FINAL EXAM REVIEWER FOR CE 322 – HYROLOGY (CHAPTER 4-6)

CHAPTER 4: STREAMFLOW
WATER STAGE
4-1 Manual Gages
 River stage is the elevation above some arbitrary zero datum of the water surface at the station.
 The simplest way to measure a river stage is by means of a staff gage, a scale set so that a
portion of it is immersed on water at all times.
 If no suitable structure exists in a location accessible at all stages, a sectional staff gage may
be used.
 The wire-weight gage has a drum with a circumference such that each revolution unwinds 30
cm of wire.

4-2 Recording Gages

 In a continuous-chart recorder, motion of the float moves a pen across a long strip chart.

4-3 Crest-Stage Gages

4-4 Miscellaneous Stage Gages

4-5 Selection of Station Site

 When controlling features are situated in a short length of channel, a section control exists.
 If the stage-discharge relation is governed by the slope, size, and roughness of the channel over
a considerable distance, the station is under channel control.

DISCHARGE
4-6 Current Meters
 The most common current meter in the United States, the Price meter consists of six conical
cups rotating about a vertical axis.
 Propeller-type current meters employ a propeller turning about a horizontal axis.

𝒗 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝑵 (4-1)
Where: 𝑏 is the constant of proportionality
𝑎 is the starting velocity required to overcome mechanical friction

4-7 Current-Meter Measurements

4-8 Stage-Discharge Relations

 Periodic meter measurements of flow and simultaneous stage observations provide data for a
calibration curve called a rating curve or stage-discharge relation.

𝒒 𝒔 𝒎 𝑭 𝒌
= (𝒔 ) = (𝑭 ) (4-2)
𝒒𝟎 𝟎 𝟎

 A slope-stage-discharge relation requires a base gage and an auxiliary gage.

 The rating just described is known as a constant-fall rating, since the adopted mean fall 𝐹0 is
constant.
 If the fall varies a wide range and is correlated with stage, a normal-fall rating may be used.
 Under this circumstance it is possible to develop a change-in-stage rating and thus need to
eliminate the need for an auxiliary gage.

4-9 Extension of Rating Curves

𝒒 = 𝒌(𝒈 − 𝒂)𝒃 (4-3)
𝒈𝟏 𝒈𝟑 −𝒈𝟐𝟐
𝒂=𝒈 (4-4)
𝟏 +𝒈𝟑 −𝟐𝒈𝟐

𝒒 = 𝑨𝑪√𝑹𝒔 (4-5)
𝒒 = 𝒌𝒂√𝑫 (4-6)

4-10 Effects of Ice on Streamflow

 In turbulent streams, the first ice to form is frazil ice, small crystals suspended in the turbulent
flow.
 Frazil ice collecting on rocks on the streambed is called anchor ice and may cause a small
increase in stage.

4-11 Other Methods of Obtaining Streamflow Data

𝟐 𝟏
𝟏
𝒒 = 𝒏 𝑨𝑹𝟑 𝑺𝟐 (4-7)
𝒄
𝒒 = (𝒄𝟏 − 𝟏) 𝒒𝒕 (4-8)
𝟐
 In the moving-boat method, a boat traverses the stream at a constant speed on a course
normal to the flow.
 In the ultrasonic method, sonic pulses are emitted from transducers on opposite banks and
located on a line about 45° from the direction of flow.

4-12 Planning a Streamflow Network

 Operational stations are required for streamflow forecasting, project operation, water
allocation, etc.
 Special stations are installed to secure data for a project investigation, special studies, or
research.
 Basic data stations are operated to obtain data for future use.
 Benchmark stations should be maintained permanently on all streams that are substantially
unaffected by people.

INTERPRETATION OF STREAMFLOW DATA

4-13 Water Years

4-14 Hydrographs
 A hydrograph is a graph of stage or discharge versus time.

