PSY 305 – Cognitive Psychology

Chapter 3:
Basic Concepts of Perception
James Gibson – provided a useful framework for
Visual Perception studying perception; in visual perception; (Bottom-up
approach) we do not isolate the object, but the whole
thing. (Gestalt)
CONCEPT MEANING EXAMPLE
Sensation – passive process; receiving and detection of Distal Object Object in the external tree
the stimulus; through the five senses world
Informational Information from the actual falling of the
Medium environment; tree
happenings; picked
Absolute Threshold – minimum stimulation needed to up from distal object
detect a stimulus 50% of the time Proximal Receiving the Absorption of light
(near) stimulus waves and sound
Differential Threshold – minimum difference between Stimulation waves
two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time Perceptual Object created in Image of falling
Object your mind; reflects tree in your retina
properties of the reflects the falling
external world tree from the
external world

The problem with Gibson’s concepts is that

perception is equal to what you sensed. According to
Gibson, perceptual continuum is enough to understand
or make sense of our surroundings.

SENSATION VS PERCEPTION VS COGNITION

DISTAL PROXIMAL CONCEPT MEANING EXAMPLE
STIMULI STIMULI Sensation Focus on the qualities Is the shade red
▪ Light waves ▪ Photon absorption of stimulation brighter than an
▪ Sound waves ▪ Conduction to basilar apple?
membrane Perception Gives meaning; Relate Is this red thing
▪ Chemical molecules ▪ Absorption in olfactory to identity, form, an apple?
epithelium pattern and movement
▪ Chemical molecules ▪ Contact with taste buds Cognition Determine further Is it edible?
▪ Pressure/vibration ▪ Stimulation of dermis goals; analysis
receptor cells

This is the process of how the receptor of each Ganzfeld Procedure – revealed that exposure to uniform
organ processes the input from the environment. field of stimulation → stop perceiving stimulus; the mind
is addicted to stimulation; no simulation → mind invents
its own (imagination)
Perception – set of processes: recognize, organize, and
make sense of our sensations from the environment

SENSATION PERCEPTION
▪ Passive ▪ More complex
▪ Physical stimulation ▪ Interpretation of sensory
of the sensory information
receptors
Mental Perception – a mental representation of a
stimulus that is being perceived.
Note: What we sense (sensory organs) ≠ what we perceive
(mind); The way we represent objects depend on our
viewpoint

THEORIES OF PERCEPTION
James Gibson – proposed a direct theory of perception:
Bottom-Up Theory
Richard Gregory – proposed the constructivist
(indirect) theory of perception; Top-Down Theory

