History of India

According to consensus in modern genetics, anatomically modern

humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa
between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.[1] However, the earliest
known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago.
Sedentariness, which involves the transition from foraging to
farming and pastoralism, began in South Asia around 7000 BCE.
At the site of Mehrgarh, its presence can be documented, with
evidence of domestication of wheat and barley, rapidly followed by
that of goats, sheep, and cattle.[2] By 4500 BCE, such settled life
had increasingly spread, [2] and began to gradually evolve into the
Indus Valley civilisation, which was contemporaneous with Indus Valley civilisation, mature
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. This civilisation flourished phase (2600–1900 BCE)
between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and
north-western India, and was noted for its urban planning, baked
brick houses, elaborate drainage, and water supply.[3]

Early on in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to
scatter from large urban centres to villages. Around the same time, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab
from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic Period (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the
composition of their large collections of hymns called Vedas. Their varna system, which evolved into the
caste system, consisted of a hierarchy of priests, warriors, free peasants, and servants. The pastoral and
nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain, large swaths of which they
deforested for agriculture. The composition of Vedic texts ended around 600 BCE, when a new,
interregional culture arose. Then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states
(mahajanapadas).

A second urbanisation took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious
concepts[4] in Greater Magadha, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. These opposed the growing
influence of Brahmanism and the primacy of rituals—often presided by Brahmin priests—that had come to
be associated with Vedic religion.[5] In response to the success of these movements, the latter was
synthesised with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.

Chandragupta Maurya with the guidance of Acharya Chanakya

succeeded in overthrowing the Nanda Empire and established the
first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire. Most of the
Indian subcontinent was conquered by the Maurya Empire during
the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE
onwards, Prakrit and Pali literature in the north and Tamil Sangam
literature in southern India started to flourish.[6][7] Wootz steel Indian cultural influence (Greater
originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was India)

exported.[8][9][10] The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE,

on the assassination of the then-Emperor Brihadratha by his
General Pushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would go on to form the Shunga Empire in the North and Northeast
of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would
claim the Northwest and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various
parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the
Gupta Empire in the 4-6th centuries CE.

This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual

resurgence, is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India.
During this time, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration,
culture, and religion spread to much of Asia. Kingdoms in southern
Timeline of Indian history.
India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the
Mediterranean. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of
Southeast Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming the Greater
India.[11][12]

The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj
that lasted for more than two centuries between the Pala Empire, Rashtrakuta Empire, and Gurjara-
Pratihara Empire. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth
century, most notably the Chalukya, Chola, Pallava, Chera, Pandyan, and Western Chalukya Empires. The
Chola dynasty conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, the
Maldives, and Bengal[13] in the 11th century.[14][15] In the early medieval period Indian mathematics,
including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world,
including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.[16]

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century,[17]
followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni.[18] The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206  CE by
Central Asian Turks who ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century,
but declined in the late 14th century,[19] and saw the advent of the Deccan sultanates.[20] The wealthy
Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.[21] This period also saw the
emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states, such as
Mewar. The 15th century saw the advent of Sikhism.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian
subcontinent,[22] signaling the proto-industrialization, becoming the biggest global economy and
manufacturing power,[23] with a nominal GDP that valued a quarter of world GDP, superior to that of
Europe.[24][25] The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided
opportunities for the Marathas, Sikhs, Mysoreans, Nizams, and Nawabs of Bengal to exercise control over
large regions of the Indian subcontinent.[26][27]

From the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century, large regions of India were gradually annexed by the
East India Company, a chartered company acting as a sovereign power on behalf of the British
government. Dissatisfaction with company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857, which rocked
parts of north and central India, and led to the dissolution of the company. India was afterwards ruled
directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence
was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi, notable for nonviolence. Later,
the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British
Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each
gaining its independence.
Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)

Paleolithic

Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have

reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two
million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million
years before the present.[32][33][34] This dating is based
on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by
1.8 million years before the present and in East Asia by
1.36 million years before present, as well as the
discovery of stone tools at Riwat in the Soan River Mesolithic rock art at the Bhimbetka rock
valley of the Pabbi Hills region, Pakistan.[33][35] shelters, Madhya Pradesh, showing a wild
Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking
suggested dates, based on the dating of fluvial human hunters. Although the rock art has not
sediments, have not been independently verified.[34][36] been directly dated,[28] it has been argued on
circumstantial grounds that many paintings were
The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian completed by 8000 BCE,[29][30] and some
subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo slightly earlier.[31]
heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central
India, and are dated to approximately half a million
years ago.[33][36] Older fossil finds have been claimed,
but are considered unreliable.[36] Reviews of
archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation
of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic
until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was A dolmen erected by Stone Age (6,000 BCE)
geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 Neolithic people in carvings of Edakkal
years before the present, from which point onward, Marayur, Kerala, India. Caves in Kerala, India.
archaeological evidence of proto-human presence is
widely mentioned.[36][34]

According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:

Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime

between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of
the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially, they came by way of the coast. ... it is
virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even
though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before
the present.[37]

According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:

Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans
originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to
between 73–55 ka.[38]

And according to historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher:

 Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa
and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as
40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their
descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each
habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive
coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered
India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.[39]

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in
the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,[40] although this interpretation is disputed.[41][42] The
occupation of South Asia by modern humans, over a long time, initially in varying forms of isolation as
hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic
diversity.[43]

According to Tim Dyson:

Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in
other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high.
Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong
evidence of ‘founder’ events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a
subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of ‘original’ individuals. Further,
compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having
practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.[43]

Neolithic

Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of

the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving
gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium
BCE.[2][44] According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago
agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan. And, over the
next 2,000 years, the practice of farming slowly spread eastwards
into the Indus valley." And according to Michael Fisher:[45]
Mehrgarh site, in Beluchistan,
Pakistan
"The earliest discovered instance ... of well-
established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh
in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain
(today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as
7000 BCE, communities there started investing
increased labor in preparing the land and selecting,
planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-
producing plants. They also domesticated animals,
including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped
zebu [Bos indicus] and unhumped [Bos taurus]).
 Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat
animals as well."[45]

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – c. 1800 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilisation

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around

3300 BCE. Along with Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the Indus
Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilization of the
Old World. Of the three, the Indus Valley civilisation was the most
expansive,[46] and at its peak, may have had a population of over
five million.[47]

The civilisation was primarily centered in modern-day Pakistan, in

the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River
basin in eastern Pakistan and northwestern India. The mature Indus Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600 -
civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the 1900 BCE
beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. The
civilisation included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and
Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day
India.

Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans,

developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol
products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside
drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have
had some kind of municipal organisation. Civilization also
developed a Indus script, which is presently undeciphered.[49] This
is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its
affiliation uncertain.[50] A relationship or membership of the
Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is proposed by Mohenjo-daro, one of the largest
some scholars.[51][52] Indus cities. View of the site's Great
Bath, showing the surrounding urban
After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants of the layout.
Indus Valley civilisation migrated from the river valleys of Indus
and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-
Yamuna basin.[53]

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture

During 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was
in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlement with
agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as
axes, spears, arrows, and swords. The people had domesticated
cattle, goats, sheep, horses, pigs and dogs.[55] The site gained
attention for its Bronze Age solid-disk wheel carts, found in
2018,[56] which were interpreted by some as horse-pulled
"chariots".[57][58][note 1]
Dholavira, a city of the Indus Valley

Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE) civilisation, with stepwell steps to
reach the water level in artificially
constructed reservoirs.[48]

Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)

Starting ca. 1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab
from Central Asia in several waves of migration.[60][61] The Vedic
period is the period when the Vedas were composed, the liturgical
hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located
in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct
cultural identity during this period. Many regions of the Indian
subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in
this period.[62]
Archaeological remains of washroom
The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to drainage system at Lothal
Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic
Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in
India.[63] The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to
500  BCE,[64][65] contributed the foundations of several
cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.