4-15 Mean Daily Flows

4-16 Adjustment of Streamflow Data

4-17 Mean Annual Runoff

4-18 Streamflow Variations

 CHAPTER 5: EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
EVAPORATION
 The hydrologic definition of evaporation is restricted to the net rate of vapor transport to the
atmosphere.

5-1 Factors Controlling the Evaporation Process

Meteorological Factors
 If natural evaporation is viewed as an energy-exchange process, it can be demonstrated that
radiation is by far the most important single factor and that the term solar evaporation is
basically applicable.

Nature of evaporating surface

 Thus, the rate of evaporation from soil surfaces is limited by the availability of water, or
evaporation opportunity.

Effects of water quality

5-2 Water-Budget Determinations of Reservoir Evaporation

𝑬 = (𝑺𝟏 − 𝑺𝟐 ) + 𝑰 + 𝑷 − 𝑶 − 𝑶𝒈 (5-1)

5-3 Energy-Budget Determinations of Reservoir Evaporation

𝑸 𝒏 − 𝑸𝒉 − 𝑸 𝒆 = 𝑸𝜽 − 𝑸𝒗 (5-2)
𝑸𝒏 +𝑸𝒗 −𝑸𝜽
𝑬= (5-3)
𝝆𝑯𝒗 (𝟏+𝑹)
𝑻𝟎 −𝑻𝒂 𝒑
𝑹 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟔 𝒆 (5-4)
𝟎 −𝒆𝒂 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑸𝒏 = 𝑸𝒔 − 𝑸𝒓 + 𝑸𝒂 − 𝑸𝒂𝒓 − 𝑸𝟎 (5-5)
𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑸𝒊𝒓 = 𝑸𝒊𝒓 = 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑸𝒏 + 𝜺𝝈(𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑻𝟎 )𝟒 (5-6)
Where 𝝈 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝑾𝒎−𝟐 𝑲−𝟒
𝜺 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕
𝑸𝒏 = 𝑸𝒊𝒓 − 𝜺𝝈(𝑻𝟎 )𝟒 (5-7)
𝑸𝒏 = 𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑸𝒏 + 𝜺𝝈(𝑵𝒆𝒕 𝑻𝟎 − 𝑻𝟎 )𝟒 (5-8)
𝑺𝟐 − 𝑺𝟏 = 𝑰 + 𝑷 − 𝑶 − 𝑶𝒈 − 𝑬 (5-9)
𝟒.𝟏𝟗
𝑸 𝒗 − 𝑸𝜽 = (𝑰𝑻𝑰 + 𝑷𝑻𝑷 − 𝑶𝑻𝑶 − 𝑶𝒈 𝑻𝒈 − 𝑬𝑻𝑬 + 𝑺𝟏 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑺𝟐 𝑻𝟐 ) (5-10)
𝑨

5-4 Aerodynamic Determination of Reservoir Evaporation

𝑬 = (𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝒂 )(𝒂 + 𝒃𝒗) (5-11)
𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟐(𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟐 )𝒗𝟒 𝒆𝟐 and 𝒗𝟒 over lake (5-12)
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕(𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟖 )𝒗𝟖 𝒆𝟖 and 𝒗𝟖 over lake (5-13)
𝑬 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟗(𝒆𝟎 − 𝒆𝟐 )𝒗𝟒 𝒆𝟐 upward and 𝒗𝟒 over lake (5-14)
−𝟎.𝟎𝟓
𝒃 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝑨 (5-15)

5-5 Combination Methods of Estimating Reservoir Evaporation

∆ 𝜸
𝑬 = ∆+𝜸 𝑸𝒏 + ∆+𝜸 𝑬𝒂 (5-16)
𝑻𝟎 −𝑻𝒂
𝑹=𝜸 (5-17)
𝒆𝟎 −𝒆𝒂
𝟒𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟑𝒂]
(𝑸𝒊𝒓−𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟒𝒏 )∆+𝑬𝒏 [𝜸+
𝒇(𝒗)
𝑬= 𝟒𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟑
(5-18)
∆+[𝜸+ 𝒂]
𝒇(𝒗)
∆
𝜶= 𝟒𝜺𝝈𝑻𝟑
(5-19)
∆+𝜸+ 𝒂
𝒇(𝒗)
𝑬𝑳 = 𝑬 + 𝜶(𝑸𝒗 − 𝑸𝜽 ) (5-20)
5-6 Estimation of Reservoir Evaporation from Pan Evaporation and Related Meteorological Data
Pan observations
Pan evaporation and meteorological factors
Pan coefficients
Effects of advected energy on pan evaporation
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟕[𝑬𝒑 ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟔𝟒𝒑𝜶𝒑 (𝟎. 𝟑𝟕 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟓𝟓𝒗𝒑 )|𝑻𝟎 − 𝑻𝒂 |𝟎.𝟖𝟖 ] (5-21)

5-7 Summary and Appraisal of Techniques for Estimating Reservoir Evaporation

5-8 Increased Water Supplies through Reduced Evaporation

TRANSPIRATION
 Only minute portions of water absorbed by the root systems of plants remain in the plant tissues;
virtually all is discharged to the atmosphere as vapor through transpiration.

5-9 Factors Affecting Transpiration

 Wilting point - moisture content at which permanent wilting of plants occurs
 Xerophytes – desert species which have fewer stomata per unit area and less surface area
exposed to radiation, transpire relatively little water.
 Phreatophytes – have root systems reaching to the water table and transpire at rates largely
independent of moisture content in the zone of aeration.
 Mesophytes – plants of the temperate zones, have some ability to reduce transpiration during
periods of drought.
 Hydrophytes – aquatic plants, cannot pump water in the atmosphere at rates in excess of those
controlled by available radiant and sensible energy.

5-10 Measurement of Transpiration

 Phytometer – a large vessel filled with soil in which one or more plants are rooted.

EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
 Total evaporation (or evapotranspiration) – the evaporation from all water, soil, snow, ice,
vegetation, and other surfaces plus transpiration.
 Consumptive use – is the total evaporation from an area plus the water used directly in building
plant tissue.
 Potential evapotranspiration – “the water loss which will occur if at no time there is deficiency
of water in the soil for the use of vegetation”

5-11 Water-Budget Determination of Main Basin Evapotranspiration

5-12 Field-Plot Determination of Evapotranspiration

𝑸 −𝑮−𝑴
𝑬𝑻 = 𝑯𝒏(𝟏+𝑹) (5-22)
𝒗

5-13 Lysimeter Determination of Evapotranspiration

 Many observations of evapotranspiration are made in soil containers, variously known as tanks,
evapotranpirometers, and lysimeters.

5-14 Estimating Potential Evapotranspiration from Meteorological Data

∆
[ ](𝑸𝒏 −𝑮−𝑴)
∆+𝜸
𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒕 𝑻 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 (5-23)
𝑯𝒗

5-15 Estimating Actual Evapotranspiration from Potential

 In this approach, it is visualized that upper-zone moisture is always depleted at the potential
rate and that any deficiency in this zone must be satisfied before rainfall begins to recharge the
lower-zone.
5-16 Irrigation Water Requirements

