PEER REVIEWED

Relational theory: New growth in

psychoanalysis andpsychotherapy
ANNIE STOPFORD

Although psychoanalysis is sometimes viewed as something of a dinosaur, perhaps especially

by practitioners of cognitive behavioural therapies, contemporary psychoanalytic theory and
practice continues to evolve in a number of ways and locations, and to offer both clinical depth
and intellectual rigour to a growing number of psychotherapists around the world. Amongst
the various contemporary psychoanalytic schools, the body of theory and practice known
as 'relational psychoanalysis' is arguably one of the most important and influential recent
developments.1 Described as an 'emerging tradition' by Mitchell & Aron (1999), relational analytic
theory embodies a profound epistemological shift from a 'one person' psychology (classical
psychoanalysis) to complex relational or intersubjective fields. 2 ANNIE STOPFORD provides a
general overview of relational psychoanalysis, with an accompanying discussion on how the
relational turn has affected her psychotherapeutic practice illustrated with a clinical example.

Psychoanalysis, it seems, has the capacity to transform and reinvent itselfin response to
contemporary intellectual and cultural demands...' Lewis Aron ( 1996, ix).

n developing the body of theory While relational psychoanalysis is psychoanalytic concepts such as analyst
and practice that has come to be not dominated by one powerful figure, neutrality, objectivity and anonymity
known as relational psychoanalysis, it would be reasonable to suggest that have been replaced with perspectivist
theorists drew originally from British the relational approach of Stephen and constructivist formulations with
and American object relations theories Mitchell has been most influential postmodern leanings.
and the interpersonalist tradition of (Mitchell 1988, 1990, 1991, 1993, For example, in contrast to
Fromm and Sullivan. In more recent 1997, 2000; Greenberg and Mitchell, the traditional psychoanalytic
years, aspects of post-Kohutian self 1983). Mitchell developed an inclusive, configuration of neutral, objective
psychology, Intersubjectivity Theory non-sectarian framework that draws analyst and defended patient, the
and social constructivism have also on the work ofWinnicott, Loewald, relational and intersubjectivist view of
been included. Ghent (1992a) describes Sullivan and Fairbairn. Like Ghent, the clinical dyad is that it is a complex
the relational orientation thus: Mitchell does not dismiss the impact interactive, (asymmetrically) mutual
'Relational theorists have in common of biological urges in human life, but relationship (Aron, 1996; Renik, 1993)
an interest in the intrapsychic as well as replaces the concept of drives as the in which the subjectivity of the analyst
the interpersonal, but the intrapsychic foundational explanatory concepts of is always present. The analyst is viewed
is seen as constituted largely by the psychoanalysis with the concept of as someone whose own subjectivity
internalization of interpersonal experience the relational matrix, the network of organizes her perception of events
mediated by the constraints imposed by relationships between self and other, 'as (Fosshage, 1997; Harris, 1998), and
biologically organized templates and the overarchingframework within which who is involved in a process of co-
delimiters. Relational theorists tend also to house all sorts ofpsychoanalytic concepts' creation of plausible constructions of
to share a view in which both reality and (Aron, 1996, p. 33). There are many meaning with her patient (Hoffman,
ftntasy, both outer world and inner world, differences between psychoanalysts and 1999,2002). Relational psychoanalysts
both the interpersonal and the intrapsychic, therapists with a relational orientation, question the position of certainty
play immensely important and interactive but for the majority, traditional and authority that can be assumed by
roles in human life.' ( p. xviii) traditional practitioners (Mitchell,

