AS AND A-

LEVEL
CHEMISTRY
Specification
For teaching from onwards
For AS and A-level exams in 2016 onwards
Version 1.1 1 December 2015
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Chemistry 5
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach 6

2 Specification at a glance 8
2.1 Subject content 8
2.2 AS 9
2.3 A-level 10

3 Subject content 13
3.1 Physical chemistry 13
3.2 Inorganic chemistry 38
3.3 Organic chemistry 48

4 Scheme of assessment 71
4.1 Aims 71
4.2 Assessment objectives 72
4.3 Assessment weightings 73

5 General administration 75
5.1 Entries and codes 75
5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 75
5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 75
5.4 Re-sits and shelf life 76
5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 76
5.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion 76
5.7 Working with AQA for the first time 77
5.8 Private candidates 77

6 Mathematical requirements and

exemplifications 79
6.1 Arithmetic and numerical computation 79
6.2 Handling data 81
6.3 Algebra 81
6.4 Graphs 82
6.5 Geometry and trigonometry 83

7 AS practical assessment 85
7.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 85
7.2 Required practical activities 86

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 3
 7.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers 87

8 A-level practical assessment 89

8.1 Use of apparatus and techniques 89
8.2 Required practical activities 90
8.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers 91
8.4 Practical skills to be assessed via endorsement 92

Are you using the latest version of this specification?

• You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at
• We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification.

4 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level Chemistry
Relevant in the classroom and the real world
We involved over a thousand teachers in developing these specifications, to ensure that the
subject content is relevant to real world experiences and is interesting to teach and learn. We’ve
also presented it in a straightforward way, giving you the freedom to teach in the way that works for
your students.
These Chemistry specifications are a stepping stone to future study, which is why we also
consulted universities, to ensure these specifications allows students to develop the skills that they
want to see.
This approach has led to specifications that will help you to inspire students, nurture their passion
for chemistry and lay the groundwork for further study in courses such as chemistry, medicine and
pharmacy.

The way you teach – your choice

These specifications have been written with minimal context. This means that you can select the
context and applications that you feel bring the subject alive. To support you, we have also
produced a range of excellent teaching resources that you can use alongside your own.

Practicals at the heart of science

Like you, we believe that chemistry is fundamentally an experimental subject. These specifications
provide numerous opportunities to use practical experiences to link theory to reality, and equip
students with the essential practical skills they need.

Teach AS and A-level together

We’ve ensured that the AS and A-level are fully co-teachable. The AS exams are similar in style to
the A-level exams, testing a subset of the same content, with less difficulty. This allows your
students to develop and helps you and your students decide if A-level is the right choice for them.
We’ve created our AS and A-level content with our GCSE in mind, to make sure that there is a
seamless progression between qualifications. We’ve also followed the Association for Science
Education (ASE) guidance on use of scientific terminology across our science subjects.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 5
Assessment success
We’ve tested our specimen question papers with students, making sure they’re interesting,
straightforward, clear and hold no hidden surprises. To ensure that your students are rewarded for
the skills and knowledge they’ve developed, our exams include:
• specified content tested in each of the first two papers to help students prepare for their
exams
• a variety of assessment styles so students can confidently engage with the questions
• multiple choice questions, which allow for a wide breadth of the chemistry from the
specifications to be tested.
With us, your students will get the results they deserve, from the exam board you trust.
You can find out about all our science qualifications at aqa.org.uk/science

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to
find or develop good quality materials. So we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you
with a range of resources that will help you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.

Teaching resources
We have too many Chemistry resources to list here, so visit aqa.org.uk/7405 to see them all. They
include:
• additional practice papers to help students prepare for exams
• guidance on how to plan both the AS and A-level courses with schemes of work for co-
teaching
• an additional scheme of work showing relevant applications of the theory outlined in the
specifications
• several AQA-approved student textbooks, reviewed by experienced senior examiners
• guidance on maths skills requirements with additional support from Exampro
• resources to support new content with detailed lesson plans written by experienced teachers
• training courses to help you deliver AQA Chemistry qualifications
• subject expertise courses for all teachers, from newly-qualified teachers who are just getting
started to experienced teachers looking for fresh inspiration.

Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/7405 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:
• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
• sample papers and mark schemes
• Exampro: a searchable bank of past AQA exam questions
• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.

Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years
and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you
see where to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era

6 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our
post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results

Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-
specific training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills.
• Improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting
Ofsted requirements.
• Prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.
You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits
your needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk

Get help and support

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7201
You can talk directly to the Chemistry subject team:
E: alevelscience@aqa.org.uk
T: 01483 477756

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 7
2 Specification at a glance
These qualifications are linear. Linear means that students will sit all the AS exams at the end of
their AS course and all the A-level exams at the end of their A-level course.

2.1 Subject content

3.1 Physical chemistry (page 13)
3.1.1 Atomic structure (page 13)
3.1.2 Amount of substance (page 15)
3.1.3 Bonding (page 18)
3.1.4 Energetics (page 21)
3.1.5 Kinetics (page 23)
3.1.6 Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier’s principle and Kc (page 25)
3.1.7 Oxidation, reduction and redox equations (page 27)
3.1.8 Thermodynamics (A-level only) (page 28)
3.1.9 Rate equations (A-level only) (page 30)
3.1.10 Equilibrium constant Kp for homogeneous systems (A-level only) (page 32)
3.1.11 Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level only) (page 33)
3.1.12 Acids and bases (A-level only) (page 35)
3.2 Inorganic chemistry (page 38)
3.2.1 Periodicity (page 38)
3.2.2 Group 2, the alkaline earth metals (page 39)
3.2.3 Group 7(17), the halogens (page 40)
3.2.4 Properties of Period 3 elements and their oxides (A-level only) (page 42)
3.2.5 Transition metals (A-level only) (page 42)
3.2.6 Reactions of ions in aqueous solution (A-level only) (page 47)
3.3 Organic chemistry (page 48)
3.3.1 Introduction to organic chemistry (page 48)
3.3.2 Alkanes (page 51)
3.3.3 Halogenoalkanes (page 52)
3.3.4 Alkenes (page 54)
3.3.5 Alcohols (page 56)
3.3.6 Organic analysis (page 57)
3.3.7 Optical isomerism (A-level only) (page 59)
3.3.8 Aldehydes and ketones (A-level only) (page 59)
3.3.9 Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A-level only) (page 60)
3.3.10 Aromatic chemistry (A-level only) (page 62)
3.3.11 Amines (A-level only) (page 63)
3.3.12 Polymers (A-level only) (page 64)
3.3.13 Amino acids, proteins and DNA (A-level only) (page 65)
3.3.14 Organic synthesis (A-level only) (page 68)
3.3.15 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (A-level only) (page 68)

8 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.16 Chromatography (A-level only) (page 69)

2.2 AS
Assessments
Paper 1

What's assessed
• Relevant physical chemistry topics (sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.4, 3.1.6 and 3.1.7)
• Inorganic chemistry (section 3.2.1 to 3.2.3)
• Relevant practical skills

Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• 80 marks
• 50% of the AS

Questions
65 marks of short and long answer questions
15 marks of multiple choice questions

Paper 2

What's assessed
• Relevant physical chemistry topics (sections 3.1.2 to 3.1.6)
• Organic chemistry (section 3.3.1 to 3.3.6)
• Relevant practical skills

Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• 80 marks
• 50% of the AS

Questions
65 marks of short and long answer questions
15 marks of multiple choice questions

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 9
2.3 A-level
Assessments
Paper 1

What's assessed
• Relevant physical chemistry topics (sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.4, 3.1.6 to 3.1.8 and 3.1.10 to
3.1.12)
• Inorganic chemistry (section 3.2)
• Relevant practical skills

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 105 marks
• 35% of A-level

Questions
105 marks of short and long answer questions

Paper 2

What's assessed
• Relevant physical chemistry topics (sections 3.1.2 to 3.1.6 and 3.1.9)
• Organic chemistry (section 3.3)
• Relevant practical skills

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 105 marks
• 35% of A-level

Questions
105 marks of short and long answer questions

10 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

Paper 3

What's assessed
• Any content
• Any practical skills

Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours
• 90 marks
• 30% of A-level

Questions
40 marks of questions on practical techniques and data analysis
20 marks of questions testing across the specification
30 marks of multiple choice questions

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 11
12 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3 Subject content
Sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.7 of the Physical chemistry content, sections 3.2.1 to 3.2.3 of the Inorganic
chemistry content and sections 3.3.1 to 3.3.6 of the Organic chemistry content are designed to be
covered in the first year of the A-level and are also the AS subject content. So you can teach AS
and A-level together.
Each section begins with an overview, which puts the topic into a broader chemical context and
encourages understanding of the place of each topic within the subject. The overviews are
intended to encourage an overarching approach to both the teaching and learning of topic areas.
As such, they will not be directly assessed.
These specifications are presented in a two-column format. The left-hand column contains the
specification content that all students must cover, and that can be assessed in the written papers.
The right-hand column exemplifies the opportunities for skills to be developed throughout the
course. As such, knowledge of individual experiments on the right-hand side is not assumed
knowledge for the assessment.
The codes in the right-hand column refer to the skills in the relevant appendices. MS refers to the
Mathematical Skills, AT refers to the Apparatus and Techniques and PS refers to the Practical
Skills.

3.1 Physical chemistry

3.1.1 Atomic structure
The chemical properties of elements depend on their atomic structure and in particular on the
arrangement of electrons around the nucleus. The arrangement of electrons in orbitals is linked to
the way in which elements are organised in the Periodic Table. Chemists can measure the mass of
atoms and molecules to a high degree of accuracy in a mass spectrometer. The principles of
operation of a modern mass spectrometer are studied.

3.1.1.1 Fundamental particles

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Appreciate that knowledge and understanding of atomic

structure has evolved over time.
Protons, neutrons and electrons: relative charge and
relative mass.
An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and
neutrons surrounded by electrons.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 13
3.1.1.2 Mass number and isotopes
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Mass number (A) and atomic (proton) number (Z). MS 1.1

Students should be able to: Students report calculations to an
appropriate number of significant
• determine the number of fundamental particles in
figures, given raw data quoted to
atoms and ions using mass number, atomic number
varying numbers of significant figures.
and charge
• explain the existence of isotopes. MS 1.2
The principles of a simple time of flight (TOF) mass Students calculate weighted means,
spectrometer, limited to ionisation, acceleration to give all eg calculation of an atomic mass
ions constant kinetic energy, ion drift, ion detection, data based on supplied isotopic
analysis. abundances.
The mass spectrometer gives accurate information about MS 3.1
relative isotopic mass and also about the relative Students interpret and analyse
abundance of isotopes. spectra.
Mass spectrometry can be used to identify elements.
Mass spectrometry can be used to determine relative
molecular mass.
Students should be able to:
• interpret simple mass spectra of elements
• calculate relative atomic mass from isotopic
abundance, limited to mononuclear ions.

3.1.1.3 Electron configuration

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electron configurations of atoms and ions up to Z = 36 in

terms of shells and sub-shells (orbitals) s, p and d.
Ionisation energies.
Students should be able to:
• define first ionisation energy
• write equations for first and successive ionisation
energies
• explain how first and successive ionisation energies
in Period 3 (Na–Ar) and in Group 2 (Be–Ba) give
evidence for electron configuration in sub-shells and
in shells.

14 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.2 Amount of substance

When chemists measure out an amount of a substance, they use an amount in moles. The mole is
a useful quantity because one mole of a substance always contains the same number of entities of
the substance. An amount in moles can be measured out by mass in grams, by volume in dm3 of a
solution of known concentration and by volume in dm3 of a gas.

3.1.2.1 Relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Relative atomic mass and relative molecular mass in

terms of 12C.
The term relative formula mass will be used for ionic
compounds.
Students should be able to:
• define relative atomic mass (Ar)
• define relative molecular mass (Mr).

3.1.2.2 The mole and the Avogadro constant

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The Avogadro constant as the number of particles in a MS 0.1

mole.
Students carry out calculations using
The mole as applied to electrons, atoms, molecules, ions, numbers in standard and ordinary
formulas and equations. form, eg using the Avogadro constant.
The concentration of a substance in solution, measured in MS 0.4
mol dm–3.
Students carry out calculations using
Students should be able to carry out calculations: the Avogadro constant.
• using the Avogadro constant MS 1.1
• using mass of substance, Mr, and amount in moles Students report calculations to an
• using concentration, volume and amount of appropriate number of significant
substance in a solution. figures, given raw data quoted to
Students will not be expected to recall the value of the varying numbers of significant figures.
Avogadro constant. Students understand that calculated
results can only be reported to the
limits of the least accurate
measurement.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 15
3.1.2.3 The ideal gas equation
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The ideal gas equation pV = nRT with the variables in SI AT a, b and k

units.
PS 3.2
Students should be able to:
Students could be asked to find the
• use the equation in calculations. Mr of a volatile liquid.
Students will not be expected to recall the value of the MS 0.0
gas constant, R.
Students understand that the correct
units need to be in pV = nRT.
MS 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4
Students carry out calculations with
the ideal gas equation, including
rearranging the ideal gas equation to
find unknown quantities.

