GREEN’S THEOREM

MOTIVATION: To transform double integrals to line integrals and vice versa.

DEFINITION: Green’s Theorem:
Green’s theorem is a relationship between double integrals and line integrals around
closed curves in the plane.
DEFINITION: Orientation of a Curve: SEE FIGURE 1
Positively oriented: A closed curve C in the x/y - plane is positively oriented if a
point on the curve moves counterclockwise as the parameter describing C increases.
Negatively oriented: If the point moves clockwise, then C is negatively oriented.

Figure 1. Orientation on a curve.

DEFINITION: interior/exterior of C SEE FIGURE 2

DEFINITION: interior of C: A simple closed curve C in the plane encloses a
region, called the interior of C.
DEFINITION: exterior of C: The unbounded region that remains if the interior is
cut out is the exterior of C
REMARK: If C is positively oriented then, as we walk around C in the positive
direction, the interior is over our left shoulder.

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 Figure 2. Interior and exterior of a simple closed curve.
THEOREM: GREEN’S THEOREM
Let C be a simple closed positively oriented path in the plane. Let D consist of all
points on C and in its interior. Let , , , be continuous on D. Then

Alternative Expressions for Green’s Theorem

Setting

in vectorial form

EXAMPLE: Verification of Green’s Theorem

Objective: To verify the Green’s Theorem by studying a numerical example
Statement: Verify Green’s Theorem for

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Where C is the circle

CASE STUDIES:
CASE A: Evaluate the double integral
CASE B: Evaluate the line integral
CROSS EXAMINATION: See if these two integrals are numerically equivalent

CASE A:

since the circular disk R has an area of

CASE B:
Orientation Problem: We must orient C counterclockwise
How to get away from Orientation Problem: The following parameterization of
the curve solves this problem. If not we must do some extra work

Tangent of the curve C is needed to evaluate line integral:

We must parameterize in terms of

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The line integral becomes

EXAMPLE: Green’s Theorem.

Objective: Sometimes Green’s theorem simplifies an integration.
Statement: Suppose we want to compute the work done by

in moving a particle counterclockwise about the rectangular path C having vertices

(0,1),(1,1), (1,3) and (0,3).

Why Green’s Theorem:

Is difficult to evaluate.
Therefore we will use the Green’s theorem to evaluate the integral.

Application of Green’s Theorem to the Problem.

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What is the definition of D?
D is the solid rectangle bounded by C

SOME APPLICATIONS OF GREEN’S THEOREM

EXAMPLE: Applications of Green’s Theorem

OBJECTIVE: Area of a Plane Region as a Line Integral over the Boundary
STATEMENT: to derive a formula expresses the area of R in terms of a line integral
over the boundary
Green’s Theorem repeated for the sake of completeness

STEP 1: we first choose

Green’s Theorem reduces to

The double integral is the area A of R.

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STEP 2: Then we choose

Green’s Theorem reduces to

The double integral is the area A of R.

Combine the results of STEP 1 and STEP 2

By addition we have

For an ellipse

The parametric representation of the ellipse is given by

The tangent of the curve is given by

Thus using the above formula

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EXAMPLE: Applications of Green’s Theorem
OBJECTIVE: Area of a Plane Region in Polar Coordinates
STATEMENT: to derive a formula expresses the area of R in terms of a line integral
using polar coordinates.

Green’s Theorem repeated for the sake of completeness

Let and be polar coordinates defined by

Then

The formula for area of a region enclosed by a curve

becomes

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As an example, consider the cardioid, SEE FIGURE 3

Figure 3. Cardioid

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SURFACE INTEGRALS
MOTIVATION: Just as there are integrals of vector fields over curves, there are
also integrals of vector fields over surfaces.

Let’s start with some facts about surfaces

FACTS: Parametric Representation of Surfaces

Curve: A curve in is given by coordinate functions of one variable, and may be
thought of as a one-dimensional object (such as a thin wire).
Surface: A surface is defined by coordinate or parametric functions of two
variables,

for (u,v) in some specified set in the u,v-plane.We call u and v parameters for
the surface.

EXAMPLE: Some Typical Surfaces

MOTIVATION: To show some typical surfaces in u,v parameters
Hyperbolic Paraboloid Surface SEE FIGURE 4

Figure 4. Hyperbolic Paraboloid Surface

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DEFINITION: Level Surface: Often a surface is defined as a level surface

with f a given function.

has the sphere of radius 4 and center (1,0−4)

We may also express a surface as a locus of points satisfying an equation

EXAMPLE: SEE FIGURE 5

Figure 5. Locus of Points Satisfying an Equation.

We often write a position vector

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NORMAL VECTOR TO A SURFACE

MOTIVATION: We would like to define a normal vector to a surface at a point.

