sesbania, diancha, subabul
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 Continuous cropping: the land should be continuously cropped to keep the downward
movement of replaced Na & soluble salts. Growing of rice crop, along with other
practices has been observed to enhance the reclamation of alkali soils.

E. Water management:

1. Drainage: Alkali soils have got low infiltration rate and all the rain water accumulates to
create surface water logging. This results oxygen stress. So, to avoid this problem provide
surface and subsurface drainage system in the field.
2. Good irrigation management: Normally surface method of irrigation such as furrow or
basin type flood method is used for alkali soils. However the sprinkler method could be
promising because of its ability to supply water uniformly and in small quantities

Reference: 1. The Nature and Properties of Soils by Nyle C. Brady and Ray R. Well
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Lesson 13 to 14

Soil fertility evaluation

Soil fertility evaluation?

Methods of soil fertility evaluation-
I. Nutrient deficiency symptoms on plants
II. Plant analysis
III. Biological tests
IV. Soil testing
V. Modern approaches of soil fertility evaluation and fertilizer recommendation
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Soil fertility evaluation?

The diagnosis of the nutrient status of the soil by using different techniques or methods
is known as soil fertility evaluation.

Methods of soil fertility evaluation

There are various diagnostic techniques that are commonly used to evaluate fertility of the soils.
They are;

I. Nutrient deficiency symptoms of plants

It is a qualitative measurement of availability of plant nutrients. It is the visual method

of evaluating soil fertility and diagnosing the malady affecting the plant. An abnormal
appearance of the growing plant may be caused by a deficiency of one or more nutrient
elements. The appearance of deficiency symptoms on plants has been commonly used as an
index of soil fertility evaluation. If a plant is lacking in a particular element, more or less
characteristics symptoms may appear. This visual method of soil fertility evaluation is very
simple, not expensive and does not require elaborate equipments but it becomes difficult to
judge the deficiency symptoms if many nutrients are involved. In such cases it requires
experienced person to make proper judgment.

The common deficiency symptoms are;

1. Complete crop failure at seedling stage
2. Retarded/stunted growth
3. Abnormal color pattern. e.g.: Chlorosis (yellowing), necrosis (dying of tissue)
4. Malformation of different plant parts. E.g.: rosette appearance of leaves
5. Delayed maturity
6. Poor quality of crops like low protein, oil, starch content, keeping/ storage quality reduced.
7. Internal abnormality like Hidden hunger (It is a situation in which a crop needs more of a
given
element, yet has been shown no deficiency symptoms).
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II. Plant Analysis

It is a valuable supplement to soil testing in the task of soil fertility evaluation. Plant
analysis indicates the actual removal of nutrients from the soil and identifies nutrient status of
plant and deficiency of nutrient element. It is a direct reflection of nutrient status of soil.

Advantages of plant analysis are;

a. Diagnosing or confirming the diagnosis of visible symptoms

b. Identifying hidden hunger

c. Locating areas of incipient (early stage) deficiencies.

d. Indicating whether the applied nutrients have entered the plant

e. Indicating interactions or antagonisms among nutrient elements.

Plant analysis consists of three methods

1. Rapid tissue tests: It is a rapid test and qualitative or semi quantitative method. Fresh
plant tissue or sap from ruptured cells is tested for unassimilated N, P, K and other nutrients.
The cell sap is added with certain reagents to develop color. Based on intensity of color low,
medium and high color is categorized which indicates the deficiency, adequate and high
nutrients in the plants respectively. It is mainly used for predicting deficiencies of nutrients and
it is possible to forecast certain production problems.

2. Total analysis: It is a quantitative method and performed on whole plant or on plant parts.
The dried plant material is digested with acid mixtures and tested for different nutrients
quantitatively by different methods. The determination gives both assimilated and
unassimilated nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium calcium, magnesium, suphur,
iron, manganese, copper, boron, molybdenum, cobalt, chlorine, silicon, zinc, aluminum etc., in
plants. Recently matured plant material is preferable for accurate analysis.
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Critical levels of nutrients in plants

Element General range (%) Critical level (%)

N 2.0 - 4.0 <2

P 0.2 - 0.5 <0.1

K 1.5 - 3.0 <1.0

Ca 0.5 - 3.0 <0.1

Mg 0.2 - 0.5 <0.2

S 0.2 - 0.5 <0.15

Fe 50 – 150 ppm <5 ppm

Cu 5 – 20 ppm <4 ppm

Zn 20 – 100 ppm <15 ppm

Mn 20 – 500 ppm <20 ppm

B 2 – 100 ppm <20 ppm

Mo 0.1 - 2.0 ppm <0.1 ppm

Cl 0.2 - 2.0 ppm -

III. Biological methods

It is conducted for calibrating the crop responses to added nutrients. Different methods
are adopted for evaluating fertility status of soil.

1. Field tests: Field tests are conducted on different fertilizers and crops with treatments
impositions in replications. The treatment which gives highest yield will be selected. These
experiments are helpful for making general recommendations of fertilizer to each crop and soil
and we can also choose right type and quantity of fertilizer for various crops. It is laborious, time
consuming, expensive but most reliable method. They are used in conjunction with laboratory
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and greenhouse studies as final proving technology and in the calibration of soil and plant tests.
Thy widely used by experiment stations.