3.1.2.4 Empirical and molecular formula

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of AT a and k

atoms of each element in a compound.
PS 2.3 and 3.3
Molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each
Students could be asked to find the
element in a compound.
empirical formula of a metal oxide.
The relationship between empirical formula and molecular
formula.
Students should be able to:
• calculate empirical formula from data giving
composition by mass or percentage by mass
• calculate molecular formula from the empirical
formula and relative molecular mass.

16 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.2.5 Balanced equations and associated calculations

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Equations (full and ionic). AT a, d, e, f and k

Percentage atom economy is: PS 4.1
molecular mass of desired product
× 100 Students could be asked to find:
sum of molecular masses of all reactants
• the concentration of ethanoic
Economic, ethical and environmental advantages for acid in vinegar
society and for industry of developing chemical processes • the mass of calcium carbonate
with a high atom economy. in an indigestion tablet
Students should be able to: • the Mr of MHCO3
• write balanced equations for reactions studied • the Mr of succinic acid
• balance equations for unfamiliar reactions when • the mass of aspirin in an aspirin
reactants and products are specified. tablet
• the yield for the conversion of
Students should be able to use balanced equations to magnesium to magnesium
calculate: oxide
• masses • the Mr of a hydrated salt (eg
• volumes of gases magnesium sulfate) by heating
• percentage yields to constant mass.
• percentage atom economies AT a and k
• concentrations and volumes for reactions in Students could be asked to find the
solutions. percentage conversion of a Group 2
carbonate to its oxide by heat.
AT d, e, f and k
Students could be asked to determine
the number of moles of water of
crystallisation in a hydrated salt by
titration.
MS 0.2
Students construct and/or balance
equations using ratios.
Students calculate percentage yields
and atom economies of reactions.
MS 1.2 and 1.3
Students select appropriate titration
data (ie identify outliers) in order to
calculate mean titres.
Students determine uncertainty when
two burette readings are used to
calculate a titre value.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 17
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Required practical 1
Make up a volumetric solution and carry out a simple
acid–base titration.

3.1.3 Bonding
The physical and chemical properties of compounds depend on the ways in which the compounds
are held together by chemical bonds and by intermolecular forces. Theories of bonding explain
how atoms or ions are held together in these structures. Materials scientists use knowledge of
structure and bonding to engineer new materials with desirable properties. These new materials
may offer new applications in a range of different modern technologies.

3.1.3.1 Ionic bonding

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Ionic bonding involves electrostatic attraction between

oppositely charged ions in a lattice.
The formulas of compound ions, eg sulfate, hydroxide,
nitrate, carbonate and ammonium.
Students should be able to:
• predict the charge on a simple ion using the position
of the element in the Periodic Table
• construct formulas for ionic compounds.

3.1.3.2 Nature of covalent and dative covalent bonds

Content Opportunities for skills
development

A single covalent bond contains a shared pair of

electrons.
Multiple bonds contain multiple pairs of electrons.
A co-ordinate (dative covalent) bond contains a shared
pair of electrons with both electrons supplied by one
atom.
Students should be able to represent:
• a covalent bond using a line
• a co-ordinate bond using an arrow.

18 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.3.3 Metallic bonding

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Metallic bonding involves attraction between delocalised

electrons and positive ions arranged in a lattice.

3.1.3.4 Bonding and physical properties

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The four types of crystal structure: AT a, b, h and k

• ionic PS 1.1
• metallic Students could be asked to find the
• macromolecular (giant covalent) type of structure of unknowns by
• molecular. experiment (eg to test solubility,
The structures of the following crystals as examples of conductivity and ease of melting).
these four types of crystal structure:
• diamond
• graphite
• ice
• iodine
• magnesium
• sodium chloride.
Students should be able to:
• relate the melting point and conductivity of materials
to the type of structure and the bonding present
• explain the energy changes associated with
changes of state
• draw diagrams to represent these structures
involving specified numbers of particles.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 19
3.1.3.5 Shapes of simple molecules and ions
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Bonding pairs and lone (non-bonding) pairs of electrons MS 0.3 and 4.1
as charge clouds that repel each other.
Students could be given familiar and
Pairs of electrons in the outer shell of atoms arrange unfamiliar examples of species and
themselves as far apart as possible to minimise repulsion. asked to deduce the shape according
to valence shell electron pair
Lone pair–lone pair repulsion is greater than lone pair–
repulsion (VSEPR) principles.
bond pair repulsion, which is greater than bond pair–bond
pair repulsion.
The effect of electron pair repulsion on bond angles.
Students should be able to:
• explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, simple
molecules and ions with up to six electron pairs
(including lone pairs of electrons) surrounding the
central atom.

3.1.3.6 Bond polarity

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electronegativity as the power of an atom to attract the

pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
The electron distribution in a covalent bond between
elements with different electronegativities will be
unsymmetrical. This produces a polar covalent bond, and
may cause a molecule to have a permanent dipole.
Students should be able to:
• use partial charges to show that a bond is polar
• explain why some molecules with polar bonds do
not have a permanent dipole.

20 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.3.7 Forces between molecules

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Forces between molecules: AT d and k

• permanent dipole–dipole forces PS 1.2
• induced dipole–dipole (van der Waals, dispersion, Students could try to deflect jets of
London) forces various liquids from burettes to
• hydrogen bonding. investigate the presence of different
The melting and boiling points of molecular substances types and relative size of
are influenced by the strength of these intermolecular intermolecular forces.
forces.
The importance of hydrogen bonding in the low density of
ice and the anomalous boiling points of compounds.
Students should be able to:
• explain the existence of these forces between
familiar and unfamiliar molecules
• explain how melting and boiling points are
influenced by these intermolecular forces.

3.1.4 Energetics
The enthalpy change in a chemical reaction can be measured accurately. It is important to know
this value for chemical reactions that are used as a source of heat energy in applications such as
domestic boilers and internal combustion engines.

3.1.4.1 Enthalpy change

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Reactions can be endothermic or exothermic.

Enthalpy change (∆H) is the heat energy change
measured under conditions of constant pressure.
Standard enthalpy changes refer to standard conditions,
ie 100 kPa and a stated temperature (eg ∆H298Ɵ).
Students should be able to:
• define standard enthalpy of combustion (∆cHƟ)
• define standard enthalpy of formation (∆fHƟ).

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 21
3.1.4.2 Calorimetry
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The heat change, q, in a reaction is given by the equation MS 0.0 and 1.1
q = mc∆T
Students understand that the correct
where m is the mass of the substance that has a units need to be used in q = mc∆T
temperature change ∆T and a specific heat capacity c.
Students report calculations to an
Students should be able to: appropriate number of significant
figures, given raw data quoted to
• use this equation to calculate the molar enthalpy
varying numbers of significant figures.
change for a reaction
• use this equation in related calculations. Students understand that calculated
results can only be reported to the
Students will not be expected to recall the value of the limits of the least accurate
specific heat capacity, c, of a substance. measurement.

Required practical 2 AT a and k

Measurement of an enthalpy change. PS 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 4.1
Students could be asked to find ∆H
for a reaction by calorimetry.
Examples of reactions could include:
• dissolution of potassium
chloride
• dissolution of sodium carbonate
• neutralising NaOH with HCl
• displacement reaction between
CuSO4 + Zn
• combustion of alcohols.

22 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.4.3 Applications of Hess’s law

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Hess’s law. MS 2.4

Students should be able to: Students carry out Hess's law
calculations.
• use Hess’s law to perform calculations, including
calculation of enthalpy changes for reactions from AT a and k
enthalpies of combustion or from enthalpies of
PS 2.4, 3.2 and 4.1
formation.
Students could be asked to find ∆H
for a reaction using Hess’s law and
calorimetry, then present data in
appropriate ways. Examples of
reactions could include:
• thermal decomposition of
NaHCO3
• hydration of MgSO4
• hydration of CuSO4

3.1.4.4 Bond enthalpies

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Mean bond enthalpy. MS 1.2

Students should be able to: Students understand that bond
enthalpies are mean values across a
• define the term mean bond enthalpy
range of compounds containing that
• use mean bond enthalpies to calculate an bond.
approximate value of ∆H for reactions in the
gaseous phase
• explain why values from mean bond enthalpy
calculations differ from those determined using
Hess’s law.

3.1.5 Kinetics
The study of kinetics enables chemists to determine how a change in conditions affects the speed
of a chemical reaction. Whilst the reactivity of chemicals is a significant factor in how fast chemical
reactions proceed, there are variables that can be manipulated in order to speed them up or slow
them down.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 23
3.1.5.1 Collision theory
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Reactions can only occur when collisions take place

between particles having sufficient energy.
This energy is called the activation energy.
Students should be able to:
• define the term activation energy
• explain why most collisions do not lead to a
reaction.

3.1.5.2 Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of molecular energies in

gases.
Students should be able to:
• draw and interpret distribution curves for different
temperatures.

3.1.5.3 Effect of temperature on reaction rate

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Meaning of the term rate of reaction. AT a, b, k and l

The qualitative effect of temperature changes on the rate PS 2.4 and 3.1
of reaction.
Students could investigate the effect
Students should be able to: of temperature on the rate of reaction
of sodium thiosulfate and hydrochloric
• use the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution to explain
acid by an initial rate method.
why a small temperature increase can lead to a
large increase in rate. Research opportunity
Students could investigate how
knowledge and understanding of the
factors that affect the rate of chemical
reaction have changed methods of
storage and cooking of food.

Required practical 3
Investigation of how the rate of a reaction changes with
temperature.

24 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.5.4 Effect of concentration and pressure

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The qualitative effect of changes in concentration on AT a, e, k and i

collision frequency. Students could investigate the effect
The qualitative effect of a change in the pressure of a gas of changing the concentration of acid
on collision frequency. on the rate of a reaction of calcium
carbonate and hydrochloric acid by a
Students should be able to: continuous monitoring method.
• explain how a change in concentration or a change
in pressure influences the rate of a reaction.

3.1.5.5 Catalysts
Content Opportunities for skills
development

A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a

chemical reaction without being changed in chemical
composition or amount.
Catalysts work by providing an alternative reaction route
of lower activation energy.
Students should be able to:
• use a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution to help
explain how a catalyst increases the rate of a
reaction involving a gas.

3.1.6 Chemical equilibria, Le Chatelier’s principle and Kc

In contrast with kinetics, which is a study of how quickly reactions occur, a study of equilibria
indicates how far reactions will go. Le Chatelier’s principle can be used to predict the effects of
changes in temperature, pressure and concentration on the yield of a reversible reaction. This has
important consequences for many industrial processes. The further study of the equilibrium
constant, Kc, considers how the mathematical expression for the equilibrium constant enables us
to calculate how an equilibrium yield will be influenced by the concentration of reactants and
products.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 25
3.1.6.1 Chemical equilibria and Le Chatelier's principle
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Many chemical reactions are reversible. PS 1.1

In a reversible reaction at equilibrium: Students could carry out test-tube
equilibrium shifts to show the effect of
• forward and reverse reactions proceed at equal
concentration and temperature (eg
rates
Cu(H2O)62+ with concentrated HCl).
• the concentrations of reactants and products remain
constant
Le Chatelier’s principle.
Le Chatelier's principle can be used to predict the effects
of changes in temperature, pressure and concentration on
the position of equilibrium in homogeneous reactions.
A catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium.
Students should be able to:
• use Le Chatelier’s principle to predict qualitatively
the effect of changes in temperature, pressure and
concentration on the position of equilibrium
• explain why, for a reversible reaction used in an
industrial process, a compromise temperature and
pressure may be used.

26 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.6.2 Equilibrium constant Kc for homogeneous systems

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The equilibrium constant Kc is deduced from the equation MS 0.3

for a reversible reaction.
Students estimate the effect of
The concentration, in mol dm–3, of a species X involved in changing experimental parameters on
the expression for Kc is represented by [X] a measurable value, eg how the value
of Kc would change with temperature,
The value of the equilibrium constant is not affected either
given different specified conditions.
by changes in concentration or addition of a catalyst.
MS 1.1
Students should be able to:
Students report calculations to an
• construct an expression for Kc for a homogeneous
appropriate number of significant
system in equilibrium
figures, given raw data quoted to
• calculate a value for Kc from the equilibrium varying numbers of significant figures.
concentrations for a homogeneous system at
constant temperature Students understand that calculated
• perform calculations involving Kc results can only be reported to the
• predict the qualitative effects of changes of limits of the least accurate
temperature on the value of Kc measurement.
MS 2.2 and 2.3
Students calculate the concentration
of a reagent at equilibrium.
Students calculate the value of an
equilibrium constant Kc
PS 2.3
Students could determine the
equilibrium constant, Kc, for the
reaction of ethanol with ethanoic acid
in the presence of a strong acid
catalyst to ethyl ethanoate.

