PAPER – 2: BUSINESS LAW & BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORTING

SECTION A – BUSINESS LAW

Question No. 1 is compulsory.
Attempt any four questions from the remaining five questions.

Question 1
(a) Mr. Sohanlal sold 10 acres of his agricultural land to Mr. Mohanlal on 25th September
2018 for ` 25 Lakhs. The Property papers mentioned a condition, amongst other details,
that whosoever purchases the land is free to use 9 acres as per his choice but the
remaining 1 acre has to be allowed to be used by Mr. Chotelal, son of the seller for
carrying out farming or other activity of his choice. On 12 th October, 2018, Mr. Sohanlal
died leaving behind his son and life. On 15th October, 2018 purchaser started
construction of an auditorium on the whole 10 acres of land and denied any land to the
son.
Now Mr. Chotelal wants to file a case against the purchaser and get a suitable
redressed. Discuss the above in light of provisions of Indian Contract Act, 1872 and
decide upon Mr. Chotelal's plan of action? (4 Marks)
(b) Sound Syndicate Ltd., a public company, its articles of association empowers the
managing agents to borrow both short and long term loans on behalf of the company, Mr.
Liddle, the director of the company, approached Easy Finance Ltd., a non banking
finance company for a loan of ` 25,00,000 in name of the company.
The Lender agreed and provided the above said loan. Later on, Sound Syndicate Ltd.
refused to repay the money borrowed on the pretext that no resolution authorizing such
loan have been actually passed by the company and the lender should have enquired
about the same prior providing such loan hence company not liable to pay such loan.
Analyse the above situation in terms of the provisions of Doctrine of Indoor Management
under the Companies Act, 2013 and examine whether the contention of Sound Syndicate
Ltd. is correct or not? (4 Marks)
(c) Discuss the various types of implied warranties as per the Sales of Goods Act, 1930?
(4 Marks)
Answer
(a) Problem as asked in the question is based on the provisions of the Indian Contract Act,
1872 as contained in section 2(d) and on the principle ‘privity of consideration’.
Consideration is one of the essential elements to make a contract valid and it can fl ow
from the promisee or any other person. In view of the clear language used in definition of
‘consideration’ in Section 2(d), it is not necessary that consideration should be furnished
by the promisee only. A promise is enforceable if there is some consideration for it and it

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is quite immaterial whether it moves from the promisee or any other person. The leading
authority in the decision of the Chinnaya Vs. Ramayya, held that the consideration can
legitimately move from a third party and it is an accepted principle of law in India.
In the given problem, Mr. Sohanlal has entered into a contract with Mr. Mohanlal, but Mr.
Chotelal has not given any consideration to Mr. Mohanlal but the consideration did flow
from Mr. Sohanlal to Mr. Mohanlal on the behalf of Mr. Chotelal and such consideration
from third party is sufficient to enforce the promise of Mr. Mohanlal to allow Mr. Chotelal
to use 1 acre of land. Further the deed of sale and the promise made by Mr. Mohanlal to
Mr. Chotelal to allow the use of 1 acre of land were executed simultaneously and
therefore they should be regarded as one transaction and there was sufficient
consideration for it.
Moreover, it is provided in the law that “in case covenant running with the land, where a
person purchases land with notice that the owner of the land is bound by certain duties
affecting land, the covenant affecting the land may be enforced by the successor of the
seller.”
In such a case, third party to a contract can file the suit although it has not moved the
consideration.
Hence, Mr. Chotelal is entitled to file a petition against Mr. Mohanlal for execution of
contract.
(b) Doctrine of Indoor Management
According to this doctrine, persons dealing with the company need not inquire whether
internal proceedings relating to the contract are followed correctly, once they are
satisfied that the transaction is in accordance with the memorandum and articles of
association.
Stakeholders need not enquire whether the necessary meeting was convened and held
properly or whether necessary resolution was passed properly. They are entitled to take
it for granted that the company had gone through all these proceedings in a regular
manner.
The doctrine helps protect external members from the company and states that the
people are entitled to presume that internal proceedings are as per documents submitted
with the Registrar of Companies.
Thus,
1. What happens internal to a company is not a matter of public knowledge. An
outsider can only presume the intentions of a company, but do not know the
information he/she is not privy to.
2. If not for the doctrine, the company could escape creditors by denying the authority
of officials to act on its behalf.