2. Indicator plants: These are plants that are more susceptible to the deficiency of specific
nutrients and develop clear deficiency symptoms if grown in that nutrient deficient soil. Hence
these are called as indicator plants. Some indicator plants are;

Nutrients Indicator plants

N, Ca Cabbage, Cauliflower

P Rape

K, Mg Potato

Fe Cauliflower, cabbage, potato, oats

Zn Maize

Na, B Sugar beet

Mn Sugarbeet, oats, potato

Mo Lucerne

Cu Wheat

3. Microbiological test: By using various cultures of microorganisms soil fertility can be

evaluated. These methods are simple, rapid and need little space. Winogradsky was one of the
first to observe in the absence of mineral elements certain microorganisms exhibited a behavior
similar to that of higher plants. Microorganisms are sensitive to deficiency of nutrients and
could be used to detect the deficiency of any nutrient. A soil is treated with suitable nutrient
solutions and cultures of various microbial species (bacteria, fungi) and incubated for a few
days. Then observing the growth and development of organisms in terms of weight or diameter
of the mycelia pad, the amount of nutrient present in the soil is estimated.

Ex: a. Azotobactor method for Ca, P and K.

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b. Aspergillus niger test for P and K

c. Mehlich’s Cunninghamella (Fungus)- plaque method for phosphorus
d. Sackett and Stewart techniques (Azotobacter culture) to find out P and K status in the soil.

4. Laboratory and Green house Tests: These are simple and more rapid biological
techniques for soil fertility evaluation. Here, higher plants and small amounts of soils are used
for testing. All these techniques are based on the uptake of nutrients by a large number of plants
grown on a small amount of soil. It is used to assess availability of several nutrients and they are
quantitatively determined by chemical analysis of the entire plant and soil. Some common
methods are;

E.g.: a. Mitscherlich pot culture method for testing N,P, K status in oat
b. Jenny’s pot culture test using lettuce crop with NPK nutrients
c. Neubauer seedling method for NPK
d. Sunflower pot-culture technique for boron

III. Soil Testing

A soil test is a chemical method for estimating the nutrient supplying power of a soil. It is
much more rapid and has the added advantage over other methods of soil fertility evaluation.
One can determine the needs of the soil before the crop is planted. A soil test measures a part of
the total nutrient supply in the soil.

Soil testing plays a key role in today’s modern and intensive agriculture production system as it
involves continuous use and misuse of soil without proper care and management. Soil analysis is
helpful for better understanding of the soils to increase the crop production and obtaining
sustainable yield. Soil testing is an indispensable tool in soil fertility management for
sustained soil productivity.

Objective of soil testing

a. To evaluate fertility status of soil by measuring available nutrient status

b. To prescribe or recommend soil amendments like lime and gypsum and fertilizers for
each crop
c. To assess nutrient deficiencies, imbalances or toxicities in soil and crop
d. To test the suitability of soil for cultivation or gardening or orchard making
e. To know acidity, alkalinity and salinity problems
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f. To know morphology, genesis and classification of soil

g. To find out the effect of irrigation on soil properties.
h. To prepare a soil fertility map of an area (village, taluk, district, state)

In the soil testing programme, “soil sampling” is most important step to be followed for
getting accurate results. Soil sampling is a process by which a true representative sample of an
area or orcahrd can be obtained. The soil sampling must be done scientifically by adopting
appropriate time and depth of sampling given for each crop for accurate analysis of soils.

Interpretation of soil test results and critical levels of nutrients

in soils.

Nutrients Low Medium High

Avail. 280 280-580 >580

Nitrogen(Kg/ha)

Avail.Phosphorus(P2O 22.5 22.5-55 >55

5 Kg/ha)

Avail. 125 125-300 >300

Potassium(K2OKg/ha)

Organic carbon (%) 0.5 0.5-0.75 >0.75

pH <6.5 = Acidic

6.5-7.5 =Normal/Neutral

7.5-8.5 = Saline

>8.5 =Alkaline

EC(dSm-1) <0.80 = Normal

0.8-1.60 = Critical for some crops

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1.6-2.5 = Critical for salt tolerant crops

>2.5 = Injurious to all crops

Ca <50% of CEC

Mg <4% of CEC

S <10ppm

Zn <0.6 ppm (0.5-1.2ppm)

Fe 2.5-4.5 ppm

Mn <2 ppm

Cu <0.2 ppm

B <0.5 ppm(WS)

Mo <0.2 ppm

Cl <2 ppm(WS)

V Modern approaches of soil fertility evaluation and fertilizer

recommendation

1) Soil Test Crop Response (STCR)/Targeted Yield Concept

2) Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) Approach

1) SOIL TEST CROP RESPONSE (STCR)

After introduction of high yielding varieties and hybrid crops, the need for systematic soil
test crop response research in different soil agro-climatic regions become evident. ICAR
established the AICRP on STCR in 1967 and the STCR concept was developed by Ramamoorthy,
in 1987. STCR provides the relationship between a soil test value and crop yield. The soil test
values are needed to be correlated with actual crop response obtained under field conditions.
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Separate calibration charts are needed for each crop and soil. Fertility gradient and regression
approach and targeted yield concepts were evolved.

This is also called as “rationalized fertilizer prescription approach” in which inherent soil
fertility and yield level of the crop are taken in to account while recommending the fertilizer
doses.

Objective of STCR

1. To prescribe fertilizer doses for a given crop based on soil test values to achieve the “Targeted
yields” in a specific soil agro-climatic region under irrigation or protective irrigation conditions
by using mathematical equations for different crops and different soil agro-climatic zones
separately.