3.1.7 Oxidation, reduction and redox equations

Redox reactions involve a transfer of electrons from the reducing agent to the oxidising agent. The
change in the oxidation state of an element in a compound or ion is used to identify the element
that has been oxidised or reduced in a given reaction. Separate half-equations are written for the
oxidation or reduction processes. These half-equations can then be combined to give an overall
equation for any redox reaction.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 27
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Oxidation is the process of electron loss and oxidising

agents are electron acceptors.
Reduction is the process of electron gain and reducing
agents are electron donors.
The rules for assigning oxidation states.
Students should be able to:
• work out the oxidation state of an element in a
compound or ion from the formula
• write half-equations identifying the oxidation and
reduction processes in redox reactions
• combine half-equations to give an overall redox
equation.

3.1.8 Thermodynamics (A-level only)

The further study of thermodynamics builds on the Energetics section and is important in
understanding the stability of compounds and why chemical reactions occur. Enthalpy change is
linked with entropy change enabling the free-energy change to be calculated.

28 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.8.1 Born–Haber cycles (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Lattice enthalpy can be defined as either enthalpy of

lattice dissociation or enthalpy of lattice formation.
Born–Haber cycles are used to calculate lattice enthalpies
using the following data:
• enthalpy of formation
• ionisation energy
• enthalpy of atomisation
• bond enthalpy
• electron affinity.
Students should be able to:
• define each of the above terms and lattice enthalpy
• construct Born–Haber cycles to calculate lattice
enthalpies using these enthalpy changes
• construct Born–Haber cycles to calculate one of the
other enthalpy changes
• compare lattice enthalpies from Born–Haber cycles
with those from calculations based on a perfect
ionic model to provide evidence for covalent
character in ionic compounds.
Cycles are used to calculate enthalpies of solution for
ionic compounds from lattice enthalpies and enthalpies of
hydration.
Students should be able to:
• define the term enthalpy of hydration
• perform calculations of an enthalpy change using
these cycles.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 29
3.1.8.2 Gibbs free-energy change, ∆G, and entropy change, ∆S (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

∆H, whilst important, is not sufficient to explain feasible AT a, b and k

change.
PS 3.2
The concept of increasing disorder (entropy change, ∆S).
Students could be asked to find ∆S
∆S accounts for the above deficiency, illustrated by for vaporization of water using a
physical changes and chemical changes. kettle.
The balance between entropy and enthalpy determines MS 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4
the feasibility of a reaction given by the relationship:
Students rearrange the equation ∆G =
∆G = ∆H – T∆S (derivation not required). ∆H – T∆S to find unknown values.
For a reaction to be feasible, the value of ∆G must be MS 3.3
zero or negative.
Students determine ∆S and ∆H from a
Students should be able to: graph of ∆G versus T.
• calculate entropy changes from absolute entropy
values
• use the relationship
∆G = ∆H – T∆S to determine how ∆G varies with
temperature
• use the relationship ∆G = ∆H – T∆S to determine
the temperature at which a reaction becomes
feasible.

3.1.9 Rate equations (A-level only)

In rate equations, the mathematical relationship between rate of reaction and concentration gives
information about the mechanism of a reaction that may occur in several steps.

30 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.9.1 Rate equations (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The rate of a chemical reaction is related to the MS 0.0 and 2.4

concentration of reactants by a rate equation of the form:
Students use given rate data and
Rate = k[A]m [B]n deduce a rate equation, then use
some of the data to calculate the rate
where m and n are the orders of reaction with respect to
constant including units. Rate
reactants A and B and k is the rate constant.
equations could be given and
The orders m and n are restricted to the values 0, 1, and students asked to calculate rate
2. constant or rate.
The rate constant k varies with temperature as shown by MS 3.3 and 3.4
the equation:
Students use a graph of
k= Ae–Ea/RT concentration–time and calculate the
rate constant of a zero-order reaction
where A is a constant, known as the Arrhenius constant,
by determination of the gradient.
Ea is the activation energy and T is the temperature in K.
Students should be able to:
• define the terms order of reaction and rate constant
• perform calculations using the rate equation
• explain the qualitative effect of changes in
temperature on the rate constant k
• perform calculations using the equation k = Ae–Ea/RT
• understand that the equation k = Ae–Ea/RT can be
rearranged into the form ln k = –Ea /RT + ln A and
know how to use this rearranged equation with
experimental data to plot a straight line graph with
slope –Ea/R
These equations and the gas constant, R, will be given
when required.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 31
3.1.9.2 Determination of rate equation (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The rate equation is an experimentally determined AT a, b, k and l

relationship.
PS 2.4 and 3.1
The orders with respect to reactants can provide
Students could determine the order of
information about the mechanism of a reaction.
reaction for a reactant in the iodine
Students should be able to: clock reaction.
• use concentration–time graphs to deduce the rate of MS 3.1
a reaction
Students could be given data to plot
• use initial concentration–time data to deduce the and interpret in terms of order with
initial rate of a reaction respect to a reactant. Alternatively,
• use rate–concentration data or graphs to deduce students could just be given
the order (0, 1 or 2) with respect to a reactant appropriate graphs and asked to
• derive the rate equation for a reaction from the derive order(s).
orders with respect to each of the reactants
MS 3.3 and 3.4
• use the orders with respect to reactants to provide
information about the rate determining/limiting step Students calculate the rate constant
of a reaction. of a zero-order reaction by
determining the gradient of a
concentration–time graph.
MS 3.5
Students plot concentration–time
graphs from collected or supplied
data and draw an appropriate best-fit
curve.
Students draw tangents to such
curves to deduce rates at different
times.

Required practical 7
Measuring the rate of reaction:
• by an initial rate method
• by a continuous monitoring method.

3.1.10 Equilibrium constant Kp for homogeneous systems (A-level

only)
The further study of equilibria considers how the mathematical expression for the equilibrium
constant Kp enables us to calculate how an equilibrium yield will be influenced by the partial
pressures of reactants and products. This has important consequences for many industrial
processes.

32 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

Content Opportunities for skills

development

The equilibrium constant Kp is deduced from the equation MS 1.1

for a reversible reaction occurring in the gas phase. Students report calculations to an
Kp is the equilibrium constant calculated from partial appropriate number of significant
pressures for a system at constant temperature. figures, given raw data quoted to
varying numbers of significant
Students should be able to: figures.
• derive partial pressure from mole fraction and total Students understand that calculated
pressure results can only be reported to the
• construct an expression for Kp for a homogeneous limits of the least accurate
system in equilibrium measurement.
• perform calculations involving Kp
MS 2.2 and 2.3
• predict the qualitative effects of changes in
temperature and pressure on the position of Students calculate the partial
equilibrium pressures of reactants and products
• predict the qualitative effects of changes in at equilibrium.
temperature on the value of Kp Students calculate the value of an
• understand that, whilst a catalyst can affect the rate equilibrium constant Kp
of attainment of an equilibrium, it does not affect the
value of the equilibrium constant.

3.1.11 Electrode potentials and electrochemical cells (A-level only)

Redox reactions take place in electrochemical cells where electrons are transferred from the
reducing agent to the oxidising agent indirectly via an external circuit. A potential difference is
created that can drive an electric current to do work. Electrochemical cells have very important
commercial applications as a portable supply of electricity to power electronic devices such as
mobile phones, tablets and laptops. On a larger scale, they can provide energy to power a vehicle.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 33
3.1.11.1 Electrode potentials and cells (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

IUPAC convention for writing half-equations for electrode AT j and k

reactions.
PS 1.1
The conventional representation of cells.
Students could make simple cells and
Cells are used to measure electrode potentials by use them to measure unknown
reference to the standard hydrogen electrode. electrode potentials.
The importance of the conditions when measuring the AT a, b, j and k
electrode potential, E (Nernst equation not required).
PS 2.1 and 2.4
Standard electrode potential, EƟ, refers to conditions of
Students could be asked to plan and
298 K, 100 kPa and 1.00 mol dm−3 solution of ions.
carry out an experiment to investigate
Standard electrode potentials can be listed as an the effect of changing conditions,
electrochemical series. such as concentration or temperature,
in a voltaic cell such as Zn|Zn2+||Cu2+|
Students should be able to:
Cu
• use EƟ values to predict the direction of simple
AT j and k
redox reactions
• calculate the EMF of a cell PS 2.2
• write and apply the conventional representation of a Students could use EƟ values to
cell. predict the direction of simple redox
reactions, then test these predictions
by simple test-tube reactions.

Required practical 8
Measuring the EMF of an electrochemical cell.

34 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.11.2 Commercial applications of electrochemical cells (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electrochemical cells can be used as a commercial Research opportunity

source of electrical energy. Students could investigate how
The simplified electrode reactions in a lithium cell: knowledge and understanding of
electrochemical cells has evolved
Positive electrode: Li+ + CoO2 + e– → Li+[CoO2]– from the first voltaic battery.
Negative electrode: Li → Li+ + e–
Cells can be non-rechargeable (irreversible),
rechargeable or fuel cells.
Fuel cells are used to generate an electric current and do
not need to be electrically recharged.
The electrode reactions in an alkaline hydrogen–oxygen
fuel cell.
The benefits and risks to society associated with using
these cells.
Students should be able to:
• use given electrode data to deduce the reactions
occurring in non-rechargeable and rechargeable
cells
• deduce the EMF of a cell
• explain how the electrode reactions can be used to
generate an electric current.

3.1.12 Acids and bases (A-level only)

Acids and bases are important in domestic, environmental and industrial contexts. Acidity in
aqueous solutions is caused by hydrogen ions and a logarithmic scale, pH, has been devised to
measure acidity. Buffer solutions, which can be made from partially neutralised weak acids, resist
changes in pH and find many important industrial and biological applications.

3.1.12.1 Brønsted–Lowry acid–base equilibria in aqueous solution (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

An acid is a proton donor.

A base is a proton acceptor.
Acid–base equilibria involve the transfer of protons.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 35
3.1.12.2 Definition and determination of pH (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The concentration of hydrogen ions in aqueous solution MS 0.4

covers a very wide range. Therefore, a logarithmic scale,
Students carry out pH calculations.
the pH scale, is used as a measure of hydrogen ion
concentration. MS 2.5
pH = –log10[H+] Students could be given
concentration values and asked to
Students should be able to:
calculate pH or vice versa.
• convert concentration of hydrogen ions into pH and
vice versa
• calculate the pH of a solution of a strong acid from
its concentration.

3.1.12.3 The ionic product of water, Kw (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Water is slightly dissociated. MS 0.1

Kw is derived from the equilibrium constant for this Students use an appropriate number
dissociation. of decimal places in pH calculations.
Kw = [H+][OH–] Students understand standard form
when applied to areas such as (but
The value of Kw varies with temperature.
not limited to) Kw
Students should be able to:
MS 2.2
• use Kw to calculate the pH of a strong base from its
Students use Kw = [H+][OH–] to find
concentration.
the pH of strong bases.

36 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.1.12.4 Weak acids and bases Ka for weak acids (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Weak acids and weak bases dissociate only slightly in MS 0.0

aqueous solution.
Students carry out pKa calculations
Ka is the dissociation constant for a weak acid. and give appropriate units.
pKa = –log10 Ka MS 0.1
Students should be able to: Students understand standard form
when applied to areas such as (but
• construct an expression for Ka
not limited to) Ka
• perform calculations relating the pH of a weak acid
to the concentration of the acid and the dissociation AT a, c, d, e, f and k
constant, Ka PS 2.3
• convert Ka into pKa and vice versa.
Students could calculate Ka of a weak
acid by measuring the pH at half
neutralisation.

3.1.12.5 pH curves, titrations and indicators (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Titrations of acids with bases. MS 3.2

Students should be able to: AT a, c, d and k
• perform calculations for these titrations based on PS 3.2 and 4.1
experimental results.
Students could plot pH curves to
Typical pH curves for acid–base titrations in all show how pH changes during
combinations of weak and strong monoprotic acids and reactions.
bases.
Students should be able to:
• sketch and explain the shapes of typical pH curves
• use pH curves to select an appropriate indicator.

Required practical 9
Investigate how pH changes when a weak acid reacts
with a strong base and when a strong acid reacts with a
weak base.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 37
3.1.12.6 Buffer action (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

A buffer solution maintains an approximately constant pH, AT a, c, e and k

despite dilution or addition of small amounts of acid or
PS 1.1
base.
Students could be asked to prepare
Acidic buffer solutions contain a weak acid and the salt of
and test a buffer solution with a
that weak acid.
specific pH value.
Basic buffer solutions contain a weak base and the salt of
MS 0.4
that weak base.
Students make appropriate
Applications of buffer solutions.
mathematical approximations in buffer
Students should be able to: calculations.
• explain qualitatively the action of acidic and basic
buffers
• calculate the pH of acidic buffer solutions.

3.2 Inorganic chemistry

3.2.1 Periodicity
The Periodic Table provides chemists with a structured organisation of the known chemical
elements from which they can make sense of their physical and chemical properties. The historical
development of the Periodic Table and models of atomic structure provide good examples of how
scientific ideas and explanations develop over time.

3.2.1.1 Classification
Content Opportunities for skills
development

An element is classified as s, p, d or f block according to

its position in the Periodic Table, which is determined by
its proton number.