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In the given question, Easy Finance Ltd. being external to the company, need not
enquire whether the necessary resolution was passed properly. Even if the
company claim that no resolution authorizing the loan was passed, the company is
bound to pay the loan to Easy Finance Ltd.
(c) Various types of implied warranties
1. Warranty as to undisturbed possession [Section 14(b) of the Sales of Goods
Act, 1930]: An implied warranty that the buyer shall have and enjoy quiet
possession of the goods. That is to say, if the buyer having got possession of the
goods, is later on disturbed in his possession, he is entitled to sue the seller for the
breach of the warranty.
2. Warranty as to non-existence of encumbrances [Section 14(c)]: An implied
warranty that the goods shall be free from any charge or encumbrance in favour of
any third party not declared or known to the buyer before or at the time the contract
is entered into.
3. Warranty as to quality or fitness by usage of trade [Section 16(3)]: An implied warranty
as to quality or fitness for a particular purpose may be annexed or attached by the
usage of trade.
4. Disclosure of dangerous nature of goods: Where the goods are dangerous in
nature and the buyer is ignorant of the danger, the seller must warn the buyer of the
probable danger. If there is a breach of warranty, the seller may be liable in
damages.
Question 2
(a) "Mere silence is not fraud" but there are some circumstances where the "silence is
fraud". Explain the circumstances as per the provision of Indian Contract Act, 1872?
(7 Marks)
(b) "LLP is an alternative corporate business form that gives the benefits of limited liability of
a company and the flexibility of a partnership". Explain. (5 Marks)
Answer
(a) Mere silence is not fraud
Mere silence as to facts likely to affect the willingness of a person to enter into a contract
is not fraud, unless the circumstances of the case are such that, regard being had to
them, it is the duty of the person keeping silence to speak, or unless his silence is, in
itself, equivalent to speech.
It is a rule of law that mere silence does not amount to fraud. A contracting party is not
duty bound to disclose the whole truth to the other party or to give him the whole
information in his possession affecting the subject matter of the contract.

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The rule is contained in explanation to Section 17 of the Indian Contract Act which clearly
states the position that mere silence as to facts likely to affect the willingness of a person
to enter into a contract is not fraud.
Silence is fraud:
1. Duty of person to speak: Where the circumstances of the case are such that it is
the duty of the person observing silence to speak.
Following contracts come within this category:
(a) Fiduciary Relationship: Here, the person in whom confidence is reposed is
under a duty to act with utmost good faith and make full disclosure of all
material facts concerning the agreement, known to him.
(b) Contracts of Insurance: In contracts of marine, fire and life insurance, there
is an implied condition that full disclosure of material facts shall be made,
otherwise the insurer is entitled to avoid the contract.
(c) Contracts of marriage: Every material fact must be disclosed by the parties to
a contract of marriage.
(d) Contracts of family settlement: These contracts also require full disclosure
of material facts within the knowledge of the parties.
(e) Share Allotment contracts: Persons issuing ‘Prospectus’ at the time of public
issue of shares/debentures by a joint stock company have to disclose all
material facts within their knowledge.
2. Where the silence itself is equivalent to speech: For example, A says to B “If you
do not deny it, I shall assume that the horse is sound.” A says nothing. His silence
amounts to speech.
(b) LLP is an alternative corporate business form that gives the benefits of limited
liability of a company and the flexibility of a partnership
Limited Liability: Every partner of a LLP is, for the purpose of the business of LLP, the
agent of the LLP, but not of other partners (Section 26 of the LLP Act, 2008). The liability
of the partners will be limited to their agreed contribution in the LLP, while the LLP itself
will be liable for the full extent of its assets.
Flexibility of a partnership: The LLP allows its members the flexibility of organizing
their internal structure as a partnership based on a mutually arrived agreement. The LLP
form enables entrepreneurs, professionals and enterprises providing services of any kind
or engaged in scientific and technical disciplines, to form commercially efficient vehicles
suited to their requirements. Owing to flexibility in its structure and operation, the LLP is
a suitable vehicle for small enterprises and for investment by venture capital.