2. This takes in to consideration-the efficiency of utilization of soil and added fertilizer nutrient
by the crops and its nutrient requirements for a “desired yield level”.

Concept of STCR

STCR approach is aiming at obtaining a basis for precise quantitative adjustment of fertilizer
doses under varying soil test values and response conditions of the farmers and for targeted
levels of crop production. These are tested in follow up verification by field trials to back up soil
testing laboratories for their advisory purpose under specific soil, crop, and agro climatic
conditions. The fertilizers are recommended based on the following
criterias.

 Fertilizer recommendations based on regression analysis approach

 Recommendations for certain % of maximum yield

STCR methodology takes in to account the three factors;

i) Nutrient requirement (NR) in kg/ quintal of the produce

ii) Percentage contribution from soil available nutrients (SE)

iii) Percentage contribution from added fertilizers towards making effective fertilizer
prescriptions for specific yields.

i) Nutrient Requirement (NR) Total nutrient uptake (grain+straw) kg/ha

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(in kg for producing = Yield of grain (q/ha)

1 Quintals of grain)

ii)Fertilizer Efficiency (FE in %) =

Total nutrient uptake (kg/ha)-soil test value in treated Plot (kg/ha) X soil nutrient efficiency
(%) X 100

Fertilizer dose applied (kg/ha)

iii) Soil Efficiency (SE in %) = Total nutrient uptake in control kg/ha X 100
Soil test value in control kg/ha

1) With the help of above parameters, adjustment equations have been developed for a number
of crops in various soils.

.: For Rice crop.

a. Fertilizer N = 4.39 T -0.6723 Soil N
b. Fertilizer P2O5 = 2.83 T – 6.110 Soil P
c. Fertilizer K2O = 1.41 T – 0.329 Soil K
Where T= Targeted yield of rice
Advantages:

1) Efficient and profitable site specific fertilizer recommendation for increased crop production
and for maintenance of soil fertility.

2) Aims to provide balanced, efficient and profitable nutrient application rates for pre- set yield
targets giving due consideration to basic fertility status of soil

Targeted yield concepts:

These are soil test based recommendations but given for different yield goals and not for
a single optimum yield level. A large variety of fertilizer prescription have been made available
by putting soil test values in to certain mathematical equations and finding out the amounts of
nutrients needed for a given yield target.
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2. DIAGNOSIS AND RECOMMENDATION INTEGRATED SYSTEM

(DRIS Method)

Concepts of DRIS:

DRIS is a new approach to interpreting leaf or plant analysis which was first developed
by “Beaufils” (1973) named as Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS). It is a
comprehensive system which identifies all the nutritional factors limiting crop production and
increases the chances of obtaining high crop yields by improving fertilizer recommendations.
The DRIS method uses “nutrient ratios” instead of absolute and or individual nutrient
concentrations for interpretation of tissue analysis. There is a set of optimum ratios among the
nutrient elements (N/P or N/K or K/P) within a given plant for promoting the growth of the
plant. DRIS mainly uses the “nutritional balancing” concept (Relationship among nutrients) in
the detection of nutritional deficiencies or excess in the plant. Nutrient balance is a part of the
proper interpretation of DRIS system because nutrient interactions to a larger extent determine
crop yield and quality.

The nutrient ratios are helpful to obtain special indexes which are called “Nutrient
Index” or “Beaufills nutrient Indexes” (BNI). The nutrient index values are used to rate the
nutrients in order of their need by the plants analyzed. It also measures how far particular
nutrients in the leaf or plant are from optimim are used in the calibration to classify yield factors
in order of limiting importance.

BNI are actually expression of the supplies of nutrients relative to each other. The
concentration of each nutrient in the plant has an effect on the index value for each of the other
nutrient. An abnormally high concentration of one or more nutrients will decrease the index
values of other nutrients. There will be positive and negative values for the nutrient index. The
nutrients with positive indexes appeared to be in “excess” and nutrients with negative indexes
appeared to be “deficient” in plants. DRIS indices can be calculated individually for each
nutrient using the average nutrient ratio deviation obtained from the comparison with the
optimum value of a given nutrient ratio.
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DRIS is a mathematical technique to apply plant analysis information (Nutrient

concentration) for diagnosing the most limiting nutrient in a production system. The evaluation
is made by comparing the relative balance of nutrient content with norms established for that
crop under high yield conditions. The evaluation is made by comparing the relative balance of
nutrient content with norms established for that crop under high yield conditions.

To develop a DRIS for a crop, the following requirements must be met whenever possible.

1. All factors suspected of having effect on crop yield must be defined

2. The relationship between these factors and yield must be described
3. Calibrated norms must be established
4. Recommendations suited to particular sets of conditions and based on correct and
judicious use of these norms must be continually refined.

Advantage;

 The importance of nutritional balance is taken in to account in deriving the norms and
making diagnosis. It helps to quantify the nutrient balance in the plant.
 The norms for nutrient content in leaves can be universally applied to the particular
crop.
 Diagnosis can be made over a wide range of stages of crop development.
 The nutrient limiting yield through either excess or insufficient can be readily identified
and arranged in order of their limiting importance for yield.

Reference: 1. Soil Fertility and Fertilizers- Samual L. Tisdale, Werner L. Nelson and James
D. Beaton

2. Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management by S.S. Singh

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Lesson 15 &16

Role of microorganisms in organic matter

Decomposition in soil and Importance of pH in Plant
Nutrition

Organic matter and its composition

Decomposition

Types microorganisms involved

Enzymes involved in decomposition process?