38 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.2.1.2 Physical properties of Period 3 elements

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The trends in atomic radius, first ionisation energy and

melting point of the elements Na–Ar
The reasons for these trends in terms of the structure of
and bonding in the elements.
Students should be able to:
• explain the trends in atomic radius and first
ionisation energy
• explain the melting point of the elements in terms of
their structure and bonding.

3.2.2 Group 2, the alkaline earth metals

The elements in Group 2 are called the alkaline earth metals. The trends in the solubilities of the
hydroxides and the sulfates of these elements are linked to their use. Barium sulfate, magnesium
hydroxide and magnesium sulfate have applications in medicines whilst calcium hydroxide is used
in agriculture to change soil pH, which is essential for good crop production and maintaining the
food supply.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 39
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The trends in atomic radius, first ionisation energy and AT c and k

melting point of the elements Mg–Ba
PS 2.2
Students should be able to:
Students could test the reactions of
• explain the trends in atomic radius and first Mg–Ba with water and Mg with steam
ionisation energy and record their results.
• explain the melting point of the elements in terms of AT d and k
their structure and bonding.
PS 2.2
The reactions of the elements Mg–Ba with water.
Students could test the solubility of
The use of magnesium in the extraction of titanium from Group 2 hydroxides by mixing
TiCl4 solutions of soluble Group 2 salts with
The relative solubilities of the hydroxides of the elements sodium hydroxide and record their
Mg–Ba in water. results.
Mg(OH)2 is sparingly soluble. Students could test the solubility of
Group 2 sulfates by mixing solutions
The use of Mg(OH)2 in medicine and of Ca(OH)2 in of soluble Group 2 salts with sulfuric
agriculture. acid and record their results.
The use of CaO or CaCO3 to remove SO2 from flue Students could test for sulfate ions
gases. using acidified barium chloride and
The relative solubilities of the sulfates of the elements record their results.
Mg–Ba in water. Research opportunity
BaSO4 is insoluble. Students could investigate the use of
The use of acidified BaCl2 solution to test for sulfate ions. BaSO4 in medicine.
The use of BaSO4 in medicine.
Students should be able to:
• explain why BaCl2 solution is used to test for sulfate
ions and why it is acidified.

3.2.3 Group 7(17), the halogens

The halogens in Group 7 are very reactive non-metals. Trends in their physical properties are
examined and explained. Fluorine is too dangerous to be used in a school laboratory but the
reactions of chlorine are studied. Challenges in studying the properties of elements in this group
include explaining the trends in ability of the halogens to behave as oxidising agents and the halide
ions to behave as reducing agents.

40 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.2.3.1 Trends in properties

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The trends in electronegativity and boiling point of the AT d and k

halogens.
PS 2.2
Students should be able to:
Students could carry out test-tube
• explain the trend in electronegativity reactions of solutions of the halogens
• explain the trend in the boiling point of the elements (Cl2, Br2, I2) with solutions containing
in terms of their structure and bonding. their halide ions (eg KCl, KBr, KI).
The trend in oxidising ability of the halogens down the Students could record observations
group, including displacement reactions of halide ions in from reactions of NaCl, NaBr and NaI
aqueous solution. with concentrated sulfuric acid.
The trend in reducing ability of the halide ions, including Students could carry out tests for
the reactions of solid sodium halides with concentrated halide ions using acidified silver
sulfuric acid. nitrate, including the use of ammonia
to distinguish the silver halides
The use of acidified silver nitrate solution to identify and formed.
distinguish between halide ions.
The trend in solubility of the silver halides in ammonia.
Students should be able to explain why:
• silver nitrate solution is used to identify halide ions
• the silver nitrate solution is acidified
• ammonia solution is added.

3.2.3.2 Uses of chlorine and chlorate(I)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The reaction of chlorine with water to form chloride ions Research opportunity
and chlorate(I) ions.
Students could investigate the
The reaction of chlorine with water to form chloride ions treatment of drinking water with
and oxygen. chlorine.
Appreciate that society assesses the advantages and Students could investigate the
disadvantages when deciding if chemicals should be addition of sodium fluoride to water
added to water supplies. supplies.
The use of chlorine in water treatment.
Appreciate that the benefits to health of water treatment
by chlorine outweigh its toxic effects.
The reaction of chlorine with cold, dilute, aqueous NaOH
and uses of the solution formed.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 41
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Required practical 4
Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify:
• cations – Group 2, NH4+
• anions – Group 7 (halide ions), OH–, CO32–, SO42–

3.2.4 Properties of Period 3 elements and their oxides (A-level only)

The reactions of the Period 3 elements with oxygen are considered. The pH of the solutions
formed when the oxides react with water illustrates further trends in properties across this period.
Explanations of these reactions offer opportunities to develop an in-depth understanding of how
and why these reactions occur.

Content Opportunities for skills development

The reactions of Na and Mg with water. AT a, c and k

The trends in the reactions of the elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, PS 2.2
P and S with oxygen, limited to the formation of Na2O,
Students could carry out reactions of
MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2 and SO3
elements with oxygen and test the pH
The trend in the melting point of the highest oxides of the of the resulting oxides.
elements Na–S
The reactions of the oxides of the elements Na–S with
water, limited to Na2O, MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, P4O10, SO2
and SO3, and the pH of the solutions formed.
The structures of the acids and the anions formed when
P4O10, SO2 and SO3 react with water.
Students should be able to:
• explain the trend in the melting point of the oxides of
the elements Na–S in terms of their structure and
bonding
• explain the trends in the reactions of the oxides with
water in terms of the type of bonding present in
each oxide
• write equations for the reactions that occur between
the oxides of the elements Na–S and given acids
and bases.

3.2.5 Transition metals (A-level only)

The 3d block contains 10 elements, all of which are metals. Unlike the metals in Groups 1 and 2,
the transition metals Ti to Cu form coloured compounds and compounds where the transition metal
exists in different oxidation states. Some of these metals are familiar as catalysts. The properties of
these elements are studied in this section with opportunities for a wide range of practical
investigations.

42 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.2.5.1 General properties of transition metals (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metal characteristics of elements Ti–Cu arise

from an incomplete d sub-level in atoms or ions.
The characteristic properties include:
• complex formation
• formation of coloured ions
• variable oxidation state
• catalytic activity.
A ligand is a molecule or ion that forms a co-ordinate
bond with a transition metal by donating a pair of
electrons.
A complex is a central metal atom or ion surrounded by
ligands.
Co-ordination number is number of co-ordinate bonds to
the central metal atom or ion.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 43
3.2.5.2 Substitution reactions (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

H2O, NH3 and Cl− can act as monodentate ligands. AT d and k

The ligands NH3 and H2O are similar in size and are PS 1.2
uncharged.
Students could carry out test-tube
Exchange of the ligands NH3 and H2O occurs without reactions of complexes with
change of co-ordination number (eg Co2+ and Cu2+). monodentate, bidentate and
multidentate ligands to compare ease
Substitution may be incomplete (eg the formation of
of substitution.
[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+).
AT d and k
The Cl− ligand is larger than the uncharged ligands NH3
and H2O PS 2.2
Exchange of the ligand H2O by Cl– can involve a change Students could carry out test-tube
of co-ordination number (eg Co2+, Cu2+ and Fe3+). reactions of solutions of metal aqua
ions with ammonia or concentrated
Ligands can be bidentate (eg H2NCH2CH2NH2 and
hydrochloric acid.
C2O42–).
Ligands can be multidentate (eg EDTA4–).
Haem is an iron(II) complex with a multidentate ligand.
Oxygen forms a co-ordinate bond to Fe(II) in
haemoglobin, enabling oxygen to be transported in the
blood.
Carbon monoxide is toxic because it replaces oxygen co-
ordinately bonded to Fe(II) in haemoglobin.
Bidentate and multidentate ligands replace monodentate
ligands from complexes. This is called the chelate effect.
Students should be able to:
• explain the chelate effect, in terms of the balance
between the entropy and enthalpy change in these
reactions.

44 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.2.5.3 Shapes of complex ions (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metal ions commonly form octahedral MS 4.1 and 4.2

complexes with small ligands (eg H2O and NH3).
Students understand and draw the
Octahedral complexes can display cis–trans isomerism (a shape of complex ions.
special case of E–Z isomerism) with monodentate ligands
MS 4.3
and optical isomerism with bidentate ligands.
Students understand the origin of cis–
Transition metal ions commonly form tetrahedral
trans and optical isomerism.
complexes with larger ligands (eg Cl–).
Students draw cis–trans and optical
Square planar complexes are also formed and can
isomers.
display cis–trans isomerism.
Students describe the types of
Cisplatin is the cis isomer.
stereoisomerism shown by molecules/
Ag+ forms the linear complex [Ag(NH3)2]+ as used in complexes.
Tollens’ reagent.

3.2.5.4 Formation of coloured ions (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metal ions can be identified by their colour. PS 3.1 and 3.2
Colour arises when some of the wavelengths of visible Students could determine the
light are absorbed and the remaining wavelengths of light concentration of a solution of
are transmitted or reflected. copper(II) ions by colorimetry.
d electrons move from the ground state to an excited MS 3.1 and 3.2
state when light is absorbed.
Students determine the concentration
The energy difference between the ground state and the of a solution from a graph of
excited state of the d electrons is given by: absorption versus concentration.
∆E = hν = hc/λ AT a, e and k
Changes in oxidation state, co-ordination number and Students could determine the
ligand alter ∆E and this leads to a change in colour. concentration of a coloured complex
ion by colorimetry.
The absorption of visible light is used in spectroscopy.
A simple colorimeter can be used to determine the
concentration of coloured ions in solution.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 45
3.2.5.5 Variable oxidation states (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition elements show variable oxidation states. AT d and k

Vanadium species in oxidation states IV, III and II are PS 1.2
formed by the reduction of vanadate(V) ions by zinc in
Students could reduce vanadate(V)
acidic solution.
with zinc in acidic solution.
The redox potential for a transition metal ion changing
AT b, d and k
from a higher to a lower oxidation state is influenced by
pH and by the ligand. PS 4.1
The reduction of [Ag(NH3)2]+ (Tollens’ reagent) to metallic Students could carry out test-tube
silver is used to distinguish between aldehydes and reactions of Tollens' reagent to
ketones. distinguish aldehydes and ketones.
The redox titrations of Fe2+ and C2O42– with MnO4– AT a, d, e and k
Students should be able to: PS 2.3, 3.2 and 3.3
• perform calculations for these titrations and similar Students could carry out redox
redox reactions. titrations.
Examples include, finding:
• the mass of iron in an iron tablet
• the percentage of iron in steel
• the Mr of hydrated ammonium
iron(II) sulfate
• the Mr of ethanedioic acid
• the concentration of H2O2 in
hair bleach.

46 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.2.5.6 Catalysts (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Transition metals and their compounds can act as AT d and k

heterogeneous and homogeneous catalysts.
PS 4.1
A heterogeneous catalyst is in a different phase from the
Students could investigate Mn2+ as
reactants and the reaction occurs at active sites on the
the autocatalyst in the reaction
surface.
between ethanedioic acid and
The use of a support medium to maximise the surface acidified potassium manganate(VII).
area of a heterogeneous catalyst and minimise the cost.
V2O5 acts as a heterogeneous catalyst in the Contact
process.
Fe is used as a heterogeneous catalyst in the Haber
process.
Heterogeneous catalysts can become poisoned by
impurities that block the active sites and consequently
have reduced efficiency; this has a cost implication.
A homogeneous catalyst is in the same phase as the
reactants.
When catalysts and reactants are in the same phase, the
reaction proceeds through an intermediate species.
Students should be able to:
• explain the importance of variable oxidation states
in catalysis
• explain, with the aid of equations, how V2O5 acts as
a catalyst in the Contact process
• explain, with the aid of equations, how Fe2+ ions
catalyse the reaction between I− and S2O82–
• explain, with the aid of equations, how Mn2+ ions
autocatalyse the reaction between C2O42– and
MnO4–

3.2.6 Reactions of ions in aqueous solution (A-level only)

The reactions of transition metal ions in aqueous solution provide a practical opportunity for
students to show and to understand how transition metal ions can be identified by test-tube
reactions in the laboratory.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 47
Content Opportunities for skills
development

In aqueous solution, the following metal-aqua ions are AT d and K

formed:
PS 1.2
[M(H2O)6 ]2+, limited to M = Fe and Cu
Students could carry out test-tube
[M(H2O)6 ]3+, limited to M = Al and Fe reactions of metal-aqua ions with
NaOH, NH3 and Na2CO3
The acidity of [M(H2O)6]3+ is greater than that of
[M(H2O)6]2+ AT d and k
Some metal hydroxides show amphoteric character by PS 2.2
dissolving in both acids and bases (eg hydroxides of
Students could carry out test-tube
Al3+).
reactions to identify the positive and
Students should be able to: negative ions in this specification.
• explain, in terms of the charge/size ratio of the PS 1.1
metal ion, why the acidity of [M(H2O)6]3+ is greater
Students could identify unknown
than that of [M(H2O)6]2+
substances using reagents.
• describe and explain the simple test-tube reactions
of: M2+(aq) ions, limited to M = Fe and Cu, and of
M3+(aq) ions, limited to M = Al and Fe, with the
bases OH–, NH3 and CO32–

Required practical 11
Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify transition
metal ions in aqueous solution.