Vedic society

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in

the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain.[62] The
peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Three stamp seals and their impressions
Atharva Veda.[67] Many of the concepts of Indian bearing Indus script characters alongside
philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to animals: "unicorn" (left), bull (center), and
Vedic antecedents.[68] elephant (right); Guimet Museum

Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest

Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium
BCE,[69][70] in the northwestern region of the Indian
subcontinent.[71] At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely
tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation
which had been abandoned.[72] The early Indo-Aryan presence
probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery
culture in archaeological contexts.[73][74]
Sinauli "chariot", photograph of the
Archaeological Survey of India.[54]
At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to
expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent,
into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural
and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas,
or social classes. This social structure was characterized both by
syncretising with the native cultures of northern India,[75] but also
eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by
labeling their occupations impure.[76] During this period, many of
the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into
Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).[77]

Janapadas An early 19th century manuscript in

the Devanagari script of the Rigveda,
The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to originally transmitted orally with
the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are fidelity[66]
realms, republics and kingdoms—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms
of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala, Videha.[78][79]

The Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level
society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the
Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200–800 BCE,[80] as well
as with the composition of the Atharvaveda (the first Indian text to
mention iron, as śyāma ayas, literally "black metal").[81] The Kuru
state organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the
srauta ritual to uphold the social order.[81] Two key figures of the
Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya,
transforming this realm into the dominant political, social, and Late Vedic era map showing the
boundaries of Āryāvarta with
cultural power of northern Iron Age India.[81] When the Kuru
Janapadas in northern India,
kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their
beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in
eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.[81] The archaeological India – Kuru, Panchala, Kosala,
PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in the
Videha
Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions of northern India from
about 1100 to 600 BCE,[73] is believed to correspond to the Kuru
and Panchala kingdoms.[81][82]

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated
even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state in India);[74] reaching its prominence under
the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya,
Aruni, and Gārgī Vāchaknavī.[83] The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of
increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas, all across Northern India.

Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)

The period between 800 and 200  BCE saw the formation of Śramaṇa movement from Jainism and
Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called
"second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the
Central Ganges plain.[84] The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the
Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were
small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that
can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified
by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with
wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately
fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the Northern
Black Polished Ware culture.[85]

The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence,

forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural City of Kushinagar in the 5th century
area,[86] with new states arising after 500  BCE[87] during the so- BCE according to a 1st-century BCE
called "second urbanisation". [88][note 2] It was influenced by the frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern
Vedic culture, [89] but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala Gate.
region. [86] It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice
in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced
Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".[90] In this region, the Śramaṇic
movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.[84]

Buddhism and Jainism

Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements
The time between 800  BCE and 400  BCE witnessed
the composition of the earliest Upanishads.[5][91][92]
The Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical
Hinduism, and are also known as Vedanta (conclusion
of the Vedas).[93]

The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th

centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or A page of Isha Upanishad manuscript.
"Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy
of rituals.[5] Mahavira (c. 549–477 BCE), proponent of
Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483  BCE),
founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of
this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the
cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the
concept of liberation.[94] Buddha found a Middle Way
that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Mahavira, the 24th Gautama Buddha's
Śramaṇa religions.[95] and last cremation stupa, Kushinagar
Tirthankara of (Kushinara).
Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara Jainism.
in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later
become Jainism.[96] However, Jain orthodoxy believes
the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c.
772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have
documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement.[97]

Sanskrit epics

The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period.[98] The Mahabharata
remains, till this day, the longest single poem in the world.[99] Historians formerly postulated an "epic age"
as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognize that the texts (which are both familiar with each
other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, the Mahabharata may
have been based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000 BCE) which was eventually "transformed
into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets". Archaeology
cannot conclusively prove or disprove the historicity related to
the epics.[100] The existing texts of these epics are believed to
belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400  BCE and
400 CE.[100][101]

Mahajanapadas

Manuscript illustration of the Battle of

Kurukshetra.

The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of
the Mahajanapadas, sixteen powerful and vast kingdoms and
oligarchic republics. These Mahajanapadas evolved and flourished
in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the northwest to Bengal in the
The Mahajanapadas were the sixteen eastern part of the Indian subcontinent and included parts of the
most powerful and vast kingdoms trans-Vindhyan region.[102] Ancient Buddhist texts, like the
and republics of the era, located Aṅguttara Nikāya,[103] make frequent reference to these sixteen
mainly across the Indo-Gangetic great kingdoms and republics—Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi,
plains. Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla,
Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, and Vatsa. This
period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the
Indus Valley Civilisation.[104]

Early "republics" or gaṇasaṅgha,[105] such as Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis had republican
governments. Gaṇasaṅghas,[105] such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjika
League, centered in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas
until the 4th century CE.[106] The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji
Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.[107]

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture.
Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and
central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive
fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks,
construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries (e.g., ivory and carnelian
carving), a system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi
and Kharosthi scripts.[108][109] The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of
the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits.

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500/400  BCE, by the time of
Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of Gautama Buddha was
mainly associated with these four kingdoms.[104]

Early Magadha dynasties

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Realms") or kingdoms in ancient
India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha
(modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal
with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively,[110] followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Orissa. The ancient kingdom of
Maghada dynasties
Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain
and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned
in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and
Puranas.[111] The earliest reference to
the Magadha people occurs in the
Atharva-Veda where they are found
listed along with the Angas, Gandharis,
and Mujavats. Magadha played an
important role in the development of
Jainism and Buddhism. The Magadha
kingdom included republican
communities such as the community of The Magadha state c. 600 BCE, before it Indian warrior of
Rajakumara. Villages had their own expanded from its capital Rajagriha – under the Achaemenid
assemblies under their local chiefs called the Haryanka dynasty and the successor army, circa 480
Gramakas. Their administrations were Shishunaga dynasty. BCE, on the Tomb
divided into executive, judicial, and of Xerxes I.
military functions.

Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mention Magadha
being ruled by the Pradyota dynasty and Haryanka dynasty (c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–
413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga
in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son,
Prince Ajatashatru, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained
enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in
Rajgriha.[112] The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty (c. 413–345 BCE). The
last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-
called Nine Nandas, which were Mahapadma and his eight sons.

Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign

The Nanda Empire (c. 345–322 BCE), at its greatest extent, extended from Bengal in the east, to the
Punjab region in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range.[113] The Nanda dynasty was famed for
their great wealth. The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga
predecessors to create the first great empire of north India.[114] To achieve this objective they built a vast
army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the
lowest estimates).[115][116][117] According to the Greek historian Plutarch, the size of the Nanda army was
even larger, numbering 200,000 infantry, 80,000 cavalry, 8,000 war chariots, and 6,000 war
elephants.[116][118] However, the Nanda Empire did not have the opportunity to see their army face
Alexander the Great, who invaded north-western India at the time of Dhana Nanda, since Alexander was
forced to confine his campaign to the plains of Punjab and Sindh, for his forces mutinied at the river Beas
and refused to go any further upon encountering Nanda and Gangaridai forces.[116]

Maurya Empire

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the
largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.[119] At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire
stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam.
To the west, it reached beyond modern Maurya Empire
Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains
in what is now Afghanistan. The empire
was established by Chandragupta
Maurya assisted by Chanakya
(Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern
Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda
Empire.[120]

Chandragupta rapidly expanded his

power westwards across central and The Maurya Empire under Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd
western India, and by 317  BCE the Ashoka the Great. century BCE.
empire had fully occupied Northwestern
India. The Mauryan Empire then
defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war,
thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the
throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was
under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside
Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.[121]

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted for

around 37 years until his death in about 232  BCE.[122] His
campaign against the Kalingans in about 260  BCE, though
successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This filled
Ashoka with remorse and led him to shun violence, and
subsequently to embrace Buddhism.[121] The empire began to
decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was
assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga
Empire.[122]

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and

external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and
expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient The Mauryan carved door of Lomas
system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves, c.
the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major 250 BCE.
roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[123]
After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a
century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony,
religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's
embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's
embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace
and non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist missionaries into Sri
Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.[124]