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Question 3
(a) (i) What is the provision related to the effect of notice to an acting partner of the firm as per
the Indian Partnership Act, 1932? (2 Marks)
OR
(ii) Discuss the provisions regarding personal profits earned by a partner under the
Indian Partnership Act, 1932? (2 Marks)
(b) "Whether a group of persons is or is not a firm, or whether a person is or not a partner in
a firm." Explain the mode of determining existence of partnership as per the Indian
Partnership Act, 1932? (4 Marks)
(c) Mr. Rich aspired to get a self-portrait made by an artist. He went to the workshop of Mr.
C an artist and asked whether he could sketch the former's portrait on oil painting
canvass. Mr. C agreed to the offer and asked for ` 50,000 as full advance payment for
the above creative work. Mr. C clarified that the painting shall be completed in 10 sittings
and shall take 3 months.
On reaching to the workshop for the 6 th sitting, Mr. Rich was informed that Mr. C became
paralyzed and would not be able to paint for near future. Mr. C had a son Mr. K who was
still pursuing his studies and had not taken up his father’s profession yet?
Discuss in light of the Indian Contract Act, 1872?
(i) Can Mr. Rich ask Mr. K to complete the artistic work in lieu of his father?
(ii) Could Mr. Rich ask Mr. K for refund of money paid in advance to his father?
(6 Marks)
Answer
(a) (i) Effect of notice to an acting partner of the firm
According to Section 24 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932, notice to a partner who
habitually acts in the business of the firm of any matter relating to the affairs of the
firm operates as notice to the firm, except in the case of a fraud on the firm
committed by or with the consent of that partner.
Thus, the notice to one is equivalent to the notice to the rest of the partners of the
firm, just as a notice to an agent is notice to his principal. This notice must be actual
and not constructive. It must further relate to the firm’s business. Only then it would
constitute a notice to the firm.
OR
(ii) Personal Profit earned by Partners (Section 16 of the Indian Partnership Act,
1932)
According to section 16, subject to contract between the partners:

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(a) If a partner derives any profit for himself from any transaction of the firm, or from the
use of the property or business connection of the firm or the firm name, he shall
account for that profit and pay it to the firm;
(b) If a partner carries on any business of the same nature and competing with that of
the firm, he shall account for and pay to the firm all profits made by him in that
business.
(b) Mode of determining existence of partnership (Section 6 of the Indian Partnership
Act, 1932): In determining whether a group of persons is or is not a firm, or whether a
person is or not a partner in a firm, regard shall be had to the real relation between the
parties, as shown by all relevant facts taken together.
For determining the existence of partnership, it must be proved.
1. There was an agreement between all the persons concerned
2. The agreement was to share the profits of a business and
3. the business was carried on by all or any of them acting for all.
1. Agreement: Partnership is created by agreement and not by status (Section 5). The
relation of partnership arises from contract and not from status; and in particular,
the members of a Hindu Undivided family carrying on a family business as such are
not partners in such business.
2. Sharing of Profit: Sharing of profit is an essential element to constitute a
partnership. But, it is only a prima facie evidence and not conclusive evidence, in
that regard. The sharing of profits or of gross returns accruing from property by
persons holding joint or common interest in the property would not by itself make
such persons partners. Although the right to participate in profits is a strong test of
partnership, and there may be cases where, upon a simple participation in profits,
there is a partnership, yet whether the relation does or does not exist must depend
upon the whole contract between the parties.
3. Agency: Existence of Mutual Agency which is the cardinal principle of partnership
law, is very much helpful in reaching a conclusion in this regard. Each partner
carrying on the business is the principal as well as an agent of other partners. So,
the act of one partner done on behalf of firm, binds all the partners. If the elements
of mutual agency relationship exist between the parties constituting a group formed
with a view to earn profits by running a business, a partnership may be deemed to
exist.
(c) A contract which involves the use of personal skill or is founded on personal
consideration comes to an end on the death of the promisor. As regards any other
contract the legal representatives of the deceased promisor are bound to perform it
unless a contrary intention appears from the contract (Section 37 of the Indian Contract