46 PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA. VOL 14 NO 1. NOVEMBER 2007

1993), and suggest instead that theorists' (p. xvii). To describe oneself Acknowledging diversity
patients' interpretations are as valid as a relational theorist or clinician is While many believe that
as the analyst's (Gill, 1983; Aron, as broad as describing one's ethnic or psychoanalysis is still the ground for
1996; Hoffman, 1999). cultural identity as 'Australian'. More the most intellectually interesting
While relational theorists have specificity is required to give shape and and sophisticated discussion about
different ways of understanding substance to the general description, clinical work, it is important to
the relationship between the and that usually means being able to acknowledge that the development
conscious and unconscious (see for locate oneself in a number of different of relational theory is not limited
example Stolorow & Atwood, 1992; interweaving strands in the theoretical to psychoanalysis. Other clinical
Meares, 2000; Layton, 2002a), all and clinical fabric of relational communities such as Gestalt Therapy
relational psychoanalytic theoretical psychoanalysis. In other words, (e.g., Jacobs, 1992; Yontef, 2002) and
developments are characterized by a relational theory is not a single theory, Transactional Analysis (Hargarden &
movement away from the Freudian but rather 'a metatheory, aframework or Sills, 2002) are also developing a body
theoretical divide between the ego schema that provides the necessary structure of relational theory and practice that
and the unconscious, and they all with which to go on building coherent and both borrows from, and potentially
share a way of viewing the self as a comprehensive relationalpsychoanalytic contributes to, psychoanalysis (that
'richly layered composite thatfar exceeds theories' (Aron & Harris, 2005, p. xviii). is, if the latter were more receptive
the Freudian notion ofthe ego as the
agent ofthe reality principle' (Gurewich
& Tort, 1996, p. 2). In the relational
psychoanalytic field, 'The unconscious ... in contrast traditionalpsychoanalytic
is located contextually, interpersonally,
intrapsychically, and in the social
configuration of neutral, objective analyst
construction ofour landscapes' (Harris &
Mitchell, 2004, p. 183). In this frame
defendedpatient, the relational view ofthe
conflict is understood as occurring
between differing or opposing
clinical dyad that it is a complex, interactive,
relational configurations, rather
than between drive and defense.
(asymmetrically) mutual relationship.
The significance of this
paradigmatic shift, and its implications
for all aspects of psychoanalytic
practice, cannot be overstated. It
is a fundamental movement away
from the 'myth ofthe isolated mind'
(Stolorow & Atwood, 1992) toward
a framework based on the primacy
of relationality. Relational theorists
often follow multiple theoretical and
research tracks, weaving disparate
disciplinary arenas into frameworks
that incorporate multiple dimensions
of human motivation and experience.
Adrienne Harris (2005), for example,
draws on chaos theory, developmental
psychology, language studies and
feminism to elaborate a sophisticated
relational theory of gender as 'soft
assembly', while another eminent
relational theorist, Phillip Bromberg
(1998) has inspired many with his
evocative writing on decentred
selfhood, trauma and dissociation.
Relational theory, as Lewis Aron
and Adrienne Harris (2005) write;
'can be thought ofas two independent
projects: one is a relationalframework that
can house numerous relational theories;
the second refers to the multiple, specific
relational theories constituted by different
Illustration: Savina Hopkins

PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA. VOL 14 NO 1 • NOVEMBER 2007 47