The Arthashastra wrote by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the
Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware. The
Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of
merchandise was closely regulated by the government.[125] Although there was no banking in the Mauryan
society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a
prevalence thereof.[126] During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south
India and was later exported to China and Arabia.[8]

Sangam period

During the Sangam period Tamil

literature flourished from the 3rd century
BCE to the 4th century CE. During this
period, three Tamil dynasties,
collectively known as the Three
Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera
dynasty, Chola dynasty, and the Pandya
dynasty ruled parts of southern
India.[128]

The Sangam literature deals with the

history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamilakam, located in the tip of South Ilango Adigal is the
Tamil people of this period.[129] The India during the Sangam period, ruled by author of
scholars of the Sangam period rose from Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Silappatikaram, one of
among the common people who sought Pandyan dynasty. the five great epics of
the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but Tamil literature.[127]
who mainly wrote about the common
people and their concerns.[130] Unlike
Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social
backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions such as
farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, and priests, including also royalty and women.[130]

Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length books collection, which is
considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic
works Ettuthogai as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while
Tolkāppiyam, the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed.[131] Also, during
Sangam period, two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed. Ilango Adigal composed
Silappatikaram, which is a non-religious work, that revolves around Kannagi, who having lost her husband
to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom,[132]
and Manimekalai, composed by Chithalai Chathanar, is a sequel to Silappatikaram, and tells the story of
the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bikkuni.[133][134]

Classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 650 CE)

Ancient India during the The Great Chaitya in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri
rise of the Shungas from Karla Caves. The shrines Caves is home to the
the North, Satavahanas were developed over the Hathigumpha inscription,
from the Deccan, and period from 2nd century which was inscribed
Pandyas and Cholas from BCE to the 5th century under Kharavela, the then
the southern tip of India. CE. Emperor of Kalinga of the
Mahameghavahana
dynasty.

Relief of a multi-storied
temple, 2nd century CE,
Ghantasala
Stupa.[135][136]

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th
century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.[137] It can be divided in various sub-periods,
depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period begins after the decline of the Maurya Empire, and
the corresponding rise of the Shunga Empire and Satavahana dynasty. The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century)
is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these
centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in
southern India.[7] During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world,
having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.[138][139]

Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)

Shunga Empire
Shunga Empire
The Shungas originated from
Magadha, and controlled large
areas of the central and eastern
Indian subcontinent from
around 187 to 78  BCE. The
dynasty was established by
Pushyamitra Shunga, who
overthrew the last Maurya
East Gateway and Railings, Bharhut Shunga art, 1st Royal family, 1st
emperor. Its capital was
Stupa, 2nd century BCE. century BCE. century B.C.
Pataliputra, but later emperors,
Ancient vina West Bengal.
such as Bhagabhadra, also held
court at Vidisha, modern
Besnagar in Eastern
Malwa. [140]

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga
rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;[141] inscriptions and coins
indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were
independent of any Shunga hegemony.[142] The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign
and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana
dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small
terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut, and
the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal
sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to
write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a
time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. This helped the
empire flourish and gain power.

Satavahana Empire

The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan
(Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE
onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence
with its decline.

The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist
monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian
states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role
in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip
of India.
They had to compete with the Shunga
Satavahana Empire
Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of
Magadha to establish their rule. Later,
they played a crucial role to protect large
part of India against foreign invaders
like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In
particular, their struggles with the
Western Kshatrapas went on for a long
time. The notable rulers of the
Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Sanchi Stupa Two and Southern Indian ship on lead coin of
Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were Gateway, 1st century CE (UNESCO Vasisthiputra Sri
able to defeat the foreign invaders like World Heritage Site). Pulamavi, testimony to
the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their the naval, seafaring and
expansion. In the 3rd century CE the trading capabilities of the
empire was split into smaller states.[143] Sātavāhanas during the
1st–2nd century CE.

Trade and travels to India

The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over
the Old World to India. Early writings and Stone Age
carvings of Neolithic age obtained indicates that India's
Southwest coastal port Muziris, in Kerala, had
established itself as a major spice trade centre from as
early as 3,000 BCE, according to Sumerian records.
Jewish traders from Judea arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India
as early as 562 BCE.[144]
Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient
Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road
transmission of Buddhism in the 1st or 2nd century CE. trade routes that linked India with the
The interaction of cultures resulted in several Chinese Old World; carried goods and ideas
travellers and monks to enter India. Most notable were between the ancient civilisations of
Faxian, Yijing, Song Yun and Xuanzang. These the Old World and India. The land
travellers wrote detailed accounts of the Indian routes are red, and the water routes
subcontinent, which includes the political and social are blue.
aspects of the region. [145]

Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of

Southeast Asia came to be associated with the economic activity and commerce as patrons
entrust large funds which would later be used to benefit the local economy by estate
management, craftsmanship, promotion of trading activities. Buddhism in particular, travelled
alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art, and literacy.[146] Indian merchants
involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and
curries became popular with the native inhabitants.[147]
The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India
routes.[148] During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports
such as Aden.[149] During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the
Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea.

Kushan Empire

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian
subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st
century CE. The Kushans were possibly of Tocharian speaking tribe;[150] one of five branches of the
Yuezhi confederation.[151][152] By the time of his Kushan Empire
grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to
encompass much of Afghanistan,[153] and then the
northern parts of the Indian subcontinent at least as far
as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Banaras).[154]

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism;

however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities
of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu
majority.[155][156] They played an important role in the
establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Kushan territories (full line) Depiction of the
Central Asia and China. and maximum extent of Buddha in
Kushan dominions under Kanishka's
Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka: Kanishka (dotted line), coinage,
according to the Rabatak Mathura art, 2nd
inscription. century CE.
He played the part of a second Ashoka in
the history of Buddhism.[157]

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus
valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new
trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan
rule.[158] The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax Kushana.

H.G. Rowlinson commented:

The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.[159]

By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was
Vasudeva I.[160][161]

Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)

Gupta Empire

The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and
painting.[162] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu
Sharma, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period
marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but
they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The
military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought
much of India under their leadership.[163] Science and political administration reached new heights during
the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base
that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in: Sri Lanka; Maritime Southeast Asia (Brunei,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Timor-Leste);[164] as well as Indochina (Cambodia, Laos,
Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam).[165] The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta.
The latter Guptas successfully resisted the
Gupta Empire
northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the
Alchon Huns, who established themselves in
Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century
CE, with their capital at Bamiyan.[166]
However, much of the southern India including
Deccan were largely unaffected by these events
in the north.[167][168]

Vakataka Empire

The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the

Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state Gupta Empire expansion The current structure of
is believed to have extended from the southern from 320 CE to 550 CE. the Mahabodhi Temple
edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the dates to the Gupta era,
Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from 5th century CE. Marking
the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of the location where the
Buddha is said to have
Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most
attained enlightenment.
important successors of the Satavahanas in the
Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in
northern India and succeeded by the
Vishnukundina dynasty.

The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public
works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta
Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor,
Harishena.[169][170]
 The Ajanta Caves are 30 Buddhist monks praying in Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or
rock-cut Buddhist cave front of the Dagoba of prayer hall, with a seated
monument built under the Chaitya Cave 26 of the Buddha, Cave 26 of the
Vakatakas. Ajanta Caves. Ajanta Caves.

Many foreign ambassadors,

representatives, and
travelers are included as
devotees attending the
Buddha's descent from
Trayastrimsa Heaven;
painting from Cave 17 of the
Ajanta Caves.