3.3 Organic chemistry

3.3.1 Introduction to organic chemistry
Organic chemistry is the study of the millions of covalent compounds of the element carbon.
These structurally diverse compounds vary from naturally occurring petroleum fuels to DNA and
the molecules in living systems. Organic compounds also demonstrate human ingenuity in the vast
range of synthetic materials created by chemists. Many of these compounds are used as drugs,
medicines and plastics.
Organic compounds are named using the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) system and the structure or formula of molecules can be represented in various different
ways. Organic mechanisms are studied, which enable reactions to be explained.
In the search for sustainable chemistry, for safer agrochemicals and for new materials to match the
desire for new technology, Chemistry plays the dominant role.

48 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.1.1 Nomenclature
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Organic compounds can be represented by:

• empirical formula
• molecular formula
• general formula
• structural formula
• displayed formula
• skeletal formula.
The characteristics of a homologous series, a series of
compounds containing the same functional group.
IUPAC rules for nomenclature.
Students should be able to:
• draw structural, displayed and skeletal formulas for
given organic compounds
• apply IUPAC rules for nomenclature to name
organic compounds limited to chains and rings with
up to six carbon atoms each
• apply IUPAC rules for nomenclature to draw the
structure of an organic compound from the IUPAC
name limited to chains and rings with up to six
carbon atoms each.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 49
3.3.1.2 Reaction mechanisms
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Reactions of organic compounds can be explained using

mechanisms.
Free-radical mechanisms:
• the unpaired electron in a radical is represented by
a dot
• the use of curly arrows is not required for radical
mechanisms.
Students should be able to:
• write balanced equations for the steps in a free-
radical mechanism.

Other mechanisms:
• the formation of a covalent bond is shown by a curly
arrow that starts from a lone electron pair or from
another covalent bond
• the breaking of a covalent bond is shown by a curly
arrow starting from the bond.
Students should be able to:
• outline mechanisms by drawing the structures of the
species involved and curly arrows to represent the
movement of electron pairs.

3.3.1.3 Isomerism
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Structural isomerism. MS 4.2

Stereoisomerism. Students could be given the structure
of one isomer and asked to draw
E–Z isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism and occurs
further isomers. Various
as a result of restricted rotation about the planar carbon–
representations could be used to give
carbon double bond.
the opportunity to identify those that
Cahn–Ingold–Prelog (CIP) priority rules. are isomeric.
Students should be able to: MS 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3
• define the term structural isomer Students understand the origin of E–Z
• draw the structures of chain, position and functional isomerism.
group isomers Students draw different forms of
• define the term stereoisomer isomers.
• draw the structural formulas of E and Z isomers
• apply the CIP priority rules to E and Z isomers.

50 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.2 Alkanes
Alkanes are the main constituent of crude oil, which is an important raw material for the chemical
industry. Alkanes are also used as fuels and the environmental consequences of this use are
considered in this section.

3.3.2.1 Fractional distillation of crude oil

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. AT a, d and k

Petroleum is a mixture consisting mainly of alkane PS 1.2
hydrocarbons that can be separated by fractional
Fractional distillation of a crude oil
distillation.
substitute.

3.3.2.2 Modification of alkanes by cracking

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Cracking involves breaking C–C bonds in alkanes.

Thermal cracking takes place at high pressure and high
temperature and produces a high percentage of alkenes
(mechanism not required).
Catalytic cracking takes place at a slight pressure, high
temperature and in the presence of a zeolite catalyst and
is used mainly to produce motor fuels and aromatic
hydrocarbons (mechanism not required).
Students should be able to:
• explain the economic reasons for cracking alkanes.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 51
3.3.2.3 Combustion of alkanes
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkanes are used as fuels.

Combustion of alkanes and other organic compounds can
be complete or incomplete.
The internal combustion engine produces a number of
pollutants including NOx, CO, carbon and unburned
hydrocarbons.
These gaseous pollutants from internal combustion
engines can be removed using catalytic converters.
Combustion of hydrocarbons containing sulfur leads to
sulfur dioxide that causes air pollution.
Students should be able to:
• explain why sulfur dioxide can be removed from flue
gases using calcium oxide or calcium carbonate.

3.3.2.4 Chlorination of alkanes

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The reaction of methane with chlorine.

Students should be able to:
• explain this reaction as a free-radical substitution
mechanism involving initiation, propagation and
termination steps.

3.3.3 Halogenoalkanes
Halogenoalkanes are much more reactive than alkanes. They have many uses, including as
refrigerants, as solvents and in pharmaceuticals. The use of some halogenoalkanes has been
restricted due to the effect of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the atmosphere.

52 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.3.1 Nucleophilic substitution

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Halogenoalkanes contain polar bonds. AT a, b and k

Halogenoalkanes undergo substitution reactions with the PS 4.1
nucleophiles OH–, CN– and NH3
Students could follow instructions
Students should be able to: when carrying out test-tube hydrolysis
of halogenoalkanes to show their
• outline the nucleophilic substitution mechanisms of
relative rates of reaction.
these reactions
• explain why the carbon–halogen bond enthalpy AT d, g and k
influences the rate of reaction. Students could prepare a
chloroalkane, purifying the product
using a separating funnel and
distillation.

3.3.3.2 Elimination
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The concurrent substitution and elimination reactions of a

halogenoalkane (eg 2-bromopropane with potassium
hydroxide).
Students should be able to:
• explain the role of the reagent as both nucleophile
and base
• outline the mechanisms of these reactions.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 53
3.3.3.3 Ozone depletion
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Ozone, formed naturally in the upper atmosphere, is Research opportunity

beneficial because it absorbs ultraviolet radiation.
Students could investigate the role of
Chlorine atoms are formed in the upper atmosphere when chemists in the introduction of
ultraviolet radiation causes C–Cl bonds in legislation to ban the use of CFCs
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) to break. and in finding replacements.
Chlorine atoms catalyse the decomposition of ozone and
contribute to the hole in the ozone layer.
Appreciate that results of research by different groups in
the scientific community provided evidence for legislation
to ban the use of CFCs as solvents and refrigerants.
Chemists have now developed alternative chlorine-free
compounds.
Students should be able to:
• use equations, such as the following, to explain how
chlorine atoms catalyse decomposition of ozone:
Cl• + O3 → ClO• + O2 and ClO• + O3 → 2O2 + Cl•

3.3.4 Alkenes
In alkenes, the high electron density of the carbon–carbon double bond leads to attack on these
molecules by electrophiles. This section also covers the mechanism of addition to the double bond
and introduces addition polymers, which are commercially important and have many uses in
modern society.

3.3.4.1 Structure, bonding and reactivity

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Bonding in alkenes involves a double covalent bond, a
centre of high electron density.

54 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.4.2 Addition reactions of alkenes

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with HBr, AT d and k

H2SO4 and Br2 PS 4.1
The use of bromine to test for unsaturation. Students could test organic
The formation of major and minor products in addition compounds for unsaturation using
reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes. bromine water and record their
observations.
Students should be able to:
• outline the mechanisms for these reactions
• explain the formation of major and minor products
by reference to the relative stabilities of primary,
secondary and tertiary carbocation intermediates.

3.3.4.3 Addition polymers

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Addition polymers are formed from alkenes and AT k

substituted alkenes. PS 1.2
The repeating unit of addition polymers. Making poly(phenylethene) from
IUPAC rules for naming addition polymers. phenylethene.

Addition polymers are unreactive.

Appreciate that knowledge and understanding of the
production and properties of polymers has developed
over time.
Typical uses of poly(chloroethene), commonly known as
PVC, and how its properties can be modified using a
plasticiser.
Students should be able to:
• draw the repeating unit from a monomer structure
• draw the repeating unit from a section of the
polymer chain
• draw the structure of the monomer from a section of
the polymer
• explain why addition polymers are unreactive
• explain the nature of intermolecular forces between
molecules of polyalkenes.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 55
3.3.5 Alcohols
Alcohols have many scientific, medicinal and industrial uses. Ethanol is one such alcohol and it is
produced using different methods, which are considered in this section. Ethanol can be used as a
biofuel.

3.3.5.1 Alcohol production

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alcohols are produced industrially by hydration of alkenes AT a, d and k

in the presence of an acid catalyst. PS 1.2
Ethanol is produced industrially by fermentation of Students could produce ethanol by
glucose. The conditions for this process. fermentation, followed by purification
Ethanol produced industrially by fermentation is by fractional distillation.
separated by fractional distillation and can then be used
as a biofuel.
Students should be able to:
• explain the meaning of the term biofuel
• justify the conditions used in the production of
ethanol by fermentation of glucose
• write equations to support the statement that
ethanol produced by fermentation is a carbon
neutral fuel and give reasons why this statement is
not valid
• outline the mechanism for the formation of an
alcohol by the reaction of an alkene with steam in
the presence of an acid catalyst
• discuss the environmental (including ethical) issues
linked to decision making about biofuel use.

56 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.5.2 Oxidation of alcohols

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary and tertiary. AT b, d and k

Primary alcohols can be oxidised to aldehydes which can Students could carry out the
be further oxidised to carboxylic acids. preparation of an aldehyde by the
oxidation of a primary alcohol.
Secondary alcohols can be oxidised to ketones.
Students could carry out the
Tertiary alcohols are not easily oxidised. preparation of a carboxylic acid by the
Acidified potassium dichromate(VI) is a suitable oxidising oxidation of a primary alcohol.
agent.
Students should be able to:
• write equations for these oxidation reactions
(equations showing [O] as oxidant are acceptable)
• explain how the method used to oxidise a primary
alcohol determines whether an aldehyde or
carboxylic acid is obtained
• use chemical tests to distinguish between
aldehydes and ketones including Fehling’s solution
and Tollens’ reagent.

3.3.5.3 Elimination
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Alkenes can be formed from alcohols by acid-catalysed AT b, d, g and k

elimination reactions.
PS 4.1
Alkenes produced by this method can be used to produce
Students could carry out the
addition polymers without using monomers derived from
preparation of cyclohexene from
crude oil.
cyclohexanol, including purification
Students should be able to: using a separating funnel and by
distillation.
• outline the mechanism for the elimination of water
from alcohols.

Required practical 5
Distillation of a product from a reaction.

3.3.6 Organic analysis

Our understanding of organic molecules, their structure and the way they react, has been
enhanced by organic analysis. This section considers some of the analytical techniques used by
chemists, including test-tube reactions and spectroscopic techniques.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 57
3.3.6.1 Identification of functional groups by test-tube reactions
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The reactions of functional groups listed in the AT b, d and k

specification.
PS 2.2, 2.3 and 4.1
Students should be able to:
Students could carry out test-tube
• identify the functional groups using reactions in the reactions in the specification to
specification. distinguish alcohols, aldehydes,
alkenes and carboxylic acids.

Required practical 6
Tests for alcohol, aldehyde, alkene and carboxylic acid.

3.3.6.2 Mass spectrometry

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Mass spectrometry can be used to determine the

molecular formula of a compound.
Students should be able to:
• use precise atomic masses and the precise
molecular mass to determine the molecular formula
of a compound.

3.3.6.3 Infrared spectroscopy

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Bonds in a molecule absorb infrared radiation at Students should be able to use data
characteristic wavenumbers. in the Chemistry Data Sheet or
Booklet to suggest possible structures
‘Fingerprinting’ allows identification of a molecule by
for molecules.
comparison of spectra.
Students should be able to:
• use infrared spectra and the Chemistry Data Sheet
or Booklet to identify particular bonds, and therefore
functional groups, and also to identify impurities.
The link between absorption of infrared radiation by
bonds in CO2, methane and water vapour and global
warming.

58 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.7 Optical isomerism (A-level only)

Compounds that contain an asymmetric carbon atom form stereoisomers that differ in their effect
on plane polarised light. This type of isomerism is called optical isomerism.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Optical isomerism is a form of stereoisomerism and MS 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3

occurs as a result of chirality in molecules, limited to
Students could be asked to recognise
molecules with a single chiral centre.
the presence of a chiral centre in a
An asymmetric carbon atom is chiral and gives rise to given structure in 2D or 3D forms.
optical isomers (enantiomers), which exist as non super- They could also be asked to draw the
imposable mirror images and differ in their effect on plane 3D representation of chiral centres in
polarised light. various species.
A mixture of equal amounts of enantiomers is called a Students understand the origin of
racemic mixture (racemate). optical isomerism.
Students should be able to: AT a and k
• draw the structural formulas and displayed formulas PS 1.2
of enantiomers
Passing polarised light through a
• understand how racemic mixtures (racemates) are solution of sucrose.
formed and why they are optically inactive.