Major Process of organic matter decomposition Hyper link

1. Mineralization
A. Nitrogen mineralization
a. Aminization
b. Ammonification
c. Nitrification
d. Denitrification
B. Phosphorus mineralization
C. Sulphur mineralization
2. Immobilization

Rate of decomposition of organic compounds

Products of Decomposition of organic matter

Factors affecting decomposition

Formation of humus
Fractions and properties of humus

C: N ratio and its importance

Importance of pH in plant nutrition
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Organic matter?

Soil organic matter is a complex matter obtained from the plants and animal residues
containing both organic and inorganic chemical compounds.

Composition of Organic matter

A. Organic compounds
1. Nitrogenous compounds eg: Amine, amide compounds and amino acids
(water soluble) proteins (simple, combined, derived), peptone, purine,
peptide, nucleoprotein, protease, pyridine, alkaloid, pirimidin.
2. Non nitrogenous compounds
Eg : -Carbohydrates (mono, di, poly and oligosaccharides, amino sugars,
sugar acids, sugar alcohol),lignin (aliphatic hydroxyl and carbonyl group
found), Cellulose and hemicelluloses, tannin, fat, wax and resin, pigments,
organic acids (acetic, oxalic, saccharic, propionic, benzoic, pomitic), organic
phosphorus compounds (nucleic acids, phospholipids, inositol phosphate)
and organic sulphur compounds (cystein, cystine, methionine).

B. Inorganic compounds: Organic matter contains several inorganic elements

such as H, O, N, P, Ca, Mg, S, Na, K, Fe, Al, Mn, Zn, Mo, Si, B, Co, Cl etc. All these
are in metallic complex form hence organic matter is water insoluble and do not
destroy by leaching.

Decomposition?

It is the decaying or rottening of organic materials by various groups of microorganisms and

enzymes and converted in to simple inorganic elements or compounds. It helps to improve
softness of the materials for further mineralization process. It is basically a burning or oxidation
process.

Two types of decomposition

1. Aerobic decomposition- oxygen is required

2. Anaerobic decomposition- oxygen is not required.
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What types microorganisms involved in organic matter decomposition?

Decomposition is a purely microbial process involves several species of microorganisms. They

are; Bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, protozoa

 Supporting organisms are: Insects, worms, rodents, termite, ants

All the soil organic matter is not decomposed by the same group of microorganisms. At different
stages of decomposition different species of microorganisms enter into the degradation process.
As the degradation proceeds newer materials are synthesized by soil microorganisms.

What Enzymes involved in decomposition process?

Cellulase-breaks cellulose

Urease – breaks urea {CO(NH2)2 } to CO2 and NH4

Phosphatase – breaks humus –O-P-(OH) 2 bond to produce humus, OH & H3PO4

Sulfatase-breaks the humus O-S-OH bond to produce humus, OH & H2SO4

Protease – breaks bond linking two amino acids to separate amino acids

Decomposition processes

Two major decomposition processes involved

1. Mineralization
2. Immobilization

1. Mineralization: is the conversion of an element from organic form to an

inorganic/mineral form is called mineralization. Mineralization occurs for each element
present in the organic matter individually especially for N, P and S

A. Nitrogen mineralization:

It is the conversion of organic nitrogen into inorganic Nitrogen NH4 and NO3 by
microorganisms
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Organic N ---------- Proteose------------Peptone--------------Amino compounds- ammonia

->nitrite -> (proteins and amino acids)
nitrate

Different steps involved in N-mineralization

1. Aminisation: proteins and other complex nitrogenous compounds are

converted into amino acids and amino compounds by the action of enzymes and
microorganisms, CO2 and energy is released.
2. Ammonification: it is the biochemical conversion of amino compounds and
amino acids into ammonia by bacterial decomposition.
Enzyme
Amino acids + Water ------------------ Ammonia + energy
+amino compounds hydrolysis

Or

R-NH2+HOH ----------------------R-OH +NH3 + energy

This process is governed by aminase and deaminase enzymes. The liberated NH3 is
utilized by plants.

3. Nitrification: It is the biochemical oxidation of ammonia into nitrite and then

finally into nitrate. This process carried out by by autotropic bacteria
(Nitrosomanas and Nitrobacter) in aerobic condition. Two steps are involved.

Nitrosomanas and nitroso coccus

2NH+4 +3O2 ----------------------------------------2NO2 + 2H2O +4H+ +energy
Enzymatic oxidation (unstable)

Nitrobacter
2NO2-+ O2 -------------------------------2NO3-+ energy
Enzymatic oxidation (available)
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Rate of nitrification depends on suitable temperature, humidity, pH, season, aeration,

addition of lime (increases), nature of organic matter etc.

4. Denitrification

It is the biochemical reduction of nitrate or nitrite to gaseous nitrogen (N2),

either as molecular N or oxides of N.
Anaerobic decomposition
NO2-/NO3- ------------------------------N2
Reduction
Loss of nitrate by reduction and assimilation

B. Phosphorus mineralization

The process of conversion of organic forms of P into inorganic forms of P by P decomposing

microorganisms especially by micorrhiza species is known as P-mineralization.

The organic-P found in organic manures mainly as nucleic acids, phytin, phospho lipids,
inositol PO4, lecithin etc. The organic P is not directly available to plants and it has to undergo
decomposition by micro organisms especially mycorrhyzal species.

C6H24O27P6 + 6O2 -----------------------------6H3PO4 +3H2O +6CO2.