Kamarupa Kingdom

Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam)[171] and
Davaka (Central Assam)[172] as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by
Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and
covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of
West Bengal.[173]

Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-
Palas (c. 900–1100  CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur
(Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from
Narakasura, an immigrant from Aryavarta.[174] In the reign of the Varman king,
Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650  CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the
region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the
Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c.
1255  CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185  CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255  CE)
dynasties.[175] The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th
century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North
Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of
Muslim Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.[176]

Pallava Empire
Copper Plate Seal
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the
of Kamarupa Kings
North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian
at Madan Kamdev
subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called
ruins.
Grantha.[177] Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries.
The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu
temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their
rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different
deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and
sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.[178]

Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I

(571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the
Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about six hundred years until
the end of the 9th century.[179]

Kadamba Empire
The Shore Temple (a
Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in UNESCO World
345  CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial Heritage Site) at
proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets Mahabalipuram built by
assumed by its rulers. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Narasimhavarman II.
Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its
peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom
even the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated
marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the
Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest
native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The
dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada
empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five
hundred years during which time they branched into minor
dynasties known as the Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi
and Kadambas of Hangal. Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa
(pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli.

Empire of Harsha

Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger
brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day
Haryana.
After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of
the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and
monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of
the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics
and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the
death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the
empire crowned Harsha emperor at an assembly in April 606
CE, giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 Coin of Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647
years old.[181] At the height of his power, his Empire covered CE.[180]
much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until
Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually
made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh state) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.[182]

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars,
artists and religious visitors from far and wide.[182] During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from
Surya worship.[183] The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very
favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.[182] His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds
of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar, besides
mentioning the defence wall, a moat and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (White
Mansion).[184][185]

Early medieval period (mid 6th c.–1200 CE)

Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.[137] This period also
covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism,[186] which began after the end of the Gupta Empire,[186] and
the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century CE;[186] the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading
to the Tripartite struggle; and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern
India[187] and the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India;
however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the
south around the 17th century.

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of Buddhism,
Jainism or more commonly Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts.[188] This
period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the
development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism
and Jainism.

In the 7th century CE, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the
position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the decline of
Buddhism in India.[189] In the 8th century, Adi Shankara travelled across the Indian subcontinent to
propagate and spread the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying
the main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.[190][191][192] He was a critic of both
Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism;[193][194][195][196] and founded mathas (monasteries), in the
four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.[197] While,
Muhammad bin Qasim's invasion of Sindh (modern Pakistan) in 711  CE witnessed further decline of
Buddhism. The Chach Nama records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at
Nerun.[198]

From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara
Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would
later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the
Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand, the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of
Haryana, and the Chauhans of Rajputana, these states were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms;[199]
while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas.[200] During this period, the Chaulukya
dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki
vav[201] in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was
one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000 CE.

The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I
who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century.[202] Lalitaditya
Muktapida (r. 724–760 CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence
in northwestern India from 625  CE until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his
Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and
Central Asia.[203][204][205]

The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the
mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted
for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple,
as well as being patrons of art and literature.
 Martand Sun Temple Central Konark Sun Temple at Kandariya Mahadeva
shrine, dedicated to the deity Konark, Orissa, built by Temple in the Khajuraho
Surya, and built by the third Narasimhadeva I (1238– complex was built by the
ruler of the Karkota dynasty, 1264 CE) of the Eastern Chandelas.
Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the Ganga dynasty.
8th century CE.

Jagannath Temple at Puri,

built by Anantavarman
Chodaganga Deva of the
Eastern Ganga dynasty.

Chalukya Empire

The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th
centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty,
known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century.
The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of
Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin  II. The rule of the Chalukyas
marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka.
The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the
ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the
entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient
administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called
"Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in
Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.

Galaganatha Temple at Bhutanatha temple complex Vishnu image inside the

Pattadakal complex at Badami, next to a Badami Cave Temple
(UNESCO World Heritage) is waterfall, during the Complex. The complex is an
an example of Badami monsoon. example of Indian rock-cut
Chalukya architecture. architecture.

8th century Durga temple

exterior view at Aihole
complex. Aihole complex
includes Hindu, Buddhist
and Jain temples and
monuments.

Rashtrakuta Empire

Founded by Dantidurga around 753,[206] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for
almost two centuries.[207] At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north
to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural achievements and famous literary
contributions.[208][209]
The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[210]
Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by
the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the
earliest known Kannada work on poetics.[207][211] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style,
the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are
the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the
world.[212] The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian
mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text
had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him.[213] The Rashtrakuta
rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the
Apabhraṃśas.[207]
 Kailasa temple, is one of the Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Statue of the Buddha seated.
largest rock-cut ancient Ellora Caves. A part of the Carpenter's
Hindu temples located in cave (Buddhist Cave 10).
Ellora.

Jain Tirthankara Mahavira

with Yaksha Matanga and
Yakshi Siddhaiki at Ellora
Caves.

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River.
Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Umayyad campaigns in India.[214]
Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was
succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja.
Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and
power. By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta Empire stretching
from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the
Narmada River in the south.[215] The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta
and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title
of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (Great King of Kings of India).
By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness
of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of
Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of Haryana, the Chauhans of Rajputana,[216] and the Kalachuris of
Mahakoshal.

One of the four entrances of Sculptures near Teli ka Jainism-related cave

the Teli ka Mandir. This Mandir, Gwalior Fort. monuments and statues
Hindu temple was built by carved into the rock face
the Pratihara emperor Mihira inside Siddhachal Caves,
Bhoja.[217] Gwalior Fort.

Ghateshwara Mahadeva
temple at Baroli Temples
complex. The complex of
eight temples, built by the
Gurjara-Pratiharas, is
situated within a walled
enclosure.

Gahadavala dynasty
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and
12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi in the Gangetic plains.[218]

Khayaravala dynasty

The Khayaravala dynasty, ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Bihar and Jharkhand, during 11th
and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Khayaragarh in Shahabad district. Pratapdhavala and Shri
Pratapa were king of the dynasty according to inscription of Rohtas.[219]

Pala Empire

The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.[220][221][222] It was

ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of
the Indian subcontinent. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of
Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.[223]

The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of

Buddhism,[224] they also patronised Shaivism and Rohtasgarh Fort
Vaishnavism. [225] The morpheme Pala, meaning "protector", was
used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The
empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala.
Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended
his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.[225]

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal in

many ways.[226] Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and
revived Nalanda,[225] considered one of the first great universities
in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage
of the Pala Empire.[226][227] The Palas also built many viharas.
They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a centre
of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added greatly to the of Buddhist learning from 450 to
prosperity of the Pala Empire. The Arab merchant Suleiman notes 1193 CE.
the enormity of the Pala army in his memoirs.[225]

Cholas

Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the

9th century CE and established the greatest empire South India
had seen.[228] They successfully united the South India under
their rule and through their naval strength extended their
influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as
Srivijaya.[202] Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors
Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and
Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic
and cultural power in South Asia and South-East
Asia.[229][230] Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola, c.
occupying the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[231] the 1030 CE.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive)
islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula in Southeast Asia
and the Pegu islands. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition
to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of
Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[232]

They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and
occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese
empire in the east.[233] Rajaraja Chola I and his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political
unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.[234]
Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of
these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age
under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and
bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.[235]

The granite gopuram (tower) Chariot detail at The pyramidal structure

of Brihadeeswarar Temple, Airavatesvara Temple built above the sanctum at
1010 CE. by Rajaraja Chola II in the Brihadisvara Temple.
12th century CE.

Brihadeeswara Temple
Entrance Gopurams at
Thanjavur.

Western Chalukya Empire

The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th
centuries.[236] Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came
under Chalukya control.[236] During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the
Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were
subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the
Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.[237]

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an
architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire.
Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well
known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the
Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[238] This
was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the
Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the
philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.[239][240]
 Shrine outer wall and Ornate entrance to the Shrine wall relief, molding
Dravida style superstructure closed hall from the south at frieze and miniature
(shikhara) at Siddhesvara Kalleshvara Temple at decorative tower in
Temple at Haveri. Bagali. Mallikarjuna Temple at
Kuruvatti.

Rear view showing lateral

entrances of the Mahadeva
Temple at Itagi.