5-17 Controlling Evapotranspiration

5-18 Equations for Evaporation Computations

𝒅𝒆𝒔 𝟏
= ∆= (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟓𝑻𝒂 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟏𝟐)𝟕 𝑻𝒂 ≥ −𝟐𝟓℃ (5-24)
𝒅𝑻𝒂 𝟏𝟎
∆ 𝟎.𝟔𝟔 −𝟏
= [𝟏 + (𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟓𝑻 ] (5-25)
∆+𝜸 𝒂 +𝟎.𝟖𝟗𝟏𝟐)𝟕
∆ ∆
= 𝟏 − ∆+𝜸 (5-26)
∆+𝜸
𝑸𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟏𝑸𝒔 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 (𝑻𝒂 + 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖)𝟏.𝟖𝟕 + 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝑸𝟐𝒔 − 𝟏. 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝑸𝟐𝒔 (𝑻𝒂 − 𝟕. 𝟐)𝟐 − 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐
(5-27)
𝟖 𝟖
𝒆𝒔 − 𝒆𝒂 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟖𝟔[(𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟖𝑻𝒂 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟕𝟐) − (𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟑𝟖𝑻𝒅 + 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟕𝟐) ]; 𝑻𝒅 ≥ −𝟐𝟕℃ (5-28)
𝟎.𝟖𝟖
𝑬 = [𝟏𝟎(𝒆𝒔 − 𝒆𝒂 )] (𝟎. 𝟒𝟐 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟗𝒗𝒑 ) (5-29)
∆ 𝜸
𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟕 [∆+𝜸 𝑸𝒏 + ∆+𝜸 𝑬𝒂 ] (5-30)
𝟑
𝟎.𝟎𝟔𝟔𝒑+(𝑻𝟎 +𝟐𝟕𝟑) ×𝟏𝟎−𝟖
𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟕+𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟒𝟑𝒗𝟒
𝜶 = [𝟏 + (𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟓𝑻𝟎+𝟎.𝟖𝟗𝟏𝟐)𝟕
] (5-31)

𝟎.𝟑𝟔 𝟎.𝟑𝟔
𝜶𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟒 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟓(𝒗𝒑 ) − 𝟑. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟕 (𝑻𝟎 + 𝟏𝟕. 𝟖)𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟓(𝒗𝒑 ) (5-32)
 CHAPTER 6: SUBSURFACE WATER
6-1 Occurrence of Subsurface Water
 The two major subsurface zones are divided by an irregular surface called the water table.
 The water table is the locus of points (in unconfined material) where hydrostatic pressure equals
atmospheric pressure.
 Above water table, in the vadose zone, soil pores may contain either air or water; hence it is
sometimes called zone of aeration.
 In the phreatic zone, below the water table, interstices are filled with water; sometimes this is
called the zone of saturation.
 Local saturated zones sometimes exist as perched groundwater above an impervious layer of
limited extent.
 Sometimes groundwater is overlain by an impervious stratum to form confined, or artesian,
water.
 If a well penetrates the confining layer, water will rise to the piezometric level, the artesian
equivalent of the water table.
 If the piezometric level is above ground level, the well discharges as a flowing well.

MOISTURE IN THE VADOSE ZONE

 In the region penetrated by roots of vegetation, ranging to 10 m below the soil surface, is the
soil water, which fluctuates in amount as vegetation removes moisture between rains.
 Above water table, moisture is raised by capillary into the capillary fringe, which may have a
vertical extent of several centimeters to about a meter depending on the pore sizes of the
material.
 But when the water table is deep, an intermediate region exists where moisture levels remain
constant at the field capacity of the soil and rock of the region.

6-2 Soil-Water Relationships

 Soil moisture may be present as:
 Gravity water in transit in the larger pore spaces
 Capillary water in the smaller pores
 Hygroscopic moisture adhering in a thin film to soil grains
 Water vapor
 With a free-water surface taken as reference, capillary potential is defined as the work required
to move a unit mass of water from the reference plane to any point in the soil column.
Capillary Potential: 𝝍 = 𝒈𝒚 (6-1)

6-3 Equilibrium Points

 Visualizing several states of water in soil, early soil scientists tried to define limits of these states
by equilibrium points.
 Field capacity is defined as the moisture content of soil after gravity drainage is complete.
 Wilting point represents soil-moisture level when plants cannot extract water from soil.
 The difference between the moisture content at field capacity and at wilting point is called
available moisture.