(Phytic acid)

C. Sulphur mineralization

The organic forms of S compounds such as methionine, cystine, cysteine are converted
into inorganic sulphate forms (available) by aerobic bacteria species especially Thiobacillus and
thiobacter.

1. Cystine + Water --------------Pyruvic acid +H2S+ NH3

Oxidised
2. H2S ----------------------SO4 ( sulphate)
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2. Immobilization: the conversion of an element from the inorganic to the organic

form in microbial tissues or in plant tissues, thus rendering the element not readily
available to other organisms or to plants.

Rate of decomposition of organic compounds

Rate of decomposition varies with the types of organic compounds, some may undergo
decomposition very fast and others may very slow. The following is the decreasing order of rate
decomposition.

Starch , sugars and simple proteins > Crude proteins> Hemi cellulose > Cellulose >
Lignin

> fat > Fatty compounds and waxes etc.(Most resistant)

When fresh organic manures are added to soil 60% of it decomposed within the first 6
months, 20% in the next 3-4 years and remaining 20% decomposed beyond 4 years. This
results in accumulation of lignins, fats and waxes in large quantities.

Products of Decomposition of organic matter

Under well drained, aerated (oxidised) soil: CO2, NO-2, NO-3, H2O, PO-4, SO42-, H2
and other essential plant nutrients. Antibiotics, Auxins, hormones, phytohormones.

Under anaerobic condition (water logged and compacted soil): Methane (CH4)
(swamp gas), organic acids (R-COOH, NH4 and amine groups (R-NH2), Toxic gases like H2S,
dimethyl sulphide and ethylene (CH2=CH2) etc.

Factors affecting decomposition

The most important conditions that affect the rate of decomposition are

1. Temperature: Cold periods retard the organic matter decomposition and there
will be more accumulation of organic matter on the top soil compared to that of
warm climates. The most suitable temperature is 30-40o C for proper
decomposition.
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2. Soil moisture: Near or slightly wetter than field capacity moisture conditions
are most favorable for decomposition. About 60-75 % water holding capacity
(WHC) is optimum.
3. Soil pH: 6-8 pH or neutral pH is required for optimum growth of
microorganisms. Bacteria at 6 - 7 pH, Actinomycetes is more at pH 8 -10, Algae
pH of 5.5 - 7.5, Fungi- pH 4.0, Protozoa – pH 3.0
4. Nutrients: Lack of nutrients, particularly N reduces microbial growth and it
slows decomposition. Addition of nutrients by N fertilizers (urea) increases the
speed of decomposition
5. Soil texture: Soils higher in clays tend to retain larger amounts of humus, other
condition being equal.
6. Aeration: Good aeration increases the rate of decomposition and supply oxygen.
7. Nature of plant matter: composition and age of plants and vegetations affect
much their decomposition. It is fast in young, tender, and juicy material, But slow
with more cellulose and hemicelluloses content.

Formation of humus

Definition of humus

Humus is defined as they are more or less stable fraction of the soil organic matter
remaining after the major portions of added plant and animal residues have
decomposed. Usually it is dark or brown in colour. They are high molecular weight
compounds, complex, resistant, polymeric compounds. They are amorphous and colloidal
organic substances.
Composition of humus :

Humus is a heterogeneous mixture of complex organic compounds. It is mainly made up

of 58% C, 3-6% of N- and C:N ratio of 10:1 to 12:1.

Humus formation

Humic substances are produced when plant residues and other organic debris are broken
down and/or chemically altered by microorganisms and subsequently recombine under the
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influence of enzymes. Humus formation is a complex two stage process in which organic
residues of plant and animal origin undergo profound transformation.

1. The decomposition of the original components of tissues and their conversion by

microorganisms in to simpler chemical compounds and partially to products of
complete mineralization (CO2, NO2, NO3, NH3, CH4, H2O etc.)
2. The synthesis of organic compounds with the formation of high molecular weight humic
substances of specific nature.
Ex. Lignin --------------broken into polyphenols, phenolic acids
Proteins-----------polypeptides and amino acids
Carbohydrates ------------ simple sugars
High molecular weights humic acids (HAs) and Fulvic acids (FAs).

Fractions of humus: Humus is mainly composed of two major groups, they are
I. Humic group
II. Non-humic group

I. Humic group: The humic substances make up about 60-80 % of the soil organic matter.

On the basis of resistance to degradation and of solubility in acids and alkalis, humic substances
have been classified into five chemical groupings.

1. Fulvic acid: lowest in molecular weight, lightest in colour, soluble in both acid
and alkali and most susceptible to microbial attack. Contain uronides, simple
carbohydrates and their sugars, phenolic glycosides, tannin and other organics,
also rich in N and P.
2. Humic acid : Medium in molecular weight and colour, soluble in alkali but insoluble
in acid and intermediate in resistance to degradation forms largest bulk, responsible for
importing its characteristics properties to humus.
3. Humin: Highest in molecular weight, darkest in colour, insoluble in both acid
and alkali and most resistant to microbial attack. Polymerized product of a part
of the FA and HA fractions.
4. Apocremic acid
5. Hematomelanic acid.
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All the five fractions are amorphous and show no signs of crystallization.

II. Non humic group: It comprises about 20-30% of the organic matter in soils. They are less
complex and less resistant to microbial attack than those of humic group. They are comprised of
specific organic compounds with definite physical and chemical properties.

.: a. Polysaccharides- Polymers with sugar like structures. They are effective in

enhancing soil

aggregates stability.

b. Polyuronoids- They are not found in plants but have been synthesized by the soil

microbes and held as part of the organisms body tissues.

c. Organic acids and protein like materials.