Late medieval period (c. 1200–1526 CE)

The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions of the Muslim Central Asian nomadic
clans,[241][242] the rule of the Delhi sultanate, and by the growth of other dynasties and empires, built upon
military technology of the Sultanate.[243]

Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of
Turkic, Turko-Indian[245] and Pashtun origins.[246] It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the
13th century to the early 16th century.[247] In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded
parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.[248] The
subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large
areas of northern India, while the Khalji dynasty conquered most of
central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South
India to become vassal states.[247]

The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance.

The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic
monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing.
It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the Delhi
Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local
speakers of Sanskritic Prakrits with immigrants speaking Persian,
Turkic, and Arabic under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is
the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female
rulers in India, Razia Sultana (1236–1240).

During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis between Indian

civilisation and Islamic civilisation. The latter was a cosmopolitan
civilisation, with a multicultural and pluralistic society, and wide- The Delhi Sultanate reached its
ranging international networks, including social and economic zenith under the Turko-Indian
networks, spanning large parts of Afro-Eurasia, leading to Tughlaq dynasty.[244]
escalating circulation of goods, peoples, technologies and ideas.
While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native
Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian
subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a
significant impact on Indian culture and society.[249] However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale
destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.[250]

The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of
Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly
skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols, as a result of having similar nomadic
Central Asian roots. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the
Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.[251] By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate
saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia, setting the scene for centuries of
migration of fleeing soldiers, learned men, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from that region into the
subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.[252][251]

A Turco-Mongol conqueror in Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din
Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.[253] The Sultan's army was defeated on
17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's
army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for
the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one
day.[254] The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the
Lodi dynasty, it was but a shadow of the former.
 Qutb Minar, a UNESCO Dargahs of Sufi-saint The grave of Razia, the
World Heritage Site, whose Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet Sultana of Delhi, from 1236
construction was begun by and musician Amir Khusro in CE to 1240 CE, the only
Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the first Delhi. female ruler of a major realm
Sultan of Delhi. on the Indian subcontinent
until modern times.

Mausoleum of Ghiyasuddin Lodhi Gardens in Delhi.

Tughluq in Tughluqabad.

Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama
Dynasty,[255] which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire,[256] and the
Pandyan Empire.[257] The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian
powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power
declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire
is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World
Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[258]

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area
south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the
eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of
Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west
and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.[259][260]
With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in Vijayanagara Empire
stature, Harihara II, the second son of Bukka
Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond
the Krishna River and brought the whole of
South India under the Vijayanagara
umbrella. [261] The next ruler, Deva Raya I,
emerged successful against the Gajapatis of
Odisha and undertook important works of
fortification and irrigation.[262] Italian traveler
Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most
powerful ruler of India.[263] Deva Raya II
succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was
possibly the most capable of the Sangama
Dynasty rulers.[264] He quelled rebelling feudal The Vijayanagara Empire in 1525
lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and
Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri
Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[265][266][267]

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors
show.[268] The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows
and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of
protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and
dress.[269] The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of
Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and
designated Varaha (the boar, an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[270] Excavations have found several
"Islamic quarters" in the capital.[271] Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to
Vijayanagara.[272] The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet
of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati.[273] A Sanskrit
work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha
Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[274] The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order
(philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[275]
 An 1868 photograph of the Gajashaala or elephant's Vijayanagara marketplace at
ruins of the Vijayanagara stable, built by the Hampi, along with the sacred
Empire at Hampi, now a Vijayanagar rulers for their tank located on the side of
UNESCO World Heritage war elephants.[277] Krishna temple
Site[276]

Stone temple car in Vitthala

Temple at Hampi

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the
group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara
Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu
temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South
Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian
mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and
Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like
Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva in medieval south India.[278] Efficient administration
and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for
irrigation.[279] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada,
Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.[280]

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of Aliya
Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded
a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of
Vijayanagara Empire.[281] Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three
sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region
but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the
Bijapur sultanate and others.[282][283][284] During this period, more kingdoms in South India became
independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks
of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee  – all of which
declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming
centuries.[282]

Other kingdoms

Vijaya Stambha Temple inside The Man Singh

(Tower of Victory) Chittorgarh fort (Manasimha) palace
at the Gwalior fort

Chinese manuscript Mahmud Gawan 15th century copper

Tribute Giraffe with Madrasa was built by plate grant of Gajapati
Attendant, depicting a Mahmud Gawan, the king Purushottama
giraffe presented by Wazir of the Bahmani Deva
Bengali envoys in the Sultanate as the
name of Sultan centre of religious as
Saifuddin Hamza well as secular
Shah of Bengal to the education.
Yongle Emperor of
Ming China.
For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the
Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional
powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh,
Bihar and Jharkhand from 12th CE to 18th CE.[285][286][287] The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the
Delhi Sultanate; and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being
absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.[288]

In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The Mewar
dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his
main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the
Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their
independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The
Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort which
still stands there.[289] During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha
expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[289][290] The next great
Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in
scope – he planned to conquer the much sought after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time, Delhi. But, his
defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.[289] The Mewar dynasty
under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor
being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the
Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many
missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor
Fort.[291]

In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate, which was established either by a Brahman convert or patronised by a
Brahman and from that source it was given the name Bahmani,[292] was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara,
and frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara.[293] In the early 16th century Krishnadevaraya of
the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power. After which, the Bahmani
Sultanate collapsed,[294] resulting it being split into five small Deccan sultanates.[295] In 1490,
Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda became
independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.[296] Although generally rivals, they did ally against the
Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.

In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high
point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an
empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.[297] In Northeast India, the
Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries;[298][299] led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms
decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.[300]
Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at
Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.[301][302][303]

The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of
mint towns spread across the region. It was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian
and Bengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim
communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in
the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal
Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast
and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest
states.The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively
prosperous kingdom. Due to the abundance of goods in Bengal, the region was described as the "richest
country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period
show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and
most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal. Its
decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration
into petty kingdoms.

Bhakti movement and Sikhism

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that

emerged in medieval Hinduism[304] and later revolutionised in
Sikhism.[305] It originated in the seventh-century south India (now
parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[304] It
swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards,
reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.[306]

The Bhakti movement regionally developed around

different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism
(Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti
goddesses), and Smartism.[307][308][309] The movement The Dasam Granth (above) was
was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a composed by Sikh Guru Gobind
wide range of philosophical positions ranging from Singh.
theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita
Vedanta.[310][311]
Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru,[312] and the ten
successive Sikh gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh
scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal
Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.[313][314][315]
Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms of Namgyal Kingdom in Ladakh,
Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim, and Chutia Kingdom in Arunachal Pradesh of the Late medieval
period.
 Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Chittor Fort is the largest fort Ranakpur Jain temple was
Singha in Ahom kingdom's on the Indian subcontinent; it built in the 15th century with
capital Rangpur, is one of the is one of the six Hill Forts of the support of the Rajput
earliest pavilions of outdoor Rajasthan. state of Mewar.
stadia in the Indian
subcontinent.

Gol Gumbaz built by the

Bijapur Sultanate, has the
second largest pre-modern
dome in the world after the
Byzantine Hagia Sophia.

Early modern period (c. 1526–1858 CE)

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 CE to 1858 CE, corresponding to the rise
and fall of the Mughal Empire, which inherited from the Timurid Renaissance. During this age India's
economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronized. This period witnessed the
further development of Indo-Islamic architecture;[316][317] the growth of Mahrattas and Sikhs enabled them
to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire, which formally came to an
end when the British Raj was founded.[22] With the discovery of the Cape route in the 1500s, the first
Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.[318]

Mughal Empire
Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur, a Timurid
descendant of Timur and
Genghis Khan from Fergana
Valley (modern day
Uzbekistan), swept across the
Khyber Pass and established the
Mughal Empire, which at its
zenith covered much of South
Asia.[320] However, his son
Humayun was defeated by the
Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri
in the year 1540, and Humayun A map of the Mughal "The Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim art in India
was forced to retreat to Kabul. Empire at its greatest and one of the universally admired masterpieces
geographical extent, c. of the world's heritage." UNESCO World Heritage
After Sher Shah's death, his son
Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu 1700 CE Site declaration, 1983.[319]
general Hemu Vikramaditya
established secular rule in North
India from Delhi until 1556, when Akbar (r. 1556–1605), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the Second
Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556 after winning Battle of Delhi. Akbar tried to establish a good
relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism.
He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves
with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating
a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture.

Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627), who
was part-Mughal and part-Rajput, as were future Mughal emperors.[321] Jahangir more or less followed his
father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah
Jahan (r. 1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the
most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid in Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama
Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort.

It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent,[322] and surpassed China to
become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the world economy,[323] and the world
leader in manufacturing,[324] producing 25% of global industrial output.[325] The economic and
demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural
production,[326] and a relatively high degree of urbanisation for its time.[327]

Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites

 The Agra Fort showing the Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, Humayun's Tomb in Delhi,
river Yamuna and the Taj showing Buland Darwaza, built in 1570 CE.
Mahal in the background the complex built by Akbar,
the third Mughal emperor.

The Red Fort, Delhi, its

construction begun in 1639
CE, and ended in 1648 CE.

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb
(r. 1658–1707), under whose reign the proto-industrialization[328] was waved and India surpassed Qing
China in becoming the world's largest economy.[329][330] Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his
predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time
building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,[331] employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial
bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on their ability rather than their
religion.[332] However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his
predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The English East India
Company suffered a defeat at the Anglo-Mughal War.[333][334]

The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from
Marathas, Rajputs, Jats and Afghans. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded
and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000
troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice
Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal
Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the
Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While
Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra
and plundered the city taking with them the two great silver doors of the
entrance of the famous Taj Mahal; which were then melted down by Suraj Mal
in 1761.[335] In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army
at the Battle of Karnal.[336] After this victory, Nader captured and sacked
Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne.[337]
Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; Banda
Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious oppression;
Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted; and
Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established
the Panna State.[338] The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by
18th century political
1757. Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government
formation in India.
based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an
offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara,[339]
and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.[340]

Maratha Empire
Maratha Empire
The Maratha kingdom was founded and
consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji, a
Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle
clan.[341] However, the credit for
making the Marathas formidable power
nationally goes to Peshwa (chief
minister) Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta
wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be
regarded as the second founder of the
Maratha Empire".[342] Maratha Empire at its Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, the
zenith in 1760 (yellow seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha
In the early 18th century, under the area), covering much Empire until 1818.
Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and of the Indian
ruled over much of South Asia. The subcontinent,
Marathas are credited to a large extent stretching from South
for ending Mughal rule in India to present-day
India.[343][344][345] In 1737, the Pakistan.
Marathas defeated a Mughal army in
their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The
Marathas continued their military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the
Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across
most of the Indian subcontinent. The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting
Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.[346]

The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south,[347] to Peshawar (modern-day
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan[348] [note 3]) in the north, and Bengal in the east. The Northwestern
expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha
authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.[350]
Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United
Maratha states under the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior
and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company
intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War,
resulting in a Maratha victory.[351] The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the
Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–1818), which resulted in the East India Company
controlling most of India.

Sikh Empire
Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh
The Sikh Empire, ruled by
members of the Sikh religion,
was a political entity that
governed the Northwestern
regions of the Indian
subcontinent. The empire, based
around the Punjab region,
existed from 1799 to 1849. It
was forged, on the foundations
of the Khalsa, under the
The Sikh empire at its greatest The Harmandir Sahib is the
leadership of Maharaja Ranjit geographical extent, ca. 1839 preeminent pilgrimage site of Sikhism.
Singh (1780–1839) from an
Ranjit Singh rebuilt it in marble and
array of autonomous Punjabi copper in 1809, overlaid the sanctum
Misls of the Sikh Confederacy. with gold foil in 1830.[352]

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

consolidated many parts of
northern India into an empire. He primarily used his Sikh Khalsa Army that he trained in European military
techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master
strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated the Afghan armies and
successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and
Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.[353][354]

At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the
north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit
Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The hard-fought First
Anglo-Sikh War and Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among
the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

Other kingdoms

The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu
Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the
Marathas and British or their combined forces. The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following
the finalizing of treaty of Gajendragad, in which, Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas.
Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used the Mysorean rockets. The
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen
as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of
Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the
Siege of Seringapatam (1799).
 Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in
1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official,
seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk
of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and
paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple
battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed.[355] However, the Nizams
maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying
tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassels of the British.
Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798.

The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal

following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was
interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal
from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary
state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, the last
independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of
Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the
Territories of India in 1763
charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad
(throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.[356] In
1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British
and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the
direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away
from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company.[357][358]

In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-
Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana
resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory,
which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to
the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed
between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of
Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.[359] Most of the Rajput
princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana
until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most
notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.

After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary
alliance with the British, to form the largest bloc of princely states in the British Raj, in terms of territory
and population. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the
terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the
princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the
Dogra dynasty.[360][361] While in Eastern and Northeastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of Cooch
Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal
princely state.

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to
weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India
Company forces.[362] Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.[363]

European exploration
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new
sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct
Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading
posts in Velha Goa, Damaon, Dio island, and Bombay. After their
conquest in Goa, the Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition,
where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy
against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned for
discouraging those considering conversion or for convincing others
to renounce Christianity.[364] Goa remained the main Portuguese
territory until it was annexed by India in 1961.[365]
The route followed in Vasco da
The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. Gama's first voyage (1497–1499).
They established ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into
India was halted after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the
Kingdom of Travancore during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and
no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.[366][367]

The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually
establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British—who set up in the
west coast port of Surat in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although these
continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the
ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the
French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore,[368][369] and the Portuguese colonies of Goa,
Damaon& Diu.[370]

East India Company rule in India

The English East India Company was founded in 1600 as The Company of Merchants of London Trading
into the East Indies. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the
Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in
Surat in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler farther south, a
second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern coast. The islet of Bom Bahia in present-day
Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese outpost not far from Surat, it was presented to Charles II of England
as dowry, in his marriage to Catherine of Braganza, Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in
1668. Two decades later, the company established a trade post in the River Ganges delta, when a factory
was set up in Calcutta (Kolkata). During this time other companies established by the Portuguese, Dutch,
French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the sub-continent.

The company's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764
Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint
it the diwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The company thus became the de facto
ruler of large areas of the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its
dominions around Bombay and Madras. The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars
(1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej River. With the defeat of the
Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.[371]

The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright
annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively
came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising
Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828) and Sindh
(1843). Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in
1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor India under East India Company rule
General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the
Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and
thereby became a princely state. In 1854, Berar was annexed
along with the state of Oudh two years later.[372]

India in 1765 and 1805 showing

East India Company Territories in
pink.

India in 1837 and 1857 showing

East India Company (pink) and
other territories
 Warren Hastings, the first Gold coin, minted 1835, with Photograph (1855) showing
governor-general of Fort obverse showing the bust of the construction of the Bhor
William (Bengal) who William IV, king of United Ghaut incline bridge,
oversaw the company's Kingdom from 26 June 1830 Bombay; the incline was
territories in India. to 20 June 1837, and reverse conceived by George Clark,
marked "Two mohurs" in the Chief Engineer in the
English (do ashrafi in Urdu) East India Company's
issued during Company rule Government of Bombay.
in India

Watercolor (1863) titled, The

Ganges Canal, Roorkee,
Saharanpur District (U.P.).
The canal was the brainchild
of Sir Proby Cautley;
construction began in 1840,
and the canal was opened
by Governor-General Lord
Dalhousie in April 1854

The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's
hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since the company operated under financial constraints,
it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule.[373] The most important such support came from the
subsidiary alliances with Indian princes during the first 75 years of Company rule.[373] In the early 19th
century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.[373] When an Indian ruler who
was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an
economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the
political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.[374]

In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional
respect and marks of honor." [374] Subsidiary alliances created the Princely States of the Hindu maharajas
and the Muslim nawabs. Prominent among the princely states were Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794),
Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency
(1819), Cutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818) and Bahawalpur (1833).[372]

Indian indenture system

The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which
3.5  million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labor for the
(mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted
in the development of a large Indian diaspora that spread from the Caribbean (e.g. Trinidad and Tobago) to
the Pacific Ocean (e.g. Fiji) and the growth of large Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African populations.