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Act, 1872). But their liability under a contract is limited to the value of the property they
inherit from the deceased.
(i) In the instant case, since painting involves the use of personal skill and on
becoming Mr. C paralyzed, Mr. Rich cannot ask Mr. K to complete the artistic work
in lieu of his father Mr. C.
(ii) According to section 65 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, when an agreement is
discovered to be void or when a contract becomes void, any person who has
received any advantage under such agreement or contract is bound to restore it, or
to make compensation for it to the person from whom he received it.
Hence, in the instant case, the agreement between Mr. Rich and Mr. C has become
void because of paralysis to Mr. C. So, Mr. Rich can ask Mr. K for refund of money
paid in advance to his father, Mr. C.
Question 4
(a) “A non-owner can convey better title to the bonafide purchaser of goods for value.”
Discuss the cases when a person other than the owner can transfer title in goods as per
the provisions of the Sales of Goods Act, 1930? (6 Marks)
(b) M/s XYZ & Associates, a partnership firm with X, Y, Z as senior partners were engaged
in the business of carpet manufacturing and exporting to foreign countries. On 25 th
August, 2016, they inducted Mr. G, an expert in the field of carpet manufacturing as their
partner. On 10th January 2018, Mr. G was blamed for unauthorized activities and thus
expelled from the partnership by united approval of rest of the partners.
(i) Examine whether action by the partners was justified or not?
(ii) What should have the factors to be kept in mind prior expelling a partner from the
firm by other partners according to the provisions of the Indian Partnership Act,
1932? (6 Marks)
Answer
(a) In the following cases, a non-owner can convey better title to the bona fide purchaser of
goods for value:
(1) Sale by a Mercantile Agent: A sale made by a mercantile agent of the goods for
document of title to goods would pass a good title to the buyer in the following
circumstances; namely;
(a) If he was in possession of the goods or documents with the consent of the
owner;
(b) If the sale was made by him when acting in the ordinary course of
business as a mercantile agent; and

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(c) If the buyer had acted in good faith and has at the time of the contract of sale, no
notice of the fact that the seller had no authority to sell (Proviso to Section 27
of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930).
(2) Sale by one of the joint owners (Section 28): If one of several joint owners of
goods has the sole possession of them by permission of the co-owners, the
property in the goods is transferred to any person who buys them of such joint
owner in good faith and has not at the time of the contract of sale notice that the
seller has no authority to sell.
(3) Sale by a person in possession under voidable contract: A buyer would acquire
a good title to the goods sold to him by a seller who had obtained possession of the
goods under a contract voidable on the ground of coercion, fraud, misrepresentation
or undue influence provided that the contract had not been rescinded until the time
of the sale (Section 29).
(4) Sale by one who has already sold the goods but continues in possession
thereof: If a person has sold goods but continues to be in possession of them or of the
documents of title to them, he may sell them to a third person, and if such person
obtains the delivery thereof in good faith and without notice of the previous sale, he
would have good title to them, although the property in the goods had passed to the
first buyer earlier. [Section 30(1)]
(5) Sale by buyer obtaining possession before the property in the goods has
vested in him: Where a buyer with the consent of the seller obtains possession of
the goods before the property in them has passed to him, he may sell, pledge or
otherwise dispose of the goods to a third person, and if such person obtains
delivery of the goods in good faith and without notice of the lien or other right of the
original seller in respect of the goods, he would get a good title to them [Section
30(2)].
(6) Effect of Estoppel: Where the owner is estopped by the conduct from denying the
seller’s authority to sell, the transferee will get a good title as against the true
owner. But before a good title by estoppel can be made, it must be shown that the
true owner had actively suffered or held out the other person in question as the true
owner or as a person authorized to sell the goods.
(7) Sale by an unpaid seller: Where an unpaid seller who had exercised his right of
lien or stoppage in transit resells the goods, the buyer acquires a good title to the
goods as against the original buyer [Section 54 (3)].
(8) Sale under the provisions of other Acts:
(i) Sale by an Official Receiver or Liquidator of the Company will give the
purchaser a valid title.
(ii) Purchase of goods from a finder of goods will get a valid title under
circumstances [Section 169 of the Indian Contract Act, 1872]