Previously this was done for level surfaces.
DEFINITION: Let Σ be a surface with coordinate functions

Let be point on Σ corresponding to

If we fix = we can define the curve Σ on Σ having coordinate functions

The tangent vector to this curve at is

Similarly, we can fix = we can define the curve Σ on Σ . The tangent to this
curve is

These two curves and tangent vectors are shown FIGURE 6.

Figure 6. The curves and tangent vectors

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NOTE: Assuming that neither of these tangent vectors is the zero vector, they both
lie in the tangent plane to the surface at . Their cross product is therefore normal
to this tangent plane. This leads us to define the normal to the surface at to be the
vector

in which all partial derivatives are evaluated at ( , ). To make this vector easier
to write, define the Jacobian of two functions f and g to be

Then

with all the partial derivatives evaluated at ( , ).

EXAMPLE: Normal to a Surface

OBJECTIVE: To illustrate how to compute the normal to a surface
STATEMENT: The elliptical cone has coordinate functions

with a and b positive constants. SEE FIGURE 7

We will write the normal vector at

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 Figure 7. The Elliptical Cone
The corresponding u and v are

Compute the Jacobian components:

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Then

USEFUL SIMPLIFICATION: We frequently encounter the case that a surface is

given by an equation

With u=x and y=v, then

Now the normal vector at :( , ) is

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TANGENT PLANE TO A SURFACE

DEFINITION: If a surface Σ has a normal vector ( ) at a point then it has a

tangent plane at . This is the plane through : ( , , ) having normal vector
( ). The equation of this tangent plane is

or

If Σ is given by

Then, this tangent plane has equation

The area of a smooth surface Σ given by = ( , )is

where D is the set of points in the x,y - plane over which the surface is defined.

This area is actually the integral of the length of the normal vector:

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This is analogous to the formula for the length of a curve as the integral of the length
of the tangent vector.

More generally, if Σ is given by coordinate functions ( , ), ( , ), ( , ) for

( , ) varying over some set D in the , - plane, then

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SURFACE INTEGRALS

The line integral of ( , , ) over C with respect to arc length is

We want to lift this idea up one dimension to integrate a function over a surface
instead of over a curve.

Let Σ be a smooth surface with coordinate functions ( , ), ( , ), ( , ) for

( , ) in . Let be continuous on Σ. Then the surface integral of over Σ is
denoted

and is defined by

If Σ is given by

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EXAMPLE: How to Evaluate Surface Integral

Then

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The surface integral is

EXAMPLE: How to Evaluate Surface Integral

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 Figure 8. Part of the plane + + =4

First compute

Then

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APPLICATIONS OF SURFACE INTEGRAL

MOTIVATION: To illustrate several applications of surface integrals

APPLICATIONS: Below you may find some typical applications of surface
integral:
1. Surface Area
2. Mass and Center of Mass of a Shell
3. Flux of a Fluid across a Surface

SURFACE AREA
If Σ is a piecewise smooth surface, then

We mention this result because it is in the same spirit as other familiar mensuration
formulas:

MASS and CENTER of MASS of a SHELL

Imagine a shell of negligible thickness in the shape of a piecewise smooth surface Σ.
Let ( , , ) be the density of the material of the shell at point ( , , ). We want
to compute the mass of the shell.

Let Σ have coordinate functions x(u,v), y(u,v), z(u,v) for (u, v) in D. Form a grid
of lines over D, as shown in Figure.

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 Figure 9. Forming a grid over D.

These lines form rectangles ,….., that cover D. Each corresponds to a patch

of surface Σ , as in Figure 10. Let , be a point in . This corresponds to a point

= , , , , , on Σ .

Figure 10. Grid rectangle maps to a patch of surface .

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Approximate the mass of Σ , is given by the density at times the area of Σ .

The mass of the shell is approximately the sum of the approximate masses of these
patches of surface:

Bu the infinitesimal area Σ can be approximated as:

SIDE NOTE: Projection of Differential Area

Figure 11. The curves and tangent vectors

= Σ ×Σ

The area of the parallelogram with sides Σ and Σ is by definition the magnitude of
the cross product of two vectors:

| | = |Σ × Σ |

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 Σ and Σ are the derivative of Σ with respect to u and v, respectively. Thus
the differential area can be written as:

| | = |( )×( )|

Or

| | = |Σ × Σ |

Therefore,

And

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EXAMPLE: Center of Mass and Surface Integral
MOTIVATION: Application of Surface Integral
STATEMENT:

REMARK: Normal to a Surface

Now the normal vector at :( , ) is

SOLUTION:

The mass is

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FLUX OF A FLUID ACROSS A SURFACE
Suppose a fluid moves in some region of 3-space with velocity ( , , , ).
In studying the flow, it is often useful to place an imaginary surface Σ in the fluid
and analyze the net volume of fluid flowing across the surface per unit time.
This is the flux of the fluid across the surface.
Let ( , , ) be the unit normal vector to the surface at time .
If we are thinking of flow out of the surface from its interior, then choose n to be an
outer normal, oriented from a point of the surface outward away from the interior.
In a time interval Δ the volume of fluid flowing across a small piece Σ of Σ
approximately equals the volume of the cylinder with base Σ and altitude Δ
Where is the component of in the direction of , evaluated at some point of Σ .
The volume of fluid across Σ per unit time is

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 Figure 12. Cylinder with base and height .

Sum these quantities over the entire surface and take a limit as the surface elements
are chosen smaller, as we did for the mass of a shell. We get

The flux of the fluid (or any vector field) across a surface is therefore computed as
the surface integral of the normal component of the field to the surface.

EXAMPLE: Flux across a surface

MOTIVATION: Application of Surface Integral
STATEMENT:

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REMARK: Normal to a Surface

Now the normal vector at :( , ) is

SOLUTION:

Figure 13. Surface in Example

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Then

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LIFTING GREEN’S THEOREM TO R3

MOTIVATION: To understand Green’s theorem and its extension. This chapter

presents some intuitive ideas which can be figured as preliminaries of

 Gauss Divergence Theorem

 Stokes’ Theorem

both can be viewed as natural generalizations of Green’s theorem from two to three
dimensions.

REVISITING GREEN’S THEOREM

Green’s theorem can be written

with C the simple closed path bounding the region D of the plane.

Define the vector field

With this choice,

Parametrize C by arc length so the coordinate functions are

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The unit tangent vector to C is

The unit normal vector is

Figure 14. Unit tangent and normal vector to C

REMARK : This normal points outward away from D, and so is called a unit outer
normal.

Take the dot product

Thus the Green’s Theorem can be written as

We can write the equivalence fact about Green’s Theorem

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Generalization of Green’s Theorem to 3D-Space

1. Replace the closed curve C in the plane with a closed surface Σ in 3-space
a. closed means bounding a volume, such as a sphere.
2. Replace the line integral over C with a surface integral over Σ
3. Allow the vector field to be a function of three variables.

Thus Green’s Theorem generalizes to

where M is the solid region bounded by Σ and n is a unit normal to Σ pointing out
of the surface and away from M.

This conclusion leads us to Gauss’s divergence theorem

Now, pursue a different generalization to three dimensions. This time let

Including a third component allows us to take the curl:

Then

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The unit tangent vector to C is given by

We can write

We can write the equivalence fact about Green’s Theorem

1. Think of D as a flat surface in the x,y-plane, with unit normal k, and bounded
by the closed path C.
2. To generalize this, allow C to be a path in 3-space, bounding a surface Σ
having unit outer normal N.
3. With these changes, the last equation suggests that

Figure 15. C bounding a surface having outer normal n.

This conclusion leads us to Stokes’s Theorem

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THE DIVERGENCE THEOREM OF GAUSS

THEOREM: DIVERGENCE THEOREM OF GAUSS

Let Σ be a piecewise smooth closed surface bounding a region M of 3-space. Let Σ
have unit outer normal n. Let F be a vector field with continuous first and second
partial derivatives on Σ and throughout M. Then

EXAMPLE: The Divergence Theorem of Gauss; computational example

Figure 16. Surfaces defined in example

Then

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Then

Therefore

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EXAMPLE: The Divergence Theorem of Gauss; computational example

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STOKES’S THEOREM

We need a rule for choosing a normal to the surface at each point. We can use the
standard normal vector

This choice of the normal vector n is used to determine an orientation on the

boundary curve C of Σ. Referring to Figure 17, at any point on C, if you stand along
n with your head at the tip of this normal, then the positive direction of C is the one
in which you have to walk to have the surface over your left shoulder.

Figure 17. Orienting the boundary curve coherently with the normal vector.

When this direction is chosen on C we say that C has been oriented coherently with
n. The choice of normal determines the orientation on the boundary curve. There is
no intrinsic positive or negative orientation on this curve in 3-space, simply
orientation coherent with the chosen normal.

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THEOREM: STOKES’S THEOREM
Let Σ be a piecewise smooth surface bounded by a piecewise smooth curve C.
Suppose a unit normal n has been chosen on Σ and that C is oriented coherently with
this normal. Let F(x,y,z) be a vector field that is continuous with continuous first
and second partial derivatives on Σ. Then,

EXAMPLE: Stokes’s Theorem

Figure 18. Surface for Example

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