to 'transculturation' with non- International Associationfor Relational Self Psychology and the Conversational
psychoanalytic frameworks and Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy Model. 'Psychologies if the self', as these
communities). Another significant (IARPP), including Sydney and frameworks are sometimes known,
body of work that is frequently Melbourne branches, and regularly teach therapists to work in an empathic
marginalized in mainstream attend IARPP conferences in the U.S. mode of observation; that is, 'a
psychoanalytic discussion is that of and other countries. listening-experiencing stance designed to
Jungian analytical psychology. The emergence of relational understand as best one can, through aifect
In fact, Jung was the first to talk psychoanalysis as a 'tradition', and resonance and vicarious introspection,
about a multiplicity of principles as an international community, the analysand's experiencefrom within
working on the psyche, as opposed has brought new life, including theframe if reftrence if the analysand'
to one overriding drive, myth or new conflicts and turf wars, to (Fosshage, 2003, p. 420).
fantasy (Hillman, 1975). It can be the world of psychoanalysis and In this therapeutic mode the
a source of frustration for Jungian psychotherapy. In the clinical analyst/therapist's subjectivity is often
analysts that some concepts and community with which I am affiliated bracketed as much as possible in order
to facilitate a space for subtle and
unexpressed aspects of the client's
·.. my decision to reveal more 'self' to emerge and develop without
intrusion and impingement by the
myselfand to into a more therapist. In particular, it is effective for
people who are traumatized, and while
Ruth proved to the there is no attempt to be neutral or
objective, the self psychological analyst/
critical turningpoint in therapist wants to create a reflective
space where the patient feels 'heard',
and is often cautious about saying or
ideas seen as innovative in the most strongly, for example, there is doing anything that draws attention to
relational psychoanalytic world ongoing lively discussion and debate their separate subjectivity. There are of
have been around for a long time about the relationship between the course both strengths and limitations
(personal communication, Robert Conversational Model (based on the to a sensitive listening-experiencing
Bosnak). Some Jungian analysts are work of Australian theorist Russell stance with such a strong focus on
active in the international relational Meares - see for example, 1993a, the client's subjective experience.
psychoanalytic community and draw 1996a, 2000, 2004) and the broader While still always mindful of the need
on relational psychoanalytic theorists relational psychoanalytic field. While to be sensitive about impingement
in their own work (see for example there are different strands to this and intrusion, the work of relational
Liz Sheean's interview with Andrew discussion, the fundamental question analysts has facilitated a greater
Samuels, 2004), but again, there is seems to be whether the Conversational willingness on my part to engage in
less receptivity on the part of the Model framework incorporates the robust subject-to-subject encounters
mainstream relational psychoanalytic particular mode of subject-to-subject with my patients; that is, to reveal more
community to learning from their relationality associated with relational of myself and engage more passionately
marginalized Jungian 'other'. psychoanalysis. I will return to this and openly in a variety of relational
question presently in discussion about processes, including overt conflict.
Relational psychoanalysis
my work with 'Ruth'. As Stephen Mitchell (1997)
in Australia
writes, self reflective responsiveness
Until recently, relational Working'relationally'
to our patients is 'a highly cultivated
psychoanalysis has not had an obvious Relational theory now has so many skill'involving 'hearing andfollowing
presence in Australia, and no analytic nuances and strands it is difficult different levels if meaning at the same
clinical training in this country is to say precisely what the 'relational time' and learning 'to track and engage
based entirely or predominantly on turn' means in clinical practice. Each in, simultaneously, different lines if
relational psychoanalysis. However, contemporary analytic therapist with a thought, aifective response, and self
many individual clinicians around relational orientation would probably organization' (p. 194). As well as
the country (and in New Zealand) say something different about their carefully tracking my patients' affect
have explored relational theory particular emphasis, depending on and monitoring my verbal responses
through numerous books and articles, where they did their training, and to try to ensure that they will usually
particularly those published in the which relational theorists influence be experienced by my patients as
journal Psychoanalytic Dialogues, them most strongly. However, probably empathic and 'experience near', I
and the work of relational theorists all would say that their work is now more frequently take the risk of
is included in the curricula of some characterized by authentic engagement introdUcing my spontaneous thoughts
clinical and academic psychoanalytic (Mitchell, 1997; Bromberg, 1998). and feelings into conversations with my
programmes. Some Australian analysts In my own case, my primary analytic patients, including those with so-called
and therapists are members of the clinical training was in psychoanalytic 'borderline' conditions, depending