3.3.8 Aldehydes and ketones (A-level only)

Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivatives all contain the carbonyl group which is
attacked by nucleophiles. This section includes the addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 59
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Aldehydes are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids. AT b, d and k

Chemical tests to distinguish between aldehydes and PS 2.2
ketones including Fehling’s solution and Tollens’ reagent.
Students could carry out test-tube
Aldehydes can be reduced to primary alcohols, and reactions of Tollens’ reagent and
ketones to secondary alcohols, using NaBH4 in aqueous Fehling’s solution to distinguish
solution. These reduction reactions are examples of aldehydes and ketones.
nucleophilic addition.
The nucleophilic addition reactions of carbonyl
compounds with KCN, followed by dilute acid, to produce
hydroxynitriles.
Aldehydes and unsymmetrical ketones form mixtures of
enantiomers when they react with KCN followed by dilute
acid.
The hazards of using KCN.
Students should be able to:
• write overall equations for reduction reactions using
[H] as the reductant
• outline the nucleophilic addition mechanism for
reduction reactions with NaBH4 (the nucleophile
should be shown as H–)
• write overall equations for the formation of
hydroxynitriles using HCN
• outline the nucleophilic addition mechanism for the
reaction with KCN followed by dilute acid
• explain why nucleophilic addition reactions of KCN,
followed by dilute acid, can produce a mixture of
enantiomers.

3.3.9 Carboxylic acids and derivatives (A-level only)

Carboxylic acids are weak acids but strong enough to liberate carbon dioxide from carbonates.
Esters occur naturally in vegetable oils and animal fats. Important products obtained from esters
include biodiesel, soap and glycerol.

60 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.9.1 Carboxylic acids and esters (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The structures of: AT b, d, g and k

• carboxylic acids PS 4.1
• esters. Students could make esters by
Carboxylic acids are weak acids but will liberate CO2 from reacting alcohols with carboxylic
carbonates. acids, purifying the product using a
separating funnel and by distillation.
Carboxylic acids and alcohols react, in the presence of an
acid catalyst, to give esters. AT b, d, g, h and k
Common uses of esters (eg in solvents, plasticisers, Students could identify an ester by
perfumes and food flavourings). measuring its boiling point, followed
by hydrolysis to form the carboxylic
Vegetable oils and animal fats are esters of acid, which is purified by
propane-1,2,3-triol (glycerol). recrystallisation, and determine its
Esters can be hydrolysed in acid or alkaline conditions to melting point.
form alcohols and carboxylic acids or salts of carboxylic AT b, c, d and k
acids.
Students could make soap.
Vegetable oils and animal fats can be hydrolysed in
alkaline conditions to give soap (salts of long-chain AT b and k
carboxylic acids) and glycerol. Students could make biodiesel.
Biodiesel is a mixture of methyl esters of long-chain
carboxylic acids.
Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable oils with
methanol in the presence of a catalyst.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 61
3.3.9.2 Acylation (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The structures of: AT d and k

• acid anhydrides PS 2.2
• acyl chlorides Students could record observations
• amides. from reaction of ethanoyl chloride and
The nucleophilic addition–elimination reactions of water, ethanoic anhydride with water,
alcohols, ammonia and primary amines with acyl ethanol, ammonia and phenylamine.
chlorides and acid anhydrides. AT b, d, g and h
The industrial advantages of ethanoic anhydride over PS 2.1, 2.3 and 4.1
ethanoyl chloride in the manufacture of the drug aspirin.
Students could carry out the
Students should be able to outline the mechanism of preparation of aspirin, purification by
nucleophilic addition–elimination reactions of acyl recrystallisation and determination of
chlorides with water, alcohols, ammonia and primary its melting point.
amines.
Students could carry out the
purification of impure benzoic acid
and determination of its melting point.

Required practical 10
Preparation of:
• a pure organic solid and test of its purity
• a pure organic liquid.

3.3.10 Aromatic chemistry (A-level only)

Aromatic chemistry takes benzene as an example of this type of molecule and looks at the
structure of the benzene ring and its substitution reactions.

3.3.10.1 Bonding (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The nature of the bonding in a benzene ring, limited to

planar structure and bond length intermediate between
single and double.
Delocalisation of p electrons makes benzene more stable
than the theoretical molecule cyclohexa-1,3,5-triene.
Students should be able to:
• use thermochemical evidence from enthalpies of
hydrogenation to account for this extra stability
• explain why substitution reactions occur in
preference to addition reactions.

62 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.10.2 Electrophilic substitution (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Electrophilic attack on benzene rings results in AT b, d, g and h

substitution, limited to monosubstitutions.
PS 2.1, 2.3 and 4.1
Nitration is an important step in synthesis, including the
Students could carry out the
manufacture of explosives and formation of amines.
preparation of methyl 3-nitrobenzoate
Friedel–Crafts acylation reactions are also important by nitration of methyl benzoate,
steps in synthesis. purification by recrystallisation and
determination of melting point.
Students should be able to outline the electrophilic
substitution mechanisms of:
• nitration, including the generation of the nitronium
ion
• acylation using AlCl3 as a catalyst.

3.3.11 Amines (A-level only)

Amines are compounds based on ammonia where hydrogen atoms have been replaced by alkyl or
aryl groups. This section includes their reactions as nucleophiles.

3.3.11.1 Preparation (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Primary aliphatic amines can be prepared by the reaction

of ammonia with halogenoalkanes and by the reduction of
nitriles.
Aromatic amines, prepared by the reduction of nitro
compounds, are used in the manufacture of dyes.

3.3.11.2 Base properties (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Amines are weak bases.

The difference in base strength between ammonia,
primary aliphatic and primary aromatic amines.
Students should be able to:
• explain the difference in base strength in terms of
the availability of the lone pair of electrons on the N
atom.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 63
3.3.11.3 Nucleophilic properties (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Amines are nucleophiles.

The nucleophilic substitution reactions of ammonia and
amines with halogenoalkanes to form primary, secondary,
tertiary amines and quaternary ammonium salts.
The use of quaternary ammonium salts as cationic
surfactants.
The nucleophilic addition–elimination reactions of
ammonia and primary amines with acyl chlorides and acid
anhydrides.
Students should be able to outline the mechanisms of:
• these nucleophilic substitution reactions
• the nucleophilic addition–elimination reactions of
ammonia and primary amines with acyl chlorides.

3.3.12 Polymers (A-level only)

The study of polymers is extended to include condensation polymers. The ways in which
condensation polymers are formed are studied, together with their properties and typical uses.
Problems associated with the reuse or disposal of both addition and condensation polymers are
considered.

64 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.12.1 Condensation polymers (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Condensation polymers are formed by reactions between: AT k

• dicarboxylic acids and diols PS 1.2
• dicarboxylic acids and diamines Making nylon 6,6
• amino acids.
The repeating units in polyesters (eg Terylene) and
polyamides (eg nylon 6,6 and Kevlar) and the linkages
between these repeating units.
Typical uses of these polymers.
Students should be able to:
• draw the repeating unit from monomer structure(s)
• draw the repeating unit from a section of the
polymer chain
• draw the structure(s) of the monomer(s) from a
section of the polymer
• explain the nature of the intermolecular forces
between molecules of condensation polymers.

3.3.12.2 Biodegradability and disposal of polymers (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Polyalkenes are chemically inert and non-biodegradable. Research opportunity

Polyesters and polyamides can be broken down by Students could research problems
hydrolysis and are biodegradable. associated with the disposal of
different polymers.
The advantages and disadvantages of different methods
of disposal of polymers, including recycling.
Students should be able to:
• explain why polyesters and polyamides can be
hydrolysed but polyalkenes cannot.

3.3.13 Amino acids, proteins and DNA (A-level only)

Amino acids, proteins and DNA are the molecules of life. In this section, the structure and bonding
in these molecules and the way they interact is studied. Drug action is also considered.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 65
3.3.13.1 Amino acids (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Amino acids have both acidic and basic properties,

including the formation of zwitterions.
Students should be able to draw the structures of amino
acids as zwitterions and the ions formed from amino
acids:
• in acid solution
• in alkaline solution.

3.3.13.2 Proteins (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Proteins are sequences of amino acids joined by peptide

links.
The importance of hydrogen bonding and sulfur–sulfur
bonds in proteins.
The primary, secondary (α-helix and β–pleated sheets)
and tertiary structure of proteins.
Hydrolysis of the peptide link produces the constituent
amino acids.
Amino acids can be separated and identified by thin-layer
chromatography.
Amino acids can be located on a chromatogram using
developing agents such as ninhydrin or ultraviolet light
and identified by their Rf values.
Students should be able to:
• draw the structure of a peptide formed from up to
three amino acids
• draw the structure of the amino acids formed by
hydrolysis of a peptide
• identify primary, secondary and tertiary structures in
diagrams
• explain how these structures are maintained by
hydrogen bonding and S–S bonds
• calculate Rf values from a chromatogram.

66 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

3.3.13.3 Enzymes (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

Enzymes are proteins.

The action of enzymes as catalysts, including the concept
of a stereospecific active site that binds to a substrate
molecule.
The principle of a drug acting as an enzyme inhibitor by
blocking the active site.
Computers can be used to help design such drugs.
Students should be able to:
• explain why a stereospecific active site can only
bond to one enantiomeric form of a substrate or
drug.

3.3.13.4 DNA (A-level only)

Content Opportunities for skills
development

The structures of the phosphate ion, 2-deoxyribose (a

pentose sugar) and the four bases adenine, cytosine,
guanine and thymine are given in the Chemistry Data
Booklet.
A nucleotide is made up from a phosphate ion bonded to
2-deoxyribose which is in turn bonded to one of the four
bases adenine, cytosine, guanine and thymine.
A single strand of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a
polymer of nucleotides linked by covalent bonds between
the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the 2-
deoxyribose of another nucleotide. This results in a sugar-
phosphate-sugar-phosphate polymer chain with bases
attached to the sugars in the chain.
DNA exists as two complementary strands arranged in
the form of a double helix.
Students should be able to:
• explain how hydrogen bonding between base pairs
leads to the two complementary strands of DNA.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 67
3.3.13.5 Action of anticancer drugs (A-level only)
Content Opportunities for skills
development

The Pt(II) complex cisplatin is used as an anticancer drug.

Cisplatin prevents DNA replication in cancer cells by a
ligand replacement reaction with DNA in which a bond is
formed between platinum and a nitrogen atom on
guanine.
Appreciate that society needs to assess the balance
between the benefits and the adverse effects of drugs,
such as the anticancer drug cisplatin.
Students should be able to:
• explain why cisplatin prevents DNA replication
• explain why such drugs can have adverse effects.

3.3.14 Organic synthesis (A-level only)

The formation of new organic compounds by multi-step syntheses using reactions included in the
specification is covered in this section.

Content Opportunities for skills

development

The synthesis of an organic compound can involve

several steps.
Students should be able to:
• explain why chemists aim to design processes that
do not require a solvent and that use non-
hazardous starting materials
• explain why chemists aim to design production
methods with fewer steps that have a high
percentage atom economy
• use reactions in this specification to devise a
synthesis, with up to four steps, for an organic
compound.

3.3.15 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (A-level only)

Chemists use a variety of techniques to deduce the structure of compounds. In this section,
nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is added to mass spectrometry and infrared
spectroscopy as an analytical technique. The emphasis is on the use of analytical data to solve
problems rather than on spectroscopic theory.

68 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

Content Opportunities for skills

development

Appreciation that scientists have developed a range of Students should be able to use data
analytical techniques which together enable the structures in the Chemistry Data Booklet to
of new compounds to be confirmed. suggest possible structures for
molecules.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) gives information
about the position of 13C or 1H atoms in a molecule.
13C NMR gives simpler spectra than 1H NMR.
The use of the δ scale for recording chemical shift.
Chemical shift depends on the molecular environment.
Integrated spectra indicate the relative numbers of 1H
atoms in different environments.
1H NMR spectra are obtained using samples dissolved in
deuterated solvents or CCl4
The use of tetramethylsilane (TMS) as a standard.
Students should be able to:
• explain why TMS is a suitable substance to use as
a standard
• use 1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra and chemical
shift data from the Chemistry Data Booklet to
suggest possible structures or part structures for
molecules
• use integration data from 1H NMR spectra to
determine the relative numbers of equivalent
protons in the molecule
• use the n+1 rule to deduce the spin–spin splitting
patterns of adjacent, non-equivalent protons, limited
to doublet, triplet and quartet formation in aliphatic
compounds.

3.3.16 Chromatography (A-level only)

Chromatography provides an important method of separating and identifying components in a
mixture. Different types of chromatography are used depending on the composition of mixture to
be separated.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 69
Content Opportunities for skills
development

Chromatography can be used to separate and identify the AT a, i and k

components in a mixture.
PS 1.2, 3.2 and 4.1
Types of chromatography include:
Students could use thin-layer
• thin-layer chromatography (TLC) – a plate is coated chromatography to identify
with a solid and a solvent moves up the plate analgesics.
• column chromatography (CC) – a column is packed Students could use thin-layer
with a solid and a solvent moves down the column chromatography to identify transition
• gas chromatography (GC) – a column is packed metal ions in a solution.
with a solid or with a solid coated by a liquid, and a
gas is passed through the column under pressure at
high temperature.
Separation depends on the balance between solubility in
the moving phase and retention by the stationary phase.
Retention times and Rf values are used to identify
different substances.
The use of mass spectrometry to analyse the components
separated by GC.
Students should be able to:
• calculate Rf values from a chromatogram
• compare retention times and Rf values with
standards to identify different substances.