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(iii) A sale by pawnee can convey a good title to the buyer [Section 176 of the
Indian Contract Act, 1872]
(b) Expulsion of a Partner (Section 33 of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932):
A partner may not be expelled from a firm by a majority of partners except in exercise, in
good faith, of powers conferred by contract between the partners.
The test of good faith as required under Section 33(1) includes three things:
• The expulsion must be in the interest of the partnership.
• The partner to be expelled is served with a notice.
• He is given an opportunity of being heard.
If a partner is otherwise expelled, the expulsion is null and void.
(i) Action by the partners of M/s XYZ & Associates, a partnership firm to expel Mr. G
from the partnership was justified as he was expelled by united approval of the
partners exercised in good faith to protect the interest of the partnership against the
unauthorized activities charged against Mr. G. A proper notice and opportunity of
being heard has to be given to Mr. G.
(ii) The following are the factors to be kept in mind prior expelling a partner from the
firm by other partners:
(a) the power of expulsion must have existed in a contract between the partners;
(b) the power has been exercised by a majority of the partners; and
(c) it has been exercised in good faith.
Question 5
(a) M/s Woodworth & Associates, a firm dealing with the wholesale and retail buying and
selling of various kinds of wooden logs, customized as per the requirement of the
customers. They dealt with Rose wood, Mango wood, Teak wood, Burma wood etc.
Mr. Das, a customer came to the shop and asked for wooden logs measuring 4 inches
broad and 8 feet long as required by the carpenter. Mr. Das specifically mentioned
that he required the wood which would be best suited for the purpose of making
wooden doors and window frames. The Shop owner agreed and arranged the wooden
pieces cut into as per the buyers requirements.
The carpenter visited Mr. Das's house next day, and he found that the seller has
supplied Mango Tree wood which would most unsuitable for the purpose. The:
carpenter asked Mr. Das to return the wooden logs as it would not meet his
requirements.
The Shop owner refused to return the wooden logs on the plea that logs were cut to
specific requirements of Mr. Das and hence could not be resold.

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(i) Explain the duty of the buyer as well as the seller according to the doctrine of
“Caveat Emptor”.
(ii) Whether Mr. Das would be able to get the money back or the right kind of wood as
required serving his purpose? (6 Marks)
(b) What do you mean by "Companies with charitable purpose" (section 8) under the
Companies Act, 2013? Mention the conditions of the issue and revocation of the licence
of such company by the government. (6 Marks)
Answer
(a) (i) Duty of the buyer according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”: In case of sale of
goods, the doctrine ‘Caveat Emptor’ means ‘let the buyer beware’. When sellers display
their goods in the open market, it is for the buyers to make a proper selection or choice of
the goods. If the goods turn out to be defective he cannot hold the seller liable. The seller
is in no way responsible for the bad selection of the buyer. The seller is not bound to
disclose the defects in the goods which he is selling.
Duty of the seller according to the doctrine of “Caveat Emptor”: The following
exceptions to the Caveat Emptor are the duties of the seller:
1. Fitness as to quality or use
2. Goods purchased under patent or brand name
3. Goods sold by description
4. Goods of Merchantable Quality
5. Sale by sample
6. Goods by sample as well as description
7. Trade usage
8. Seller actively conceals a defect or is guilty of fraud
(ii) As Mr. Das has specifically mentioned that he required the wood which would be
best suited for the purpose of making wooden doors and window frames but the
seller supplied Mango tree wood which is most unsuitable for the purpose. Mr. Das
is entitled to get the money back or the right kind of wood as required serving his
purpose. It is the duty of the seller to supply such goods as are reasonably fit for the
purpose mentioned by buyer. [Section 16(1) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930]
(b) Formation of companies with charitable purpose etc. (Section 8 company):
Section 8 of the Companies Act, 2013 deals with the formation of companies which are
formed to
• promote the charitable objects of commerce, art, science, sports, education,
research, social welfare, religion, charity, protection of environment etc.

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Such company intends to apply its profit in

• promoting its objects and
• prohibiting the payment of any dividend to its members.
Examples of section 8 companies are FICCI, ASSOCHAM, National Sports Club of India,
CII etc.
Power of Central government to issue the license–
(i) Section 8 allows the Central Government to register such person or association of
persons as a company with limited liability without the addition of words ‘Limited’ or
‘Private limited’ to its name, by issuing licence on such conditions as it deems fit.
(ii) The registrar shall on application register such person or association of persons as
a company under this section.
(iii) On registration the company shall enjoy same privileges and obligations as of a
limited company.
Revocation of license: The Central Government may by order revoke the licence of the
company where the company contravenes any of the requirements or the conditions of
this sections subject to which a licence is issued or where the affairs of the company are
conducted fraudulently, or violative of the objects of the company or prejudicial to public
interest, and on revocation the Registrar shall put ‘Limited’ or ‘Private Limited’ against
the company’s name in the register. But before such revocation, the Central Government
must give it a written notice of its intention to revoke the licence and opportunity to be
heard in the matter.
Question 6
(a) Discuss the essentials of Undue Influence as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872. (5 Marks)
(b) “Indian Partnership Act does not make the registration of firms compulsory nor does it
impose any penalty for non-registration." Explain. Discuss the various disabilities or
disadvantages that a non-registered partnership firm can face in brief? (4 Marks)
(c) Popular Products Ltd. is company incorporated in India, having a total Share Capital of
` 20 Crores. The Share capital comprises of 12 Lakh equity shares of ` 100 each and 8
Lakhs Preference Shares of ` 100 each. Delight Products Ltd. and Happy Products Ltd.
hold 2,50,000 and 3,50,000 shares respectively in Popular Products Ltd. Another
company Cheerful Products Ltd. holds 2,50,000 shares in Popular Products Ltd. Jovial
Ltd. is the holding company for all above three companies namely Delight Products Ltd;
Happy Products Ltd.; Cheerful Products Ltd. Can Jovial Ltd. be termed as subsidiary
company of Popular products. Ltd., if it. Controls composition of directors of Popular
Products Ltd. State the related provision in the favour of your answer. (3 Marks)