48 PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA. VOL 14 NO 1 • NOVEMBER 2007

of course on the requirements of the However, after a few years when it this process and our relationship is the
specific clinical moment. A clinical was clear that the creation of a safe, place where, as well as providing a safl,
example at this point might be useful empathic and reflective space was not holding space, 1 have a chance to learn
to elucidate the difference between in itself going to elicit Ruth's split off and test out all the microskills ofreal,
the way I work when embedded more states and 'selves', I began to change non-idealised relationship so 1 can start
strongly in (my understanding of) tack and take a more overtly relational to test out and apply things in my other-
the Conversational Model and other approach to our work. world relationships. And the authenticity,
psychologies of the self, and the way This essentially involved being more surviving the disjunctions between us
I work when in a more relational open about what was going on for me. and even growingfrom them, is
psychoanalytic mode. 3 For example, I began occasionally to ultimately so empowering and
tell Ruth when I was feeling angry strengthening and enlivening.'
'Ruth': a clinical example
and frustrated with her, when I was In the draft of this article that I gave
Due to particular familial too tired to have daily phone calls and to Ruth I wrote that I had a question
conditions, my patient Ruth (who long emails, and when I was feeling as to whether it would have been
has given permission for me to write anxious about my own ability and better to have worked with her from
about our work, and whose thoughts willingness to stay the distance. 4 While the beginning in a more 'two person'
will be included presently) developed these exchanges were frightening relational mode (that is, with a stronger
a 'horizontal split' in her psychological and overwhelming for Ruth at first, presence of 'otherness'), or whether in
structure, where her pleasant, the fact that I have been willing fact it was the first period of working
agreeable and competent personality to be more authentic with her, and with the Conversational Model method
has been completely detached from that our relationship survives these that made the later developments
her underlying 'self'. In the course of 'disruptions' and' disjunctions', has possible. As the difference between
her long term, (for the last few years) been of tremendous importance to her. other as subject and other as object lies
three times a week therapy, Ruth In fact, my decision to reveal more of at the heart of crucial psychoanalytic
has gradually at first, and then more myself and to enter into a more 'real' debates, including feminist critiques of
rapidly and frequently, come into relationship with Ruth proved to be psychoanalytic formulations that deny
contact with chaotic, terrifying and the critical turning point in our work. the mother's independent subjectivity
overwhelming states of emptiness, The barrier between her two worlds (see Benjamin, 1998), this is a critical
worthlessness, despair, sadness, fear has largely dissolved, and in the ups question. In her response, Ruth wrote:
and rage. Her need for me to contain, and downs of our relational process she 'I'm pretty certain starting with a
regulate, soothe, explain, reassure and has experienced a myriad of shifting relational model wouldn't have worked
hold has often b~en urgent, requiring emotions, states, needs, fantasies and with me. 1 think trust is the key issue,
frequent phone and email contact desires which of course we process and as well as saflty and non-intrusiveness
between sessions at different times. explore constantly. of other's needs-anything other than a
As Ruth has suffered from severe The work is frequently volatile, place where 1 could be exclusively heard
dissociation from her core embodied demanding and exhausting, and and understood and responded to would
experience, pronounced difficulty in there have been some frightening have been way too threatening initially;
managing affect (when it is accessed), times, but for the first time in her it would haveflIt like an explosive and
and a vulnerability to suicidal ideation, life Ruth (who is in her thirties) is in catastrophic demolition rather than a
she could be described as 'borderline', a relationship with another human gradualprocess ofdisintegration (with
and my initial responses to her were being where her own subjectivity is supportive scaffolding) and rebuilding.'
shaped strongly by the method of the not being annihilated, but neither is Ruth has needed different forms
Conversational Model for working she being allowed (unconsciously) to of relationality at different times,
with this condition. That is, from the annihilate mine. Our relationship just as infants and children do with
beginning of therapy I tried sensitively is now intersubjective in the Jessica their carers (probably especially
and patiently to track moment to Benjamin sense (see Benjamin, 1998); their mothers). It seems likely that
moment shifts in affect and subtle that is, Ruth is developing, or perhaps through engagement with the work
disjunctions between Ruth and myself, reconnecting with, a capacity to of American relational theorists
to maintain an empathic stance in recognize the other as an equivalent the Conversational Model, like
my verbal responses to her, and to centre of experience. In her own words, psychoanalytic Self Psychology (see
refrain from revealing any thoughts '(1 can) cope with and work through Fosshage, 2003), will become more
or feelings that she might experience disappointment, conflict, difference, relational (in the sense of subject to
as very disruptive or threatening (in compromise, failed expectations, subject relationship), but the specific
order to avoid retraumatization). This imperfection; something that 1 hadn't mode of relationality often embodied
approach was useful initially, as it ever observed or experienced atfirst-hand by 'self psychological' therapists
helped create a safe, reflective space for within myfamily. 1guess it's the actual, remains of fundamental importance.
Ruth, far removed from her childhood ongoing experience of mutual recognition,
experience of feeling annihilated working through, resolution etc that
by her parents' conflicts and their has been such a revelation and such a
obliviousness to their impact on her. precious, transformative process-for me,