6-4 Measurement of Soil Moisture

 A tensiometer consists of a porous ceramic cup which is inserted in the soil, filled with water,
and connected to a manometer.
𝝏∆
𝒒 = −𝑲 (6-2)
𝝏𝒙

6-5 Movement of Soil Moisture

 Infiltration is the movement of water through the soil surface into the soil.
 Percolation is the movement of water through the soil.
MOISTURE IN THE PHREATIC ZONE

6-6 Aquifers
 A geologic formation which contains water and transmits it from one point to another in quantities
sufficient to permit economic development is called an aquifer.
 An aquiclude is a formation which contains water but cannot transmit it rapidly enough to furnish
a significant supply to a well or spring.
 An aquifuge has no interconnected openings and cannot hold or transmit water.
 The ratio of the pore volume to the total volume of the formation is called porosity.
 The original porosity of a material is that which existed at the time the material was formed.
 Secondary porosity results from fractures and solution channels.
 Specific yield of an aquifer is the ratio of the water which will drain freely from the material of
the total volume of the formation and is always less than porosity.

6-9 Sources of Groundwater

 Almost all groundwater is meteoric water derived from precipitation.
 Connate water was present in the rock at its formation and is frequently highly saline.
 Juvenile water, formed chemically within the earth and brought to the surface in intrusive rocks,
occurs in small quantities.
 Streams contributing to groundwater are called influent streams. Such streams are frequently
ephemeral.

6-10 Discharge of Groundwater

 Streams intersecting the water table and receiving groundwater flow are called effluent
streams.
 Plants deriving their water from groundwater, called phreatophytes, often have root systems
extending to depths of 12 m or more.

6-11 Equilibrium Hydraulics of Wells

 The resulting water-table form is called a cone of depression.
𝒅𝒚
𝒒 = 𝟐𝝅𝒙𝒚𝑲 (6-8)
𝒅𝒙
𝝅𝑲(𝒉𝟐𝟏 −𝒉𝟐𝟐 )
𝒒= 𝒓 (6-9)
𝐥𝐧( 𝟏 )
𝒓𝟐
𝒓
𝒒 𝐥𝐧( 𝟏)
𝒓𝟐
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅(𝒁 (6-9a)
𝟐 −𝒁𝟏 )

6-12 Nonequilibrium Hydraulics of Wells

𝒒 ∞ 𝒆−𝒖
𝒁 = 𝟒𝝅𝑻 ∫𝒖 𝒅𝒖 (6-10)
𝒖
𝒓𝟐 𝑺𝒄
𝒖= (6-11)
𝟒𝑻𝒕
𝒖𝟐 𝒖𝟑
𝑾(𝒖) = −𝟎. 𝟓𝟕𝟕𝟐 − 𝒍𝒏 𝒖 + 𝒖 − + . . .. (6-12)
𝟐∙𝟐! 𝟑∙𝟑!
𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝑻
= 𝒖 (6-13)
𝒕 𝑺𝒆
𝟐.𝟑𝒒 𝒕
𝑻 = 𝟒𝝅∆𝒁 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒕𝟐 (6-14)
𝟏
𝟐.𝟐𝟓𝑻𝒕𝟎
𝑺𝒆 = (6-15)
𝒓𝟐

6-13 Boundary Effects

 When several wells are close together, their cones of depression may overlap, or interfere.

6-14 Aquifer Analysis

𝝏𝟐 𝒉 𝝏𝟐 𝒉 𝑺𝒄 𝝏𝒉
+ 𝝏𝒚𝟐 = (6-16)
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝒕
𝒉𝟐 +𝒉𝟒 −𝟐𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟑 +𝒉𝟓 −𝟐𝒉𝟏 𝒉𝟐 +𝒉𝟒 +𝒉𝟑 +𝒉𝟓−𝟒𝒉𝟏 𝑺𝒄 𝒉
+ = = (6-17)
𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝑻 𝝏𝒕
POTENTIAL OF A GROUNDWATER RESERVOIR
 Safe yield, is defined by Meinzer, as “the rate at which water can be withdrawn for human use
without depleting the supply to such an extent that withdrawal at this rate is no longer feasible”

6-15 Safe Yield

𝑮 = 𝑷 − 𝑸𝒔 − 𝑬𝑻 + 𝑸𝒈 − ∆𝑺𝒈 − ∆𝑺𝒔 (6-18)

6-16 Seawater Intrusion

6-17 Artificial Recharge

6-18 Artesian Aquifers

6-19 Time Effects in Groundwater