Bottom-Up Theories GLOBAL VS LOCAL FEATURES

LOCAL FEATURES GLOBAL FEATURES
▪ Small-scale or ▪ Features that gives a form
Bottom-Up Processing – data-driven; starts with stimuli detailed aspects of to overall shape.
a given pattern
▪ magkakahiwalay ▪ magkakadikit (big letters)
(small letters)
Theory of Direct Perception – by Gibson; aka ▪ Global precedence ▪ Local precedence effect –
ecological perception; simple process; sensory effect – quick reverse effects; slow
information is enough; no complex thought processes; response response
humans – biologically tuned to response
Template Theories – suggest that our minds store sets of Recognition-by-Components (RBC) Theory – by
templates; compare stimuli to templates in memory until Irving Biederman; ability to recognize objects by
a match is found observing edges and decomposing objects into geons;
explains formation of 3D representations of objects
▪ Templates – highly detailed models for patterns
we might recognize (like stencils) ▪ Geons – geometrical ions; simple and function
regardless of viewpoint; can recomposed into
Feature-Matching Theories – recognize objects by alternative arrangements
features (instead of whole templates); detect elements
and assemble them into complex forms
▪ Pandemonium Model – by Oliver Selfridge; a IMPORTANT THINGS FOR GIBSON
feature-matching theory; suggests that 1. Optic Array – starting point for Gibson’s Theory;
metaphorical “demons” receive and analyze the the pattern of light reaching the eye; contains all the
features of a stimulus visual information necessary for perception
FOUR TYPES OF DEMONS 2. Invariant Feature – aspects of the environment that
remain constant; supply us with information
1. Image Demon – receives sensory input 3. Affordance - important cues in the environment
2. Feature Demons – decode specific features include:
3. Cognitive Demons – signal when they found a match ▪ Optical Array – patterns of light that reach the
with certain combinations of features eye from the environment.
4. Decision Demon – identifies the input from the best ▪ Relative Brightness – brighter, clearer images =
match closer object
▪ Texture Gradient –grain of texture gets smaller
as the object recedes
 ▪ Relative Size – smaller images are seen as more Likelihood Principle – by Helmholtz; tendency to
distant perceive the most likely interpretation based on higher
▪ Superimposition – If one object blocks the cognitive information (past experiences and stored
image of another, the first object is seen as closer. knowledge)
▪ Height in the Visual Field – objects further away
are generally higher in the visual field
EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORT GREGORY’S
THEORY
Top-Down Theories 1. Highly unlikely objects tend to be mistaken for likely
objects.
2. Perceptions can be ambiguous.
3. Perception allows behavior to be generally
Top-Down Processing – use of contextual info; depends appropriate to non-sensed object characteristics.
on past experience and prior knowledge; theory-driven or
conceptually-driven; starts with the mind
Perception of Objects and
Richard Gregory – perception involves hypothesis
testing to make sense of the information; sensory
Forms
information – just a foundation of the structure; not
enough
stores a
Constructive Perception – by Gregory; aka intelligent stores object the representation of
perception; suggests that perceiver builds (constructs) a way it looks for the the object
viewer
cognitive understanding (perception) of a stimulus; independent of its
use
emphasizes role of learning in perception appearance of the representations appearance to the
object to the viewer viewer
▪ Context Effect – influences of environment on
perception; object or patterns contains certain shape depends on shape is stable
the angle across different
expectations; involved in illusions orientations

CONTEXT MEANING Viewer-Centered Object-Centered

EFFECT Way Way
Configural- ▪ Objects presented in
Superiority Effect configuration easier to recognize
compared to objects presented in Landmark-Centered Way – information is
isolation characterized by its relation to a well-known or
Objects in configuration > objects prominent item
in isolation

Object- ▪ Target line that forms a part of a

Superiority Effect 3D object is identified more GESTALT LAWS
accurately than a target that
forms a part of a disconnected Figure-ground – When perceiving a visual field, some
2D object objects (figures) seem prominent, and other aspects of the
3D > 2D field recede into the background (ground).

Word-Superiority ▪ Easier to identify a letter from Proximity – When we perceive an assortment of objects,
Effect string of letters that makes sense we tend to see objects that are close to each other as
and form a word than nonsense forming a group.
string of words
Similarity – We tend to group objects on the basis of their
Word > Nonsense Letters similarity.
Continuity – We tend to perceive smoothly flowing or Size Constancy – perception: object maintains the same
continuous forms rather than disrupted or discontinuous size despite changes in the size of the proximal stimulus;
ones. Ex: Muller-Lyer Illusion
Closure – We tend to perceptually close up, or complete, ▪ Muller-Lyer Illusion – two line segments of
objects that are not, in fact, complete. same length appear different lengths
Symmetry – We tend to perceive objects as forming
mirror images about their center.

Shape Constancy – perception: object remains the same

shape despite the changes in the shape of proximal
stimulus

Recognition of Patterns and

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Faces Depth – distance from a surface using your own body as
reference surface
FEATURE-ANALYSIS SYETEM VS
CONFIGURATIONAL SYSTEM
Depth Perception – use of depth information that extends
FEATURE- CONFIGURATIONAL beyond the range of your body’s reach.
ANALYSIS
▪ Recognizing parts ▪ Recognizing larger
of objects and configurations, not parts
assembling them or construction of objects DEPTH CUES
into distinctive
wholes MONOCULAR CUES BINOCULAR CUES
▪ Can be used in ▪ More relevant in facial ▪ Use only one eye ▪ Uses both eyes
facial recognition recognition
▪ Used for objects over ▪ Used for close objects
longer distances
Note: Both systems may help in making difficult
recognition and discrimination.
▪ Pictorial cues ▪ For focus
▪ Some primary, some ▪ Primary internal cues
secondary
HOW ENVIRONMENT HELPS US SEE

Perceptual Constancies – occurs when perception

remains the same even when proximal sensation of the
distal object changes