PSYCHOTHERAPY IN AUSTRALIA. VOL 14 NO 1. NOVEMBER 2007 49

Conclusion that are fundamentally relational Benjamin, J. (1998). Shadow of the
(including interpersonal psychoanalysis, other: Intersubjectivity and gender in
Relational theory in psychoanalysis, self psychology, object relations and psychoanalysis. New York: Routledge.
and in other modalities, is an area intersubjectivity theory), and the term
Benjamin, J. (1998). The bonds of love:
of exciting new growth in the 'Relational psychoanalysis', referring
Psychoanalysis, feminism, and the problem
international psychotherapeutic specifically to 'the theoretical and clinical
of domination. New York: Pantheon Books.
contributions emerging from a relatively
community. Within the field of
cohesive group of principally American Bromberg, P. (1998). Standing in the
psychoanalysis the relational turn psychoanalysts. These theorists have spaces: Essays on clinical process,
constitutes a profound paradigmatic been especially influenced by object trauma and dissociation. Hillsdale:
shift with significant implications relations, interpersonal and feminist The Analytic Press.
for all aspects of analytic theory theories' (Fosshage, 2003, p. 412). My
own view is that in the early period of the Fosshage, J. (1992).
and practice. Psychoanalysis has Toward reconceptualizing
emergence of relational psychoanalysis it
had a tendency toward elitism and was possible to make the clear distinction countertransference: Theoretical and
authoritarianism (Kirsner, 2000), that Fosshage makes, but as the cross clinical considerations. Philadelphia:
and the inclusive and democratic spirit fertilization between object relational Division of Psychoanalysis, SPA.