Properties of humus

1. It is a light bulky amorphous material of dark brown to black colour. The black
colour of surface soil is usually due to the presence of humus.
2. It has a great water absorbing and water holding capacity. 100 part humus-181
part of water.
3. It possesses the power of adhesion and cohesion (but less than clay) so it acts as a
cementing agent in crumb formation. In Sandy soils- adhesive capacity and in
clay soils – cohesive capacity increases
4. It has a high ion adsorbing capacity (4-6 times that of clay) and CEC is very high
(300-350 m.eq./100gm)
5. It is insoluble in water.
6. It behaves like a weak acid and forms salts with bases.
7. It acts as buffering agent and also as an oxidation reduction buffer.
8. It serves as a source of energy and food for the development of various
microorganisms.
9. An important source of nutrients for higher plants.
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C: N ratio and its importance

C:N ratio?
It is defined as the ratio of the weight of organic carbon to the weight of
total nitrogen in a soil or organic matter. It is the relationship between organic matter
and nitrogen content of soils or plants.
% OC
C: N ratio = -----------------
%N

Importance of C:N ratio

1. C:N ratio mainly controls decomposition rate in soil

 The wide C:N ratio leads to slow decomposition rate, nutrient immobilization may occur,
carbon and energy wastage in large quantities. Activity of microorganisms restricted
total amount of N is limited

 In Narrow C:N ratio, Carbon and energy starvation occur. Plant residues decompose
quickly and release nitrates readily. Amount of CO2 released/unit of carbon decomposed
is less as more of it is metabolized and converted into microbial tissues.

When the residue with high C/N ratio is added to soils, there will be intense
competition among the microorganism for available N.
The C/ N ratio in residues helps determine their rate of decay and the rate at which
N is made available to plants.
Ex : Speed of decomposition becomes slow with more/wide C/N ratio residue or low N
percentages. On the contrary low/narrow C/N ratio or high N percentages speeds
the decomposition rate.

2. It is a source of food and energy for plants

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Soil organisms require carbon for building essential organic compounds and to
obtain energy for life process, but they must also obtain sufficient N to synthesize N
containing cellular components, such as amino acids, enzymes and DNA. (Microbes
need to find about 1 g of N for every 24 g of C in their food. Microbes have 8:1 ratio
means – microbes must incorporate into their cells about 8 parts of carbon for every 1
part of N.
3. Influence of C/N ratio on N release: It controls N availability in soils/plants: It
controls N availability in soils/plants. If C/N ratio of OM is about 25:1, the soil microbes
will have to scavenge the soil solution to obtain enough N. Thus, the incorporation of
high C/N residues will deplete the soil native N, causing higher plants to suffer from N
deficiency. While low C/N ratio (<20) Organic matter helps in increase in N content of
soil for plants and organisms.
5. The decay of organic matter can be delayed if sufficient nitrogen to support
microbial growth is neither present in the material nor available in the soil
6. Influence of C/N ratio on Soil ecology: The soil ecosystem consists of
saprophytic bacteria and fungi and nematodes, protozoa and earthworms that grow
rapidly on organic residues as food source.
7. It is related to release of available N, total organic content and accumulation of humus.

C:N ratio’s of some of the organic materials

1. Alfalfa 20:1
2. Microbial population 10:1
3. Soil organic matter 10-12:1
4. Maize stalk 40:1
5. Rice straw 100:1
6. Rye straw 200:1
7. Saw dust 400:1
8. Clovers (mature) 20:1
9. Soil humus 11:1
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Ratio varies from about 10 for leguminous and young plant materials and >100 for cereal
straws.

Importance of pH in plant nutrition

The soil pH or soil reaction is the chemical properties/characteristics of the soil
showing the degree of acidity, alkalinity or neutral condition of soil. The pH is having
many roles in crop production and particularly in plant nutrition.
1. It significantly influences other chemical as well as biological properties and also
affect the availability of most of the chemical elements of importance to plants
and microbes.
2. The soil pH greatly affects the solubility of minerals.
3. The soil pH determines the amount and type of nutrient element availability in
soils.
Eg : In strongly acidic soils (pH 4-5) usually have high and toxic concentration of
soluble Al and Mn.
4. The soil pH also influences plant growth by the effect of pH on activity of
beneficial microorganisms.
5. Soil pH affects the mobility of many pollutants in soil by influencing the rate of
their biochemical breakdown, their solubility and adsorption to colloids.
6. Better nutrient availability found at neutral pH (6.5-7.5) like N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg
but in low pH acid soil toxicity of Fe, Al, Mn etc., and deficiency of P, Mo etc.
while in saline and alkaline soils Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu may be deficient. Mo
availability is more.
7. It helps in recommendation of soil amendments and fertilizer applications.
8. It is a good guide for predicting which plant nutrients are likely to be deficient.
9. It determines the microbial activity and the rate of decomposition.
10. Availability and mobility of both macro and micro nutrients in soil is
greatly affected by soil pH.
11. The pH level affects soil physical properties ex: dispersion of clays and formation
of stable aggregate structure.
12. Suitability of soil for crop production.
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References:

1. Nutritional disorders and their management in fruit crops by – Dr. Suseela Devi and
Mruthyunjaya, S.
2. The nature and properties of soils – 13th edition – Nyle C. Brady
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Lesson 17

Fertilizers

Definition of Fertilizer

Classification of In-organic fertilizers

I. Nitrogenous fertilizers
II. Phosphatic fertilizers Primary nutrient fertilizers
III. Potassic fertilizers
IV. Secondary nutrient fertilizers
V. Micronutrient fertilizers
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Fertilizer?