Required practical 12
Separation of species by thin-layer chromatography.

70 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

4 Scheme of assessment
Find past papers and mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at
aqa.org.uk/pastpapers
The AS specification is designed to be taken over one or two years with all assessments taken at
the end of the course. The A-level specification is designed to be taken over two years with all
assessments taken at the end of the course.
Assessments and certification for the AS specification are available for the first time in May/June
and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
Assessments and certification for the A-level specification are available for the first time in May/
June and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
These are linear qualifications. In order to achieve the award, students must complete all exams in
May/June in a single year. All assessments must be taken in the same series.
Questions for these specifications will be set which require students to demonstrate:
• their knowledge and understanding of the content developed in one section or topic,
including the associated mathematical and practical skills or
• the ability to apply mathematical and practical skills to areas of content they are not normally
developed in or
• the ability to draw together different areas of knowledge and understanding within one
answer.
A range of question types will be used, including those that require extended responses. Extended
response questions will allow students to demonstrate their ability to construct and develop a
sustained line of reasoning which is coherent, relevant, substantiated and logically structured.
Extended responses may be in written English, extended calculations, or a combination of both, as
appropriate to the question.
All materials are available in English only.

4.1 Aims
Courses based on these specifications should encourage students to:
• develop their interest in and enthusiasm for the subject, including developing an interest in
further study and careers associated with the subject
• develop essential knowledge and understanding of different areas of the subject and how
they relate to each other
• develop and demonstrate a deep appreciation of the skills, knowledge and understanding of
scientific methods
• develop competence and confidence in a variety of practical, mathematical and problem
solving skills
• understand how society makes decisions about scientific issues and how the sciences
contribute to the success of the economy and society
• use theories, models and ideas to develop scientific explanations
• use knowledge and understanding to pose scientific questions, define scientific problems,
present scientific arguments and scientific ideas

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 71
 • use appropriate methodology, including information and communication technology (ICT), to
answer scientific questions and solve scientific problems
• carry out experimental and investigative activities, including appropriate risk management, in
a range of contexts
• analyse and interpret data to provide evidence, recognising correlations and causal
relationships
• evaluate methodology, evidence and data, and resolve conflicting evidence
• know that scientific knowledge and understanding develops over time
• communicate information and ideas in appropriate ways using appropriate terminology
• consider applications and implications of science and evaluate their associated benefits and
risks
• consider ethical issues in the treatment of humans, other organisms and the environment
• evaluate the role of the scientific community in validating new knowledge and ensuring
integrity
• evaluate the ways in which society uses science to inform decision making.

4.2 Assessment objectives

Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all AS and A-level
Chemistry specifications and all exam boards.
The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives.
• AO1: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques
and procedures.
• AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and
procedures:
• in a theoretical context
• in a practical context
• when handling qualitative data
• when handling quantitative data.
• AO3: Analyse, interpret and evaluate scientific information, ideas and evidence, including in
relation to issues, to:
• make judgements and reach conclusions
• develop and refine practical design and procedures.

Weighting of assessment objectives for AS Chemistry

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component Overall weighting
weightings (approx (approx %)
%)
Paper 1 Paper 2
AO1 35 35 35
AO2 43 43 43
AO3 22 22 22
Overall weighting of components 50 50 100

72 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

20% of the overall assessment of AS Chemistry will contain mathematical skills equivalent to Level
2 or above.
At least 15% of the overall assessment of AS Chemistry will assess knowledge, skills and
understanding in relation to practical work.

Weighting of assessment objectives for A-level Chemistry

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings Overall weighting
(approx %) (approx %)
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3
AO1 30 30 32 30
AO2 48 48 34 45
AO3 22 22 34 25
Overall weighting of components 35 35 30 100

20% of the overall assessment of A-level Chemistry will contain mathematical skills equivalent to
Level 2 or above.
At least 15% of the overall assessment of A-level Chemistry will assess knowledge, skills and
understanding in relation to practical work.

4.3 Assessment weightings

The marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the components.
Students' final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each component.
Grade boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark. The scaling and total scaled marks are
shown in the table below.

AS
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Paper 1 80 ×1 80

Paper 2 80 ×1 80

Total scaled mark: 160

A-level
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Paper 1 105 ×1 105

Paper 2 105 ×1 105

Paper 3 90 ×1 90

Total scaled mark: 300

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 73
74 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

5 General administration
You can find information about all aspects of administration, as well as all the forms you need, at
aqa.org.uk/examsadmin

5.1 Entries and codes

You only need to make one entry for each qualification.
Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department for
Education (DfE), which indicates its subject area.
If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code, Further and Higher Education
providers are likely to take the view that they have only achieved one of the two qualifications.
Please check this before your students start their course.

Qualification title AQA DfE

entry discount
code code
AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in Chemistry 7404 1110
(post-16)
, RD1
(KS4)
AQA Advanced Level GCE in Chemistry 7405 1110

These specifications comply with Ofqual’s:

• General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualifications
• GCE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCEs
• GCE subject level conditions that apply to all GCEs in this subject
• all relevant regulatory documents.
Ofqual has accredited these specifications. The qualification accreditation number (QAN) for the
AS is 601/5730/6. The QAN for the A-level is 601/5731/8.

5.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There is overlapping content in the AS and A-level Chemistry specifications. This helps you teach
the AS and A-level together.

5.3 Awarding grades and reporting results

The A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale: A*, A, B, C, D and E.
Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified)
and will not receive a qualification certificate.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 75
5.4 Re-sits and shelf life
Students can re-sit these qualifications as many times as they wish, within the shelf life of the
qualifications.

5.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on
these specifications are at the discretion of schools and colleges.
However, we recommend that students should have the skills and knowledge associated with at
least GCSE Combined Science or GCSE Chemistry (or equivalent qualifications).

5.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion

General qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and
further study. Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences.
The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required present
any possible difficulty to any students, whatever their ethnic background, religion, sex, age,
disability or sexuality. If any difficulties were encountered, the criteria were reviewed again to make
sure that tests of specific competences were only included if they were important to the subject.
As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of the
JCQ document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments: General and Vocational
qualifications. We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students who
may require an access arrangement or reasonable adjustment. This document is published on the
JCQ website at jcq.org.uk

Students with disabilities and special needs

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help them
access the assessments, as long as the competences being tested are not changed. Access
arrangements must be agreed before the assessment. For example, a Braille paper would be a
reasonable adjustment for a Braille reader but not for a student who does not read Braille.
We are required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen
any disadvantage that affects a disabled student.
If you have students who need access arrangements or reasonable adjustments, you can apply
using the Access arrangements online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

Special consideration
We can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of the
assessment through no fault of their own – for example a temporary illness, injury or serious
problem such as the death of a relative. We can only do this after the assessment.
Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
For more information and advice about access arrangements, reasonable adjustments and special
consideration please see aqa.org.uk/access or email accessarrangementsqueries@aqa.org.uk

76 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

5.7 Working with AQA for the first time

If your school or college has not previously offered any AQA specification, you need to register as
an AQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how at aqa.org.uk/
becomeacentre
If your school or college is new to these specifications, please let us know by completing an
Intention to enter form. The easiest way to do this is via e-AQA at aqa.org.uk/eaqa

5.8 Private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA-approved school or college
but is not enrolled as a student there.
If you are a private candidate you may be self-taught, home-schooled or have private tuition, either
with a tutor or through a distance learning organisation. You must be based in the UK.
If you have any queries as a private candidate, you can:
• speak to the exams officer at the school or college where you intend to take your exams
• visit our website at aqa.org.uk/examsadmin
• email: privatecandidates@aqa.org.uk

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 77
78 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

6 Mathematical requirements
and exemplifications
In order to be able to develop their skills, knowledge and understanding in chemistry, students
need to have been taught, and to have acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of
mathematics as indicated in the table of coverage below.
Overall, at least 20% of the marks in assessments for chemistry will require the use of
mathematical skills. These skills will be applied in the context of chemistry and will be at least the
standard of higher tier GCSE mathematics.
The following tables illustrate where these mathematical skills may be developed during teaching
or could be assessed. Those shown in bold type would only be tested in the full A-level course.
This list of examples is not exhaustive. These skills could be developed or assessed in other areas
of specification content. Other areas where these skills could be developed have been exemplified
throughout the specifications.

6.1 Arithmetic and numerical computation

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Recognise and make use of Students may be tested on their ability to:
0.0 appropriate units in calculation
• convert between units, eg cm3 to dm3 as part
of volumetric calculations
• give units for an equilibrium constant or a
rate constant
• understand that different units are used in
similar topic areas, so that conversions may
be necessary, eg entropy in J mol–1 K–1 and
enthalpy changes in kJ mol–1.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 79
 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Recognise and use expressions in Students may be tested on their ability to:
0.1 decimal and ordinary form
• use an appropriate number of decimal places
in calculations, eg for pH
• carry out calculations using numbers in
standard and ordinary form, eg use of
Avogadro’s number
• understand standard form when applied to
areas such as (but not limited to) Kw
• convert between numbers in standard and
ordinary form
• understand that significant figures need
retaining when making conversions between
standard and ordinary form, eg 0.0050 mol
dm–3 is equivalent to 5.0 × 10–3 mol dm–3.

MS Use ratios, fractions and Students may be tested on their ability to:
0.2 percentages
• calculate percentage yields
• calculate the atom economy of a reaction
• construct and/or balance equations using
ratios.

MS Estimate results Students may be tested on their ability to:

0.3
• evaluate the effect of changing experimental
parameters on measurable values, eg how
the value of Kc would change with
temperature given different specified
conditions.

MS Use calculators to find and use Students may be tested on their ability to:
0.4 power, exponential and
• carry out calculations using the Avogadro
logarithmic functions
constant
• carry out pH and pKa calculations
• make appropriate mathematical
approximations in buffer calculations.

80 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

6.2 Handling data

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Use an appropriate number of Students may be tested on their ability to:

1.1 significant figures
• report calculations to an appropriate number
of significant figures, given raw data quoted to
varying numbers of significant figures
• understand that calculated results can only be
reported to the limits of the least accurate
measurement.

MS Find arithmetic means Students may be tested on their ability to:

1.2
• calculate weighted means, eg calculation of
an atomic mass based on supplied isotopic
abundances
• select appropriate titration data (ie
identification of outliers) in order to calculate
mean titres.

MS Identify uncertainties in Students may be tested on their ability to:

1.3 measurements and use simple
• determine uncertainty when two burette
techniques to determine uncertainty
readings are used to calculate a titre value.
when data are combined

6.3 Algebra
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Understand and use the symbols: =, No exemplification required.

2.1 <, <<, >>, >, ∝, ~, equilibrium sign

MS Change the subject of an equation Students may be tested on their ability to:
2.2
• carry out structured and unstructured mole
calculations, eg calculate a rate constant k
from a rate equation.

MS Substitute numerical values into Students may be tested on their ability to:
2.3 algebraic equations using
• carry out structured and unstructured mole
appropriate units for physical
calculations
quantities
• calculate the value of an equilibrium constant
Kc.
• carry out rate calculations

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 81
 Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Solve algebraic equations Students may be tested on their ability to:

2.4
• carry out Hess’s law calculations
• calculate a rate constant k from a rate
equation.

MS Use logarithms in relation to Students may be tested on their ability to:

2.5 quantities that range over several
• carry out pH and pKa calculations.
orders of magnitude

6.4 Graphs
Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Translate information between Students may be tested on their ability to:

3.1 graphical, numerical and algebraic
• interpret and analyse spectra
forms
• determine the order of a reaction from a
graph
• derive a rate expression from a graph.

MS Plot two variables from Students may be tested on their ability to:
3.2 experimental or other data
• plot concentration–time graphs from collected
or supplied data and draw an appropriate
best-fit curve.

MS Determine the slope and Students may be tested on their ability to:
3.3 intercept of a linear graph
• calculate the rate constant of a zero-order
reaction by determination of the gradient
of a concentration–time graph.

MS Calculate rate of change from a Students may be tested on their ability to:
3.4 graph showing a linear
• calculate the rate constant of a zero-order
relationship
reaction by determination of the gradient
of a concentration–time graph.

MS Draw and use the slope of a Students may be tested on their ability to:
3.5 tangent to a curve as a measure
• determine the order of a reaction using the
of rate of change
initial rates method.

82 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

6.5 Geometry and trigonometry

Mathematical skills Exemplification of mathematical skill in the
context of Chemistry

MS Use angles and shapes in regular Students may be tested on their ability to:
4.1 2D and 3D structures
• predict/identify shapes of and bond angles in
molecules with and without a lone pair(s), for
example NH3, CH4, H2O etc.

MS Visualise and represent 2D and 3D Students may be tested on their ability to:
4.2 forms including two-dimensional
• draw different forms of isomers
representations of 3D objects
• identify chiral centres from a 2D or 3D
representation.