with which Stephen Mitchell began theories, interpersonal psychoanalysis Fosshage, J. (1997). Listening/experiencing
and self psychology (and other perspectives and the quest for a
to formulate a relational perspective
psychoanalytic frameworks) accelerates it facilitative responsiveness. In A. Goldberg.
two decades ago has been welcomed is simpler to use the broad term relational Conversations in Self Psychology: Progress
by many psychotherapists. While psychoanalysis as an umbrella for a variety in Self Psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: The
relationality is not a synonym for of psychoanalytic clinical and theoretical Analytic Press.
harmony or confluence, and there approaches predicated on the primacy
of relationality. As I try to explore in the Fosshage, J. (2003). Contextualizing
are many interesting and challenging self psychology and relational
clinical discussion in this article, there
complexities, negotiations and conflicts are of course very different modes of psychoanalysis. Contemporary
at play in the ever expanding field of (clinical) relationality, essentially revolving Psychoanalysis, 39, 3, 411-448.
relational theory and practice, the around whether and when the analyst!
Ghent, E. (1992). Foreword. In N. J.
relational matrix as an overarching therapist is primarily object or subject
Skolnick and S. C. Warshaw, Relational
for the patient; thus, I sometimes find it
framework for psychoanalysis and perspectives in psychoanalysis. Hillsdale:
useful to use 'big R' to signify subject-to-
psychotherapy is appealing to many. The Analytic Press.
subject relationality, and 'small r' to signify
subject-object relationality. Gill, M. (1983b). The interpersonal
Notes
paradigm and the degree of the therapist's
1. Other important developments in 3. While some may feel that the kind of
involvement. Contemporary Psychoanalysis,
contemporary psychoanalysis include new intersubjective interaction that I describe
1,200-237.
directions in the application of Lacanian is within the purview of the Conversation
theory to clinical practice (for example, Model, my own experience, both in my Greenberg, J., & Mitchell, S. (1983).
Hirsch, 2004), the growth of neo-Kleinian clinical training and in subsequent years Object relations in psychoanalytic theory.
psychoanalysis (for example, Newirth, of supervision with Professor Russell Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
2003), and the ongoing development of Meares, was that exposure of one's own
Gurewich, J., & Tort, M., Ed. (1998). The
post Jungian perspectives (for example, spontaneous thoughts and feelings was
subject and the self: Lacan and American
Austin, 2005). discouraged; rather, one uses a method of
psychoanalysis. Northvale: Jason Aronson.
microanalysis of affect to help the patient's
2. In their book 'Object relations in 'self' to emerge, and to track disjunctions Hargarden, H. & Sills, C. (2002).
psychoanalytic theory' (1983) Mitchell between therapist and patient. Transactional Analysis: A relational
and Greenberg presented relational
perspective. East Sussex:
psychoanalysis as an alternative to 4. I have also expressed tender feelings
Brunner-Routledge.
classical drive theory. In the subsequent at different times. I concentrate on the
two decades the clear distinction 'negative' emotions in this article because Harris, A. (1998). The analyst as
between 'relational' and 'classical' they were the ones I felt most anxious and (auto)biographer. American Imago, 55,
psychoanalysis has blurred somewhat, cautious about revealing. 2,255-275.
given that contemporary expressions
of classical psychoanalytic theory are References Harris, A., & Mitchell, S. (2004). 'What's
American about American psychoanalysis?'
nearly all moving in increasingly relational Aron, L. (1996). A meeting of minds:
Mutuality in psychoanalysis. Hillsdale: Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 14,2,165-191.
directions. However, as Lewis Aron (1996)
writes, 'even the most current versions The Analytic Press. Harris, A. (2005). Gender as soft assembly.
of mainstream classical theory can be Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.
Aron, L. (1997). Self disclosure and
conceptually and clinically distinguished'
the interactive matrix: Commentary on Hillman, J. (1975). Re-visioning psychology.
from 'the version of relational theory' (p. 1)
Kenneth A. Frank's paper. Psychoanalytic New York: Harper and Row.
developed by theorists associated with the
Dialogues, 7, 3,315-318.
relational psychoanalysis school. Hirsch, L. (2004). Having a life: Self
Aron, L. & Harris, A. (2005). Relational pathology after Lacan. Hillsdale, NJ: The
In another tussle over terminology and
psychoanalysis volume 2: Innovation and Analytic Press.
territory, within the general field of
expansion. Hillsdale: The Analytic Press.
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there is an ongoing debate and discussion Austin, S. (2005). Women's aggressive of the analyst's experience. In S. Mitchell &
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Hoffman. I. (2002). Toward a social- Mitchell, S. (1988). Relational concepts Newirth, J. (2003). Between emotion and
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AUTHOR NOTES
Meares, R. (1996a). The psychology of
the self: An update. Australian and New
Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 30, 312-316. Dr. ANNIE STOPFORD is a psychotherapist in private practice
Meares, R. (2000). Intimacy and alienation: in Sydney's inner west, and an adjunct research fellow at the
Memory, trauma and personal being. Gender, Culture and Health Research Unit, University of
London: Routledge.
Western Sydney.
Meares, R. (2004). The Conversational
Model: An outline. American Journal of Comments: anniestopford@optusnet.com.au
Psychotherapy, 58, 1, 51-66.

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