Fertilizers are defined as materials having definite chemical composition with a high
analytical value that supply essential plant nutrients in available form. They are usually
manufactured by industries and sold with a trade name. They are commonly synthetic in nature
and also called as chemical fertilizers/inorganic fertilizers/commercial fertilizers other than
lime and gypsum.

Most of the chemical fertilizers are inorganic in nature. The only exception to this is urea
and calcium cyanamide (CaCN2), the solid organic N fertilizer.

In India the use of artificial fertilizers was first initiated in 1896 when imported Chilean
nitrate was used as a fertilizer.

Presently fertilizers have become an integral part of agricultural economy as they

increase the fertility of soils and enable them to support high yields. About 50% of the increase
in crop production during recent times has been attributed to fertilizer use; though the fertilizer
use efficiency is very poor.

Classification of inorganic fertilizers

A. Based on number of nutrients present

1. Straight fertilizers: Are those fertilizers containing or supplying only one plant
nutrient element at a time. For e.g., Urea, Ammonium Sulphate (NH 4SO4), Ammonium
nitrate(NH4NO3), Single super phosphate (SSP), Muriate of potash(MOP- KCl).

2. Complex fertilizers

Fertilizers containing at least 2 or more of the primary essential nutrients (NPK). They
are chemical mixtures, granular and free flowing and easy to apply.

There are two types of complex fertilizers;

a. Complete or compound fertilizer: They are the chemical mixtures of three or more
primary or major nutrient elements (NPK) in one compound or mixture. They are usually in
granular form and easy to apply.

Ex: 10-26-26, 17:17:17, 19:19:19

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b. Incomplete complex fertilizers: A fertilizer material lacking any one of three major
nutrients or containing only two of the primary nutrients like N, P and K

Ex: N-P complex fertilizer : -Nitro-phosphate(Suphala:-15-15-0,20:20:0,

-Diammonium phosphate: 18-46-0

Characteristics of complex fertilizers (CF)

1. They usually have a high content of plant nutrients. As such they are also
called high analysis fertilizers.
2. They usually have a uniform grain size, granular form and good physical
condition during storage.

Advantage of complex fertilizers

1. In one application we can supply more nutrients and need not apply separately.
2. Balanced nutrition can be achieved.
3. Less cost is involved in transportation and application.
4. They are available in different grades according to need of the soils and crops.
5. Being granular, it is easy to apply by broadcasting.
6. Some complex fertilizers also provides some micronutrients to soil.
7. Transport and distribution is easy
8. They are non-caking and non- hygroscopic, thus safer for storage

3. Mixed Fertilisers Or Fertiliser Mixtures

A mechanical/physical mixture of two or more straight fertilizer materials in

suitable proportion is referred to as fertilizer mixture or mixed fertilizers. Sometimes,
complex fertilizers containing two plant nutrients are also used in formulating fertilizer
mixtures. Specific fertilizer grades are recommended for specific crops depending upon
the soil and climatic conditions of the region. The mixed fertilizers are usually in powder
form or sometimes granular form. Fertilizer mixture (FM) are free flowing and easy to
apply. The mixed fertilizers can be made according to the need of the crop and there is
wide scope for adjusting the fertilizer ratio..
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Guide for mixing fertilizers

Some fertilizers cannot be mixed with other fertilizers. Mixing of incompatible fertilizer
leads to a loss of some of the nutrients in the form of gas, converting soluble nutrients into
insoluble form or caking. Certain fundamental principles are to be followed in mixing fertilizers
are.

1. Ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride and other ammonical fertilizers and

nitrogenous organic manures should not be mixed with lime.
2. Urea should not be mixed with Super phosphate(SP)
3. Calcium cyanamide, basic slag, quick lime slaked lime should not be mixed with N in
NH4-N form.
4. Super phosphate should not be mixed with lime or CaCO3 or wood ashes.
5. NaNO3 or KNO3 should not be mixed with Super phosphate.
6. Ammonium sulphate, nitrate should not be mixed with lime.
7. Nitrochalk should not be mixed with SP or lime.

The commonest fertilizer mixture can be made from SSP, Ammonium sulphate, SOP,
Bonemeal, and MOP.

Advantages of fertilizer mixtures

1. Less labour is required to apply fertilizer mixture to soil. Individual crop wise
fertilizer mixture can be made.
2. Balanced nutrition can be achieved.
3. The residual acidity of fertilizers can be effectively controlled by adding liming
materials in the mixtures.
4. Micronutrients can be incorporated in fertilizer mixtures.
5. They have a better physical condition and more easily applied.
6. There is no need of purchasing straight fertilizers separately.
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Disadvantages of fertilizer mixtures

1. Does not permit application of individual nutrients according to the needs of crops
during specific times.
2. The unit cost of plant nutrients is higher than of straight fertilizer.
3. Lack of knowledge about proper mixing and their use.
4. Fertilizer mixture of particular grade suitable for particular crop cannot be applied
for all crops.

B. Classification of fertilizers based on particular plant nutrient

element: The element forms their principal constituent in the fertilizer.

1. Nitrogenous fertilizers
2 Phosphatic fertilizers Primary nutrient fertilizers
3. Potassic fertilizers
4. Secondary nutrient fertilizers
5. Micronutrient fertilizers.