Modern period and independence from Britain (after c. 1850 CE)

Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences

Charles Canning, the Lord Dalhousie, the Lakshmibai, the Rani of

Governor-General of Governor-General of Jhansi, one of the
India during the India from 1848 to principal leaders of the
rebellion. 1856, who devised the rebellion who earlier
Doctrine of Lapse. had lost her kingdom
as a result of the
Doctrine of lapse.
 Bahadur Shah Zafar
the last Mughal
Emperor, crowned
Emperor of India by the
rebels, he was
deposed by the British,
and died in exile in
Burma

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India
Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the
issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition.
The key mutineer was Mangal Pandey.[375] In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the
ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant
role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant
armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had
lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse and felt that the company had interfered with a
traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this
group.[376]

After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also
captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the
rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.[377] However, the British East
India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly Princely states, but it took the British the
remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly
equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued by the British.[378]

In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown,
which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the company's
lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely
states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual
state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into
the independent nation in 1947–48.[379]

British Raj (1858–1947)

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and British Raj
expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal
procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came
into being.[380] In education, Thomas Babington
Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in
his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in
implementing the use of English as the medium of
instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had
matriculated.[381] The Indian economy grew at about
1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also
grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private
industry began to grow significantly. India built a
modern railway system in the late 19th century which
was the fourth largest in the world.[382] The British Raj
The British Indian Empire in 1909. British India is
invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and
shown in pink; the princely states in yellow.
irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy,
roads and ports. However, historians have been bitterly
divided on issues of economic history, with the
Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the
end of British rule than at the beginning and that
impoverishment occurred because of the British.[383]

In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal

into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal
A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus
and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British
a terminal train station, in Mumbai, completed in
goal was said to be for efficient administration but the
1887, and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site
people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide
and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the
organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was
removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for
India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of
1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's
executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate
communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and
responsible government.[384] Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set
up the All India Muslim League in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of
the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India,
and by distrust of Hindus. The Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to
represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.[385] Sikhs
founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920.[386] However, the largest and oldest political party Indian
National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and
identity politics.[387]
Two silver rupee coins Ronald Ross, left, at A Darjeeling
issued by the British Cunningham's Himalayan Railway
Raj in 1862 and 1886 laboratory of train shown in 1870.
respectively, the first in Presidency Hospital in The railway became a
obverse showing a Calcutta, where the UNESCO World
bust of Victoria, Queen, transmission of malaria Heritage Site in 1999.
the second of Victoria, by mosquitoes was
Empress. Victoria discovered, winning
became Empress of Ross the second Nobel
India in 1876. Prize for Physiology or
Medicine in 1902.

A second-day
cancellation of the
stamps issued in
February 1931 to
commemorate the
inauguration of New
Delhi as the capital of
the British Indian
Empire. Between 1858
and 1911, Calcutta had
been the capital of the
Raj
Indian Renaissance

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Pandita Ramabai Rabindranath Tagore

(1817–1898), the (1858–1922) was a (1861–1941) was a
author of Causes of the social reformer, and a Bengali language poet,
Indian Mutiny, was the pioneer in the short-story writer, and
founder of education and playwright, and in
Muhammadan Anglo- emancipation of addition a music
Oriental College, later women in India. composer and painter,
the Aligarh Muslim who won the Nobel
University. prize for Literature in
1913.

Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1887–1920) was an
Indian mathematician
who made seminal
contributions to number
theory.

The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by Bengali Hindus, in the Bengal
region of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British
rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian
Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore
(1861–1941).[388] This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by
historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."[389]
During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the
Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women,
marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion. One of the earliest social movements that
emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the
common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.[390] It played an important
role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.

Famines

Map of famines in India Engraving from The Graphic, Government famine relief,
1800–1885 October 1877, showing the Ahmedabad, India, during
plight of animals as well as the Indian famine of 1899–
humans in Bellary district, 1900.
Madras Presidency, British
India during the Great
Famine of 1876–1878.

A picture of orphans who

survived the Bengal famine
of 1943

During British East India Company and British Crown rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever
recorded famines. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures due to El Niño and often exacerbated
by policies of the colonial government,[391] included the Great Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million
to 10.3 million people died,[392] the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people
died,[393][394] the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10  million people died,[391] and the
Bengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.[395] The Third plague pandemic in
the mid-19th century killed 10  million people in India.[396] Despite persistent diseases and famines, the
population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200  million in 1750,[397] had reached
389 million by 1941.[398]

World War I

Indian Cavalry on the Indian cavalry from the Indian Army gunners
Western front 1914. Deccan Horse during (probably 39th Battery)
the Battle of Bazentin with 3.7-inch mountain
Ridge in 1916. howitzers, Jerusalem
1917.

India Gate is a
memorial to 70,000
soldiers of the British
Indian Army who died
in the period 1914–21
in the First World War.

During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-
combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.[399] The Army saw
action on the Western Front within a month of the start of the war at the First Battle of Ypres. After a year
of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be
withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations
were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.[400]

Indian Army and Imperial Service Troops fought during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign's defence of the
Suez Canal in 1915, at Romani in 1916 and to Jerusalem in 1917. India units occupied the Jordan Valley
and after the German spring offensive they became the major force in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force
during the Battle of Megiddo and in the Desert Mounted Corps' advance to Damascus and on to Aleppo.
Other divisions remained in India guarding the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security
obligations.
One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,[401] and another 67,000
were wounded.[402] The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars
are commemorated by the India Gate.

World War II

General Claude Indian women training Indian infantrymen of

Auchinleck (right), for Air Raid the 7th Rajput
Commander-in-Chief of Precautions (ARP) Regiment about to go
the Indian Army, with duties in Bombay, 1942 on patrol on the Arakan
the then Viceroy Wavell front in Burma, 1944.
(centre) and General
Montgomery (left)

The stamp series

"Victory" issued by the
Government of British
India to commemorate
allied victory in World
War II.

British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939.[403] The British Raj, as part of
the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command
against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support
the Allied campaign during the War. India also provided the base for American operations in support of
China in the China Burma India Theatre.

Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the European theatre against Germany, in
North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East Africa, in the Middle East against the
Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in
Burma. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the
Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.

The Indian National Congress, denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India
was independent. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in
any way with the government until independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It
immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The Muslim League rejected the
Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.

Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with
Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the Indian
Legion;[404] however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the Indian National Army (INA), after the First
Indian National Army under Mohan Singh was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction,
mostly in Burma.[405] Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India (or Azad Hind), a
government-in-exile based in Singapore.[406][407] The government of Azad Hind had its own currency,
court, and civil code; and in the eyes of some Indians its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the
independence struggle against the British.

By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian
territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional
Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with
the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the
mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle
of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.
The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943. An estimated 2.1–3
million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",[408] with most sources asserting that
wartime colonial policies exacerbated the crisis.[409]

Indian independence movement (1885–1947)

The first session of the Surya Sen, leader of Front page of the
Indian National the Chittagong armoury Tribune (25 March
Congress in 1885. A. raid, a raid on 18 April 1931), reporting the
O. Hume, the founder, 1930 on the armoury of execution of Bhagat
is shown in the middle police and auxiliary Singh, Rajguru and
(third row from the forces in Chittagong, Sukhdev by the British
front). The Congress Bengal, now for the murder of 21-
was the first modern Bangladesh year-old police officer
nationalist movement J. P. Saunders. Bhagat
to emerge in the British Singh quickly became
Empire in Asia and a folk hero of the Indian
Africa.[410] independence
movement.
 From the late 19th
century, and especially
after 1920, under the
leadership of Mahatma
Gandhi (right), the
Congress became the
principal leader of the
Indian independence
movement.[411] Gandhi
is shown here with
Jawaharlal Nehru, later
the first prime minister
of India.