MS Understand the symmetry of 2D and Students may be tested on their ability to:
4.3 3D shapes
• describe the types of stereoisomerism shown
by molecules/complexes
• identify chiral centres from a 2D or 3D
representation.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 83
84 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

7 AS practical assessment
Practical work is at the heart of chemistry, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
Assessment of practical skills in this AS specification will be by written exams only.
The practical endorsement does not apply to the AS specification. A rich diet of practical work is
essential to develop students' manipulative skills and understanding of the processes of scientific
investigation. It also contributes to teaching and learning of the concepts within this specification.
Questions in the papers have been written in the expectation that students have carried out at least
the 6 required practical activities in section 7.2.
15% of the marks in the papers will relate to practical work.

7.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students taking this specification are expected to have carried out the required practical
activities in section 7.2. These develop skills in the use of many of the following apparatus and
techniques. This list is a compulsory element of the full A-level course. It is reproduced here for
reference and to aid co-teaching the AS and A-level specifications.

Apparatus and techniques

AT a Use appropriate apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include mass, time,
volume of liquids and gases, temperature)

AT b Use water bath or electric heater or sand bath for heating

AT c Measure pH using pH charts, or pH meter, or pH probe on a data logger

AT d Use laboratory apparatus for a variety of experimental techniques including:

• titration, using burette and pipette
• distillation and heating under reflux, including setting up glassware using retort
stand and clamps
• qualitative tests for ions and organic functional groups
• filtration, including use of fluted filter paper, or filtration under reduced pressure

AT e Use volumetric flask, including accurate technique for making up a standard solution

AT f Use acid–base indicators in titrations of weak/strong acids with weak/strong alkalis

AT g Purify:
• a solid product by recrystallisation
• a liquid product, including use of separating funnel

AT h Use melting point apparatus

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 85
 Apparatus and techniques

AT i Use thin-layer or paper chromatography

AT j Set up electrochemical cells and measuring voltages

AT k Safely and carefully handle solids and liquids, including corrosive, irritant, flammable
and toxic substances

AT l Measure rates of reaction by at least two different methods, for example:

• an initial rate method such as a clock reaction
• a continuous monitoring method

7.2 Required practical activities

The following practicals must be carried out by all students taking this course. Written papers will
assess knowledge and understanding of these, and the skills exemplified within each practical.

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference

1 Make up a volumetric solution and carry out a simple acid–base a, d, e, f, k

titration

2 Measurement of an enthalpy change a, d, k

3 Investigation of how the rate of a reaction changes with a, b, k

temperature

4 Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify: d, k

• cations – Group 2, NH4+
• anions – Group 7 (halide ions), OH–, CO32–, SO42–

5 Distillation of a product from a reaction b, d, k

6 Tests for alcohol, aldehyde, alkene and carboxylic acid b, d, k

Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more
suitable for highly structured approaches that develop key techniques. Others allow opportunities
for students to develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience for students will include more than the 6 required practical activities. The explicit
teaching of practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical
approaches to the introduction of content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching.

86 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

7.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers

Overall, at least 15% of the marks for all AS Chemistry courses will require the assessment of
practical skills.
In order to be able to answer these questions, students need to have been taught, and to have
acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of practical skills as indicated in the tables of
coverage below.

7.3.1 Independent thinking

Practical skill

PS 1.1 Solve problems set in practical contexts

PS 1.2 Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

7.3.2 Use and application of scientific methods and practices

Practical skill

PS 2.1 Comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods

PS 2.2 Present data in appropriate ways

PS 2.3 Evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement

uncertainties and errors

PS 2.4 Identify variables including those that must be controlled

7.3.3 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a

practical context
Practical skill

PS 3.1 Plot and interpret graphs

PS 3.2 Process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified
in the mathematical appendix for each science

PS 3.3 Consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 87
7.3.4 Instruments and equipment
Practical skill

PS 4.1 Know and understand how to use a wide range of experimental and practical
instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification

88 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

8 A-level practical assessment

Practical work is at the heart of chemistry, so we have placed it at the heart of this specification.
Practical assessments have been divided into those that can be assessed in written exams and
those that can only be directly assessed whilst students are carrying out experiments.
A-level grades will be based only on marks from written exams.
A separate endorsement of practical skills will be taken alongside the A-level. This will be
assessed by teachers and will be based on direct observation of students’ competency in a range
of skills that are not assessable in written exams.

8.1 Use of apparatus and techniques

All students taking an A-level Chemistry qualification are expected to have had opportunities to use
the following apparatus and develop and demonstrate these techniques. These apparatus and
techniques are common to all A-level Chemistry specifications.
Carrying out the 12 required practicals in section 8.2 means that students will have experienced
use of each of these apparatus and techniques. However, teachers are encouraged to develop
students’ abilities by inclusion of other opportunities for skills development, as exemplified in the
right-hand column of the content section of this specification.

Apparatus and techniques

AT a Use appropriate apparatus to record a range of measurements (to include mass, time,
volume of liquids and gases, temperature)

AT b Use water bath or electric heater or sand bath for heating

AT c Measure pH using pH charts, or pH meter, or pH probe on a data logger

AT d Use laboratory apparatus for a variety of experimental techniques including:

• titration, using burette and pipette
• distillation and heating under reflux, including setting up glassware using retort
stand and clamps
• qualitative tests for ions and organic functional groups
• filtration, including use of fluted filter paper, or filtration under reduced pressure

AT e Use volumetric flask, including accurate technique for making up a standard solution

AT f Use acid–base indicators in titrations of weak/strong acids with weak/strong alkalis

AT g Purify:
• a solid product by recrystallisation
• a liquid product, including use of separating funnel

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 89
 Apparatus and techniques

AT h Use melting point apparatus

AT i Use thin-layer or paper chromatography

AT j Set up electrochemical cells and measuring voltages

AT k Safely and carefully handle solids and liquids, including corrosive, irritant, flammable
and toxic substances

AT l Measure rates of reaction by at least two different methods, for example:

• an initial rate method such as a clock reaction
• a continuous monitoring method

8.2 Required practical activities

The following practicals must be carried out by all students taking this course. Written papers will
assess knowledge and understanding of these, and the skills exemplified within each practical.

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference

1 Make up a volumetric solution and carry out a simple acid–base a, d, e, f, k

titration

2 Measurement of an enthalpy change a, d, k

3 Investigation of how the rate of a reaction changes with a, b, k

temperature

4 Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify: d, k

• cations – Group 2, NH4+
• anions – Group 7 (halide ions), OH–, CO32–, SO42–

5 Distillation of a product from a reaction b, d, k

6 Tests for alcohol, aldehyde, alkene and carboxylic acid b, d, k

7 Measuring the rate of reaction:

a, k, l
• by an initial rate method
• by a continuous monitoring method a, k, l

8 Measuring the EMF of an electrochemical cell j, k

9 Investigate how pH changes when a weak acid reacts with a a, c, d, k

strong base and when a strong acid reacts with a weak base

90 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

Required activity Apparatus and technique

reference

10 Preparation of:
a, b, d, g, h, k
• a pure organic solid and test of its purity
b, d, g, k
• a pure organic liquid

11 Carry out simple test-tube reactions to identify transition metal b, d, k

ions in aqueous solution

12 Separation of species by thin-layer chromatography i, k

Teachers are encouraged to vary their approach to these practical activities. Some are more
suitable for highly structured approaches that develop key techniques. Others allow opportunities
for students to develop investigative approaches.
This list is not designed to limit the practical activities carried out by students. A rich practical
experience for students will include more than the 12 required practical activities. The explicit
teaching of practical skills will build students’ competence. Many teachers will also use practical
approaches to the introduction of content knowledge in the course of their normal teaching.
Students’ work in these activities can also contribute towards the endorsement of practical skills.

8.3 Practical skills to be assessed in written papers

Overall, at least 15% of the marks for all A-level Chemistry courses will require the assessment of
practical skills.
In order to be able to answer these questions, students need to have been taught, and to have
acquired competence in, the appropriate areas of practical skills as indicated in the tables of
coverage below.

8.3.1 Independent thinking

Practical skill

PS 1.1 Solve problems set in practical contexts

PS 1.2 Apply scientific knowledge to practical contexts

8.3.2 Use and application of scientific methods and practices

Practical skill

PS 2.1 Comment on experimental design and evaluate scientific methods

PS 2.2 Present data in appropriate ways

PS 2.3 Evaluate results and draw conclusions with reference to measurement

uncertainties and errors

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 91
 Practical skill

PS 2.4 Identify variables including those that must be controlled

8.3.3 Numeracy and the application of mathematical concepts in a

practical context
Practical skill

PS 3.1 Plot and interpret graphs

PS 3.2 Process and analyse data using appropriate mathematical skills as exemplified
in the mathematical appendix for each science

PS 3.3 Consider margins of error, accuracy and precision of data

8.3.4 Instruments and equipment

Practical skill

PS 4.1 Know and understand how to use a wide range of experimental and practical
instruments, equipment and techniques appropriate to the knowledge and
understanding included in the specification

8.4 Practical skills to be assessed via endorsement

8.4.1 Cross-board statement on practical endorsement
The assessment of practical skills is a compulsory requirement of the course of study for A-level
qualifications in biology, chemistry and physics. It will appear on all students’ certificates as a
separately reported result, alongside the overall grade for the qualification. The arrangements for
the assessment of practical skills will be common to all awarding organisations. These
arrangements will include:
• A minimum of 12 practical activities to be carried out by each student which, together, meet
the requirements of Appendices 5b (Practical skills identified for direct assessment and
developed through teaching and learning) and 5c (Use of apparatus and techniques) from
the prescribed subject content, published by the Department for Education (DfE). The
required practical activities will be defined by each awarding organisation.
• Teachers will assess students against Common Practical Assessment Criteria (CPAC) issued
jointly by the awarding organisations. The CPAC (see below) are based on the requirements
of Appendices 5b and 5c of the subject content requirements published by the DfE, and
define the minimum standard required for the achievement of a pass.
• Each student will keep an appropriate record of their practical work, including their assessed
practical activities.
• Students who demonstrate the required standard across all the requirements of the CPAC
will receive a ‘pass’ grade.

92 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
 AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

• There will be no separate assessment of practical skills for AS qualifications.

• Students will answer questions in the AS and A-level exam papers that assess the
requirements of Appendix 5a (Practical skills identified for indirect assessment and
developed through teaching and learning) from the prescribed subject content, published by
the DfE. These questions may draw on, or range beyond, the practical activities included in
the specification.

8.4.2 Criteria for the assessment of practical competency in A-level

Biology, Chemistry and Physics
Competency Practical mastery

In order to be awarded a Pass a student must, by

the end of the practical science assessment,
consistently and routinely meet the criteria in
respect of each competency listed below. A
student may demonstrate the competencies in
any practical activity undertaken as part of that
assessment throughout the course of study.
Students may undertake practical activities in
groups. However, the evidence generated by
each student must demonstrate that he or she
independently meets the criteria outlined below in
respect of each competency. Such evidence
• (a) will comprise both the student's
performance during each practical activity
and his or her contemporaneous record of
the work that he or she has undertaken
during that activity, and
• (b) must include evidence of independent
application of investigative approaches and
methods to practical work.

1. Follows written procedures (a) Correctly follows written instructions to carry

out experimental techniques or procedures.

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 93
Competency Practical mastery

2. Applies investigative approaches and (a) Correctly uses appropriate instrumentation,

methods when using instruments and apparatus and materials (including ICT) to carry
equipment out investigative activities, experimental
techniques and procedures with minimal
assistance or prompting.
(b) Carries out techniques or procedures
methodically, in sequence and in combination,
identifying practical issues and making
adjustments where necessary.
(c) Identifies and controls significant quantitative
variables where applicable, and plans
approaches to take account of variables that
cannot readily be controlled.
(d) Selects appropriate equipment and
measurement strategies in order to ensure
suitably accurate results.

3. Safely uses a range of practical equipment (a) Identifies hazards and assesses risks
and materials associated with those hazards, making safety
adjustments as necessary, when carrying out
experimental techniques and procedures in the
lab or field.
(b) Uses appropriate safety equipment and
approaches to minimise risks with minimal
prompting.

4. Makes and records observations (a) Makes accurate observations relevant to the
experimental or investigative procedure.
(b) Obtains accurate, precise and sufficient data
for experimental and investigative procedures
and records this methodically using appropriate
units and conventions.

5. Researches, references and reports (a) Uses appropriate software and/or tools to
process data, carry out research and report
findings.
(b) Cites sources of information demonstrating
that research has taken place, supporting
planning and conclusions.

94 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
AQA AS and A-level Chemistry . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 1 December 2015

Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 95
Get help and support
Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at
You can talk directly to the Chemistry subject team:
E: alevelscience@aqa.org.uk
T: 01483 477756

aqa.org.uk
Copyright © 2019 AQA and its licensors. All rights reserved.
AQA retains the copyright on all its publications, including the specifications. However, schools and colleges registered with AQA are
permitted to copy material from this specification for their own internal use.
AQA Education (AQA) is a registered charity (number 1073334) and a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales
(company number 3644723). Our registered address is AQA, Devas Street, Manchester M15 6EX.