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Answer
(a) The essentials of Undue Influence as per the Indian Contract Act, 1872 are the following:
(1) Relation between the parties: A person can be influenced by the other when a
near relation between the two exists.
(2) Position to dominate the will: Relation between the parties exist in such a manner
that one of them is in a position to dominate the will of the other. A person is
deemed to be in such position in the following circumstances:
(a) Real and apparent authority: Where a person holds a real authority over the
other as in the case of master and servant, doctor and patient and etc.
(b) Fiduciary relationship: Where relation of trust and confidence exists between
the parties to a contract. Such type of relationship exists between father and
son, solicitor and client, husband and wife, creditor and debtor, etc.
(c) Mental distress: An undue influence can be used against a person to get his
consent on a contract where the mental capacity of the person is temporarily
or permanently affected by the reason of mental or bodily distress, illness or of
old age.
(d) Unconscionable bargains: Where one of the parties to a contract is in a
position to dominate the will of the other and the contract is apparently
unconscionable i.e., unfair, it is presumed by law that consent must have been
obtained by undue influence. Unconscionable bargains are witnessed mostly in
money lending transactions and in gifts.
(3) The object must be to take undue advantage: Where the person is in a position
to influence the will of the other in getting consent, must have the object to take
advantage of the other.
(4) Burden of proof: The burden of proving the absence of the use of the dominant
position to obtain the unfair advantage will lie on the party who is in a position to
dominate the will of the other.
(b) Under the English Law, the registration of firms is compulsory. Therefore, there is a
penalty for non-registration of firms. But the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 does not make
the registration of firms compulsory nor does it impose any penalty for non-registration.
The registration of a partnership is optional and one partner cannot compel another
partner to join in the registration of the firm. It is not essential that the firm should be
registered from the very beginning.
However, under Section 69, non-registration of partnership gives rise to a number of
disabilities which are as follows:
(i) No suit in a civil court by firm or other co-partners against third party: The firm or
any other person on its behalf cannot bring an action against the third party for

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breach of contract entered into by the firm, unless the firm is registered and the
persons suing are or have been shown in the register of firms as partners in the firm.
(ii) No relief to partners for set-off of claim: If an action is brought against the firm
by a third party, then neither the firm nor the partner can claim any set-off, if the suit be
valued for more than ` 100 or pursue other proceedings to enforce the rights arising
from any contract.
(iii) Aggrieved partner cannot bring legal action against other partner or the firm: A
partner of an unregistered firm (or any other person on his behalf) is precluded from
bringing legal action against the firm or any person alleged to be or to have been a
partner in the firm.
(iv) Third party can sue the firm: In case of an unregistered firm, an action can be
brought against the firm by a third party.
(c) In the present case, the total share capital of Popular Products Ltd. is ` 20 crores
comprised of 12 Lakh equity shares and 8 Lakhs preference shares.
Delight Products Ltd., Happy Products Ltd. and Cheerful Products Ltd together hold
8,50,000 shares (2,50,000+3,50,000+2,50,000) in Popular Products Ltd. Jovial Ltd. is the
holding company of all above three companies. So, Jovial Ltd. along with its subsidiaries
hold 8,50,000 shares in Popular Products Ltd. which amounts to less than one-half of its
total share capital. Hence, Jovial Ltd. by virtue of share holding is not a holding company
of Popular Products Ltd.
Secondly, it is given that Jovial Ltd. controls the composition of directors of Popular
Products Ltd., hence, Jovial Ltd. is a holding company of Popular Products Ltd. and not a
subsidiary company. [Section 2(87) of the Companies Act, 2013]

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