The numbers of British in India were small,[412] yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent
directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for 48% of the area.[413]

One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,[414] leading
Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over
the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British
interests",[414] "racial discriminations",[415] and "the revelation of India's past".[416]

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in
1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set
up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a
large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority
groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs.[417] The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at
the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.[418]

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj (home rule) as the destiny of the nation.
His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"[419] became the source of inspiration for
Indians. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held
the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of all
imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;[420] the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal
Pal. Under them, India's three big provinces – Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the
people and India's nationalism. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak,
advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all
things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the
other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.[420]

The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian independence.
The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the
First World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed
measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a
dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials
shared power.[421] In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful
protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; which led
to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of
British rule in India.[422]

From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against
the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the
British rule using non-violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance.
However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and
some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan Republican Association, founded by
Chandrasekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev Thapar and others, that sought to overthrow British rule by
armed struggle.

The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an
independent and united India.[423] Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as
1400 nationalist Muslim delegates.[424][425][426] The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try
to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and
coercion".[425][426] The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro
also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.[426]

After World War II (c. 1946–1947)

In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, "A moment comes, which
starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow comes but rarely in history,
repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the when we step out from the
Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in old to the new; when an age
Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. ends; and when the soul of a
Also in early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates nation long suppressed finds
won in eight of the eleven provinces. utterance."

Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of

India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power  — From, Tryst with destiny,
no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim a speech given by
government. Jawaharlal Nehru to the
Constituent Assembly of
Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and India on the eve of
Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had independence, 14 August
always been a minority within the Indian subcontinent, and the prospect 1947.[427]
of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence;
they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the
foreign Raj.
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the
stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted
in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August
1946". The communal violence spread to Bihar (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to Noakhali in
Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces (where
Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were
attacked or driven out by Muslims.

Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)

Literacy in India grew very slowly

until independence in 1947. An
acceleration in the rate of literacy
growth occurred in the 1991–2001
period.

A map of the prevailing Gandhi touring Bela, Bihar, a Jawaharlal Nehru being
religions of the British Indian village struck by religious sworn in as the first prime
empire based on district-wise rioting in March 1947. On the minister of independent India
majorities based on the right is Khan Abdul Gaffar by viceroy Lord Louis
Indian census of 1909, and Khan. Mountbatten at 8:30 AM 15
published in the Imperial August 1947.
Gazetteer of India. The
partition of the Punjab and
Bengal was based on such
majorities.
In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of
Pakistan. In particular, the partition of Punjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and
Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and
army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate
if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.[428][429][430] Also, this period saw one of
the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12  million Hindus, Sikhs and
Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on
15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).[429] In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal,
seceded from Pakistan.[431]

Historiography
In recent decades there have been four main schools of historiography in how historians study India:
Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its image
of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.[432]

The "Cambridge School", led by Anil Seal,[433] Gordon Johnson,[434] Richard Gordon, and David A.
Washbrook,[435] downplays ideology.[436] However, this school of historiography is criticised for western
bias or Eurocentrism.[437]

The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the
Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical
events. This school of historiography has received criticism for elitism.[438]

The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in
precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's
movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own
ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of being "too much" ideologically influenced.[439]

The "subaltern school", was begun in the 1980s by Ranajit Guha and Gyan Prakash.[440] It focuses
attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below", looking at the peasants using
folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on
the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the
Marxist school.[441]

More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for Hindutva
('Hinduness') in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development.[442] In March
2012, Diana L. Eck, professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies at Harvard University, authored
in her book India: A Sacred Geography, that the idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British
or the Mughals; it was not just a cluster of regional identities and it was not ethnic or
racial.[443][444][445][446]

See also
Adivasi Indian maritime history
Early Indians Linguistic history of India
List of Indian periods Military history of India
Economic history of India Outline of ancient India
History of India (1947–present) Taxation in medieval India
Foreign relations of India The Cambridge History of India
 Timeline of Indian history Traditional games of India

References

Notes
1. These carts dubbed as "chariots" does not however have any spokes on the wheels like the
chariots(Sanskrit: Ratha) mentioned in Vedic literature.[59]
2. The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.[84]
3. Many historians consider Attock to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire[349]

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Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of
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191. "Shankara", Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia
Britannica (UK) Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5, p. 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya,
philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of
philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.";
David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, p. 1353, Quote: "
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192. Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University
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193. Shyama Kumar Chattopadhyaya (2000) The Philosophy of Sankar's Advaita Vedanta (http
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194. Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=3uw
DAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA3), p. 3, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad at pp. 3–4;
Quote – "[...] Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are
four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2.
Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas,
who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4.
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195. Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=3uw
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Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David
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doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist]
doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=3uw
DAAAAMAAJ) at Google Books
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Further reading

General
Basham, A.L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of India (Oxford University Press, 2007)
Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906) 495pp full text (https://archive.org/detai
ls/bub_gb_InFTmnS4crYC)
Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early
historic foundations.
Chattopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian
Civilization. Vol. 15-volum + parts Set. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India:
Volume 2, c. 1751–1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
Fisher, Michael. An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First
Century (Cambridge UP, 2018)
Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy
(2007), 890pp; since 1947
James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) online (https://archi
ve.org/details/raj00lawr)
Khan, Yasmin. The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War (2015); also
published as India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War India At War: The
Subcontinent and the Second World War (https://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0199753490/
excerpt).
Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2n d ed. Yale UP
2017) excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Great-Partition-Making-India-Pakistan/dp/03002303
2X/)
Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) excerpt and text search (https://books.google.com/
books?id=DAwmUphO6eAC)
Majumdar, R.C. : An Advanced History of India. London, 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) : The History and Culture of the Indian People, Bombay, 1977 (in
eleven volumes).
Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
Markovits, Claude, ed. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 (2002) by a team of French
scholars
Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India (2006)
Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885 (2006), 192pp
Richards, John F. The Mughal Empire (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) excerpt (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=Es6x4u_g19UC)
Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998); 5000 entries excerpt (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=LI8UAQAAIAAJ)
Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (http
s://archive.org/details/economichistoryo00roth) (1993)
Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005)
Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002)
Senior, R.C. (2006). Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV. Classical Numismatic
Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9709268-6-9.
Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People (1983)
 Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
Spear, Percival. A History of India. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990) [First published 1965]
Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998)
Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) excerpt and text search (htt
ps://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC)
Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690
pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=93fnssiWvjoC)
Tomlinson, B.R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of
India) (1996)
Tomlinson, B.R. The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947 (1979) online (https://archive.o
rg/details/politicaleconomy0000toml)
Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India (8th ed. 2008) online 7th edition (https://archive.org/
details/newhistoryofindi0000wolp)

Historiography
Bannerjee, Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the ancient world (https://archive.org/str
eam/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up). London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford
University Press.
Bayly, C.A. (November 1985). "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years".
The Economic History Review. 38 (4): 583–596. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x). JSTOR 2597191 (https://www.jstor.o
rg/stable/2597191).
Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a
Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", History Today 57#9
(2007) pp. 34–. online (https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478)
Elliot, Henry Miers; Dowson, John (1867). The History of India, as told by its own historians.
The Muhammadan Period (https://web.archive.org/web/20090825184925/http://persian.pack
hum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0). London: Trübner and Co.
Archived from the original (http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D8020
1010%26ct%3D0) on 25 August 2009.
Kahn, Yasmin (2011). "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World
War". In Martin Gegner; Bart Ziino (eds.). The Heritage of War. Routledge. pp. 177–193.
Jain, M. (2011). "4". The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts. Delhi: Ocean Books.
Lal, Vinay (2003). The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India.
Palit, Chittabrata (2008). Indian Historiography.
Sharma, Arvind (2003). Hinduism and Its Sense of History. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-566531-4.
Sreedharan, E. (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000.
 Warder, A.K. (1972). An introduction to Indian historiography.

Primary
The Imperial Gazetteer of India (https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/). 1908–1931.
Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.

Online resources
"History of India Podcast" (https://historyofindiapodcast.libsyn.com/) (Podcast).

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