I. Nitrogenous fertilizers: There are 6 groups.

a. Ammonium fertilizers
i. Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2 SO4 – 20% N
ii. Ammonium chloride : NH4Cl2 -24-26%
iii. Ammonium phosphate : NH4H2 PO4 -20%N + 20% P2O5 or
16% N and 20% P2O5
iv. Anhydrous ammonium (82%N)
v. Ammonium solution- 20-25%N
vi. Ammonium carbonate- 21-24%N
vii. Ammonium bicarbonate- 17%N
b. Nitrate fertilizers
i. Sodium nitrate or Chilean nitrate : NaNO3 – 16%N
ii. Calcium nitrate: CaNO3 – 15.5% N
iii. Nitrophosphate

c. Both Ammonium and nitrate fertilizers

i. Ammonium nitrate: NH4NO3- 33-34%N
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ii. Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) – 25, 26 and 28% N

iii. Ammonium sulphate nitrate (ASN) – 26%N
d. Amide fertilizers
i. Urea – 46% N
ii. Calcium cyanamide- 21 %N
iii. Urea phosphate
iv. Urea sulphate
e. Nitrogen solutions
i. Anhydrous ammonia
ii. Aqueous ammonia
iii. Solution containing one or more of the following urea, ammonium
nitrate, ammonia
f. Slowly available nitrogenous fertilizers
i. Urea formaldehyde compounds
ii. Neem Cake coated Urea NCU
iii. Lac Coated Urea(LCU)
iv. Sulphur Coated Urea(SCU)
v. Urea super granules (USG)
vi. Prilled urea (PU)

II. Phosphatic fertilizers.

They are broadly classified into 3 major groups on the basis of their solubility either in water or
in citrate or citric acid.

a. Water soluble phosphatic fertilizers (Contain phosphoric acid or mono calcium

phosphate. Ex;

1. Single Super phosphate (SSP)- 16-18 % P2O5

2. Triple super phosphate (TSP) – 46-48 % P2O5
3. Double super phosphate (DSP)- 32% P2O5
4. Di-Ammonium phosphate (DAP)- 18%N and 46% P containing dicalcium
phosphate

b. Citric acid soluble phosphatic fertilizers

1. Dicalcium phosphate (DCP) - 34-39% P2O5
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2. Rhenamia phosphate- 23-26% P2O5

3. Basic slag- 14-18% P2O5
4. Raw or steamed bone meal- part of P2O5 soluble in citric acid.
5. Fused calcium magnesium phosphate- 16.5% P2O5

c. Water insoluble or citric acid insoluble phosphatic fertilizers. Containing tricalcium

phosphate (Ca3 (PO4)2]
Ex: Rock phosphate- 20-40% P2O5
Raw bone meal- 20-25% P2O5
Steamed bone meal- 22% P2O5
Pyrophos - 17% P2O5

III. Potassic Fertilizers

A. Fertilizers having K in the Chloride form

1. Muriate of Potash (MOP) – KCl- 60-62 % K2O

B. Fertilizers having K in Non-chloride form

1. Sulphate of potash (SOP) -K2SO4: 48-52% K2O
2. Potassium nitrateKNO3 - 44% K2O

IV. Secondary Nutrient Fertilizers

Secondary elements are as important as primary elements because they help in uptake of
primary elements by plants. They are required in very little quantity as compared to primary
elements. The most important secondary nutrients are Ca, Mg and S. The fertilizers carrying
secondary nutrients are;
1. Calcium cyanamide(39.57% Ca)
2. Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (8.0% Ca & 4.5% Mg)
3. Calcium nitrate (1.5% Mg)
4. Super phosphate (20.0% Ca)
5. Bone meal (23.1% Ca)
6 Limestone (32.58% Ca)
7. Dolomite (20.0% Mg)
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8 Gypsum (29.40% Ca & 21.0% S)

9. Potassium sulphate18.5% S & 0.6 to 0.9% Mg)
10. Ammonium sulphate (24% S)

V. Micronutrient Fertilizers

Micronutrients are those which required by plants in very minute quantities by plants
but they have equal role as that of primary nutrients. They govern most of the physiological as
well as biochemical reactions of plant growth and development. The most important
micronutrients are iron, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum, chlorine, boron and nickel. The
fertilizers carrying micronutrients are;

Fe carrying fertilizers

1. Ferrous sulphate(19.0% Fe)

2. Ferric sulpahte(23.0% Fe)
3. Ferrous ammonium sulphate(29.0%Fe)
4. Ferric and ferrous oxide70.0 and 77.0% Fe)

Boron carrying fertilizers

1. Borax(11.0% B)
2. Boric acid(17.0% B)
3. Sodium tetra borate(14.0% B)
4. Borosite(21.0% B)

Manganese carrying fertilizers

1. Manganese sulphate (20.0 to 28.0% Mn)

2. Manganese carbonate (31.0% Mn)
3. Manganese chloride(17.0% Mn)

Zinc carrying fertilizers

1. Zinc sulphate (55.0% Zn)

2. Zinc oxide (67.0% Zn)
3. Zinc sulphide (67.0% Zn)
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4. Zinc ammonium sulphate(33.5% Zn)

Molybdenum carrying fertilizers

1. Sodium molybdate (39.0% Mo)

2. Ammonium molybdate (54.0% Mo)

Copper carrying fertilizers: Copper sulphate.

Reference: Soil Fertility and Nutrient Management by S. S. Singh

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